Post on 26-Sep-2019
Effectiveness of Systematic Interactive Multimedia
Instruction on Mastery of Safety Knowledge
and Emergency Procedures
By
Zakariya Salameh
Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
February 2012
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful
I am grateful for all the bounties that Allah has showered on me which enabled me
complete this thesis.
I start with heartful thanks and love to my family, my beloved wife, Dr. Lina
Bani Salameh who shared me the hardships and the sweet memories of living in
Malaysia and to my son Hashim and to my two daughters Salama and Farah.
First of all, great thanks to my supervisor
Dr. Merza Abbas who has guided me throughout the writing of this thesis. He is a unique type of
person who devoted his life to his students. My experience with him is deep in my
heart when he always came even on weekends to help me and help other students. He
is like a caring father to his children. I travelled to many countries in the world and
met many people but I have never met a person so devoted like him. Words can not
express my thanks to him but I just say, ―May Allah bless you and your family Dear
Dr. Merza‖
I also extend my thanks to my supervisors Dr. Muhammad Kamarul Kabilan
and Dr. Leong Lai Mei for their encouragement and help.
I would like to express my deep thanks to the faculty and administrative staff
of the School of Educational Studies, University Sains Malaysia, for all their support
during my study. My thanks also go to the Institute of Post-graduate Studies (IPS) for
their assistance and support. Deep appreciation and respect for my beloved university
which made dreams a reality for me, for offering me the USM fellowship and the
original knowledge that enabled my to publish in respectful ISI journals.
ii
Special thanks are extended to the CEO of Royal Jordanian airline whose approval and
support to conduct this research has been a source of inspiration and motivation that
has led me to improve instructional methods of Cabin Safety onboard Royal Jordanian
Flights.
Big thanks and appreciation to Chairman of Jordan Aviation Training and
Simulation (JATS) for his support and for the data which enriched my research. His
help and encouragement has been a source of inspiration to further improve
instructional materials on cabin safety training.
Special appreciation is extended to Royal Jordanian airline and to flight
attendants and supervisors of Royal Jordanian whose cooperation helped me conduct
this research on Cabin Safety Training.
ALHAMDULELLAH
Zakariya Abdel Ghani Moh'd Salameh
iii
Table of Contents
Acknowledgment i
List of Appendices x
List of Tables xi
List of Figures xii
List of Plates xiv
Abstrak xv
Abstract xvii
Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Background of the study 1
1.2 Problem Statement 16
1.4 Research Objectives 20
1.5 Research Questions 20
1.6 Research Hypotheses 21
1.7 Significance of the Study 22
1.8 Research Limitations 23
1.9 Operational Definition of Terms 26
1.10 Summary 28
Chapter Two: Literature Review
2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 Deficiencies in In-Flight Safety among Flight Attendants 29
2.3 Maintenance of Expertise through Continuous Professional Development
(CPD)
34
2.4 In-Flight Safety Assurance (ISA) Model and Development of Expertise 35
2.5 Continuous Professional Development (CPD) 40
iv
2.5.1 CPD and Learning 43
2.5.1.1 Memory 44
2.5.1.2 Decay of Knowledge and Lapses of Memory 46
2.5.1.3 Expertise (Expert Memory and Schema) 49
2.5.1.4 Memory Structure and Episodic Memory 52
2.6 Learning Mental Models 59
2.7 Conceptual Framework of the Study 63
2.7.1 Domains of Learning 69
2.7.2 Learning Hierarchies 73
2.7.2.1 Learning Hierarchies in Planned Emergency 75
2.7.3 Identify Entry Behaviours Characteristics 76
2.7.4 Events of Instruction 76
2.7.5 Conditions of Learning 81
2.7.5.1 Internal Conditions 81
2.7.5.2 External Conditions 81
2.7.6 Gagne's Theory and Computer Technology 83
2.7.7 Using Gagne's Theory of Hierarchical Learning in Empirical
Research
83
2.8 Multimedia and Systematic Instruction 89
2.8.1 Multimedia Animation Studies 91
2.8.2 Multimedia Simulation Studies 92
2.8.3 Interactive Multimedia 94
2.8.4 Studies on Multimedia Interactivity 95
2.8.5 Multimedia Simulation and Transfer 96
2.8.6 Disadvantages of Multimedia 96
2.8.7 Online Multimedia 98
v
2.8.8 Multimedia in Aviation 100
2.8.9 Multimedia Learning with Adobe Flash Cs3 101
2.9 Effectiveness of Multimedia on Students' Self Efficacy 101
2.10 Effectiveness of Reflection and Review 103
2.10.1 Relationship between Reflection and Review and
Metacognition
104
2.10.2 Reflection and Review and Self Efficacy 108
2.11 Questioning 112
2.12 Demographic Factors Affecting Learning 113
2.12.1 Comparing Gender Performance 116
2.12.2 Gender and Self Efficacy 119
2.13 System Approach to Training 126
2.13.1 Introduction to Instructional Design Models: ADDIE 126
2.13.2 Dick and Carey Instructional Design Model 129
2.13.2.1 Identify Instructional Goals 130
2.13.2.2 Conduct Instructional Analysis 130
2.13.2.3 Identify Entry Behaviours Characteristics 132
2.13.2.4 Write Performance Objectives 133
2.13.2.5 Develop Criterion Referenced Tests Items 133
2.13.2.6 Develop Instructional Strategy 134
2.13.2.7 Develop and Select Instructional Materials 134
2.13.2.8 Designing and Conducting Formative Evaluation 136
2.13.2.9 Revising Instructional Material 136
2.13.2.10 Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation 136
2.14 Cognitive Task Design 137
2.15 Flight Attendants Needs for Safety Knowledge and Skills (SKS) 141
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2.16 Research Hypotheses 146
2.17 Summary 147
Chapter Three: Methodology
3.1 Introduction 150
3.2 Research Design 151
3.2.1 Population 153
3.2.2 Sample 154
3.2.3 Instructional Setting 154
3.2.4 Description of the Content of the Systematic Interactive
Multimedia Instruction (SIMI)
155
3.2.5 Reflection and Review Activities 156
3.3 Design and Development of the Systematic Interactive Multimedia
Instruction (SIMI)
156
3.3.1 Instructional Materials 156
3.3.2 Instructional Activities 156
3.4 Description of Delivery Medium (CBT) 157
3.5 Duration of Each Session of Instruction 157
3.6 Procedure of the Program 157
3.7 Procedures of Data Collection 160
3.7.1 Validity of the Instruction 161
3.7.2 Instruments of the Study 162
3.7.3 Instrument Validity and Reliability 163
3.7.3.1 Validity and Reliability of the Achievement Test 163
3.7.3.2 Validity and Reliability of the ISA Questionnaire 164
3.7.3.3 Validity and Reliability of Usability Questionnaire 164
3.8 Administration of the Program 164
vii
3.9 Data Collection and Analysis 166
3.10 Implementation of the Actual Study 167
3.11 Researcher Role in the Study 167
3.12 Operational Procedure for In-Flight Supervisors 170
3.13 Research Procedures 171
3.14 Research Framework 173
3.15 Summary 174
Chapter Four: Design and Development of the Systematic Interactive Multimedia
Instruction
4.1 Introduction 175
4.2 Systematic Interactive Multimedia Instruction Development 175
4.3 Adobe Flash CS3 Design Software 176
4.4 Dick and Carey Model of Systematic Instructional Design 176
4.4.1 Identify Instructional Goals 177
4.4.2 Conduct Instructional Analysis 178
4.4.3 Identify Entry Behaviors Characteristics 179
4.4.4 Write Performance Objectives 180
4.4.5 Develop Criterion Referenced Tests 180
4.4.6 Develop Instructional Strategy 181
4.4.6.1 Features of the Systematic Interactive Multimedia Instruction
(SIMI)
183
4.4.6.1.1 Access 183
4.4.6.1.2 Interface 184
4.4.6.1.3 Events of Instruction 185
4.4.6.1.4 Navigation 189
4.4.6.1.5 Interactivity 189
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4.4.6.1.6 Simulation of Emergency Procedures through Realistic and
Authentic Visuals and Sounds
189
4.4.7 Develop and Select Instructional Materials 190
4.4.7.1 Produce Supplementary Material 192
4.4.8 Designing and Conducting Formative Evaluation 192
4.4.8.1 One to One Evaluation 192
4.4.8.2 Small Group Evaluation 192
4.4.9 Revising Instructional Material 193
4.4.10 Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation 193
4.5 Evaluation of the SIMI 193
4.6 Procedures of the Pilot Study 194
4.7 Results of Pilot Study 194
4.7.1 Validity 194
4.7.2 Usability 195
4.7.3 Reliability of Instruments: SKS achievement Test, ISA
Questionnaire and Usability Questionnaire
196
4.7.4 Difficulty Index and Discrimination Index 196
4.8 Discussion of the Pilot 201
4.9 Summary 204
Chapter Five: Data Analysis
5.1 Introduction 206
5.2 Descriptive Statistics 206
5.2.1 Sample Demography 206
5.2.2 SKS Pre-test and Post test Scores 209
5.2.3 Intellectual Skills Pre-test and Post Test Scores 210
5.2.4 Self Efficacy Pre and Post Test Scores 212
ix
5.3 Assumptions of T-Test 213
5.3.1 Testing of Normality of the Gain Scores 214
5.3.2 Testing of Normality of Post-Test Intellectual Skills Scores 216
5.3.3 Testing of Normality of the Self-efficacy Gain Scores 217
5.4 Testing of Hypotheses 219
5.4.1 T-test for Gain Scores of PE, FF and FA 219
5.4.2 T-test for Gain Scores of Intellectual Skills and Verbal Information 220
5.4.3 T-test of Gain Score of Self Efficacy 221
5.4.4 T-test of Gain Scores of PE, FF and FA by Gender 222
5.5 Summary of Findings 226
Chapter Six: Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendation
6.1 Introduction 227
6.2 Discussion 229
6.2.1 Performance in Safety Knowledge and Skills by Method 229
6.2.1.1 Discussion of the Findings of the First Question 229
6.2.1.2 Discussion of the Findings of the Second Question 237
6.2.2 Changes of Self Efficacy by Method 242
6.2.2.1 Discussion of the Findings of the Third Question 242
6.2.3 Performance by Gender 248
6.2.3.1 Discussion of the Findings of the Fourth Question 248
6.2.3.2 Discussion of the Findings of the Fifth Question 251
6.3 Recommendations and Implications for Future Research and Practice 255
6.4 Conclusion and Summary 258
References
260
x
Appendices 287
Appendix A: Achievement Test 287
Appendix B: Answer Key of the Achievement Test 303
Appendix C: The Items Distribution in Verbal Information and Intellectual Skills
According to Gagne's Hierarchical Learning
305
Appendix D: Task Analysis of Planned Emergency, Fire Fighting and First Aid 307
Appendix E: ISA Questionnaire 310
Appendix F: Reflection and Review Scripts 314
Appendix G: Usability Questionnaire 317
Appendix H: Approval From Royal Jordanian Airline 320
Appendix I: Recognition of ISA Model by Flight Safety Foundation 321
Appendix J: Objectives of Planned Emergency, Fire Fighting and First Aid 322
Appendix K: Names of Flight Managers Who Validated the SIMI and the Three
Instruments
324
Appendix L: Names of Instructional Designers from Two Universities in Jordan 225
List of Publication 226
xi
List of Tables
Table 2.1: Studies and Reports of Deficiencies in Flight Attendants Safety Duties 31
Table 4.1: Means and Standard Deviations of Usability Questionnaire 195
Table 4.2: Difficulty Coefficients of the Achievement Test Items 197
Table 4.3: Discriminability Coefficients for the Achievement Test 200
Table 5.1: Descriptive Statistics by Job, Experience, Nationality, Previous
Experience, Education, Age and Gender
208
Table 5.2: Pre-test Mean Scores for SKS 209
Table 5.3: Post-test Mean Scores for SKS 210
Table 5.4: Gain Scores for SKS 210
Table 5.5: Pre-test Mean Scores for Intellectual Skills and Verbal Information 211
Table 5.6: Post-test Mean Scores for Intellectual Skills and Verbal Information 211
Table 5.7: Mean Gain Scores for Intellectual Skills and verbal Information 212
Table 5.8: Pre-test Scores for Self Efficacy 212
Table 5.9: Post-test Scores for Self Efficacy 213
Table 5.10: Mean Gain Scores for Self Efficacy 213
Table 5.11: Means, Standard Deviations ad Results of t-test for SKS 220
Table 5.12: Mean Gain Scores, Standard Deviations and Results of t-test for
Intellectual Skills and Verbal Information
221
Table 5.13: Means, Standard Deviations, and Results of t-test for Gain Scores for
Self Efficacy
222
Table 5.14: Means, Standard Deviations, and Results of t-test for SKS Gain Scores
by Gender
224
Table 15: Mean Gain Scores, Standard Deviations, and Results of t-test for Self
Efficacy by Gender
225
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1:In-Flight Safety Assurance Model (ISA) 8
Figure 1.2 : Accident Causal Chain Model 13
Figure 2.1: Aeronautical Decision Making Model
36
Figure 2.2: CPD Framework for Medical Practitioners
42
Figure 2.3: Human Memory 45
Figure 2.4: Memory Structures 53
Figure 2.5: Information Processing System 57
Figure 2.6: Gagne Information-Processing Theory 65
Figure 2.7 Learning Competence Map with Reflection Layer 66
Figure 2.8: A Hierarchy of Learning Curves 76
Figure 2.9: ADDIE Model 127
Figure 2.10: Dick and Carey Instructional Design Model 130
Figure 2.11: Flight Operations Cognitive Task Design 138
Figure 2.12: ISA Cognitive Design 139
Figure 2.13: Cognitive Task Design 140
Figure 3.1: Procedure of the Program 159
Figure 3.2: Research Framework 173
Figure 4.1: Dick and Carey Instructional Design Model 177
Figure 4.2: The Use of Dick and Carey Model in the Present Study 203
xiii
Figure 5.1: Normality for PE Gain Scores 214
Figure 5.2: Normality for the FF Gain Score 215
Figure 5.3 Normality for FA Gain Scores 215
Figure 5.4: Normality for Intellectual Skills Gain Scores 216
Figure 5.5: Normality for the PFB Gain Scores 217
Figure 5.6: Normality for the IFP Gain Scores 218
Figure 5.7: Normality for the Expertise Gain Scores 218
xiv
LIST OF PLATES
Plate 4.1: Log in Page 183
Plate 4.2: Home Page 184
Plate 4.3: Introduction 184
Plate 4.4: General Goals 185
Plate 4.4.1: Attracting Attention 185
Plate 4.4.2: Objectives 186
Plate 4.4.3: Prior Knowledge 186
Plate 4.4.4: Presenting the Stimulus 187
Plate 4.4.5: Learners Guidance 187
Plate 4.4.6: Eliciting Performance 188
Plate 4.4.7: Giving Feedback 188
Plate 4.5: Simulation of Conference Call 190
xv
Keberkesanan Pengajaran Multimedia Interaktif Bersistem terhadap
Penguasaan Pengetahuan Keselamatan dan Prosedur Kecemasan
ABSTRAK
Kajian ini meninjau keberkesanan koswer instruksi multimedia bersistematik
dan interaktif bersama refleksi dan ulangkaji dalam meningkatkan penguasaan
pengetahuan keselamatan dan prosedur kecemasan dalam aspek Kecemasan
Terancang, Melawan Api, dan Bantuan Awal, serta kecekapan diri dalam kalangan
atendan penerbangan. Sebelas kursus multimedia dibangunkan berpandukan
preskripsi hierarki pembelajaran Gagne (1985) dan model reka bentuk pengajaran
Dick & Carey (2001). Penilaian formatif telah dijalankan secara bengkel dengan 28
atendan penerbangan manakala penilaian formatif, seperti yang dicadangkan oleh
model ini telah dijalankan dengan mengintegrasikan kursus-kursus ini ke dalam
tatacara kerja sekumpulan atendan penerbangan dari sebuah syarikat penerbangan
antarabangsa. Kajian ini menggunakan rekabentuk ujian pra dan pasca satu kumpulan
dengan rawakan. Kawalan terperinci telah dijalankan untuk mengurangkan ancaman
terhadap reka bentuk kajian ini. Sampel kajian sumatif terdiri dari 35 atendan dan
penyelia penerbangan yang telah pilih untuk kajian ini secara rawak oleh jabatan
penjadualan syarikat ini. Tiga instrumen kajian telah dibangunkan untuk mengutip
data, iaitu Soalselidik Kebolehpenggunaan, Ujian Pencapaian Keselamatan dan
Soalselidik Jaminan Keselamatan Penerbagan. Penyelia penerbangan telah
menjalankan aktiviti refleksi dan ulangkaji di dalam sesi taklimat pra-penerbangan
yang diadakan sebelum setiap penerbangan. Ujian-t satu sampel digunakan untuk
menganalisis data penguasaan kemahiran dan ujian-t sampel bebas digunakan untuk
menganalisis data kecekapan diri. Pembolehubah moderator ialah jantina.
Dapatan menunjukkan bahawa prestasi di dalam Kecemasan Terancang, Melawan
Api, dan Rawatan Awal meningkat secara signifikan dan min ujian-ujian post
melepasi paras 80% yang diperlukan. Analisis skor-skor ini berdasarkan dimensi-
dimensi kemahiran intelek juga menunjukkan peningkatan signifikan di dalm
diskriminasi, konsep, peraturan, peraturan tahap tinggi, dan juga maklumat verbal
dengan peraturan tahap tinggi melaporkan peningkatan terbesar. Dapatan juga
menunjukkan bahawa kecekapan diri terhadap Taklimat Pra-Penerbangan, Kesediaan,
xvi
dan Kepakaran turut meningkat secara signifikan. Analisis mengikut jantina
mendapati bahawa tidak terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan di dalam peningkatan
penguasaan di dalam pengetahuan keselamatan dan prosedur kecemasan dan juga
kecekapan diri. Dapatan-dapatan ini menunjukkan koswer instruksi multimedia
bersistematik dan interaktif bersama refleksi dan ulangkaji berkesan di dalam
meningkatkan penguasaan pengetahuan keselamatan dan prosedur kecemasan serta
kecekapan diri atendan-atendan penerbangan.
xvii
Effectiveness of Systematic Interactive Multimedia Instruction on
Mastery of Safety Knowledge and Emergency Procedures
ABSTRACT
This study investigated the effectiveness of a systematic interactive
multimedia instruction courseware with reflection and review in enhancing mastery
of safety knowledge and skills in the aspects of Planned Emergency, Fire Fighting
and First Aid, and self-efficacy among flight attendants. Eleven systematic interactive
multimedia lessons were developed following Gagne‘s (1985) hierarchy of learning
prescriptions and the steps of the Dick & Carey‘s (2001) instructional design model.
Formative evaluation was conducted through a workshop with 28 flight attendants
while the summative evaluation, as prescribed by the model, was conducted with the
lessons integrated into the work routines of a group of flight attendants at an
international airline. This study employed the randomized one group pre- and post-
test design. Stringent controls were put into place to mitigate the threats to the
research design. The sample for the summative evaluation study consisted of 35 flight
attendants and supervisors in five crews which were randomly assigned to the study
by the airline‘s scheduling department. Three instruments were constructed to collect
the data, namely the Usability Questionnaire, the Safety Achievement Test and the In-
Flight Safety Assurance Questionnaire. The flight supervisors conducted the
reflection and review activities within the pre-flight briefing sessions before each
flight. Data were analysed using one-sample t-test for the mastery scores and
independent samples t-test for self-efficacy scores. The moderator variable was
gender. Stringent controls were put into place to mitigate the threats to the research
design.
The findings showed that performance in Planned Emergency, Fire Fighting
and First Aid increased significantly over the pre-test scores, and the mean post-test
means were well above the 80% benchmark for mastery. An analysis of the scores
based on the dimensions of intellectual skills also revealed significant improvements
over the pre-test scores for discrimination, concepts, rules, higher-order rules, and
also verbal information, with higher-order rules reporting the biggest improvement.
The findings also showed that there were significant increases in self-efficacy with
respect to Pre-Flight Briefing, In-flight Preparedness, and Expertise. Also, there were
xviii
no significant differences in mastery of safety knowledge and skills and self efficacy
by gender. These findings suggest that the systematic interactive multimedia
instruction courseware with reflection and review was effective in enhancing mastery
in safety knowledge and emergency procedures among flight attendants and also their
self-efficacy towards their duties.
1
Chapter One
Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
Safety training is a major pillar in travel and tourism particularly in aviation sector.
Therefore, in-flight safety assurance is a major concern for airlines and is considered
to be the flight attendants‘ major responsibility onboard. Flight attendants take care of
safety for millions of passengers annually and they are trained to take action when
emergency situations arise onboard. Flight attendants safety training includes
emergency procedures such as planned emergency, fighting fire, helping passengers
in case of rapid decompression, the use of exits in case of emergency, and
administering of first aid. The instructional methods provided for the flight attendants
make use of text-based documents including description of the aircraft and
emergency procedures. On the other hand, training flight attendants in the basic safety
training and refresher training employs power point illustrations and text-based
presentations in addition to practical drills through the facilities provided at the
training center (JATS).
Within the current methods of training in most major commercial airlines,
there are studies that shed light on deficiencies of flight attendants training. After
reviewing the related literature in the field of flight attendants training, it was noticed
that there is a lack of studies that address the context of the flight attendants‘ safety
role onboard. Rhoden , Raltson & Ineson (2007) claim that:
Ironically, the safety role of cabin crew (Flight attendants) receives no
attention in the academic literature. Given that cabin crew take
responsibility for millions of passengers annually, it is argued that the
2
quality of the training delivered to enable them to undertake their safety
role effectively is an important consideration for all air transport
passengers and airline personnel (p. 538).
Lecouturier (1999) stresses on the importance of cabin safety for the global
tourism industry since technological advancements have proved that air travel is more
safe and survivable. He points out that the content and the quality of flight attendants'
safety training is of critical importance. Therefore, the content and quality of the
safety training delivered to cabin crew is of critical importance; but so far it is not
analyzed in the academic literature. Rhoden et al (2007,) add that:
Consensus reveals that the official reporting of incidents is often
forgotten, undertaken incorrectly or, in some cases, actively downplayed
by airline managers who do not wish the airline to be notorious for
disruptive passenger incidents (p. 539).
Mahony, Griffiths, Larsen & Powell (2008) conducted a study on retention of
safety knowledge and skills in first aid and resuscitation by airline cabin crew. The
sample of the study consisted of 35 flight attendants. Of the 35 flight attendants 33
failed to use the bag-mask correctly; 18 performed chest compressions at the incorrect
site; only 13 achieved the correct compression depth and 20 placed the automated
external defibrillator (AED) pads correctly; the average time to first shock was 110
seconds after commencement of the resuscitation. The results of this study indicate
that cabin crew may not have adequate training to manage a cardiac arrest properly.
Mahoney et al pointed out that flight attendants were not able to carry out cardio
pulmonary resuscitation (CPR) properly. Mahoney et al claimed that the lack of
training is due to four reasons, the types of instructional techniques used, variations in
3
program delivery, time interval between training and retraining and lapses in
knowledge and skill retention. Long time intervals between the refresher courses, that
the flight attendants undergo every twelve calendar months, causes decay and weak
retention of knowledge and skills due to lapses in human nature or human factor (Flight
Safety Handbook, 2003; Adam, 2006), which might lead to the occurrence of incidents
or accidents onboard (Mahony et al, 2008). The study by Mahony et al recommends
that the current procedures of cabin crew training undergo investigation and
modification. This study claims that the decline in cardiopulmonary resuscitation
(CPR) and automated external defibrillator (AED) skills are associated with the types
of instructional techniques employed, variations in program delivery and the time
interval between training and re-assessment and lapses in knowledge and skill
retention. Mahony et al recommended that frequent brief skill reviews be used
through training technologies to improve retention of skills and this can be done
before pre-flight briefing and the frequency of refresher course should be less than 12
calendar months.
Earlier, Phillips (1992) referred to a report by the National Transportation
Safety Board (NTSB) which deals with investigation of 24 accidents. The report
sheds light on the fact that flight attendants did not always follow emergency
procedures, had difficulty locating and operating emergency equipment and
sometimes failed to perform their safety duties in accordance with established criteria.
Cushman (1992) in "Flight-Attendant Training on Safety is Faulted" pointed out that
the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) reported that airlines are not
adequately training flight attendants to handle emergencies such as evacuation. It is
mentioned that the association of flight attendants added that it has long urged airlines
to provide more thorough training. It is also pointed out that:
4
Although the airlines do give hands-on training in opening emergency
exits and use simulators that can fill mock cabins with smoke, the report
cited actual results in emergencies in concluding that the training may not
be adequate (p. 1).
Dunbar, Chute and Jordan (1997) conducted a study exploring the flight
attendants technical knowledge and flight attendants and pilot expectations of flight
attendants. The results of the study revealed that the flight attendants are not receiving
adequate training according to the pilots' and flight attendants' expectations and the
flight attendants are not trained on efficient exchange of safety information. They
recommend that flight attendants training should be improved.
Chute and Wiener (1996) referred to cabin cockpit communication as crucial
to the safety of the aircraft and its occupants. They gave example of the crash of Air
Ontario F-28 on take off where 24 people were killed because of the accumulation of
ice on the wings. Flight attendant Sonia did not communicate with the cockpit
because she though that the cockpit are professional enough to deal with such issues.
Chute points out that flight attendants do not communicate because of reasons like
cultural directives, past experience and ambiguity of aviation rules. On the other
hand, Bani Salameh, Abbas and Bani Salameh (2010a) explained the lack of proper
communication on the part of flights attendants as due to different joint cognitive
systems between cockpit and the cabin whereby flight attendants do not develop
expertise safety schema because of inadequate training.
Chute and Wiener (1995) referred to lack of serious interest in flight
attendants training that when the flight attendants threatened strike at a major carrier,
the airline got approval from FAA to reduce training time for flight attendants from 6
5
weeks to 8 days. Still, the example of the heroic role by the flight attendants in the
accident of the Hudson River, where US aircraft ditched into the Hudson River,
reveals yet a positive picture of the flight attendants training. Leocha (2009) in
"Unsung Heroes on the Hudson - Flight Attendants on US Airways 1549" points out
that the actions of the flight attendants in the cabin were the key factor in the
successful evacuation of the floating plane. Though there are reports of heroic acts
and professional performance by the flight attendants in emergency situations, the
previously mentioned studies continue to show weaknesses/lapses in actual abilities.
The current practice in all major airlines dictates that flight attendants must
attend initial training to start their flight duties onboard and at the end of the year they
should pass a recurrent training to be certified again to uphold their safety duties for
the upcoming year. Flight attendant training includes safety training, security training
and crew resource management (CRM) training both in basic training and the
refresher training. CRM is defined as:
co-ordination of all the skills and resources, available to the crew, to
achieve the established goals of a safe, efficient and comfortable flight.
(Royal Jordanian, 2007, p 3).
Vandermark (1991) pointed out that more than ten years ago most airlines did
not include flight attendants in CRM training. Few airlines organized joint seminars
including both flight attendants and pilots. And Chute and Wiener (1994) pointed out
that Nationl Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) urged airlines to conduct CRM
jointly for both cabin crew and cockpit crew. Bani Salameh et al (2010c) pointed out
that even though flight attendants nowadays take CRM jointly with cockpit crew,
studies and reports by Flight Safety Foundation Editorial Staff (2003, 2005), still
6
reveal lack of coordination and communication due to improper training among flight
attendants.
However, currently CRM is a comprehensive system directed towards the
entire crew including cockpit crew and other related staff and it aims at enhancing
crew performance and it concentrates on crew attitudes, behaviours and the effect on
safety. Bani Salameh, Abbas, Kabilan and Bani Salameh (2010c) claimed that
retention of safety knowledge and skills among flight attendants can enhance crew
resource management through creating expertise schema. CRM addresses five major
issues: first, communication where by all the crew must establish effective
communication when the need arise. Second, situational awareness which refers to
the ability to develop a mental model of the current situation in addition to the ability
to identify the place and what you need and finally the ability to take action therewith.
Third, leadership is identified as the process of influencing the group to achieve the
objective satisfactorily. Fourth, teamwork represents where a group of people work
together in harmony to achieve the desired objective. Fifth, decision making and
problem solving is the last component in CRM (RJ flight attendant in-flight safety
manual, 2007).
Despite the fact that flight attendants go through CRM in the basic safety
training and refresher training, there are still reports of flight attendants deficiencies.
For example, Flight Safety Foundation Editorial Staff (2005) referred to a report by
the captain on Boeing 757 when the supervisor committed a mistake by opening the
door without taking permission from the captain. The captain said that someone could
have been killed in the incident. The editorial staff also reported another incident
when a flight attendant inadvertently deployed the slide raft in 2004 aboard A320.
7
Flight attendant safety training has been suffering inadequate attention (Rhoden et al,
2009; Mahony et al, 2008; Rosenkrans, 2006; Flight Safety Foundation, 2005; and
Phillips, 1992). Therefore, this study sheds light on the context of flight attendant
safety knowledge and skills (SKS) through constructing a cognitive model for flight
attendants. Bani Salameh, Abbas, Kabilan, Leong and Bani Salameh (2009), in the
IPS symposium of USM fellowship holders, proposed a model called the In-flight
Safety Assurance model (ISA) figure (1.1) based on the general systems theory (Von
Bertalanffy, 1962). ISA model was recognized by flight safety foundation (Bani
Salameh et al, 2010a). In addition, Rosenkrans (2006) in AeroSafety World
recognized the ISA model and its relevance:
Your discussion of how CRM, professionalism, expertise development,
decision-making skills, cycles/loops of training and operational
experience fit the proposed ISA model with the objective of developing
ideal relationships and performance also should interest ASW readers (p.
1) (Appendix I).
More details on the development of ISA model are provided in chapter two.
The essence of the model is that any given outcome such as expertise is the
result of direct and indirect interactions or cause and effect relationships among many
factors or elements and that the outcome is best understood when studied within the
context of the factors and processes driving it. The In-flight Safety Assurance (ISA)
model provides a holistic view of the quality assurance processes from initial training
to refresher training and a closer look at the safety knowledge and skills (SKS) by the
flight attendants in the various stages of their career. The factors of the ISA model
represent the conceptual framework and the ideal practice of the flight attendants
work routines in all major commercial airlines (Bani Salameh et al, 2010a).
8
Figure 1.1: In-Flight Safety Assurance Model (Bani Salameh et al, 2009, 2010a)
The ISA Model consists of three loops: the duty loop, the certification loop
and the management loop, with Expertise as a hypothesized outcome from the
iterations within the loops. The first loop which is the focus in this research is called
Flight Duty Loop, which includes PFB, IFP and the development of Expert Schema.
The Flight Duty Loop is repeated approximately 10 times per month for twelve
calendar months. Refresher training (RT) makes the second loop in ISA model,
which includes RT, pre-flight briefing (PFB), in-flight preparedness (IFP) and
Expertise. This loop is called Certification Loop because the flight attendants have to
pass the refresher training (RT) in order to renew their annual competence certificate.
According to ISA model, the newly recruited flight attendants have to sit for the basic
safety training (BST) in the respective training centre where they receive all the
safety knowledge and skills (SKS) as provided in the safety manual of the respective
Certification Loop
Basic Safety
Training
(BST)
Pre-Flight
Briefing
(PFB)
Refresher
Training
(RT)
Emergency
Experience
IFS
Management
Flight Duty Loop
Management Loop
Expert Flight
Safety
Schema
In-Flight
Preparedness
(IFP)
(Full Alert Mode
9
airline. Passing the basic safety training course is the main requirement for the flight
attendants to shoulder their safety duties onboard (Libean airlines Flight attendant In-
Flight safety Manual, 2007). BST lasts four to six weeks, passing which qualifies the
flight attendants to serve on as many as eight different planes (Cushman, 1992). Upon
the completion of the BST, the flight attendants are provided with the safety manual
which includes all the SKS in the form of printed texts and illustrations available in
different sections. For example, specific information of the aircraft is provided in one
section while the emergency procedures are provided in another section. The flight
attendants have to carry the safety manual with them onboard and they must
continuously refer to it during their career (Royal Jordanian Flight Attendant In-
Flight Safety Manual, 2007).
Before each flight, the flight attendants must attend a pre-flight briefing (PFB)
with the supervisor as a requirement to operate a flight. During the PFB, SKS
competency is verified by the supervisor through the discussion of randomly selected
topics for approximately ten minutes. PFB is a preplanning meeting to assure
readiness of flight attendants for any emergency onboard (Koreltz-Elliott, 1989). A
continuous assessment is established that for the flight attendants to do their job
according to standards and procedures, they must be able to recall and reflect on the
safety knowledge and skills during pre-flight briefing and to execute the required
skills precisely when an onboard emergency arises (Royal Jordanian Flight Attendant
In-Flight Safety Manual, 2007).
Onboard, the flight attendants must be fully prepared and alert to respond to any
emergency situation that might arise during the flight; ISA model calls this phase In-
Flight Preparedness (IFP). At this stage, the flight attendants are on standby mode and
10
they are expected to be fully alert and vigilant and use the SKS in solving any
emergency situation when required.
The PFB and the IFP will be repeated for approximately ten times per month for
twelve calendar months in an average movement of cabin crew in a major airline.
Because of the BST and the rotation of both the PFB and IFP, the flight attendants are
expected to develop expert schema, as proposed in the ISA model. Ericsson (2009)
defines expertise as the personal qualities such as knowledge and skills that
characterizes the expert as opposed to novice. Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1986) proposed a
model for the development of expertise based on experience. The model included five
stages of novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient and expert. At the last
stages of forming expertise, practitioners depend totally on intuition to solve the
problem. Dreyfus and Dreyfus add that experts turn to be capable of critical reflection
and self analysis. Gagne, Briggs and Wager (1992) referred to the events of
instruction and systematic instruction as capable of transforming novice to experts
through building experts schema. Lesgold et al (1988) claimed that practitioners
develop expertise within specific domain through using the rules which creates a
schema that guides decision making.
The last stage in ISA model is the refresher training (RT) which is taken only
once every year and lasts for approximately 8 hours (Royal Jordanian Flight
Attendant In-Flight Safety Manual, 2007); During the RT, the flight attendants
refresh their memory with the major SKS topics in order to enhance their expertise
memory and to reflect positively during PFB and IFP. Refresher training is different
from basic training and it can be developed to maintain a good level of original
training through using imaginary practice and symbolic rehearsal (Annet, 1979).
11
Intensive refresher training is recommended through the use of computers when it is
difficult to make retraining specially for emergency situations that require errorless
performance in real world experience. Refresher training is also needed, even if initial
training is well designed, to maintain knowledge and skills during non-use periods
and because training needs of retraining is different from new training (Druckman
and Bjork, 1991). They argued that in terms of refresher training the training needs of
retrainees are different from those of new trainees. They mentioned that relatively
efficient and cost-effective techniques might be used to maintain a given level of
original learning in retrainees. They added that retention might be enhanced through
the use of computers in delivering instruction and diagnosing student progress in and
out of the classroom.
In the study by Bani Salameh et al (2009) on 249 flight attendants in two
major airlines an investigation revealed that the flight attendants and supervisors
reported surprisingly low perceptions and self confidence and low self efficacy
towards all the ISA factors and there were job and gender related significant
differences where the flight supervisors were more concerned with IFP while the
flight attendants were more concerned with PFB while male flight attendants reported
higher preparedness for the safety knowledge and skills. Another interesting finding
was that flight attendants who experienced onboard emergencies and successfully
solved the emergency situations improved their perceptions and self confidence of the
usefulness of the safety manual, the importance of PFB, and continuous mental
practice and rehearsal. These findings showed that among flight attendants,
experience was the better teacher and the safety knowledge and skills as well as the
procedures to establish and maintain the SKS became meaningful and fully
appreciated only after experiencing real-life emergencies. This is a very expensive
12
and risky way of maintaining expertise. This study suggested more realistic, practical
and meaningful training packages are needed.
These findings are disquieting as they report the quality of engagement or the
residual effects of each factor over a period of time and reveal the deterioration or
uneven distribution of focus and levels of confidence among both male and female
flight attendants and supervisors in assuring onboard safety. The low levels of self
confidence and self efficacy and the uneven distribution of focus and confidence
reported in this study should be seen as indicators of poor training or more accurately
of poor maintenance of safety knowledge and skills (SKS) among the flight
attendants. These findings can be interpreted as calls for help by the flight attendants
and should be attended to immediately to avoid more negative findings such as
reported by Bani Salameh, 2009), Mahony et al (2008), Rosenkrans (2006), Flight
Safety Foundation, 2005, Phillips (1992) and Cushman (1992).
These findings are consistent with Rohden et al (2007) who reported that there
was a lack of attention given to the needs of flight attendants. Mahony et al (2008)
showed that time intervals and lapses of memory badly affected flight attendants‘
performance, and Phillips (1992) reported of accidents committed by flight
attendants. The findings of these studies suggest that although flight attendants were
trained and annually recertified to perform the safety procedures, the training and
other activities that they underwent in the course of their careers were fragmented and
focused on specific skills and behaviours, but not on the integration of safety
knowledge and skills (SKS), nor for the development of expertise or expert schema.
Flight attendants must be highly qualified and trained in order to be able to perform
their duties properly when an emergency situation arises onboard. Deficiencies in
13
training might pave the way for accidents and loss of human life. Luxhøj and
Maurino (2001) referred to Reason's model, which is adopted by the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA), Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), and Australian Bureau of
Air Safety Investigation (ABASI). This model is called "An Accident Causal Chain"
as in (Figure 1.2). It is used for investigation in aircraft incidents and accidents.
Reason model is used to trace the causes or errors of accidents starting from the
higher management to the whole sections of the airline. Luxhøj and Maurino
described this model as a schematic interaction between individual error and implicit
factors starting from the top level management. They pointed out that Reasons' model
describes two interrelated aviation accident causal factors: (a) an active failure
pathway that originates in top level decisions and proceeds through error producing
situational factors at the workplace to unsafe acts committed by the individuals at the
human-system interface and (b) a latent failure pathway that directly breaches the
defences in a system. This research is concerned with the flight attendants who might
turn to be one latent failure pathway which is the second causal factor in Reasons
model.
Figure 1.2: Accident Causal Chain Model (Flight Safety Handbook, 2003, P14)
14
Because of the previous studies that have suggested more training or the increase of
the frequency of training and in order to detect and maintain the potential of incidents
or accidents as implied in Reasons model, this research proposes the approach of
continuous professional development (CPD) that holistically fulfils the requirements
of training, frequency of retraining and continuous improvement of both male and
female the flight attendants (Bani Salameh, Abbas, Kabilan & Bani Salameh, 2010c).
White & Long (2003,) defined CPD as:
…the ongoing maintenance, acquisition and development of knowledge,
skills and attitudes to enable an employee to constantly improve as a
practising professional (p 9).
They add that CPD implies self-directed and practice-based learning activities
rather than supervised training and it aims at maintaining and developing
competencies regarding knowledge, skills and attitudes of the individual to satisfy the
needs of the industry as well as satisfying the need for personal professional
development.
The ISA model specifies the flight duty loop, the management loop, and the
certification loop that identifies three aspects of concerns for CPD. However the
duties of flight attendants also include safety training, service training, security
training and crew resource management training (CRM). There are many aspects for
the full CPD activities but for this study the focus is on the improvement of one
aspect which is the expertise of safety knowledge and skills (SKS) among both male
and female flight attendants within the duty loop of ISA model. The development of
expertise among flight attendants might be achieved by addressing the approaches
that develop expertise or expert memory. Bransford, Brown, and Chocking (2002)
15
referred to three main approaches that help learners develop expertise: (a) meaningful
learning and patterns, (b) organizing knowledge within a main domain, and (c)
storing a big amount of knowledge about this specific domain. The use of
multimedia, with its capabilities in providing text, sound, video, simulation,
interactivity and animation in addition to adopting proper theory and systematic
design of instruction could cater for the approaches that develop expertise or mental
models (Johnson, 2009). Bani Salameh, Abbas, and Bani Salameh (2010a) argued
that optimizing flight attendants safety knowledge and skills can enhance expertise
among flight attendants. They claimed that the improvement of the SKS among flight
attendants might be achieved through making use of computer-based training (CBT)
with proper theory and systematic design of instruction. The use of computer-based
multimedia training has been receiving much emphasis. Some studies have proved
the capability of multimedia in knowledge and skills transfer (Bland and Leibowitz,
1995). Multimedia is defined as computer-based technology that makes use of text,
graphic, animation, audio and video (Barron and Orwig, 1995).
On the other hand, this study investigates gender differences in safety
knowledge and skills which might come out with new findings that might contribute
to enhancing safety knowledge and skills (SKS) and enhance self-efficacy among
flight attendants. In the 1980s, first flight attendants were females with a degree in
nursing (Chute and Weiner, 1996). Currently, female flight attendants do not have
necessarily to be specialized in nursing. Since both males and females pass through
the basic safety training and refresher training, there is no need for specific
background either for males or females (Bani Salameh et al, 2009).
16
1.2 Problem Statement
Studies and reports, such as by Mahony et al (2008), Rosenkrans (2006), Flight
Safety Foundation (2005) and Philips (1992) reported on deficiencies and lack of
confidence with regard to flight attendants‘ training and this inadequacy in training
could pave the way for poor handling of incidents and accidents (Luxhøj and
Maurino, 2001). Although the safety performance by the flight attendants in the
Hudson River was outstanding (Leocha, 2009), the above mentioned studies and
reports reported that flight attendants performance was below the standard. Poor
training might be due to the lack of attention to cognitive task analysis (Bani Salameh,
Abbas and Bani Salameh, 2010a).
Training of flight attendants is based on the flight attendant in-flight safety
manual which is the only reference used after basic training and before refresher
training. It is a text-based manual provided in a form of documentation. Moreover,
the safety knowledge and skills for a given topic in the safety manual are presented in
different and separate sections which poses the shortcoming of fragmentation. For
example, it provides safety knowledge as specific information of the aircraft in one
section and provides emergency procedures in another section (Libyan Airlines Flight
Attendant In-Flight Safety Manual, 2007). Therefore, when a flight attendant needs to
study planned emergency, for example, he has to refer to emergency procedures
section to acquire the procedure. He also needs to move to the section of specific
information of aircraft to recall the specific pieces of knowledge that are needed to
perform the procedure.
Bani Salameh, Abbas and Bani Salameh (2010a), however, proposed that as the
flight attendants are all certified professionals, the approach for training or retraining
17
should be conducted under the method of continuous professional development
(CPD) which conforms to the nature of the flight duty loop in ISA model (PFB, IFP
and Expertise). It could cater for the shortcomings of the human factor of knowledge
and skills decay and the fragmentation of the ideas in the safety manual. Institute of
Highway Incorporated Engineers (2006) identifies CPD as maintenance of
knowledge, skills and development of positive attitudes towards the job. In this
research, CPD might be achieved through making use of systematic interactive
multimedia instruction (SIMI) and reflection and review (RR) for the flight
attendants within the normal duty loops (PFB, IFP and Expertise) of the ISA model
(Bani Salameh, Abbas, Kabilan and Bani Salameh, 2010c). CPD has been shown to
be effective in enhancing knowledge and expertise in physical therapists and medical
fields (Mowder-Tinney, 2008). CPD might overcome deficiencies reported to by the
previous studies and the shortcomings of fragmentation and documentation of the
safety manual and might also enhance Crew Resource Management (CRM) training
through continuous maintenance, acquisition and development of SKS (White &
Long, 2003) being provided through realistic authentic multimedia, systematic
simulations and animation (Johnson, 2009) to train both air stewards and air hostesses
(Bani Salameh et al, 2010).
Cornerstone (2005) proposes six indicators for effective continuous professional
development (CPD), namely
1. Quality of information presented and demonstrated
2. Practice and feedback
3. Coaching and expert modelling
4. Collegiality
5. Organizational leadership, and
18
6. Administrative support (p. 1).
The first four indicators are relevant in the context of SKS for the Flight
attendants. The quality of information presented and demonstrated relies on the use of
technology in training based on proper theory and interactive multimedia instructional
systematic design (ISD). The opportunity to engage in practice and feedback exists in
CPD programs when the flight attendants have opportunities to practice their new
skills through the interactivity and demonstration as presented in the nine events of
instruction in Gagne's information processing theory (Gagne et al, 1992). This
approach is different from the current method of assessment of flight attendants'
safety knowledge and skills which are based on recall of facts and procedures that do
not develop expertise schema (Bani Salameh Abass and Bani Salameh, 2010a).
Gagne et al (1992) also proposed that human expertise can be analysed into verbal
information which concerns with declarative knowledge and a taxonomy of
intellectual skills which involves concepts, rules, problem solving and transfer of
knowledge. Practice questions involving intellectual skills questions help participants
better understand the skills and make new connections in pilot training research
(Gagne et al, 1992). No study applying Gagne's ideas have been reported in the
context of flight attendants except for the study by Bani Salameh Kabilan and Bani
Salameh (2010b) whereby a multimedia English for Specific Purposes (ESP) program
used Gagne's events of instruction in designing lessons for flight attendants. The
traditional group used studied safety knowledge and skills in the traditional way. The
results of the study proved significant for the sake of the experimental group who
used the multimedia ESP program.
19
Cornerstone (2005) also listed activities that are particularly important in
implementing coaching and expert modelling, namely, giving feedback selectively to
support the use of new ideas, to build confidence and self-efficacy. The third
indicator of coaching and expert modelling is represented through demonstration and
simulation of the appropriate procedure in case of emergency situation onboard. The
fourth indicator of collegiality is employed in this research through the discussion of
the review and reflection scripts (Q & A) during PFB.
Systematic and interactive multimedia instruction (SIMI) and reflection and
review activities (RR) can be designed to include all the four indicators. Studies of
multimedia-assisted individual learning in academic contexts (Reilly and Spratt,
2007; Kaveevivitchai et al, 2009) support this contention. However, there are no
studies in the contexts of safety training in general or in the contexts of safety training
among flight attendants to support the use or non-use of extra coaching or discussion
during the PFB. Thus, this study investigates the effects of the use of review and
reflection (RR) activities after engaging with a systematic and interactive multimedia
self-learning package on mastery of SKS and investigates flight attendants self-
efficacy towards the dimensions of the duty loop (PFB, IFP and Expertise) in ISA
model. It also investigates safety knowledge and skills and self efficacy among both
male and female flight attendants. Gender was chosen as a moderator variable
following Belenky et al‘s (1986) assertions that males and females employed
different ways of knowing that might impact on the outcomes of this study. A study
such as this is critical for the flight attendants as currently there is no such rigorous
facility available for use in commercial airlines that could cater for the lapses of
human memory as a human factor and the fragmentation in the safety manual.
20
1.4 Research Objectives
The research objectives in this research can be summarized in the following points:
1- Designing a multimedia training software that meets the theoretical requirements
(cognitive processing and hierarchical structure), instructional systematic design
principles (ISD) and cabin safety and usability standards.
2- Investigating the effects of the multimedia training package on overall performance
and performance in planned emergency, fire fighting and first aid situations.
3- Investigating the effects of the multimedia training package on improving
performance or mastery in discriminations, concepts, rules, higher order rules and
verbal information.
4- Investigating the effects of the multimedia training package on improving self-
efficacy towards the factors of the duty loop of the ISA model namely PFB, IFP and
Expertise.
5- Investigating the effects of the multimedia training package on improving overall
performance and performance in planned emergency, fire fighting and first aid
situations by gender.
6- Investigating the effects of the multimedia training package on improving self
efficacy towards the factors of the duty loop of the ISA model namely PFB, IFP and
Expertise by gender.
1.5 Research Questions
Of the many topics in emergency procedures, literature on cabin safety sheds
light on deficiencies with regard to SKS in planned emergency (Flight Safety
Foundation, 2003), fire fighting (Rosenkrans, 2006) and first aid (Mahoney et al,
2008). Therefore, these topics are chosen for the study and the systematic interactive
multimedia (SIMI) package was developed to deliver the lessons. In addition, this
21
study investigates the self-efficacy of flight attendants towards the duty loop in ISA
model (Bani Salameh et al, 2009). Thus, the research questions are:
1. Does systematic and interactive multimedia instruction (SIMI) with reflection and
review (RR) improve overall performance and performance in planned
emergency, fire fighting and first aid situations?
2. Does systematic and interactive multimedia instruction (SIMI) with reflection and
review (RR) improve performance or mastery in discriminations, concepts, rules,
higher order rules and verbal information?
3. Does systematic and interactive multimedia instruction (SIMI) with reflection and
review (RR) improve self-efficacy towards the factors of the duty loop of the ISA
model namely PFB, IFP and Expertise?
4. Does systematic and interactive multimedia instruction (SIMI) with reflection and
review (RR) improve overall performance and performance in planned
emergency, fire fighting and first aid situations by gender?
5. Does systematic and interactive multimedia instruction (SIMI) with reflection and
review (RR) improve self-efficacy towards the factors of the duty loop of the ISA
model namely PFB, IFP and Expertise by gender?
1.6 Research Hypotheses
Based on the literature review that reports positive significant effects of using
Gagne's events of instruction, multimedia, instructional systematic design model
(Dick and Carey, (2001) and using reflection and review (RR) activities, the
following alternative hypotheses were formulated and tested:
22
H1: The systematic and interactive multimedia instruction (SIMI) with reflection and
review (RR) will significantly improve overall performance and performance in
planned emergency, fire fighting and first aid situations.
H2: The systematic and interactive multimedia instruction (SIMI) with reflection and
review (RR) will significantly improve performance or mastery in
discriminations, concepts, rules, higher order rules and verbal information.
H3: The systematic and interactive multimedia instruction (SIMI) with reflection and
review (RR) will significantly improve self-efficacy towards the factors of the
duty loop of the ISA model namely PFB, IFP and Expertise.
Literature review regarding performance by gender in the use of multimedia
lessons are mixed, namely, some studies reporting that there were significant
differences by gender while others reported no significant differences. As such, the
following null hypotheses were formulated and tested:
H04: There are no significant differences by gender in overall performance and
performance in planned emergency, fire fighting and first aid situations after
using the systematic and interactive multimedia instruction (SIMI) with
reflection and review (RR).
H05: There are no significant differences by gender in self efficacy towards the
factors of the duty loop of the ISA model namely PFB, IFP and Expertise after
using the systematic and interactive multimedia instruction (SIMI) with
reflection and review (RR).
1.7 Significance of the Study
First, this study promotes the concept of continuous professional development
(CPD) which is the ongoing maintenance, acquisition and development of safety
23
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Bani Salameh et al, 2010a; White and Long, 2003) to
enable an employee to constantly improve as a practising professional. The use of
CPD might be accomplished through the use of educational technology as the
delivery system. On the other hand, the use of systematic interactive multimedia
instruction delivered through computer-based training (CBT) could increase mastery
of safety knowledge and skills (SKS) and safety assurance with minimal effort and
investment of time and money. Second, the use of instruction can be extended into
handheld devices to be carried onboard to be reviewed after service and when needed.
Third, this study caters for decay of SKS and which can reduce the need for providing
other refresher training courses for flight attendants at short intervals (Mahoney et al,
2008). Fourth, this study also highlights the urgent need for training flight attendants
through adopting proper instructional theories and instructional systematic design
(ISD) principles by designing meaningful learning packages from the flight attendant
safety manual (Bani Salameh et al, 2010c). Fifth, this study highlights the competitive
advantage between airlines since in-flight safety is crucial to the survival of any
airline. Finally, this study opens new avenues for improving cabin safety among flight
attendants through adopting the approach of continuous professional development.
1.8 Research Limitations
Controlling the various aspects of the research is discussed in chapter three. In
this section the research limitations are explained as follows:
1- In the pilot study the researcher and the briefing supervisor conducted briefing to
the 28 flight attendants inside a room in the briefing centre. Then, the study of the
SIMI with RR was through a form of workshop in five sessions. The 28 flight
attendants were not assigned to normal flights as in the actual study. In the actual
study the 35 flight attendants studied the SIMI before pr-flight briefing (PFB)
24
followed by RR during pre-flight briefing (PFB). The whole study was conducted
within their normal flight duties. But they had to come to the briefing centre 20
minutes earlier than they used to.
2- During the actual implementation of the study the 35 flight attendants were not
briefed all in one class room. Only the five in-flight supervisors were briefed by the
researcher. Then, each flight supervisor briefed his/her crew separately in separate
session before the actual implementation of the study.
3- The study of the SIMI followed by reflection and review (RR) during PFB was not
administered for 35 flight attendants altogether. Rather, the five groups, each
including one supervisor and 6 flight attendants, studied the program individually
before PFB according to their scheduled flights.
4- Number of flight attendants in this study was 35 in one group. Generally speaking,
flight attendants are always busy throughout the whole year and it is not possible to
gather hundreds of flight attendants in one class. Therefore, this study was
administered within the normal work routines of flight attendants and did not in any
way hinder the normal duties of flight attendants.
5- Only one airline was involved in data collection in this study because both male
and female flight attendants run through the same training and do the same duties in
all major airlines.
6- No attention was given to demographic variations because it is impossible to take
into account and will all consist of both young new flight attendants with little
experience and those with lot of experience. Thus, the crew that is formed will always
be composed of different ages, experiences and both genders.
7- The SIMI package was developed with reference to Airbus 320 aircraft but
because the procedures are applicable to all aircrafts, the findings of the research can