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There is mystery behind that masked gray visage, an ancient life force,delicate and mighty, awesome and enchanted, commanding the silenceordinarily reserved for mountain peaks, great fires, and the sea.
PeterMatthiessen, The Tree Where Man Was Born
Thebirthofanelephantisaspectacularoccasion.Grandmothers,aunts,sisters,andcousinscrowdaroundthenewarrivalanditsdazedmother,trumpetingandstampingandwavingtheirtrunkstowelcomethefloppybabywhohassorecentlyarrivedfromoutofthevoid,burstingthroughthe border of existencetotake its placeinan unbrokenlinestretchingbacktothedawnoflife.
Afteralmosttwoyears inthewombandafewminutestostretchitslegs,thecalfcanbegintostumblearound.Butitstrunk,anevolutionarilyuniqueinheritanceofupto150,000muscleswiththedexteritytopickupapinandthestrengthtouprootatree,willbeamysterytoitatfirst,withlittleapparentuseexcepttosometimessuckuponlikehumanbabiesdotheirthumbs.Overtime,withpracticeandguidance,itwillfindthepoten-tialinthisappendageflailingoffitsfacetobreathe,drink,caress,thwack,probe,lift,haul,wrap,spray,sense,blast,stroke,smell,nudge,collect,bathe,toot,wave,andperformcountlessotherfunctionsthatapersonwouldrelyonacombinationofeyes,nose,hands,andstrongmachinerytodo.
Oncethecalfisweanedfromitsmothersmilkatfiveorwheneveritsnextsiblingisborn,itwillspendupto16hoursadayeating5percentofitsentireweightinleaves,grass,brush,bark,andbasicallyanyotherkindofvegetation.Itwillonlyprocessabout40percentofthenutrientsinthisfood,however;thewasteitleavesbehindhelpsfertilizeplantgrowthandprovideaccessiblenutritiononthegroundtosmalleranimals,thus
Do Elephants Have Souls?Caitrin Nicol
Caitrin Nicolis managing editor ofTheNewAtlantis.
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makingtheelephantakeystonespeciesinitshabitat.From250pounds
atbirth,itwillcontinuetogrowthroughoutitslife,toupto7tonsforamaleofthelargestspeciesor4tonsforafemale.
Ofthemanytypesofelephantsandmammothsthatusedtoroamtheearth,oneborntodaywillbelongtooneofthreesurvivingspecies:ElephasmaximusinAsia,Loxodonta africana(savannaelephant)orLoxodonta cyclotis(forestelephant)inAfrica.Thereareabout500,000Africanelephantsalivenow(aboutathirdofthemthemorereticent,lessstudiedL.cyclotis),andonly 40,00050,000 Asian elephants remaining. The Swedish ElephantEncyclopedia database currently lists just under 5,000 (most of them
E. maximus) living in captivity worldwide, in half as many locationsmeaningthattheaveragenumberofelephantsperholdingislessthantwo;manyofthemlivewithoutasinglecompanionoftheirkind.
Forthefreeborn,ifitisacow,theallomotherswhowelcomedherintotheworldwillbewithherforlifeamatriarchalclanledbytheold-estandbiggest.Sheinturnwillbeanenthusiasticcaretakerandplaymatetoheryoungercousinsandsiblings.Whensheistwelveorfourteen,shewillgointoheat(estrus)forthefirsttime,abewilderingoccurrencedur-ingwhichhermotherwillstandbyandshowherwhattodoandwhich
maletoaccept.Ifsheconceives,shewillhaveacalftwenty-twomonths
Right:Elep
hantNatureParkbyChristianHaugen,flickr/christianhaugen(CCBY2.0).Oppositeleft:BigearsbyEmman
uelKeller,flickr/tambako;alteredwithpermission(CCBY-ND2.0).Previous:Shutterstock
Welcome to the world: This newborn hasnt yet stood up and stretched its legs,let alone figured out how to use its trunk.
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later,cruciallyaidedinbirthingandraisingitbythemoreexperienced
olderladies.Shemayhaveanothereveryfourtofiveyearsintoherfiftiesorsixties,butnotallwillsurvive.
Ifitisabull,hewillstaywithhisfamilyuntiltheageoftenortwelve,whenhisincreasinglyroughandsuggestiveplaywillcausehimtobesentoff.Hemaylooselyjoinforceswithafewotheryoungmales,ortrailaroundafterolderoneshelooksupto,butforthemostparthewillbeindependentfromthenon.Withinthenextfewyearshewillstartgoingintomusth,aperiodicstateofexcitationcharacterizedbysurginglevelsoftestoster-one,dribblingurineandcopioussecretionsfromhistemporalglands,andextremeaggressionresponsiveonlytothepresenceofabiggerbull,whohasanimmediatedominancethattheyoungmalerisksinjuryordeathbyfailingtodeferto.Althoughhereachessexualmaturityatafairlyyoungage,thankstothecompetitionhemaynotsireanychildrenuntilheisclosetothirty.(AncientIndianpoetrylaudsbullsinmusthfortheiramorouspowers,evenaskeepersofAsianelephantshaverespectedthephaseasonehighlydanger-oustohumanssincetimeimmemorial.Until1976,itwaswidelybelievedinthescientificcommunitythatAfricanelephantsdonotentermusth.This
changedwhenresearchersatAmboseliNationalParkinKenyaweredis-mayedtonoteanepidemicof GreenPenisSyndrome,whichtheyfearedsignaledsomehorriblevenerealdiseaseuntiltheyrealizeditwasnothingmorenorlessalarmingthantheverydefinitionofaforceofnature.)
Otherthanthisprimaltemporarymadness,elephants(whentheydonotfeelthreatened)arequitepeaceable,witha gentle,loyal,highlysocialnature.HereishowJohnDonne,havingseenoneataLondonexpo-sitionin1612,putit:
Naturesgreatmaster-peece,anElephant,
Theonelyharmlessegreatthing;thegiant
Ofbeasts;whothought,nomorehadgone,tomakeonewise
Buttobejust,andthankfull,lothtooffend,
(Yetnaturehathgivenhimnokneestobend)
Himselfeheup-props,onhimselferelies,
Andfoetonone,suspectsnoenemies.
Donneisnotthefirstorthelasttoviewtheelephantinitsstatureand
dignityas asynecdocheforthetotalgrandeurof the universe,cometoearthinlumpengreyform.Herehesuggeststhatitrepresentsamoralidealaswell.Animalsareoftencelebratedforvirtuesthattheyseemto
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embody:dogsforloyalty,bearsforcourage,dolphinsforaltruism,andso
on.Butwhatdoesitreallymeanforthemtomodelthesethings?Whenpeople act virtuously, we give them credit for well-chosen behavior.Animals,itispresumed,dosowithoutchoosing.
From a religious, anthropocentric perspective, it might be said thatwhileanimalvirtuesdonotentailmoralityfortheanimalsthemselves,theyrevealtousthegoodnessincreation;asthemedievaltheologianJohannesScotusEriugenawrote,InawonderfulandinexpressiblewayGodiscre-atedinHiscreatures.Fromamorebiologicalview,itmightbenotedthatpeoplemostlydonotchoosetheirdispositionseither,thatbehavioralten-
denciesaremoredeterminedthanweliketotellourselves,andthatblameandcreditforsuchthingsareoftenmisappliedinhumancontextstoo.
Butthelatterideathathumans,althoughcapableofconsciousself-direction,areasmutelycarriedalongbytheforceofselectionasyourfriendly neighborhood amoebasimply elides the question, while theformerraisesmanymore;thetigerisasmuchGodscreatureasthelamb.Inanycase,thecapacityforchoosingisabinaryconceitthatgesturesatsomethingmuchfuller,aninnerrealmofawareness,selfhood,andpos-sibility.Inotherwords,asoul.
To the ancients, soul was anima, that which animates, the living-,moving-,breathing-nessofabiologicalbeing.Inthissense,notonlyani-malsbutplantshavesouls(ofdifferentcapacitiesappropriatetowhattheyare).Formanyreligions,bycontrast,thesoulisspecificallyincorporeal,perhapsimmortal,andbelievedtobeuniquetohumanbeings,whoareresponsible(toapoint)foritscondition.Tomodernscienceitis,ifany-thing,thehardproblemofconsciousness,alsocommonlythoughttobetheprovinceofjustonespecies.
Withouteitherchoosingsidesorsomehowreconcilingthesethreeduel-
ingrealitieswitheachother,itwouldbeimpossibletosaywhatasoul is,letalonewhohasone.Butthereisafourthsenseinwhichwhenwetalkaboutit,weallmeanmoreorlessthesamething:whatitmeansforsomeonetobareit,formusictohaveit,foreyestobethewindowtoit,forittobeupliftedordepraved.Evenif,religiously,weknowbyrevelationthatotherpeoplepossessthemforeternity,weonlyengagewithorknowanythingaboutthemataquotidianlevelbywayofthesamecuesandinteractionsthatamorethis-worldlyviewwouldtakeastheirsumtotal:brighteyes,adejectedslump,asuddenmanicinspirationoraconfessionofregret.
Alsoamatterofconventionalwisdomistheideathathumanbeingsareononesideofagreatdividewhileallanimalsareontheother,subjectsoftheirinstinctsandournecessitiesandpleasures.Whatexactlythedivide
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is,though,isdifficulttodefine.Variouscontestantshaveincludedreason,
language,art,technology,religion,walkinguprightandtheuseofhands,knowledge of mortality, sin, suicide, and more. In The Explicit Animal(1991),RaymondTallisroundsupamasterlistofthem:
Man has calledhimself (among otherthings): the rationalanimal;themoralanimal;theconsciouslychoosinganimal;thedeliberatelyevilani-
mal;thepoliticalanimal;thetoolmakinganimal;thehistoricalanimal;
the commodity-making animal; the economicalanimal; the foreseeinganimal;thepromisinganimal;thedeath-knowinganimal;theart-making
or aesthetic animal; the explaining animal; the cause-bearing animal;theclassifyinganimal;themeasuringanimal;thecountinganimal;the
metaphor-makinganimal;thetalkinganimal;thelaughinganimal;the
religiousanimal;thespiritualanimal;themetaphysicalanimal;thewon-deringanimal . . . Man,itseems,istheself-predicatinganimal.
AsTallisgoesontoexplain,anygivenoneofthosedistinctionsisbothtoo narrow, in being an insufficient explanation of what makes humanbeingshuman,andtooopen,inbeingdemonstrablysharedtosomeextentbyanotherspecies.
Chimpanzeesandotherlargeprimates,forinstance,aresointelligentandpersonablethattheyblurmanyoftheseboundaries.Butsincewearesocloselyconnectedevolutionarily,itiseasytotacitlyviewthemaswaystationstowardthehumanapex,impoverishedversionsofourselvesratherthansomebodyintheirownright.Thereis,however,nothingelseremotelylike anelephant. (Its closest living relatives areseacowsdugongs andmanateesandthehyrax,anAfricanshrewmouseaboutthesizeofarab-bit.)Assuch,itpresentstheperfectopportunityforthoughtfulreconsidera-tionofthehumandifference,andhowmuchthatdifferencereallymatters.
An Elephant Never Forgets
To the elephant, our scrap of consciousnessMay seem as inconsequential as a space-invader blip.
HeathcoteWilliams,Sacred Elephant
In1974,ThomasNagelfamouslytookastabatoneofthegreatriddlesoftheuniverse:Whatisitliketobeabat?Tosomescientistsandphilosophers,henoted,thisisanunanswerablequestion;itisnotlikeanythingtobeabat
because(theybelieve)thebatdoesnothaveenoughawarenesstosubjec-tivelyexperienceitself.Nagel,takingforgrantedthatbatshavesomekindofexperience,alsodeterminedthatthequestionisunanswerablebecause
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howeverwellweimaginewhatitwouldbelikeforustoliveasbats,thebat
issobiologicallyforeignthatitsexperienceisbeyondourmentalgrasp.Forpeople hoping nonethelesstocomprehend the livesof elephants,
thereisanastoundingwealthofinformationaboutthem,atinyfractionofwhichappearsinthesidebaronpage36,aslightlylargerfractiononmyofficeshelves,anda realisticallyinexhaustiblefundinlibraries,databases,and oral histories around the world. The best of these come out of anethologicalrenaissancekickedoffwithIainandOriaDouglas-HamiltonsAmong the Elephants(1975)andcontinuedinsuchworksasCynthiaMosssElephant Memories(1988),JoycePoolesComing of Age with Elephants(1996),KatyPaynesSilent Thunder(1998),andmore,withlongitudinalfindingscompiled in the magisterial volume The Amboseli Elephants (2011). Theresultofaclose-knit,crackteamofresearcherswhohavebeenpatientlyandcreativelyobservingthesameelephantfamiliesfordecades,thisworkcom-binesthepowerofconcretestudywiththepowerofstoryandnarrative.
Powerfulforus,thatis,onlookersfromtheoutside.Whatisitliketobeanelephant?Isitlikeanything?Howwouldweknow?
Oneofthemajorcluesthatelephantshavesomethingwewouldrec-
ognizeasinnerlivesistheirextraordinarymemories.Thisisattestedtoby outward indicators ranging from the practicala matriarchs recol-lectionofalocale,criticaltoleadingherfamilytofoodandwatertothepassionategrudgesthatareheldagainstspecificpeopleortypesofpeoplefordecadesorevengenerations,orfierceaffectionforalong-lostfriend.
Carol Buckley, co-founderof theElephantSanctuaryinTennessee,aretirementranchformaltreatedveteransofcircusesandzoos,describesthearrivalofanewcomertothefacility.Thefifty-one-year-oldShirleywasfirstintroducedtoanespeciallywarmresidentoflongstandingnamedTarra:
EveryonewatchedinjoyandamazementasTarraandShirleyintertwinedtrunks andmade purring noises at eachother. Shirleyvery deliberatelyshowedTarraeachinjuryshehadsustainedatthecircus,andTarrathengentlymovedhertrunkovereachinjuredpart.Laterintheevening,anelephantnamedJennyenteredthebarnonewho,asitturnedout,hadasacalfbrieflybeeninthesamecircusasShirley,twenty-twoyearsbefore:
TherewasanimmediateurgencyinJennysbehavior.Shewantedto
getclosetoShirleywhowasdividedbytwostalls.OnceShirleywas
allowedintotheadjacentstalltheinteractionbetweenherandJenny
becamequiteintense.JennywantedtogetintothestallwithShirley
desperately.Shebecameagitated,bangingonthegateandtryingto
climbthroughandover.
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Afterseveralminutesoftouchingandexploringeachother,Shirley
started to ROAR and I mean ROARJenny joined in immediately.The interaction was dramatic, to say the least, with both elephantstryingtoclimbinwitheachotherandfranticallytouchingeachotherthroughthebars.Ihaveneverexperiencedanythingevenclosetothisdepthofemotion.
We opened the gate and let them in together. . . . they are as onebondedphysicallytogether.Onemoves,andtheothershowsinunison.Itisamiracleandjoytobehold.Allday. . . theymovedsidebysideandwhenJennylaydown,Shirleystraddledherinthemostobviouspro-tectivemannerandshadedherbodyfromthesunandharm.
TheywereinseparableuntilJennydiedafewyearslater.More stories of kind mentoring in a new home come courtesy of
anotherelephantrescuesite,thisoneinKenya,whereorphansareraisedtobereintroducedasadultsintothewild.Thisisabigadjustment,notoftenattemptedforanimalswhohavelivedforsomelengthoftimeinacaptiveordomesticatedsetting,butthenewreleasesarehelpedbyolderelephantswhohavegonethroughthesamethingthemselves(especiallyimportantinwelcomingthemintoaherdthatisnottheirbloodkin).In
a2011reportinNational Geographic,headkeeperJosephSaunirecountshowanadventurouslittleonenamedIrimaranawaytotryouthisinde-pendenceearly.Afterafewdays,atrumpetyclamorwasheardatthegate.
iStockphoto
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Irimamusthavetoldthegroupthathestillneededhismilkandorphan
familyandwantedtogoback,saysSauni,soEdo,agraduateofthecen-ter,walkedIrimahome.Thekeepersopenedthegate,andEdoescortedIrimaallthewaybacktothestockades.Edodranksomewaterfromthewell,atesomefood,andtookoffagain.Missionaccomplished.
Suchsolicitudeisnotlimitedtotheirownkind.InComing of Age withElephants,JoycePooletellsthestoryofaranchherderwhoselegwasbroken by a matriarch in an accidental confrontation with her family.When his camels wandered back without him inthe evening, a search
partywassentout.Hewaseventuallydiscoveredunderatree,attendedbya femaleelephantwhofiercelypreventedanybodyfromapproaching.Astheywerepreparingtoshoother,theherderfranticallysignaledforthemtostop.Whentheywerefinallyabletodrawherfarenoughawayforthemtogoandgethim,heexplainedthat
aftertheelephanthadstruckhim,sherealizedthathecouldnotwalkand,usinghertrunkandfrontfeet,hadgentlymovedhimseveralmetersandproppedhimupundertheshadeofatree.Thereshestoodguardover
himthroughtheafternoon,throughthenight,andintothenextday.Herfamilyleftherbehind,butshestayedon,occasionallytouchinghimwith
hertrunk.Whenaherdofbuffaloescametodrinkatthetrough,shelefthissideandchasedthemaway.Itwascleartothemanthatsheknewthathewasinjuredandtookituponherselftoprotecthim.
Fromwhencecomethesealtruisticactions?Aretheytheproductofblindinstinctintheanimal,theresidueofancestralbehaviorbenefitingkin,whereasforhumanstheywouldbeagenerousandmorallycommend-ablechoice?Oristhetruthsomewhereinbetween,somecombinationof
thetwo,forbothofus?Pooleillustrateshowthestandardframeworkofevolutionarytheoryisproblematicindescribingevenhighlysurvival-andreproduction-orientedinteractions:
Asabehavioralecologist,Ihavebeentrainedtoviewnon-humanani-malsasbehavinginwaysthatdontnecessarilyinvolveanyconscious
thinking and that their decisions have been simply genetically pro-grammedthroughthecourseofnaturalorsexualselection.Butinthecourseofwatchingelephants,Ihavealwayshadasensethattheyoften
dothinkaboutwhattheyaredoing,thechoicestheyhave,andthedeci-sionsthattheyaremaking.Forexample,whenayoungmusthmaleis
threatenedbyahigh-rankingmusthmale,hisusualresponseistodropoutofmusthimmediately.Helowershishead,andurinedribblingcan
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ceaseinamatterofseconds.Manybiologistswouldexplainthisphe-
nomenonsimplybyarguingthatmaleswhobehaveinmannerXlivetoproducemoresurvivingoffspringthanmaleswhobehaveinmanner
Y,andthusthetraitforbehavinginmannerXispassedontofuture
generations.Thus,maleelephantstodayautomaticallybehavetheway
theydobecausetheyhave beenprogrammedthroughthe successful
behavioroftheirancestorstodoso.
Itisworthnotingthatselectively,thedecisiontreeherecangobothways:dropoutofmusth,avoidthefight,andlivetotryagainanotherday;ordont,
andmakethebestplayyoucantopassyourgenesonthenandthere.Itiseasytoseehoweitherbehaviormightberewardedandreinforcedbyrepro-ductivesuccessovertime,eitherexplainedjustashandily.Butthebiggerproblemistheassumptionthatinaway,thechoiceisalreadydeterminedpriortotheinteraction,evenpriortothosetwoelephantsbirths,becauseasanencodedresponsethereisnoroomforittobeachoiceatall.Thisauto-maticallyexcludesakeyfactorinthescenario,asPoolecontinues:
AlthoughIrelyonsuchexplanationsmyself,asIhavegottentoknow
elephantsbetterIhavebeenmoreandmoreconvincedthattheydothink,
sometimesconsciously,abouttheparticularsituationsinwhichtheyfindthemselves.Inthecaseoftheyoungmusthmale,Ibelievethathemay
actuallyconsiderhisoptions:tokeepdribbling,standwithheadhigh,
andbeattacked,ortoceasedribbling,standwithheadlow,andbetoler-
ated.Inotherwords,themalemayinfacthavesomeconsciouscontrol....
Withdominancerankbetweenmaleschangingonadailybasis,amale
needstobeabletoadjusthisbehavioraccordingly.Frompastexperi-
enceheknowsthecharacteristicsofhisrivalsbodysize,fightingability,
andhowthatrivalnormallyranksrelativetohim,butifhisrivalisin
musthhealsoneedstoassesswhetherheisinfullmusthandwhatsortofconditionheisin.Allofthisinformationmustbeassimilatedona
dailybasisandgaugedrelativetohisowncondition.Cansocomplexan
assessmentbecarriedoutwithoutthinking?AndIwonderwhetherthe
moreparsimoniousexplanationwouldntbethattheythink.
Ofcourse,similarmechanisticexplanationsarenowoftenappliedtohumanactionsaswell.AsPooleacknowledges,theyaregroundedinsomethingreal,butdonotallowforthefullestunderstandingofwhatisgoingon.Inaway,itmayactuallybemoreinstructivetolookattheflawsinthislineof
reasoningwithananimalexample,whichhelpstoavoidsomeofthemeta-physical minefields surrounding the issue. Properly nuanced discussionsaboutanimalactivitycanbesoundly materialisticwithoutbeingreductive.
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Animal science that describes theirreal abilities, where they can receive
creditforintelligentorcompassionateactionsdrivenbymorethanmereinstinct,wouldbyextensionelevatemansstaturetoonotflattenitwithanimals,butraisethembothabovethelowbarofpuredeterminism.
ThismoralquestionisattheheartofTarquinHallsTo the ElephantGraveyard(2000),areal-lifechronicleofthehuntforaroguebullelephantthatreadsalmostlikeadetectivenovelwherenothingisasitfirstappears.Thevictimisadrunkmanpluckedfromoutofhishouseandimpaledinhisownyard.Thesuspectisalargetuskerwhoseemstohavesoughthimoutinthevillageforthatexpresspurpose,withnoprovocation,and
hasdonethistothirty-sevenpreviousvictims.AmarksmaniscontractedbytheIndiangovernmenttoshootthebullandputastoptothisbehavior.Hall,ajournalistbasedinNewDelhi,believessomethingfishyisupandfinagleshiswayintothesearchpartysohecanexposeit.
SurethatDineshChoudhury,themarksman,isastone-coldmercenaryinsensatetothedignityofelephants,probablyframingsomemeekhaplesscreatureforcrimesitcouldnotreallyhavecommitted,Hallpompouslylectureshimaboutthemonlyto havehis pretensionsflattenedbythismanwholovesandunderstandsthehathi(elephants)farbetterthanHall
knewwasevenpossible,andwhoinductshimintoawholehathiuniverseofdeepfeelingandslyintelligenceandindeed,moralagency.
At one point they catch up with the elephant and Mr. Choudhurysteals off to confronthim alonenot toshoot, but simply tomeet hiseyesandgivehimwarning.Ihavethrowndownthegauntlet.NowtheroguewilleithermendhiswaysorIwilldealwithhim,heexplainstoanastoundedHall.Ifahumankills,heisgivenafairtrialbeforesentencingiscarriedout.Therefore,Ialwaysgiveeachelephantachancetoredeemhimself.Isaytohim,Ifyoustay,youwilldie.Ifyougo,youwilllive.
Foramanwhowants the elephanttotakethe offer,who hates nothingmorethanshootingthem,itseemsanoddprofessiontogointo;butMr.Choudhurynotesthatsomeonewouldbehiredtodoit,andatleastwithmeincharge,theelephanthasachance.
Havingtrackedthehathideepintothenorthernforest,onenighttheyencounteraleglessmanwhoturnsouttobehisformerowner.Manyyearsago,themanpurchasedhimonawhim,havingalifelongaffectionforthecreaturesbutnotknowinganythingaboutthem.Further,beingoftenawayfromhomeonbusiness,theownerheedlesslylefthiminthecareofavicious
scamp,returningonedaytofindhimtieduptoatree,malnourished,andscarredfromfrequentbeatings.Thekeeper(whowasnowheretobefounduntil hewas discovered lockedupforfighting ina bar)was immediately
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fired,andakinderoneemployedtonursethehathibacktohealth.Butafew
weekslater,theoldkeepershowedupagain,belligerentlydrunk,demand-ingmoneyfromtheownerandtauntingtheelephant.Atthesightofhistormenter,theelephantbrokeoutofhisrestraintsandsmashedthekeepertothegroundrepeatedly,crushingtheownerslegsonthewayout.
Ibelieve the elephant did this tomedeliberately, the owner says.Hewantedmetoliveinagony.Hewantedmetorememberhimeverydayfortherestofmylife.AndsoIhavedoneforthepasttenyears.Theelephant,inthosetenyears,hasrangedallaroundkillingdozensofmeninlikemannerdrunkswhoresembledhisoldfoe.Theownerdoesnot
wantrevenge,hesays,becauseheblameshimselfforwhathashappened;butiftheycanshootthehathi,hegoeson,theywouldbeendingalotofpainandmisery.Mostofallhis.
Asakindoftrial,theelephantschaseposesaquestionfamiliarfromrealtrialsheldincourtroomseveryday:howmuchareviolentoffenderswarpedbyatrociouspastsresponsibleforwhattheydo?Howrelevantisthistowhatbecomesofthem,whenthereisafundamentalobligationtoprotectsociety?
Likehumans,mosttraumatizedelephantsdonotbecomeviolent,butjustabsorbtheirhurtsinconfusionandsadnessandrespondtotheminotherfamiliar ways. InThe Dynasty of Abu (1962), the zoologist IvanT.SandersonrecountsthestoryofanelephantnamedSadie,whowaspractic-ingbutfailingtolearnacircusroutine.Finallyshegaveupandboltedoutofthetrainingring,causinghertobechastised(notcruelly,hestresses)forhersupposedstupidityandfortryingtorunaway.Atthis,shedroppedto the ground and dumbfounded her trainers by bawling like a humanbeing.Shelaythereonherside,thetearsstreamingdownherfaceandsobsrackingherhugebody.
InalmosthalfacenturyofcloseassociationwiththeAbu[elephants],includingandevenafterreadingasubstantialpartofthevastlitera-tureconcerningthesemajesticcreatures,Ihavenotencounteredany-thingthathasmovedmesogreatly,andIwritethisinallseriousness
andhumility.ItsineffablepathosconstantlybringstomindthatmostfamousverseJesuswept(John11:35).Whatoneartharewetomakeofaso-calledloweranimalcrying?
If you shoot an animal, you may expect it to make whimperingnoises....Thatanyanimal,andespeciallyoneweighing3tons,should
lie down and sob her heart out in pure emotional frustration issomethingelseagain.Italmostlooksasif,despiteallthatweliketobelieve, we humansare not the only creatures that possess what we
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callemotionsandhigherfeelings.Infact,ifweinsistuponmakinga
distinctionbetweenourselvesandotheranimalsinthisrespect,wewillthenhavetoprovideaspecialnichefortheAbu.
In Charles Darwins The Expression of the Emotions in Man andAnimalsan 1872 work that,togetherwith The Descent of Man(1871),applies the principles of evolution to the question of human originselephantsappeartwice:brieflyinanoteonthewaytheirearsflarewhentheychargeeachotherforafight,andmoreextensivelywithaninquiryinto the phenomenon of captive elephants weeping. Darwin reports
the observations of a colonial secretary in Ceylon (Sri Lanka): Whenoverpoweredandmadefast,[onenewlycapturedbulls]grief wasmostaffecting;hisviolencesanktoutterprostration,andhelayontheground,uttering choking cries, with tears trickling down his cheeks. Others,meanwhile, simply lay motionless on the ground, with no other indi-cation of suffering than the tears whichsuffusedtheireyesand flowedincessantly. A zookeeper in London, Darwin adds, witnessed similaroccurrenceswheneverhiscompanionpairofcowsweresplitup.Everthepainstakingnaturalist,Darwinlatchesontoaphysiologicalinvestigation
ofthemusclessurroundingtheeyeshowtheircontractionmaycauseorallowfortears,whethertheyaremorelikelytobecontractedwhilepros-trate,andsoforth.Hemanagestoinduceabatchofchildrentosqueezethesemusclesrepeatedlyasatest,toverylittletearfuleffect.
Whats So Wrong with Anthropomorphism?
We need another and a wiser and perhaps a more mystical conceptof animals. Remote from universal nature, and living by complicatedartifice, man in civilization surveys the creature through the glass of his
knowledge and sees thereby a feather magnified and the whole image indistortion. We patronize them for their incompleteness, for their tragicfate of having taken form so far below ourselves. And therein we err, andgreatly err. For the animal shall not be measured by man. In a worldolder and more complete than ours they move finished and complete, gift-ed with extensions of the senses we have lost or never attained, living byvoices we shall never hear. They are not brethren, they are not underlings;they are other nations, caught with ourselves in the net of life and time.
HenryBeston,The Outermost House
ThoughthankstoDarwin(ifnotAristotle)itshouldcomeasnosurprisethatanimalsseemtoexperienceinsomewaymanyofthesamethingswedo,physicallyandemotionally,in sciencethesupposedimpositionof
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humancharacteristicsonnon-humananimalsisapowerfultaboo.Allof
theprecedingstories,descriptionsofbehaviorwhosemeaningwouldbeperfectlyobviousifencounteredinaperson,courttroublewithsticklersforromanticizingtheanimalsapparentfeelings.
InLove, Life, and Elephants(2012),DaphneSheldrickfounderoftheorphanagementionedabove,andinventorofthefirstsuccessfulmilksub-stituteforinfantelephantsdescribesherinvolvementinwritingarticlesabout animal behavior for the Wildlife Clubs of Kenyas schools, andhowtoherdismaysomuchoftheliteratureshereadforthisassignmentturnedouttobeabstruseandoffthemarkascomparedwithherandher
colleaguesfieldexperience:
I attributed this to the fact that science precludedresearchers frominterpretinganimalbehaviorinananthropomorphicway,andassuchtheycameupwithcomplicatedexplanationsastowhyananimalwasbehavinginacertainway,when,infact,theanswerwasprettysimple.Onesimplyhadtocompareittothelikelyresponseofthehumanani-malifsubjectedtothesamesetofcircumstances.
Researchers are not even supposed to name their subjects, lest the
senseofintimacyinanamecompromisetheirobjectivity.Theprimatolo-gistJaneGoodallwasamongthefirsttorevoltfromthisconvention,andnowmostelephantethologistsgoaheadandnametheirsubjectstoo;asIainDouglas-Hamiltonhassaid,evenifyouidentifiedanelephantbythenumberM51,whenyousawhimcomingyourway,youwouldstillsaytoyourself,MyGod,itsM51!!!
Indeed,Douglas-Hamiltons remark speaks to the very reason whyscientistsworryaboutmixinghumanfeelingsintoanimalresearch:itspracticallyirresistible.Scientificobservationissupposedtobedetached,
but science after all is conducted by human beings, and human heartsnaturallyreachouttoothersentientcreatures;perhapsouraffectionforthemmakesuswanttoseewhatisntthere.
Despiteitslimits,surelythisisabetterorientationthanthatoftheBritishRajofficersofyore,who inthegreattradition ofRoyalSocietyvivisectionsandothersuchdoingsobtainedawealthofinformationaboutelephantinephysiologybyrestrainingtheanimalsandapplyingpaintofindthemostsensitivepressurepoints,coldlytakingnotesontheirnewknowledgeofthenervoussystem.Butthedilemmaremains:howtoget
anaccurateunderstandingoftheanimalsnatureand(ifappropriate)emo-tions,withoutimposingonthemassumptionsbornofadistinctlyhumanunderstandingoftheworld?
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Thetabooagainstanthropomorphismexistsforthreebasicreasons.
Firstofall,weashumanbeingsarepronetomistakethethoughtsandfeelingsofeach other,eventhepeopleweareclosesttohowmuchmoresoisthisariskinspeculatingaboutmembersofanotherspecies?
Even supposing that the elephants were our equals in intelligence,their life differs from ours so fundamentally that trying to infer theirperspectivefromourownexperienceisboundtomissthemarkinmanyways.Foronething,asaruleelephantshavepoorvisionbuttheirsenseof smellisexquisite,revealing awholeolfactorylandscape that we arecontentedlyclosedoffto.Also,theydonotfallromanticallyinlove(that
weknowof;thattheirbehaviorindicates).Thinkhowmanyotheraspectsofourlivesareprofoundlyinfluencedbygoodsightanddeeperos,andaskyourselfwhatmightloomequallylargeinanelephantsworldthatweourselveswouldhaveverylittlegraspof.Andof coursethereareavarietyofotherdifferenceswheretheylive,howtheylive,thefactthatfrombirthtodeathafemale(unlesssomethinghasgonewrong)will neverbealone and aftera certain pointa malemostlywill.Howmightthesethingsshapeapsyche?
Meanwhile,onourend,wethehumanracearemastersofprojection,
fromtheteddybears(orinmycase,stuffedraccoonsandwalruses)thatwe befriend as children to the humanoid robots that we may build or
iStockphoto
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purchaseasadults,engineeredtocueustorespondtothemlikesentient
beings.Weliketofeelthattheseinanimateobjectshavereciprocalaffec-tionsforus,althoughwealwaysknowatsomelevelthattheydonot.
For real sentient beings, though, the truth is more complex. Theyarenotus,buttolookintotheireyesistoknowthatsomeoneisinthere.Imposingourownspecificthoughtsandfeelingsonthatsomeoneisinonesensetooimaginative,inpresuminghecouldreceivetheworldinthewaywedo,andinanothernotimaginativeenough,innotopeningourmindstothefullpossibilitiesofhisdifference.ThephilosopherandtheologianMartinBubercalledthistheimmenseothernessoftheOther,reflectingonhis
relationshipwithafamilyhorseasachild.Ashestrokedthemane,itwasasthoughtheelementofvitalityitselfborderedonmyskinsomethingthatwasnotI,henotes,butwaselementallyinrelationtohim.Therewasanexistentialconnectionbetweenthemintheirimprobableblessingofbreathing,beatinglife.Andnotonlylife,buttheparticularityofsentientindividuals,asthehorseverygentlyraisedhismassivehead,earsflicking,thensnortedquietly,asaconspiratorgivesasignalmeanttoberecogniz-ableonlybyhisfellowconspirator:andIwasapproved.
Ofcourse,thereisnowaytoknowwhatthehorsewasreallythinking
here.ButastowhatBuberwasthinkingnoticehowhemovesfromtheirsharedprimalvitality,realizedbytouch,totheirdistinctseatsofawareness,andthepossibilityof comingtogetherinfauxconspiracy.Considerhowany empathetic connection forms. You begin with some point of com-monalitywithyourownlife,somethingaselaborateasasimilaridentityorexperienceorassimpleasafeelingeverybodyknowsfirsthand,suchaspainoraffection.Fromwhatissame,howeverbasic,youcanbegintobridgethedifferencetowhatisother,andlearnsomethingnewthroughsomeoneelseseyes.
Thisleapwillalwaysinvolvesomeelementofimagination,aswecan-not knowexactlywhatsomeonemaybefeeling on the otherside.Thusourempathyandirrepressibleimaginationarenotmerelyimpedimentstoclearunderstanding,butmayinsteadoffernewavenuestowardit.
Thesecondreason for the taboois that inmodern Westernscience,thewholeconceptoflifeissomechanicalthat,ifyoulookclosely,notevenpeoplearesupposedtobeanthropomorphized.Emotional,holistictermssuchas love,sorrow,andconcernhavenoplaceinanimpoverished
languageofchemicaltransactionsatthemicrolevelandselectionpres-suresatthemacro.Notthatchemicaltransactionsandselectionpressuresare not essential influences, because of course they arebut from our
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currentknowledgeofthem,theyareacutelyinadequatetodescribingthe
subtletiesoflivedexperience.ThisframeworkgoesbacktoDescartes,whosedualisticuniverseof
absolutemindatoneendandabsolutematterattheotheradmittednoth-ing in between. Indeed, Descartes reasoned that since animals are notrational,they are not conscious, and sincethey are not conscious,theycannot even be aware of pain; their piteous howls during the horribleexperimentsheconducted on themwereto him merereflex, the unfeltexpressionofmaterialreactionsakintotheshriekingofateakettle.
Thisideawaslongagodebunked,butthephilosophyitcamefrom
lives on in various ways. Early developers of artificial intelligence, forinstance, focused on programming mightily rational functions such aschessandadvancedmathematicstasksthatareideallysuitedtocomput-ers,butalso,asM.I.T.sRodneyBrooksquipsinFlesh and Machines(2002),thathighlyeducatedmalescientistsfoundchallenging,whichthereforemust be the pinnacle of cogitation. In fact, Brooks realized, while thethingsthatchildrenoffourorfiveyearscoulddoeffortlessly,suchasvisu-allydistinguishingbetweenacoffeecupandachair,orwalkingaroundontwolegs,orfindingtheirwayfromthebedroomtothelivingroomwere
notthoughtofasactivitiesrequiringintelligence,theyrepresentedtherealchallengeforprogramming.Nevermindsmallchildrenthereisnotarobotintheworldthatknowsthethingsapuppyknows.
In a 1990 paper serendipitously titled Elephants Dont PlayChess, Brooks observes that evolutionarily, the essence of being andreactingthatis,theabilitytomovearoundinadynamicenvironment,sensingthesurroundingstoadegreesufficienttoachievethenecessarymaintenanceoflifeandreproductionwasafarmoredifficultdevelop-mentthanreason-centeredcapabilities,asimpressiveastheyare.More
importantly, the latter emergedincontinuity with the former, not asadetachedoccurrencewithanunrelatedmeaning.
This is an importantcorrective to the abstraction of thought fromembodiment,andoughttoindicatethatmentalandemotionalexperiencesweknowwehavemightwellbesharedtosomedegreebyfellowcreatures,ourevolutionarykin;discerningthemisnotimposing humanattributesonanimalsbutjustacknowledgingtheresultsofacommonheritage.
Tobesure,thisfieldcomeswithitsownpitfalls,theretroactivejust-sostoriesthatspeculativelyexplaintheevolutionaryheritageofanybehavior,
asPoolediscussedabove.Butinanyevent,todaywehavereadmittedintorespectablescienceawholespectrumofbiologically-basedfeeling,thoughthisisactuallybecauseweareleavingbehindthemindforjustthematter.
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Pureconsciousrationality,insteadoftheonesurething,isbysomeaccounts
anelaboratedelusion.Thatisasubjectforanothertime,butforhereandnowthelessonofDescartesisthis:todenyobvioussufferingbasedonaprecon-ceivedideaisasunscientificasitisheartless.Believingthattheappearanceofboredom,loneliness,frustration,andgriefinanimalsissimplyananthro-pomorphicprojectionistolaborunderaforcedignorancethatisprotestedbyourownintuitionaswellasalltheevidence.Evenasnewdevelopmentsoffermoreinsightintothedistinctionsbetweentheirfeelingsandours,wehavetograntthebenefitofthedoubtthattheyarefeelingsomething.
Athirdobjectioncomesnotoutofsciencebutfromcultureandpolitics:theidea that acknowledgingevenfaintly human-seeming qualities inanimalswillultimatelyservenottoaffirmthemoralworthofanimalsbuttodebasetheworthofhumanbeings.TheexampleofPeterSingershowsthatthisfearisnotunfounded.Singersclassic1975manifestoAnimal Liberationisapassionatecallfortheprotectionoffeelinganimals,andinmanywaysthefoundingdocumentoftheanimaladvocacymovement.(Heeschewsrightstalk,althoughthishasmostlybeenlostonhisfollowersandcriticsalike.)
ButSingerisequallywellknownforpromotingreprehensibleideas
aboutthetreatmentofvulnerablehumanbeingstheyoung,theold,theill,andthedisabled.Theinsidiousconnectionbetweenthesetwostancesisaphilosophythatattachesvaluetospecific capacitiesratherthanbeingsasawhole:Ifacertainlevelofintelligenceorotherpropertiesmeansani-malsshouldbeaccordedmorevalue,conversely,toSingertheabsenceofthosepropertiesinsomepeoplemakesthoseindividualsworthless.
Incontrasttothiskindofutilitarian, la cartemoralvalue,thereisakindofanimaladvocacythatpromotesaradicallevelingofspecies:asPeople for the Ethical Treatment of Animals founder Ingrid Newkirk
famously said,When itcomestopain, love, joy, loneliness, and fear, aratisapigisadogisaboy.WhileNewkirkgroundsherclaimincoreemotions (which allthose species do have), others take the position towhattheyseeasitslogicalconclusion,equatinganykindoflifewithanyotheraspider,abacterium,achildaconceptwhosepracticalimplica-tionsmusteitherbenonexistentorparalyzinglyexhaustive.
Though based on nearly opposite standards for how to value livingbeings,boththeseapproachesbasicallyannihilatehumanequalityasaspe-cialideal,thatself-evidenttruththatsomehowinalltimesandplaceshas
beenshockinglyhardtodefend.Hencevaliantcrusadersagainstassaultson thisfront, suchasbioethicistWesleyJ.Smith(authorofa2010booktitledafterNewkirksstatement),smelldangerinanydiscussionofanimal
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sentienceandemotion.ThinkofthebeautifulstarksimplicityoftheIAma
Manbannerscarriedinthecivilrightsmarches;whatif,instead,theysaidIAmanOrganism,whoserightsareeithercontingentorunenforceable?Thisisthemoraluniversethatpeoplesuspiciousofanimaladvocacyfear.
Animalwelfare,ratherthananimalrights,istheproperlocusofourconcern, they seek to remind us (Smith commonly makes this distinc-tionthroughoutthebookandinhisbloggingandarticlesabouthumanexceptionalism);itisnottheanimalsstatureaslivingbeingsbutoursasmoralagentsthatobligatesustorelatetothemkindly.Whateverthephilosophicalmeritsofthisstance,itiscertainlytrueatapracticallevel
thatpeoplehavepoweroveranimalsinmostsituationsandsoitisuptoustosetthestandardfortheirtreatment.
So what does animal welfare entail? One approach is outlined inDominion (2002), Matthew Scullys rigorous critique of various indus-trialandsportingpracticesbasedonknownevidenceofanimalsentienceandemotionastraightforwardif gruesome argumentnotthatweareoffendingourequalsbutthatwearefailingourdependents.
Ontheotherhand,itishardtosaywhatSmithconsidersanacceptablelimitonhumanneedsanddesireswhenbalancedagainstanimals.Hechar-
acterizes Scullys book as outrageously anthropomorphic, and describessomeofthewritingsofJaneGoodall,theworldsleadinganimalscientist,aspurefigmentsof[her]imagination;Goodallalmostscreechesassheanthropomorphizes away. In Smiths view, Scully and Goodall go wrongbyinferringemotionalstatesfromanimalsobservablebehavior.Smithalsocriticizesanelementary-schoolprimeronfarmanimalsaspropaganda,notonlyfortheadmittedlyridiculousinclusionofthenamesofvegancelebri-ties,butalsoforanthropomorphicallyaimeditemssuchasthis:CowFact:Mothercowsseparatedfromtheircalvesbyafencewillmooloudlyandseem
veryupset.Theyllwaitthroughhunger,cold,andbadweathertobewiththeircalves.Smithdoesnotdisputethatthemooingactuallytakesplace;ifthereisanythingaboutanimalpsychologythatwouldseemtobeprettywellestablished,itismothersattachmenttotheiryoung.Butapparentlythesug-gestionthatthisbehaviorindicatesthepresenceofrecognizableemotionsisadangerouslyanthropomorphicideatobeputtingintheheadsofchildren.
Denying the obvious is a bad way to go about promoting causes,even (or especially) very good ones. And the emphasis on humanexceptionalismasSmithasks,Whatotherspeciesbuildscivilizations,
records history, creates art, makes music, thinks abstractly, commu-nicates in language, envisions and fabricates machinery, improves lifethroughscienceandengineering,orexploresthedeepertruthsfoundin
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philosophyandreligion?inaveinthatRaymondTalliscallsamis-
conceived,panic-strickendesiretopreservehumandignitybydistancingmanfromtheanimals,somewhatmissesthepoint.
IngridNewkirkdoesnotclaimthatratsandpigscanmakemachineryorpondermetaphysics,butthattheyfeelemotions,andthattakingthoseintoaccount,weshouldnotdegradeorharmanimalsinthewaysthatmattertothemnotbybeingdeniedsuffrage,say,butbybeingboredorscaredorseparatedfromtheirfamilies.Theirworthneednotbepeggedrelativetoanybodyelsestoacknowledgethis.
Forthatmatter,Smithslineofargumentservestounderminehismore
importantpoint.Thevulnerableanddisabledpeoplewhomhespendsmostofhistimefightingtoprotectarethemselvesoftenunabletodoagoodpor-tionoftheexceptionalthingshepraiseswhichisjustthesortoflimita-tionthatcausesPeterSingerandhiscrowdtoquestiontheirpersonhood.Arguingfromtheheightofhumanactivitymaynotbethemostpersuasivewaytomakethecaseforthosewhocannothopetoreachthatheight.
Ontheotherhand,asthesecapacitiesdohaveabearingonthestatureofthespeciesoverall,itoughttofollowthatotherspecieswithheight-enedabilities should beaccorded value for thosethingsaswell. In any
case,tacticallyspeaking,onewouldthinkthatsensitivityandrespectforlifeatdifferentlevelswouldfindthemselvesincommoncause.Wecanallrecallexamplesfromhumanhistoryinwhichpeoplesnaturalsympathies
Shutterstock
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towardsothers,whomtheyknewdeepdowntobelikethem,wereclosed
offbyfeatsofideologyandofstillmoreexampleswherethebaselineofthosenaturalsympathiesleftmuchtobedesired.Ournaturalsympathies
representaninvaluablekindofmoralinsighttobenurturedratherthansquelchedwherevertheydoappear.Withoutestablishingequalityper se,
thissurelyappliestoourrelationshiptoanimalsaswell.
StaffmembersattheElephantSanctuarytoldmeofanincidentwith
oneoftheirgirls,whospottedafallenbirdoutsideherbarnandranrightovertoit,utterlydistraught.Shecroonedandstrokeditanddidnot
settledowntillithadbeenproperlylaidtorest.Whatdidthismeanto
her,exactly?Wedontknow.Butshewasclearlyverymovedbyafellow
creatureswoeandhadnotroubleseeingitforwhatitwas,differentlifeformsthoughtheywere.Howsadwhenwe,higheranimalswhoshare
thisgift,convinceourselvestodullit.
Arenottwosparrowssoldforapenny?Andnotoneofthemwillfallto
thegroundapartfromyourFather.Buteventhehairsofyourheadareallnumbered.Fearnot,therefore;youareofmorevaluethanmanysparrows
(Matthew10:29-31).Ifasinglelittlebirdisworththeall-consuminggrief
ofDularytheElephantandthecosmos-animatingmindoftheFatherofCreation,andhumanworthsurpassesthat,thenwhatistheretoloseinholisticallyappreciatingthelifeofthisonebird,eveninsofarasitresem-
blesours?Andhowmuchmorethanthebirdanelephant,whichbyitsown
extraordinarynatureshowsthatallspeciesarenotequalbutisaportal
totheworldofnon-humanlife,andthepossibilitiestherein.
Tool, Image, and Grave
The proper study of mankind is man, but when one regards the
elephant, one wonders.attributedtoAlexanderPope
Ifthecoreelementsoflife,sensation,andemotionaresowidelydistributedastoencompassahugeswathoftheanimalkingdom,what isthemoraldif-ferencebetweenaspecieswithhighercapabilitiesandonewithout?Inhis
thoughtful1985essayTool,Image,andGrave,thephilosopherofbiol-
ogyHansJonastakesupthreeactivitiesattributedsolelytohumansand
explorestheirdeeperimplications.Asithappens,givenwhatweknowtoday,
elephantsarguablymeetallthreetests.JonassstandardisworthrevisitinginthislightnottodiminishitssignificanceforHomo sapiens,buttocon-
siderwhatitmeansfortheoneotheranimal,atleast,thatmightshareit.
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Jonasselectstheseparticulartraitsonthebasisthattheyareknown
tohaveexistedeveninprehistoricman,andevenintheirmostincipientformsareindicatorsofimportantmentalandspiritualqualitiesthatwould
seemtomakehimunique.Thefirstexampleisthetool,whichJonasnotes
isverycloselyconnectedwiththerealmofanimalnecessity.Andyet,a
toolisanartificialconstruct,notanextensionoforganicactionbutasepa-
rateobject,oftencraftedwithanotherobject,andmostimportantlyneces-sitatingaconceptofwhatitanditspurposewillbeinordertobecrafted.
Ononecount,elephantsfailthetooltest,fortheydonotmakeartifacts
theythenreuse(andobviouslyhavenotdevelopedthekindoftechnology
thathascompletelyunleveledtheoddsinoureffortstohuntortraportrain
themorencroachupontheirhabitat).However,theydouseobjectsasinter-
mediariesbetweenthemandtheirenvironment,suchasstickstoscratch
betweentheirtoesandremovebugsfromotherareas,ortwistedclumpsofgrasslikeQ-tipstocleaninsidetheirearsorwhiskstoswatatflies.AsJ. H.
WilliamsrecountsinElephant Bill(1950),workelephantsinAsiacollared
withbellshavebeenknowntoplugupthebellswithmudsothattheycan
goandstealbananasinthemiddleofthenightunnoticedapurposeful
modification ofsomeoneelsestool.Elephantsdig holesforwater,coverthemwithplugsofbarkandgrass,andreturnlatertotheirsecretstash.
Elephantslearnbytrialanderrorwhatsortsofmaterialsdoanddonotshock them in their efforts to break through electric fencesand in at
leastonerecordedinstance(describedinLawrenceAnthonysThe ElephantWhisperer[2009]),followedthebuzzingofthefenceallthewayaround
toitsorigin,thegenerator,which,having been stompedtosmithereens,
allowedthemtountwinethefenceandgotheirmerryway.
Allthesebehaviorsareorienteddirectlytowardfulfillingbasicanimal
wantsandneeds,andallaresimilartothekindofinstinctualmodificationof selfandsurroundingshoarding,nesting,sneaking,groomingthat
anyanimaldoestosurviveintheworld.Thesophisticatedactionsthat
animalscarryoutthankstotheinstructionsofinstinctarereallyquite
amazing,anddifficulttocomprehendforwewhorelysomuchmoreon
consciousreasoning;howmuchdoestheanimalknow,andhowcanitdo
whatitsdoingifitdoesnt?Inanycase,thesecomplexelephantbehav-
iorswouldseemtoshowagreatdegreeofintelligence,anawarenessofcauseandeffect,andsomegraspofthemultiplepossibilitiesinherentin
thepropertiesoftheirsurroundingsthatis,whatJonascallsthepowerofimagination,agranderpowerthanthecold(thoughequallyapplicable)
contemporaryphrasehighcognitivecapacity.
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Jonasssecondexample,image-making,isacapabilitywhichdisplaysa
total,ratherthanagradual,divergencefromtheanimals.Theactivityis biologically useless, he notes, and requires sufficient mental abstrac-tiontodistinguishbetweenrealityandrepresentationthatis,betweenthesensationsofthepresentmomentthatallanimalsexperienceandtheformofsomethingelseinmemoryortheimagination.Image-makingisthetransferenceofthismetaphysicalideaontoaphysicalsubstrate;evenforaportraitorsomeotherpicturemodeledonsomethingrealandpres-ent,thecopyisdistinctfromtheoriginalbutlinkedtoitbyanonmaterialconcept.*
Itisworthnotingthatmakingimagesaswellastoolsdependsonnotonlysufficientmentalabstraction,butmorepracticallyhands,orsomekindofhand-likeappendage,suchasatrunk,somethingthatallowsforaspecialkindofactiveengagementwithenvirons.Infact,giventheirprehensilefacility,elephantscanbe trainedtomakerepresentationalpaintingsofflowers, balloons, and elephants, mainlyjust as they canbe trainedtoperform many other sophisticated tricks. (Given their intense boredomincaptivity,wherealmost anyactivitycanbeappealing,itisnotonlyacrowd-pleaserbutseeminglyfunfortheelephants,whoseworkisthensold
tofundtheircareandotherconservationefforts,otherwiseknownaswin-win-win.)Someelephants,however,makeartoftheirownaccordmostly,asitappears,abstract,butsomeborderingonrepresentational.Ruby,whospentalmostherentirelifeatthePhoenixZooandwasgivenpaintsforrecreation after her keepers observed her always doodling in the sand,wouldcommonlyselectpaintcolorsthatmatchedeventsaroundher,suchasvisitorsshirtsoutsidehercageorthered,yellow,andwhiteofafiretruckthathadpulledupwithflashinglightsearlierintheday.
The best documented example, however, is Siri of the Rosamond
GiffordZooinSyracuse,NewYork,whowasobservedin1980byher
*Morepoetically,thisideaappearsinthe2005novel/2010movie Never Let Me Go,con-cerningagroupofhumanclonesraisedfororgandonation.Aschildreninschool,theyareencouragedtodrawpicturesthatarespiritedawaytoagallerywhosepurposetheydont
know.Variousrumorsarisetofillthevacuum,amongthemthattheartworkmaybeusedtomatchyoutoyoursoulmateandperhapsdeferyourfate,becauseitrevealedwhatyouwerelikeinside . . . [it]revealedyoursoul.Whentwoofthemasadultlovers,desperatetohave
thisconfirmed,trackdownthemadamewhohadtakencustodyofalltheirpictures,shetells
themtheartwasnotsomuchtorevealtheirsoulsastoprove you had souls at all.Theyaretakenabackthatanyonewouldthinktheydidnt,butthatisasnaveasthemadamesbeliefthatitwouldmeananythingifshecouldprovetheydid:thesocietythatproducedthemtoexploittheirbodiesisemphaticallyuninterestedintheinconvenientmatteroftheirsouls.
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keeper to be drawing with a pebble on the floor of her enclosureall
alone,oftenatnight,entirelyofherownvolition.ThemoststrikingofthesemarkingswasalittledesignthatlookedforalltheworldliketheChinesecharacterforBuddha;thekeeper,DavidGucwa,bestowedonitthecheekyandevocativetitleToWhomItMayConcern,andfromthatpointonbegantosupplyherwithpaperandpencil.Hewouldsitquietlywith sketch pad in his lap and pencil sitting nearby, and without anypromptingorguidanceSiriwoulddraw.
Manyofthedrawingscollectedinalovely1985booktitledafterthatfirstetching,cowrittenbyGucwaandreporterJamesEhmannactually
dosomewhatresemblecorporealentities:abutterfly,abird,aperson.Thisislikelyhappenstance,though;byandlargethedrawingsaremuchmoreemotionallythanrationallyexpressive.Bethatasitmay,clearlytherewassomethinginSirisinnerlifeshefeltcompelledtobringforth.Theques-tionofwhattomakeofitisarevealingexampleofthecrypticexpansebetweentheintentoftheartistandthesignificancetoviewers.
Tosome,ofcourse,thewholethingissimplyasend-upoftheveryconceptofmodernartpeopletodaypaymoneytoacquirestuffthatIwouldpaymoneytogetridof,carpedonebiologyprofessorsentapacket
ofSirisworkforcomment.Ontheotherhand,onbeingshownthedraw-ingstwoseniorzookeepersimmediatelyresolvedtogovegetarian,blownawaybythisglimpseintoanunchartedrealmofanimalpsyches.Idontevensteponspidersanymore,onesaid,andIdontlikespiders.Nothingissimpleanymore.StephenJayGouldcalledtheportfoliofascinatingbutcautioned,Ihaveahardenoughtimeassessingmyownmotivations;Lordonlyknowswhatgoesoninsidethebrainofanelephant.
Art scholars, fortheir partmore content thanscientists to coexistwithendlessambiguity,andindeedtorevelinjustthatkindofclueintothe
deepunknownwereuniversallyenthusiastic,allremarkingontheenergyandlyricismandevenjoy,andaffirmingcertainspatialformsandtechniquesthatindicatedtheworkwasmorethanmerelyrandomscribbling.LiketheprehistoriccavepaintingsJonaspointsto,itisa creativemessagedefyingbothmeaninglessnessandeasyunderstanding, callingacross improbabledistancesoftimeorconsciousnessorspeciestowhomeveritmayconcern.
Incidentally, in an entirely different kind of image test, elephantsaredistinguishedaswell:theycanrecognizethemselvesinmirrors.Veryfewotheranimalshavebeenshowntodothis,mainlydolphinsandgreat
apes.Thetestisperformedasfollows:Whiletheanimalisunconscious,somepartofitsanatomyoutofitsrangeofvisionismarkedwithodorlesspaint,andoftenforcontrolacorrespondinglocationismarkedwithaclear
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versionofthepaint.Whenpresentedwithamirrorwhereinthemarkis
reflected,itturnstothatlocation on its own bodytoexploreit,indicatingbothself-awarenessandanunderstandingofthemeaningof themirror.Humanbeingsbegintopassthistestatabouteighteenmonthsofage.
Jonass final and strongest criterion is the grave, which would seemto separate man from animal unambiguously. The commemorationofthedeadperpetuatedinthecultofthegravebespeaksanawarenessof mortality that isthe foundation of metaphysics:in considering the
afterwardsandthethere,[man]alsoconsidersthenowandthehereofhisexistencethatis,hereflectsabouthimself.Withgraves,theques-tiontakesonconcreteform:WheredoIcomefrom;whereamIgoing?andultimately,WhatamIbeyondwhatIdoandexperienceatagiventime?Forman,hissenseofself,senseofhistory,andsenseoftheintem-
poral,howeverinchoate,aregesturedatwithhisremembranceofthosewhohavepassedon.
Buthereheisjoinedbytheelephants,theonlyotherknowncreaturesthatwhatever it maymean to thempurposivelycommemorate their
dead,inawayJoycePoolecallseerieanddeeplymoving:Itistheirsilencethatismostunsettling.Theonlysoundistheslowblowingofairoutoftheirtrunksastheyinvestigatetheirdeadcompanion.Itsasifeventhe birds have stopped singing. Using theirtrunksand sensitive hindfeet,theonestheyuseforwakinguptheirbabies,theytouchthebody
ever so gently, circling, hovering above, touching again, as if by doingsotheyareobtaininginformationthatwe,withourmorelimitedsenses,canneverunderstand.Theirmovementsareinslowmotion,andthen,insilence,theymaycoverthedeadwithleavesandbranches.
Afterburyingthebodyinbrushanddirt,familymembersmaystaysilentlywithitforoveraday;orifabodyisfoundunattendedbyelephantsnotrelatedtoit,theymaypauseandstandbyforsometime.Theydothiswithanydeadelephant,recentlydeceasedorlongdepartedwithonlytheskeletonremaining.Itisprobablythesinglestrangestthingaboutthem,
CynthiaMosswrites:
Evenbare,bleachedoldelephantboneswillstopagroupiftheyhave
not seenthem before.It isso predictablethatfilmmakershave been
able to get shots of elephants inspecting skeletons by bringing the
bonesfromoneplaceandputtingtheminanewspotnearanelephant
pathwayorawaterhole.Inevitablythelivingelephantswillfeeland
movethebonesaround,sometimespickingthemupandcarryingthem
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awayforquitesomedistancebeforedroppingthem.Itisahaunting
andtouchingsightandIhavenoideawhytheydoit.
Understandably,formanyyearsitwasrumoredthatelephantshaddesignat-edgraveyards.Thishasprovedessentiallyuntrue,althoughtheirskeletonsoftendocollectinthesameplace,suchasnearawaterhole,wheretheailingandelderlytendtostaytowardstheendoftheirlivesandasMossnotes,sometimesdogetmovedaround.Themotherofadeadbabymaydrapeitoverhertusksandcarryitwithherfordays,ifsheisnotstandingvigil.
Elephantsevenreacttocarvedivory,longdivorcedfromtheoriginal
remains and altered and handled extensively. Poole writes of a woman
Eerie and deeply moving: Temporal glands streaming with heightened emotion,elephants stroke and lay brush on a dead friend.
iStockphoto
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who came to visit Tsavo National Park wearing ivory bracelets: as an
elephantapproached,theparkwardencautionedhertohidethembehindherback;butwhentheelephantarrived,shereachedaroundbehindthewomanandcontemplativelyperusedthebraceletswithhertrunk.Poolethenhadafriendstagearepeatperformancelater,andthesamethinghappened.Conversely,elephantshavealsobeenobservedtobecomequietandpensiveinanareawhererelativesdied,evenyearsago,althoughtheboneshavelongbeenremoved.
Whileelephantsareunfailinglyinterestedintheremainsoftheirownkindinwhateverform,theyhaveoccasionallybeenknowntoburydeadrhinos, lions, and humans aswell. In some cases, the people wereonlysleeping,andawoketofindthemselvestrappedunderenormousheapsoffoliage.Othertimes,theyhavebeeninjuredorparalyzedwithfearbyafuriouselephantinerampage,whichcametoanabruptendwhentheele-phantperceivedthemlyingstillontheground,andswitchedinaninstantfromferociousself-defensetosolemnlyperformingitsritesforthedead.
The Half-Reasoning Animal
Creatures, I give you yourselves, said the strong, happy voice of Aslan.I give to you forever this land of Narnia. I give you the woods, thefruits, the rivers. I give you the stars and I give you myself. The DumbBeasts whom I have not chosen are yours also. Treat them gently andcherish them but do not go back to their ways lest you cease to be TalkingBeasts. For out of them you were taken and into them you can return.
C. S.Lewis,The Magicians Nephew
Forthosewhofindthistypeofevidencesentimentalized,dubiouslyinter-pretable,orotherwiseunsatisfactory,therearevariousnicesolidmeasure-
mentsthatprovideusefulbutcrudeindicatorsofelephantsrelativeintel-ligence.Atbirth,anelephantbrainisaboutathirditsadultsize.Ahumanbrainatbirthisaquarteritsadultsize,whereasforchimpsit ishalfandformostmammalsthefigureismorelike90percent.Agreaterspanofgrowthoutsidethewomblikethisaccompaniesamoreimportantrolethatnurtureandlearnedskillsplayintheanimalsmaturationasinfantstheyaremorehelplessanddependentthananaveragemammal,butasadultstherewillbemuchmorethattheycando.Theelephantbrainisalsonotableforitshighlevelofspindleneurons(associatedwithsociability),verylarge
temporallobesandhippocampus(theprimaryseatofmemoryprocessing),andconvolutedneocortex(linkedtogeneralcognitivecomplexity,commontootherintelligentspeciessuchasdolphinsandhigher-orderprimates).
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Elephant Society
Among the ElephantsByIainandOriaDouglas-Hamilton~Viking~1975~283pp.
Elephant Memories: Thirteen Years in the Life of an Elephant FamilyByCynthiaMoss~Chicago~orig.1988~364pp.~$22.50(paper)
Coming of Age with Elephants: A MemoirByJoycePoole~Hyperion~1996~304pp.
Elephant Biology
Elephants: Majestic Creatures of the WildByJeheskelShoshani~Rodale~1992~240pp.
The Flexible Giant: Seeing the Elephant WholeByCraigHoldrege~NatureInstitute~2003~65pp.~$12(paper)
The Amboseli ElephantsByCynthiaJ.Moss,HarveyCroze,andPhyllisC.Lee(eds.)
Chicago~2011~383pp.~$65(cloth)
Elephant Language
Silent Thunder: In the Presence of ElephantsByKatyPayne~Penguin~orig.1998~288pp.~$19(paper)
The Elephants Secret Sense: The Hidden Life of the Wild Herds of Africa
ByCaitlinOConnell~Chicago~orig.2007~264pp.~$15(paper)
Elephant Talk: The Surprising Science of Elephant CommunicationByAnnDowner~TwentyFirstCentury~2011~112pp.~$33.26(cloth)
Elephant History
The Life and Lore of the ElephantByRobertDelort(trans.I.MarkParis)~Abrams~1990~192pp.
The African Elephant: Twilight in EdenByRogerL.DiSilvestro~Wiley~1991~206pp.
The Asian Elephant: A Natural History
ByJ. C.Daniel~Natraj~orig.1998~306pp.~$31.50(cloth)
Elephas Maximus: A Portrait of the Indian ElephantByStephenAlter~HoughtonMifflin~2004~336pp.
ElephantByDanWylie~Reaktion~2008~224pp.~$19.95(paper)
Elephants in Captivity
Love, War, and Circuses: The Age-Old Relationship Between Elephants and HumansByEricScigliano~HoughtonMifflin~2002~368pp.
Elephants and Ethics: Toward a Morality of Coexistence
ByChristenWemmerandCatherineA.Christen(eds.)~JohnsHopkins~2008~483pp.
Entertaining Elephants: Animal Agency and the Business of the American CircusBySusanNance~JohnsHopkins~2013~294pp.~$55(hardcover)
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Elephants in Danger
The Fate of the ElephantByDouglasChadwick~SierraClub~1992~492pp.
Elephant Destiny: Biography of an Endangered Species in AfricaByMartinMeredith~PublicAffairs~orig.2001~256pp.~$14.95(paper)
Elephants on the Edge: What Animals Teach Us About HumanityByG. A.Bradshaw~Yale~2009~352pp.~$28(cloth)
Ivorys Ghosts: The White Gold of History and the Fate of ElephantsByJohnFrederickWalker~AtlanticMonthly~2009~304pp.~$25(cloth)
Elephant Rescue
Battle for the ElephantsByIainandOriaDouglas-Hamilton~Viking~1992~386pp.
ByMarkandDeliaOwens:The Eye of the Elephant: An Epic Adventure in the African Wilderness
Mariner~orig.1992~306pp.~$18.95(paper)
Secrets of the Savanna: Twenty-three Years in theAfrican Wilderness Unraveling the Mysteries of Elephants and People
Mariner~orig.2006~272pp.~$14.95(paper)
The Elephant Whisperer: My Life with the Herd in the African WildByLawrenceAnthonyandGrahamSpence
St.MartinsGriffin~orig.2009~384pp.~$16.99(paper)Love, Life, and Elephants: An African Love Story
ByDaphneSheldrick~FSG~2012~352pp.~$27(cloth)
Elephant Photography
The Art of Being an ElephantByChristineandMichelDenis-Huot~Whitestar~2003~220pp.
ElephantBySteveBloom~Chronicle~2006~224pp.
Walking Thunder: In the Footsteps of the African Elephant
ByCyrilChristoandMarieWilkinson~Merrell~2009~160pp.~$60(cloth)Elephant Reflections
ByDalePetersonandKarlAmann~California~2009~288pp.~$39.95(cloth)
Elephant Documentaries
Echo and Other Elephants~BBC~2008~362min.~$29.98(DVD)Reflections on Elephants~NationalGeographic~2010~55min.~$19.95(DVD)Battle for the Elephants ~ NationalGeographic~2013~50min.~$24.95(DVD)
Elephant Organizations
ElephantVoices:elephantvoices.org
TheElephantSanctuary:elephants.comSavetheElephants:savetheelephants.org
TheDavidSheldrickWildlifeTrust:sheldrickwildlifetrust.orgTheElephantListeningProject:birds.cornell.edu/brp/elephant
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Butwhenyouaskwhatthesethingsmeanas lived,astranslatedinto
capabilitiesandactions,youfindyourselfbackinthemushyterritoryofobservingquasi-mythicalorvery-human-seemingbehaviorandtryingtoanalyzeitssignificancefromtheoutside.Andinthecategoryofthingsyoumightbepronetoromanticize,attheverytopthereisafacultythatalsotopsthe listof featuressupposedto distinguishmanfromanimalandthatcould,ifproperlydeciphered,unlocktherestofelephantexperienceforusinawaynothingelsewill.TheRomansfanciedthattheelephantshadreason,andunderstoodthelanguageofmen,thoughtheycouldnotanswerthem,thenineteenth-centuryhistorianJohnRankingobserved.
TheRomanswerenotalone.WhatelephantsmaybelackingmostofallisnotlanguagebuttheRosettaStonetoprovetheyhaveitandclueusintowhatonGodsgreenearththeyretalkingaboutallthetime.
Animalcommunicationisatrickysubject.Evencomparativelylowlycrittershavemind-bogglingwaysofsignalinginformationtoeachother.Bees,toconveytootherbeesthelocationofhomeorfoodorsomeotherdesireddestination,performabeewaggledancethatsimulatesthedirec-tionsinscaled-downformandtherearedifferentdialectsforthischore-ographyaspracticedbythesamespeciesindifferentregionsoftheworld.
Amotherbatreturningtothecavewithfoodforherlittleonecansome-howinstantlypickouthisspecificcheepingfromthethousandsofothershuddledonthewall.Thereisevenjustthedetailedsocialprofileofalltheneighbordogsyourpetchecksoutfromsniffinghydrantsonhiswalk.
However,thissortofthingdoesnotnecessarilyrisetothelevelcon-sideredworthyofthelabellanguagethoughdeterminingwherethatlevelshouldbeishardtosay.Eventakingintoaccounttheimpressivenessofalltheseformsofinterchange,andthefactthatthereismuchaboutthemyettobediscoveredandexplained,weriskdefiningthetermoutof
itsusefulmeaningifwestretchittoencompasssomuchthathuman(orhumanlike)powersofcomplexabstractdiscourseceasetoberecognizablyextraordinary.
Sincetimeimmemorial[speech]hasbeencorrectlyacknowledgedtobemansmostoutstandingtrait,Jonaswrote(thoughnotaddressingitinhisownessay).ThereisanintricatephilosophicallinkatleastintheWesterntraditionbetweenlanguageandbeliefsandchoices,andthusmoralreason-ingandself-determination.(Cultureswithahighergeneralestimationofanimalsthanoursmaynotpreciselysharethisview,ormayjustacceptthat
animalshavelanguagethatisobscuretopeople.Itisinterestingtoconsiderhowtheeverydayproximitytodifferentkindsofcreaturesmayhaveaffectedthedevelopmentofthesebeliefs.Thatis,elephants,higher-orderprimates,
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andthelikearenotnativetotheWest,andthusourbasiccommonsense
ofwhatanimalscanthinkordocalibratesatthelevelof,say,horsesanddogsnottomaligntheintelligenceofhorsesanddogs,whichwetendtounderappreciateanyway.ButinAsiaandAfrica,wheretheresbeenmuchmorenaturalinteractionbetweenpeopleandverysmartanimalsandnotasnoveltiesbutasmembersofothercommunitiesmostculturesseemtotakeamoreexpansiveviewofanimalpotential.)
For a careful analysis of the language question from the Westernphilosophicalperspective,theinterestedreadermayturntovirtueethi-cistAlasdairMacIntyresDependent Rational Animals(1999),whichwalks
through the discussion on this point while focusing especially on theexampleof dolphins.Remindingusthatmuchthatisintelligentanimalin us is not specifically human, MacIntyre goes to battle with someresidual Cartesian silliness, and takes care (as many philosophers havenot)tolocateanimalsonaspectrumofhigherandlesserintelligenceadog,forinstance,mayhavemoreincommonwithapersonthanwithacrabinmostsignificantrespectsdrawingoutthe implicationsateachstagetillhearrivesatconsciousaction.
Amoredistilled,whimsicalpresentationappearsinC. S.Lewissalle-
gorical world of Narnia, with the contrast between ordinary creaturesandtheTalkingBeasts.Theiranimalnaturesgivethemcertaininnatequalitiessteadfastnessinabear,valorinahorsebuttheirspeechgivesthemcontrolovertheiranimalinstinctsbythepowersofthoughtandself-directionitendows.Theyarethemoralequalsofhumancharactersbecauseofthis,andanyonewhotreatsthemasequivalenttoordinaryanimalsinsteadissuretobesuspectinotherways.
LateintheNarniaseriesthereisamontageofcreation,showinghowAslan,theChristfigure,firstdrewthemoutfromamongordinaryani-
malsandcalledthemintobeing.Theysing:Wehearandobey.Weareawake.Welove.Wethink.Wespeak.Weknowallthingsthatwouldbeimpossiblewithouttheirnewawareness.
AndAslan,instructingthem,saysfirstandforemostthathegives themthemselves.Inonesense,thepowertoriseaboveyourinstinctisthepowertobeotherthanyouare,tonotbeyournaturalself.Butinadeepersense,itisthepowertobewhoyou mostare,totakeresponsibilityforwhatyouthinkanddoandtoguideyourselftowardsthebetter(ornot).
Canelephantsdothat?
Weknowtheyundergoextensiveeducation:babiesfromtheirwholedotingfamilies,newlyfertilecowsguidedbythemoreexperienced,
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latelyindependentbullstaggingalongaftertheirmoremagisterialsupe-
riors.Insituationswheretheseteachingopportunitiesareabsentbabiesorphaned orseparated, cowsgiving birth alone inzoos, teenagemalesrunningrampant inplaceswhereall the olderbulls have beenshot fortheirtuskstheirnecessityisobvious.Asgoodaguideasinborninstinctisinsomanyrespects,thisisoneanimalforwhichsociety,too,makesallthedifferenceintheworld.
While much of what it means to be a better elephant is conveyedbyexamplealongwithear flaps,trunkmovements,smellsignals,andotherformsof bodylanguageelephantsvocalizeprodigiouslyaswell,
engaginginelaboratediscussionsaspartofeveryactivity.Theyhaveavocalrangeoftenoctaves(apianohasseven),anduptothree-quartersofthesoundstheyproduceareinaudibletohumanears.TheirinfrasoniccallshavebeenstudiedextensivelybyKatyPayne,awhale-callspecialistwhoin1984foundherselfatthePortlandZooobservingelephantscom-municatingsilentlythroughconcretewalls.Thethrobbingorshud-deringintheairremindedherofabasslineonanorganthatdescendedpast the point of hearing. In subsequent months at the zoo and yearsinthefield,sherecordedanddecipheredmanyoftheselowfrequencies
withthehelpofspectrogramanalysisandJoycePoole,whohadalreadylearnedtorecognizedozensoftherumbles,hoots,trumpets,andwhistlesthat are audible: lets go, Im lost, different referents to family andnonfamilymembers,andmore.(Conversely,likeothertrainableanimals,captiveelephantshaveaminimalfamiliaritywithhumanlanguages,rec-ognizingmanywordsspokenbytheircaretakers.Recently,anelephantnamedKoshikataSouthKoreanzooeventookituponhimselftolearntoarticulatehumanspeechsounds:bystickinghistrunkinhismouth,hecanconformittosayhello,no,sit down,lie down,andgoodinKorean.In
1983,therewerereportsofanelephantinKazakhstannamedBatyrwhocouldsayBatyrisgoodinRussianandtwentyotherphrases,buttheywerenotfolloweduponscientifically.)Thework,tantalizingbutinearlystagesyet,continuesattheElephantListeningProject.
Meanwhile, Caitlin OConnell-Rodwell, originally an insect biolo-gist, got involved when the Namibian government hired her to attacktheperennialproblemofkeepingelephantsfromraidingcrops.Fences,ditches,sirens,andborderrowsofchilipeppershadallfailedtoprotectlocalfarmerslivelihoodsorwereimpracticabletomaintain.OConnell-
Rodwellssolutionwastoisolateaparticularelephantalarmcalloutofarecordingoflayeredvocalizationsandrigituptoplaybackwhentheycametooclose.Thereactionwasastonishing:withnoneofthecustomary
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deliberationorsignalingfromaleader,theyinstantlyflappedouttheirearsandwhooshedaway.
Herlargerfinding,however,recountedinher2007bookThe ElephantsSecret Sense,wastoprovethattheycommunicatenotonlyinfrasonicallybut seismicallythrough waves in theground. This radicallyexpandedtheirknownrangeof contact,indicatingthattheycankeeptabsonwhoiswhereandwhatisgoingonbyfootfallsmanymilesaway.
Elephantfeetarepaddedwithakindoffat,similartothat foundinaquaticmammals,thatisidealforacoustictransmission.(Infact,itwas
onceusedforcandleoil,justlikewhaleblubber.)Seismicwavestravelingthroughthegroundarepickedupbythepaddingandtransmittedupthefootandlegbonestothehead,wheresmallerpocketsofthesamefatcon-necttotheauditorysystem.
(Because of this enhanced pedestrian sensitivity, the feet are alsoespecially susceptible to distresssometimes, as MarkShand writes inhis1999bookTravels on My Elephant,whenanelephantgoesrogue,itisbecauseastickthatitwasusingtocleanbetweenitstoeshassplinteredoff and lodged in out of reach. And severe elephant foot problems are
depressinglycommoninzoosandothercaptivesituations,wheretheani-malsmuststandonconcretesomuchofthetimeinsteadofwalkinglongdistancesoversoftdirtandvegetation.)
iStockphoto
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OConnell-Rodwellsdiscoverymadeimmediatesenseofanynumberof
strangeelephantphenomena:theirhabitofsynchronizedfreezing,fallingstilltogether tolistenon tiptoe toanincoming signal; theirdisturbedbehaviorjustbeforeamajorseismiceventsuchasanearthquakeortsunami;thewaythatbulls,whodontcasuallyintrudeonmatriarchalgroups,wouldseemtoknowfromfarawayexactlywhenacowwasgoingintoestrusandheadstraightforher.LongbeforePayneandOConnell-Rodwellswork,when early ethologists were just getting the lay of the land and usingradiotracking tomonitorelephant movements, they werebaffled by theelephantsabilitytoseeminglycoordinateacrosslongdistancesandchangecoursenear-simultaneously,regardlessofwinddirection(andthusscent)oranyotherexplanationtheycouldthinkof.WedidntmentionESPopenly,saidIainDouglas-Hamilton,butsomeofuswerereadytoentertaintheideathattheseanimalsweresendingbloodymindwavestoeachother.
With hard work and careful observation, a better explanation waseventuallyforthcoming,astheremayonedaybeforotherelephant-relat-edphenomenathatseemalittlespooky.Manypeople,forinstance,reporta kind of sixth sense about when an elephant is in the area, one theycannot actually perceive inany identifiable way but seem almost nevertobewrongabout.Pooledescribesitasavibrancyintheair,acertainwarmth,orbycontrastastillness,anemptinessinthelandscapewhenelephantsareabsent.Conceivably,thiselephantradarmaybeproducedbythetalkingtremors,feltviscerallyratherthanaudiblybutlessobvi-ouslyexplicableisPoolessimilarsenseofwhethersheisabouttofindacarcasswithivoryattached.
LyallWatsonsfascinating2002bookElephantomsislargelydevotedtoexploringthissortofnot-intrinsically-unreasonableeventthatverges
on the uncanny. One of his more straightforward stories concerns anincidentwitnessedbyarangerinAddoPark,SouthAfrica,hometoalineofelephantswithspecialhistoricalreasonstodistrusthumanbeings.Anefforttorepairafencehadresultedinamotherandbabybeingstrandedonoppositesidesofit.Becomingveryagitatedastheworkersapproached,therangersaid,thecowstopped,puthertrunkthroughthecablestocalmthecalf andseemedtobethinkingabouthernextmove.He saidhecouldnotprovewhathappenednext,nordidtheotherrangersbelievehim,butthisiswhathesaw:
Shetalkedtothatkid.Shetoldhimexactlywhattodo,andwithout
anyfurther fuss,he did.He turnedout awayfromher and the fence
andwentintothedeep shadeof atreetwentyyards away,wherehe
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stoodmotionless,becomingvirtuallyinvisible.Iknewexactlywhere
hewas,butcouldhardlyfindhimagainwhenIlookedaway.Isawherrushdowntothegapandoutontotheroad,andasthetruckappeared,
sheraisedahugecloudofdust,stampingandblowing,makingshortchargesatthevehicle,frighteningthecrewsufficientlytogetthemto
backoffandgoaway. . . . Andwhenthenoiseandconfusionwasatits
height,thecalfincamouflagemadehismove.Hesidledovertothefence, slipped quietly through the gap, and wentover towait inthe
coverofthesucculentforest.I was certain then that the cows entire performance hadbeen a
brilliantdiversion,beautifullyexecuted,forassoonasshewassurehe
hadmadegoodhisescape,sheignoredthetruckanditsoccupantsandturnedherback,sashayinginsatisfactionbacktojoinhercalfinthe
safetyofthepark.
Evidently it is not uncommon for those who spend their time outmonitoringoratleastminglingwithwildlifetowitnessoccurrencesthatgobeyondconventionalassumptionsaboutwhatanimalscanknowordo.WhenelephantwhispererLawrenceAnthonydiedin2012,thetwoherdsoftraumatizedrogueelephantshehadsavedandresocializedcrossedthe
vastSouthAfricangamereservewheretheylived,apparentlytopaytheirlastrespects.Theelephantshadnotbeenanywherenearthehouseforayearandahalfprior,Anthonyssonreported,andthetrekacrosstheparkcouldtakeaday,butwithinhoursofhisdeaththeyallshowedup.
Payne writes of a conversation she had with a senior scout fromNtaba Mangwe park in which she asked him how he speaks of eventsthatseemtobeoutsidenormalexperience.YOU JUST TELL WHATHAPPENED,hesurprisedherwithashoutandburningstare.YOUJUST TELL WHAT YOU SAW!
Youmustsimplytellwhathappened,herepeatedquietlyasshesatthereinshock.OnlyGodknowswhatitmeans.
Unpacking this remarkable exchange yields several items of note.First,thereisthedynamicpresenceoftheunknownindailylife.Second,thereisthequestionofwhattodoaboutit.Becauseitisunknowndoesnotmeanthatitisnecessarilyunknowablenorthatitisnt.Thechoicetotellaboutitrepresentsahopefuleffortthatitmightbeunderstood,though not a presumptive one: there is no undue effort to explain, toimposesomekindoftheoryonit,butanopennesstowhateveritmight
reveal. But finally, on the optimistic side of understanding, there is areminderoftheawesomesignificanceoflanguageintheurgingto tellwhat happened.Whatcouldbemorecrucialinthesearchfortruththan
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thisabilitytotranslateindividualexperienceintocommoncomprehensi-
bility?Youjusttellwhathappened,andsomeoneelsewillhearit.ThewebsiteLettersOfNote.comisawonderful,weirdarchiveofreal
epistles between all kinds of people in all times and places. A strikingproportion of them, however, seem to be letters from former slaves totheirerstwhilemasterssomeforgivingandgenerous,somerighteouslysly,afewburningwithrevenge,allatvaryingdegreesofwrittenliteracy,butuniformlypowerfulforthisreason:theysay, I have a mind. I have anindependent soul that never once belonged to you although my labor and all the
circumstances of my life unjustly did. You found it convenient to believe that I
was not a thinking, feeling person just like you no doubt supported by elaborate
rationalizations from the whole world around us which ought to have known
better but you cannot deny this anymore, because here I am, free and awake. I
love. I think. I speak. I know.
Itmustbeemphasizedthatthedirectcomparisonhereisnotfromtheharmandinjusticeofanimalcaptivitytothoseofhumanslavery,butintheabilitytocommandtheattentionofsomeoneinpowerwhodoesnotwanttoacknowledgethematall.Totheextentthatelephantsandotheranimalshavethoughtsandmemoriesandfeelingsandexperiencesthattheyarecapableofexpressingintheirowntongue,whatadisadvantageitistothemthatwehavenotcrackedthatcode.Ourfailuretounder-standthemmeansthatthereisnowaywecantrulyassessthelimitsoftheirabilitiesorsayforsurewhattheyarenotsaying,andmakesiteasytoignoretheirvalidityforanyonewithreasonto.Noanimalisgoingtocomeforwardwithawrittenmissiveinahumanlycomprehensiblelan-guagedetailingwrongsorsimplyprovinginourowntermsthescopeofitsexistencethat,atleast,isanabilitythatisdistinctlyours.Butifthey
could,theywouldhavealottotell.
Of Love and Liberty
When I saw this place, I told her that thered be no more chains. Shesfree now. And I just thought about, I dont know who was the first toput a chain on her, but Im glad to know that I was the last to take itoff. Shes free at last. Ill miss you, Shirley. My big girl.
SolomonJames,longtimecaretakerofazooelephant,onher
admissiontotheElephantSanctuaryafterforty-sixyears
incaptivity,givingherabathforthelasttime
Ironically,ithasbeentheelephantsmisfortunethatpeoplefinditwonder-ful.Anuglier,moreboring,orlessgraciousanimalmighthavebeenleft
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morealonetoliveoutitslifeinpeaceandfreedom,althoughcompetition
forhabitatwouldhaveeventuallybecomeaproblemanyway.Butbecausetheelephantissointriguing,ithasbeendragoonedintoanynumberofunhappycircumstances,outofasometimesinnocent,sometimeslesssohumanwishtopenetrateorpossessitsmystery.
MyfirstdirectencounterwithanelephanttooktheformofatrunktipmaterializinginmylapasIsatinacoveredmotorrickshawindown-town Pune, Maharashtra. What do you do with the sudden apparitionof awrithing,disembodiednose?Apparentlyyouplaceacoininside it.Thiscoinisrelayedtothecollectionofthenosesownersridersittingup
topandsteeringhischargethroughthechaosofIndiantraffic,wherehegetstomakeyourdaybygracingitwithanelephantandyougettogivehimmoney.Imetanotherelephantafewweekslater,standingoutsideatempledispensingblessingsinexchangeforacoinforthehandlerand,ifyoufeltlikeit,abananafortheelephant,whichwouldbeeatenpeelandall.Then,foronemagicalmoment,thetrunkwaslaidacrossthecrownofyourheadinbenediction.Istoodinlinewithcoinsandbananasgettingblessingsallafternoon.
Thesewereboth thrilling experiences, but looking back,thoseele-
phantswereconscriptedintounhealthy,lonelylivespreciselybecauseofthe monetarypotential intourists likeme.Inthesameveinbutworse,luxuryresortsinThailandkeepbabyelephantsonhandtoentertainanddelight visitors. Where and how these babies are obtainedand whatbecomesofthemwhentheyaremorethanayearortwooldandnolongerusefulforthepurposeisadismalthingtocontemplate;andinanycase,noelephantthatyoungiswelloffseparatedfromitsmotherandfamily,nomatterhowlavishtheaccommodations.
TrainedelephantsinAsiahaveacelebratedbutdisintegratinghistory.
Numerous Sanskrit texts on elephantology reveal tremendous respectfor the power and dignity of elephants and the care that was taken tounderstandandtreatthemhumanely.Amahout,theelephantskeeper/trainer/companion,wouldideallystaywiththesameanimalforlife,almostasifinmarriage(thoughtheotherkindofmarriagefitintothepicturesomewhere,asthiswasatradeoftenpassedonfromfathertoson).
Withglobalization,mahoutcultureisgoingthewayofotheroldtra-ditions.Itislessofafamilybusiness,thetrainingismoreslapdash,andmanyofthemenwhowouldmakethemostaffectionateanddedicated
elephantcompanionsfind,understandably,thattheyhavebetteropportu-nitieselsewhere.AsStephenAlterwritesinElephas Maximus: A Portraitof the Indian Elephant(2004),thisleavesthekindofmenwhohavefew
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otheroptions,butwhoforthesameunderlyingreasonsmaynotbeagood
fitwithelephantsatall.Theresultisneglect,misunderstanding,conflictandabuse,andbitterfrustrationonbothsides,feedingonitselfformoreofthesame.Butthedemandforserviceandshowelephantsisonlygoingup,andsomeonehastotakecareofthem.
Meanwhile,therestoftheworldnaturallywantsinontheelephantactionwhowouldnt?andsocamethediaspora.
As early as the ninth century, with a present from Caliph Harunal-Rashid to Charlemagne, elephants were offered as special gifts toEuropeanroyaltyandmarchedfromcourttocourtuntiltheydiedofcold
andloneliness.AfewsuchstorieshavebeenfictionalizedNobellaureateJos Saramagos The Elephants Journey (2008, translated 2010); young-adultfantasyauthorJudithTarrsHis Majestys Elephant(1993);andBBCWorldServiceproducerChristopherNicholsonsbleaklyenchantingfirstnovelThe Elephant Keeper(2009).Setineighteenth-centuryEngland,itbeginswiththepurchasebyarespectedgentlemanoftwohalf-deadbabyelephants from a merchant ship just returned from the East Indies. Astableboy,Tom,takesashinetothem,ismaderesponsiblefortheircare,andbecomesinseparablefromoneofthemforever.(Theotherisresold
andeventuallykilled.)Tomsattachmenttothiselephant,Jenny,openshiseyestothequag-
mireofhumanmotivationthatgivesrisetotheunjustworldtheylivein.Likemanyotherstories,thepresenceofananimalasakeycharacteroffersacompellingstand-inforthosemembersofsocietywhodonthavepowerandmetaphoricallycantspeakforthemselves.*Sometimes,theybecometalesof asympathetichumanfindinghisownvoicetorepresentthosewholiterallycannot.
Tom,however,isnotsimplyaherooravictim.HisdevotiontoJenny
alsoleadshimtobetrayhissweetheart,abandonhisfamily,ignoregraveevil, and descend into a sordid London underworld whose misery heactivelycontributesto.Ineverychoiceth