Do elephants have soul?

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10 ~ The New Atlantis

Copyright 2013. All rights reserved. See www.TheNewAtlantis.com for more information.

There is mystery behind that masked gray visage, an ancient life force,delicate and mighty, awesome and enchanted, commanding the silenceordinarily reserved for mountain peaks, great fires, and the sea.

PeterMatthiessen, The Tree Where Man Was Born

Thebirthofanelephantisaspectacularoccasion.Grandmothers,aunts,sisters,andcousinscrowdaroundthenewarrivalanditsdazedmother,trumpetingandstampingandwavingtheirtrunkstowelcomethefloppybabywhohassorecentlyarrivedfromoutofthevoid,burstingthroughthe border of existencetotake its placeinan unbrokenlinestretchingbacktothedawnoflife.

Afteralmosttwoyears inthewombandafewminutestostretchitslegs,thecalfcanbegintostumblearound.Butitstrunk,anevolutionarilyuniqueinheritanceofupto150,000muscleswiththedexteritytopickupapinandthestrengthtouprootatree,willbeamysterytoitatfirst,withlittleapparentuseexcepttosometimessuckuponlikehumanbabiesdotheirthumbs.Overtime,withpracticeandguidance,itwillfindthepoten-tialinthisappendageflailingoffitsfacetobreathe,drink,caress,thwack,probe,lift,haul,wrap,spray,sense,blast,stroke,smell,nudge,collect,bathe,toot,wave,andperformcountlessotherfunctionsthatapersonwouldrelyonacombinationofeyes,nose,hands,andstrongmachinerytodo.

Oncethecalfisweanedfromitsmothersmilkatfiveorwheneveritsnextsiblingisborn,itwillspendupto16hoursadayeating5percentofitsentireweightinleaves,grass,brush,bark,andbasicallyanyotherkindofvegetation.Itwillonlyprocessabout40percentofthenutrientsinthisfood,however;thewasteitleavesbehindhelpsfertilizeplantgrowthandprovideaccessiblenutritiononthegroundtosmalleranimals,thus

Do Elephants Have Souls?Caitrin Nicol

Caitrin Nicolis managing editor ofTheNewAtlantis.
http://www.thenewatlantis.com/http://www.thenewatlantis.com/http://www.thenewatlantis.com/


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Winter/Spring 2013 ~ 11

Do Elephants Have Souls?


makingtheelephantakeystonespeciesinitshabitat.From250pounds

atbirth,itwillcontinuetogrowthroughoutitslife,toupto7tonsforamaleofthelargestspeciesor4tonsforafemale.

Ofthemanytypesofelephantsandmammothsthatusedtoroamtheearth,oneborntodaywillbelongtooneofthreesurvivingspecies:ElephasmaximusinAsia,Loxodonta africana(savannaelephant)orLoxodonta cyclotis(forestelephant)inAfrica.Thereareabout500,000Africanelephantsalivenow(aboutathirdofthemthemorereticent,lessstudiedL.cyclotis),andonly 40,00050,000 Asian elephants remaining. The Swedish ElephantEncyclopedia database currently lists just under 5,000 (most of them

E. maximus) living in captivity worldwide, in half as many locationsmeaningthattheaveragenumberofelephantsperholdingislessthantwo;manyofthemlivewithoutasinglecompanionoftheirkind.

Forthefreeborn,ifitisacow,theallomotherswhowelcomedherintotheworldwillbewithherforlifeamatriarchalclanledbytheold-estandbiggest.Sheinturnwillbeanenthusiasticcaretakerandplaymatetoheryoungercousinsandsiblings.Whensheistwelveorfourteen,shewillgointoheat(estrus)forthefirsttime,abewilderingoccurrencedur-ingwhichhermotherwillstandbyandshowherwhattodoandwhich

maletoaccept.Ifsheconceives,shewillhaveacalftwenty-twomonths

Right:Elep

hantNatureParkbyChristianHaugen,flickr/christianhaugen(CCBY2.0).Oppositeleft:BigearsbyEmman

uelKeller,flickr/tambako;alteredwithpermission(CCBY-ND2.0).Previous:Shutterstock

Welcome to the world: This newborn hasnt yet stood up and stretched its legs,let alone figured out how to use its trunk.
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Caitrin Nicol


later,cruciallyaidedinbirthingandraisingitbythemoreexperienced

olderladies.Shemayhaveanothereveryfourtofiveyearsintoherfiftiesorsixties,butnotallwillsurvive.

Ifitisabull,hewillstaywithhisfamilyuntiltheageoftenortwelve,whenhisincreasinglyroughandsuggestiveplaywillcausehimtobesentoff.Hemaylooselyjoinforceswithafewotheryoungmales,ortrailaroundafterolderoneshelooksupto,butforthemostparthewillbeindependentfromthenon.Withinthenextfewyearshewillstartgoingintomusth,aperiodicstateofexcitationcharacterizedbysurginglevelsoftestoster-one,dribblingurineandcopioussecretionsfromhistemporalglands,andextremeaggressionresponsiveonlytothepresenceofabiggerbull,whohasanimmediatedominancethattheyoungmalerisksinjuryordeathbyfailingtodeferto.Althoughhereachessexualmaturityatafairlyyoungage,thankstothecompetitionhemaynotsireanychildrenuntilheisclosetothirty.(AncientIndianpoetrylaudsbullsinmusthfortheiramorouspowers,evenaskeepersofAsianelephantshaverespectedthephaseasonehighlydanger-oustohumanssincetimeimmemorial.Until1976,itwaswidelybelievedinthescientificcommunitythatAfricanelephantsdonotentermusth.This

changedwhenresearchersatAmboseliNationalParkinKenyaweredis-mayedtonoteanepidemicof GreenPenisSyndrome,whichtheyfearedsignaledsomehorriblevenerealdiseaseuntiltheyrealizeditwasnothingmorenorlessalarmingthantheverydefinitionofaforceofnature.)

Otherthanthisprimaltemporarymadness,elephants(whentheydonotfeelthreatened)arequitepeaceable,witha gentle,loyal,highlysocialnature.HereishowJohnDonne,havingseenoneataLondonexpo-sitionin1612,putit:

Naturesgreatmaster-peece,anElephant,

Theonelyharmlessegreatthing;thegiant

Ofbeasts;whothought,nomorehadgone,tomakeonewise

Buttobejust,andthankfull,lothtooffend,

(Yetnaturehathgivenhimnokneestobend)

Himselfeheup-props,onhimselferelies,

Andfoetonone,suspectsnoenemies.

Donneisnotthefirstorthelasttoviewtheelephantinitsstatureand

dignityas asynecdocheforthetotalgrandeurof the universe,cometoearthinlumpengreyform.Herehesuggeststhatitrepresentsamoralidealaswell.Animalsareoftencelebratedforvirtuesthattheyseemto


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embody:dogsforloyalty,bearsforcourage,dolphinsforaltruism,andso

on.Butwhatdoesitreallymeanforthemtomodelthesethings?Whenpeople act virtuously, we give them credit for well-chosen behavior.Animals,itispresumed,dosowithoutchoosing.

From a religious, anthropocentric perspective, it might be said thatwhileanimalvirtuesdonotentailmoralityfortheanimalsthemselves,theyrevealtousthegoodnessincreation;asthemedievaltheologianJohannesScotusEriugenawrote,InawonderfulandinexpressiblewayGodiscre-atedinHiscreatures.Fromamorebiologicalview,itmightbenotedthatpeoplemostlydonotchoosetheirdispositionseither,thatbehavioralten-

denciesaremoredeterminedthanweliketotellourselves,andthatblameandcreditforsuchthingsareoftenmisappliedinhumancontextstoo.

Butthelatterideathathumans,althoughcapableofconsciousself-direction,areasmutelycarriedalongbytheforceofselectionasyourfriendly neighborhood amoebasimply elides the question, while theformerraisesmanymore;thetigerisasmuchGodscreatureasthelamb.Inanycase,thecapacityforchoosingisabinaryconceitthatgesturesatsomethingmuchfuller,aninnerrealmofawareness,selfhood,andpos-sibility.Inotherwords,asoul.

To the ancients, soul was anima, that which animates, the living-,moving-,breathing-nessofabiologicalbeing.Inthissense,notonlyani-malsbutplantshavesouls(ofdifferentcapacitiesappropriatetowhattheyare).Formanyreligions,bycontrast,thesoulisspecificallyincorporeal,perhapsimmortal,andbelievedtobeuniquetohumanbeings,whoareresponsible(toapoint)foritscondition.Tomodernscienceitis,ifany-thing,thehardproblemofconsciousness,alsocommonlythoughttobetheprovinceofjustonespecies.

Withouteitherchoosingsidesorsomehowreconcilingthesethreeduel-

ingrealitieswitheachother,itwouldbeimpossibletosaywhatasoul is,letalonewhohasone.Butthereisafourthsenseinwhichwhenwetalkaboutit,weallmeanmoreorlessthesamething:whatitmeansforsomeonetobareit,formusictohaveit,foreyestobethewindowtoit,forittobeupliftedordepraved.Evenif,religiously,weknowbyrevelationthatotherpeoplepossessthemforeternity,weonlyengagewithorknowanythingaboutthemataquotidianlevelbywayofthesamecuesandinteractionsthatamorethis-worldlyviewwouldtakeastheirsumtotal:brighteyes,adejectedslump,asuddenmanicinspirationoraconfessionofregret.

Alsoamatterofconventionalwisdomistheideathathumanbeingsareononesideofagreatdividewhileallanimalsareontheother,subjectsoftheirinstinctsandournecessitiesandpleasures.Whatexactlythedivide


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is,though,isdifficulttodefine.Variouscontestantshaveincludedreason,

language,art,technology,religion,walkinguprightandtheuseofhands,knowledge of mortality, sin, suicide, and more. In The Explicit Animal(1991),RaymondTallisroundsupamasterlistofthem:

Man has calledhimself (among otherthings): the rationalanimal;themoralanimal;theconsciouslychoosinganimal;thedeliberatelyevilani-

mal;thepoliticalanimal;thetoolmakinganimal;thehistoricalanimal;

the commodity-making animal; the economicalanimal; the foreseeinganimal;thepromisinganimal;thedeath-knowinganimal;theart-making

or aesthetic animal; the explaining animal; the cause-bearing animal;theclassifyinganimal;themeasuringanimal;thecountinganimal;the

metaphor-makinganimal;thetalkinganimal;thelaughinganimal;the

religiousanimal;thespiritualanimal;themetaphysicalanimal;thewon-deringanimal . . . Man,itseems,istheself-predicatinganimal.

AsTallisgoesontoexplain,anygivenoneofthosedistinctionsisbothtoo narrow, in being an insufficient explanation of what makes humanbeingshuman,andtooopen,inbeingdemonstrablysharedtosomeextentbyanotherspecies.

Chimpanzeesandotherlargeprimates,forinstance,aresointelligentandpersonablethattheyblurmanyoftheseboundaries.Butsincewearesocloselyconnectedevolutionarily,itiseasytotacitlyviewthemaswaystationstowardthehumanapex,impoverishedversionsofourselvesratherthansomebodyintheirownright.Thereis,however,nothingelseremotelylike anelephant. (Its closest living relatives areseacowsdugongs andmanateesandthehyrax,anAfricanshrewmouseaboutthesizeofarab-bit.)Assuch,itpresentstheperfectopportunityforthoughtfulreconsidera-tionofthehumandifference,andhowmuchthatdifferencereallymatters.

An Elephant Never Forgets

To the elephant, our scrap of consciousnessMay seem as inconsequential as a space-invader blip.

HeathcoteWilliams,Sacred Elephant

In1974,ThomasNagelfamouslytookastabatoneofthegreatriddlesoftheuniverse:Whatisitliketobeabat?Tosomescientistsandphilosophers,henoted,thisisanunanswerablequestion;itisnotlikeanythingtobeabat

because(theybelieve)thebatdoesnothaveenoughawarenesstosubjec-tivelyexperienceitself.Nagel,takingforgrantedthatbatshavesomekindofexperience,alsodeterminedthatthequestionisunanswerablebecause


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howeverwellweimaginewhatitwouldbelikeforustoliveasbats,thebat

issobiologicallyforeignthatitsexperienceisbeyondourmentalgrasp.Forpeople hoping nonethelesstocomprehend the livesof elephants,

thereisanastoundingwealthofinformationaboutthem,atinyfractionofwhichappearsinthesidebaronpage36,aslightlylargerfractiononmyofficeshelves,anda realisticallyinexhaustiblefundinlibraries,databases,and oral histories around the world. The best of these come out of anethologicalrenaissancekickedoffwithIainandOriaDouglas-HamiltonsAmong the Elephants(1975)andcontinuedinsuchworksasCynthiaMosssElephant Memories(1988),JoycePoolesComing of Age with Elephants(1996),KatyPaynesSilent Thunder(1998),andmore,withlongitudinalfindingscompiled in the magisterial volume The Amboseli Elephants (2011). Theresultofaclose-knit,crackteamofresearcherswhohavebeenpatientlyandcreativelyobservingthesameelephantfamiliesfordecades,thisworkcom-binesthepowerofconcretestudywiththepowerofstoryandnarrative.

Powerfulforus,thatis,onlookersfromtheoutside.Whatisitliketobeanelephant?Isitlikeanything?Howwouldweknow?

Oneofthemajorcluesthatelephantshavesomethingwewouldrec-

ognizeasinnerlivesistheirextraordinarymemories.Thisisattestedtoby outward indicators ranging from the practicala matriarchs recol-lectionofalocale,criticaltoleadingherfamilytofoodandwatertothepassionategrudgesthatareheldagainstspecificpeopleortypesofpeoplefordecadesorevengenerations,orfierceaffectionforalong-lostfriend.

Carol Buckley, co-founderof theElephantSanctuaryinTennessee,aretirementranchformaltreatedveteransofcircusesandzoos,describesthearrivalofanewcomertothefacility.Thefifty-one-year-oldShirleywasfirstintroducedtoanespeciallywarmresidentoflongstandingnamedTarra:

EveryonewatchedinjoyandamazementasTarraandShirleyintertwinedtrunks andmade purring noises at eachother. Shirleyvery deliberatelyshowedTarraeachinjuryshehadsustainedatthecircus,andTarrathengentlymovedhertrunkovereachinjuredpart.Laterintheevening,anelephantnamedJennyenteredthebarnonewho,asitturnedout,hadasacalfbrieflybeeninthesamecircusasShirley,twenty-twoyearsbefore:

TherewasanimmediateurgencyinJennysbehavior.Shewantedto

getclosetoShirleywhowasdividedbytwostalls.OnceShirleywas

allowedintotheadjacentstalltheinteractionbetweenherandJenny

becamequiteintense.JennywantedtogetintothestallwithShirley

desperately.Shebecameagitated,bangingonthegateandtryingto

climbthroughandover.


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Afterseveralminutesoftouchingandexploringeachother,Shirley

started to ROAR and I mean ROARJenny joined in immediately.The interaction was dramatic, to say the least, with both elephantstryingtoclimbinwitheachotherandfranticallytouchingeachotherthroughthebars.Ihaveneverexperiencedanythingevenclosetothisdepthofemotion.

We opened the gate and let them in together. . . . they are as onebondedphysicallytogether.Onemoves,andtheothershowsinunison.Itisamiracleandjoytobehold.Allday. . . theymovedsidebysideandwhenJennylaydown,Shirleystraddledherinthemostobviouspro-tectivemannerandshadedherbodyfromthesunandharm.

TheywereinseparableuntilJennydiedafewyearslater.More stories of kind mentoring in a new home come courtesy of

anotherelephantrescuesite,thisoneinKenya,whereorphansareraisedtobereintroducedasadultsintothewild.Thisisabigadjustment,notoftenattemptedforanimalswhohavelivedforsomelengthoftimeinacaptiveordomesticatedsetting,butthenewreleasesarehelpedbyolderelephantswhohavegonethroughthesamethingthemselves(especiallyimportantinwelcomingthemintoaherdthatisnottheirbloodkin).In

a2011reportinNational Geographic,headkeeperJosephSaunirecountshowanadventurouslittleonenamedIrimaranawaytotryouthisinde-pendenceearly.Afterafewdays,atrumpetyclamorwasheardatthegate.

iStockphoto


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Irimamusthavetoldthegroupthathestillneededhismilkandorphan

familyandwantedtogoback,saysSauni,soEdo,agraduateofthecen-ter,walkedIrimahome.Thekeepersopenedthegate,andEdoescortedIrimaallthewaybacktothestockades.Edodranksomewaterfromthewell,atesomefood,andtookoffagain.Missionaccomplished.

Suchsolicitudeisnotlimitedtotheirownkind.InComing of Age withElephants,JoycePooletellsthestoryofaranchherderwhoselegwasbroken by a matriarch in an accidental confrontation with her family.When his camels wandered back without him inthe evening, a search

partywassentout.Hewaseventuallydiscoveredunderatree,attendedbya femaleelephantwhofiercelypreventedanybodyfromapproaching.Astheywerepreparingtoshoother,theherderfranticallysignaledforthemtostop.Whentheywerefinallyabletodrawherfarenoughawayforthemtogoandgethim,heexplainedthat

aftertheelephanthadstruckhim,sherealizedthathecouldnotwalkand,usinghertrunkandfrontfeet,hadgentlymovedhimseveralmetersandproppedhimupundertheshadeofatree.Thereshestoodguardover

himthroughtheafternoon,throughthenight,andintothenextday.Herfamilyleftherbehind,butshestayedon,occasionallytouchinghimwith

hertrunk.Whenaherdofbuffaloescametodrinkatthetrough,shelefthissideandchasedthemaway.Itwascleartothemanthatsheknewthathewasinjuredandtookituponherselftoprotecthim.

Fromwhencecomethesealtruisticactions?Aretheytheproductofblindinstinctintheanimal,theresidueofancestralbehaviorbenefitingkin,whereasforhumanstheywouldbeagenerousandmorallycommend-ablechoice?Oristhetruthsomewhereinbetween,somecombinationof

thetwo,forbothofus?Pooleillustrateshowthestandardframeworkofevolutionarytheoryisproblematicindescribingevenhighlysurvival-andreproduction-orientedinteractions:

Asabehavioralecologist,Ihavebeentrainedtoviewnon-humanani-malsasbehavinginwaysthatdontnecessarilyinvolveanyconscious

thinking and that their decisions have been simply genetically pro-grammedthroughthecourseofnaturalorsexualselection.Butinthecourseofwatchingelephants,Ihavealwayshadasensethattheyoften

dothinkaboutwhattheyaredoing,thechoicestheyhave,andthedeci-sionsthattheyaremaking.Forexample,whenayoungmusthmaleis

threatenedbyahigh-rankingmusthmale,hisusualresponseistodropoutofmusthimmediately.Helowershishead,andurinedribblingcan


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ceaseinamatterofseconds.Manybiologistswouldexplainthisphe-

nomenonsimplybyarguingthatmaleswhobehaveinmannerXlivetoproducemoresurvivingoffspringthanmaleswhobehaveinmanner

Y,andthusthetraitforbehavinginmannerXispassedontofuture

generations.Thus,maleelephantstodayautomaticallybehavetheway

theydobecausetheyhave beenprogrammedthroughthe successful

behavioroftheirancestorstodoso.

Itisworthnotingthatselectively,thedecisiontreeherecangobothways:dropoutofmusth,avoidthefight,andlivetotryagainanotherday;ordont,

andmakethebestplayyoucantopassyourgenesonthenandthere.Itiseasytoseehoweitherbehaviormightberewardedandreinforcedbyrepro-ductivesuccessovertime,eitherexplainedjustashandily.Butthebiggerproblemistheassumptionthatinaway,thechoiceisalreadydeterminedpriortotheinteraction,evenpriortothosetwoelephantsbirths,becauseasanencodedresponsethereisnoroomforittobeachoiceatall.Thisauto-maticallyexcludesakeyfactorinthescenario,asPoolecontinues:

AlthoughIrelyonsuchexplanationsmyself,asIhavegottentoknow

elephantsbetterIhavebeenmoreandmoreconvincedthattheydothink,

sometimesconsciously,abouttheparticularsituationsinwhichtheyfindthemselves.Inthecaseoftheyoungmusthmale,Ibelievethathemay

actuallyconsiderhisoptions:tokeepdribbling,standwithheadhigh,

andbeattacked,ortoceasedribbling,standwithheadlow,andbetoler-

ated.Inotherwords,themalemayinfacthavesomeconsciouscontrol....

Withdominancerankbetweenmaleschangingonadailybasis,amale

needstobeabletoadjusthisbehavioraccordingly.Frompastexperi-

enceheknowsthecharacteristicsofhisrivalsbodysize,fightingability,

andhowthatrivalnormallyranksrelativetohim,butifhisrivalisin

musthhealsoneedstoassesswhetherheisinfullmusthandwhatsortofconditionheisin.Allofthisinformationmustbeassimilatedona

dailybasisandgaugedrelativetohisowncondition.Cansocomplexan

assessmentbecarriedoutwithoutthinking?AndIwonderwhetherthe

moreparsimoniousexplanationwouldntbethattheythink.

Ofcourse,similarmechanisticexplanationsarenowoftenappliedtohumanactionsaswell.AsPooleacknowledges,theyaregroundedinsomethingreal,butdonotallowforthefullestunderstandingofwhatisgoingon.Inaway,itmayactuallybemoreinstructivetolookattheflawsinthislineof

reasoningwithananimalexample,whichhelpstoavoidsomeofthemeta-physical minefields surrounding the issue. Properly nuanced discussionsaboutanimalactivitycanbesoundly materialisticwithoutbeingreductive.


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Animal science that describes theirreal abilities, where they can receive

creditforintelligentorcompassionateactionsdrivenbymorethanmereinstinct,wouldbyextensionelevatemansstaturetoonotflattenitwithanimals,butraisethembothabovethelowbarofpuredeterminism.

ThismoralquestionisattheheartofTarquinHallsTo the ElephantGraveyard(2000),areal-lifechronicleofthehuntforaroguebullelephantthatreadsalmostlikeadetectivenovelwherenothingisasitfirstappears.Thevictimisadrunkmanpluckedfromoutofhishouseandimpaledinhisownyard.Thesuspectisalargetuskerwhoseemstohavesoughthimoutinthevillageforthatexpresspurpose,withnoprovocation,and

hasdonethistothirty-sevenpreviousvictims.AmarksmaniscontractedbytheIndiangovernmenttoshootthebullandputastoptothisbehavior.Hall,ajournalistbasedinNewDelhi,believessomethingfishyisupandfinagleshiswayintothesearchpartysohecanexposeit.

SurethatDineshChoudhury,themarksman,isastone-coldmercenaryinsensatetothedignityofelephants,probablyframingsomemeekhaplesscreatureforcrimesitcouldnotreallyhavecommitted,Hallpompouslylectureshimaboutthemonlyto havehis pretensionsflattenedbythismanwholovesandunderstandsthehathi(elephants)farbetterthanHall

knewwasevenpossible,andwhoinductshimintoawholehathiuniverseofdeepfeelingandslyintelligenceandindeed,moralagency.

At one point they catch up with the elephant and Mr. Choudhurysteals off to confronthim alonenot toshoot, but simply tomeet hiseyesandgivehimwarning.Ihavethrowndownthegauntlet.NowtheroguewilleithermendhiswaysorIwilldealwithhim,heexplainstoanastoundedHall.Ifahumankills,heisgivenafairtrialbeforesentencingiscarriedout.Therefore,Ialwaysgiveeachelephantachancetoredeemhimself.Isaytohim,Ifyoustay,youwilldie.Ifyougo,youwilllive.

Foramanwhowants the elephanttotakethe offer,who hates nothingmorethanshootingthem,itseemsanoddprofessiontogointo;butMr.Choudhurynotesthatsomeonewouldbehiredtodoit,andatleastwithmeincharge,theelephanthasachance.

Havingtrackedthehathideepintothenorthernforest,onenighttheyencounteraleglessmanwhoturnsouttobehisformerowner.Manyyearsago,themanpurchasedhimonawhim,havingalifelongaffectionforthecreaturesbutnotknowinganythingaboutthem.Further,beingoftenawayfromhomeonbusiness,theownerheedlesslylefthiminthecareofavicious

scamp,returningonedaytofindhimtieduptoatree,malnourished,andscarredfromfrequentbeatings.Thekeeper(whowasnowheretobefounduntil hewas discovered lockedupforfighting ina bar)was immediately


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fired,andakinderoneemployedtonursethehathibacktohealth.Butafew

weekslater,theoldkeepershowedupagain,belligerentlydrunk,demand-ingmoneyfromtheownerandtauntingtheelephant.Atthesightofhistormenter,theelephantbrokeoutofhisrestraintsandsmashedthekeepertothegroundrepeatedly,crushingtheownerslegsonthewayout.

Ibelieve the elephant did this tomedeliberately, the owner says.Hewantedmetoliveinagony.Hewantedmetorememberhimeverydayfortherestofmylife.AndsoIhavedoneforthepasttenyears.Theelephant,inthosetenyears,hasrangedallaroundkillingdozensofmeninlikemannerdrunkswhoresembledhisoldfoe.Theownerdoesnot

wantrevenge,hesays,becauseheblameshimselfforwhathashappened;butiftheycanshootthehathi,hegoeson,theywouldbeendingalotofpainandmisery.Mostofallhis.

Asakindoftrial,theelephantschaseposesaquestionfamiliarfromrealtrialsheldincourtroomseveryday:howmuchareviolentoffenderswarpedbyatrociouspastsresponsibleforwhattheydo?Howrelevantisthistowhatbecomesofthem,whenthereisafundamentalobligationtoprotectsociety?

Likehumans,mosttraumatizedelephantsdonotbecomeviolent,butjustabsorbtheirhurtsinconfusionandsadnessandrespondtotheminotherfamiliar ways. InThe Dynasty of Abu (1962), the zoologist IvanT.SandersonrecountsthestoryofanelephantnamedSadie,whowaspractic-ingbutfailingtolearnacircusroutine.Finallyshegaveupandboltedoutofthetrainingring,causinghertobechastised(notcruelly,hestresses)forhersupposedstupidityandfortryingtorunaway.Atthis,shedroppedto the ground and dumbfounded her trainers by bawling like a humanbeing.Shelaythereonherside,thetearsstreamingdownherfaceandsobsrackingherhugebody.

InalmosthalfacenturyofcloseassociationwiththeAbu[elephants],includingandevenafterreadingasubstantialpartofthevastlitera-tureconcerningthesemajesticcreatures,Ihavenotencounteredany-thingthathasmovedmesogreatly,andIwritethisinallseriousness

andhumility.ItsineffablepathosconstantlybringstomindthatmostfamousverseJesuswept(John11:35).Whatoneartharewetomakeofaso-calledloweranimalcrying?

If you shoot an animal, you may expect it to make whimperingnoises....Thatanyanimal,andespeciallyoneweighing3tons,should

lie down and sob her heart out in pure emotional frustration issomethingelseagain.Italmostlooksasif,despiteallthatweliketobelieve, we humansare not the only creatures that possess what we


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callemotionsandhigherfeelings.Infact,ifweinsistuponmakinga

distinctionbetweenourselvesandotheranimalsinthisrespect,wewillthenhavetoprovideaspecialnichefortheAbu.

In Charles Darwins The Expression of the Emotions in Man andAnimalsan 1872 work that,togetherwith The Descent of Man(1871),applies the principles of evolution to the question of human originselephantsappeartwice:brieflyinanoteonthewaytheirearsflarewhentheychargeeachotherforafight,andmoreextensivelywithaninquiryinto the phenomenon of captive elephants weeping. Darwin reports

the observations of a colonial secretary in Ceylon (Sri Lanka): Whenoverpoweredandmadefast,[onenewlycapturedbulls]grief wasmostaffecting;hisviolencesanktoutterprostration,andhelayontheground,uttering choking cries, with tears trickling down his cheeks. Others,meanwhile, simply lay motionless on the ground, with no other indi-cation of suffering than the tears whichsuffusedtheireyesand flowedincessantly. A zookeeper in London, Darwin adds, witnessed similaroccurrenceswheneverhiscompanionpairofcowsweresplitup.Everthepainstakingnaturalist,Darwinlatchesontoaphysiologicalinvestigation

ofthemusclessurroundingtheeyeshowtheircontractionmaycauseorallowfortears,whethertheyaremorelikelytobecontractedwhilepros-trate,andsoforth.Hemanagestoinduceabatchofchildrentosqueezethesemusclesrepeatedlyasatest,toverylittletearfuleffect.

Whats So Wrong with Anthropomorphism?

We need another and a wiser and perhaps a more mystical conceptof animals. Remote from universal nature, and living by complicatedartifice, man in civilization surveys the creature through the glass of his

knowledge and sees thereby a feather magnified and the whole image indistortion. We patronize them for their incompleteness, for their tragicfate of having taken form so far below ourselves. And therein we err, andgreatly err. For the animal shall not be measured by man. In a worldolder and more complete than ours they move finished and complete, gift-ed with extensions of the senses we have lost or never attained, living byvoices we shall never hear. They are not brethren, they are not underlings;they are other nations, caught with ourselves in the net of life and time.

HenryBeston,The Outermost House

ThoughthankstoDarwin(ifnotAristotle)itshouldcomeasnosurprisethatanimalsseemtoexperienceinsomewaymanyofthesamethingswedo,physicallyandemotionally,in sciencethesupposedimpositionof


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humancharacteristicsonnon-humananimalsisapowerfultaboo.Allof

theprecedingstories,descriptionsofbehaviorwhosemeaningwouldbeperfectlyobviousifencounteredinaperson,courttroublewithsticklersforromanticizingtheanimalsapparentfeelings.

InLove, Life, and Elephants(2012),DaphneSheldrickfounderoftheorphanagementionedabove,andinventorofthefirstsuccessfulmilksub-stituteforinfantelephantsdescribesherinvolvementinwritingarticlesabout animal behavior for the Wildlife Clubs of Kenyas schools, andhowtoherdismaysomuchoftheliteratureshereadforthisassignmentturnedouttobeabstruseandoffthemarkascomparedwithherandher

colleaguesfieldexperience:

I attributed this to the fact that science precludedresearchers frominterpretinganimalbehaviorinananthropomorphicway,andassuchtheycameupwithcomplicatedexplanationsastowhyananimalwasbehavinginacertainway,when,infact,theanswerwasprettysimple.Onesimplyhadtocompareittothelikelyresponseofthehumanani-malifsubjectedtothesamesetofcircumstances.

Researchers are not even supposed to name their subjects, lest the

senseofintimacyinanamecompromisetheirobjectivity.Theprimatolo-gistJaneGoodallwasamongthefirsttorevoltfromthisconvention,andnowmostelephantethologistsgoaheadandnametheirsubjectstoo;asIainDouglas-Hamiltonhassaid,evenifyouidentifiedanelephantbythenumberM51,whenyousawhimcomingyourway,youwouldstillsaytoyourself,MyGod,itsM51!!!

Indeed,Douglas-Hamiltons remark speaks to the very reason whyscientistsworryaboutmixinghumanfeelingsintoanimalresearch:itspracticallyirresistible.Scientificobservationissupposedtobedetached,

but science after all is conducted by human beings, and human heartsnaturallyreachouttoothersentientcreatures;perhapsouraffectionforthemmakesuswanttoseewhatisntthere.

Despiteitslimits,surelythisisabetterorientationthanthatoftheBritishRajofficersofyore,who inthegreattradition ofRoyalSocietyvivisectionsandothersuchdoingsobtainedawealthofinformationaboutelephantinephysiologybyrestrainingtheanimalsandapplyingpaintofindthemostsensitivepressurepoints,coldlytakingnotesontheirnewknowledgeofthenervoussystem.Butthedilemmaremains:howtoget

anaccurateunderstandingoftheanimalsnatureand(ifappropriate)emo-tions,withoutimposingonthemassumptionsbornofadistinctlyhumanunderstandingoftheworld?


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Thetabooagainstanthropomorphismexistsforthreebasicreasons.

Firstofall,weashumanbeingsarepronetomistakethethoughtsandfeelingsofeach other,eventhepeopleweareclosesttohowmuchmoresoisthisariskinspeculatingaboutmembersofanotherspecies?

Even supposing that the elephants were our equals in intelligence,their life differs from ours so fundamentally that trying to infer theirperspectivefromourownexperienceisboundtomissthemarkinmanyways.Foronething,asaruleelephantshavepoorvisionbuttheirsenseof smellisexquisite,revealing awholeolfactorylandscape that we arecontentedlyclosedoffto.Also,theydonotfallromanticallyinlove(that

weknowof;thattheirbehaviorindicates).Thinkhowmanyotheraspectsofourlivesareprofoundlyinfluencedbygoodsightanddeeperos,andaskyourselfwhatmightloomequallylargeinanelephantsworldthatweourselveswouldhaveverylittlegraspof.Andof coursethereareavarietyofotherdifferenceswheretheylive,howtheylive,thefactthatfrombirthtodeathafemale(unlesssomethinghasgonewrong)will neverbealone and aftera certain pointa malemostlywill.Howmightthesethingsshapeapsyche?

Meanwhile,onourend,wethehumanracearemastersofprojection,

fromtheteddybears(orinmycase,stuffedraccoonsandwalruses)thatwe befriend as children to the humanoid robots that we may build or

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purchaseasadults,engineeredtocueustorespondtothemlikesentient

beings.Weliketofeelthattheseinanimateobjectshavereciprocalaffec-tionsforus,althoughwealwaysknowatsomelevelthattheydonot.

For real sentient beings, though, the truth is more complex. Theyarenotus,buttolookintotheireyesistoknowthatsomeoneisinthere.Imposingourownspecificthoughtsandfeelingsonthatsomeoneisinonesensetooimaginative,inpresuminghecouldreceivetheworldinthewaywedo,andinanothernotimaginativeenough,innotopeningourmindstothefullpossibilitiesofhisdifference.ThephilosopherandtheologianMartinBubercalledthistheimmenseothernessoftheOther,reflectingonhis

relationshipwithafamilyhorseasachild.Ashestrokedthemane,itwasasthoughtheelementofvitalityitselfborderedonmyskinsomethingthatwasnotI,henotes,butwaselementallyinrelationtohim.Therewasanexistentialconnectionbetweenthemintheirimprobableblessingofbreathing,beatinglife.Andnotonlylife,buttheparticularityofsentientindividuals,asthehorseverygentlyraisedhismassivehead,earsflicking,thensnortedquietly,asaconspiratorgivesasignalmeanttoberecogniz-ableonlybyhisfellowconspirator:andIwasapproved.

Ofcourse,thereisnowaytoknowwhatthehorsewasreallythinking

here.ButastowhatBuberwasthinkingnoticehowhemovesfromtheirsharedprimalvitality,realizedbytouch,totheirdistinctseatsofawareness,andthepossibilityof comingtogetherinfauxconspiracy.Considerhowany empathetic connection forms. You begin with some point of com-monalitywithyourownlife,somethingaselaborateasasimilaridentityorexperienceorassimpleasafeelingeverybodyknowsfirsthand,suchaspainoraffection.Fromwhatissame,howeverbasic,youcanbegintobridgethedifferencetowhatisother,andlearnsomethingnewthroughsomeoneelseseyes.

Thisleapwillalwaysinvolvesomeelementofimagination,aswecan-not knowexactlywhatsomeonemaybefeeling on the otherside.Thusourempathyandirrepressibleimaginationarenotmerelyimpedimentstoclearunderstanding,butmayinsteadoffernewavenuestowardit.

Thesecondreason for the taboois that inmodern Westernscience,thewholeconceptoflifeissomechanicalthat,ifyoulookclosely,notevenpeoplearesupposedtobeanthropomorphized.Emotional,holistictermssuchas love,sorrow,andconcernhavenoplaceinanimpoverished

languageofchemicaltransactionsatthemicrolevelandselectionpres-suresatthemacro.Notthatchemicaltransactionsandselectionpressuresare not essential influences, because of course they arebut from our


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currentknowledgeofthem,theyareacutelyinadequatetodescribingthe

subtletiesoflivedexperience.ThisframeworkgoesbacktoDescartes,whosedualisticuniverseof

absolutemindatoneendandabsolutematterattheotheradmittednoth-ing in between. Indeed, Descartes reasoned that since animals are notrational,they are not conscious, and sincethey are not conscious,theycannot even be aware of pain; their piteous howls during the horribleexperimentsheconducted on themwereto him merereflex, the unfeltexpressionofmaterialreactionsakintotheshriekingofateakettle.

Thisideawaslongagodebunked,butthephilosophyitcamefrom

lives on in various ways. Early developers of artificial intelligence, forinstance, focused on programming mightily rational functions such aschessandadvancedmathematicstasksthatareideallysuitedtocomput-ers,butalso,asM.I.T.sRodneyBrooksquipsinFlesh and Machines(2002),thathighlyeducatedmalescientistsfoundchallenging,whichthereforemust be the pinnacle of cogitation. In fact, Brooks realized, while thethingsthatchildrenoffourorfiveyearscoulddoeffortlessly,suchasvisu-allydistinguishingbetweenacoffeecupandachair,orwalkingaroundontwolegs,orfindingtheirwayfromthebedroomtothelivingroomwere

notthoughtofasactivitiesrequiringintelligence,theyrepresentedtherealchallengeforprogramming.Nevermindsmallchildrenthereisnotarobotintheworldthatknowsthethingsapuppyknows.

In a 1990 paper serendipitously titled Elephants Dont PlayChess, Brooks observes that evolutionarily, the essence of being andreactingthatis,theabilitytomovearoundinadynamicenvironment,sensingthesurroundingstoadegreesufficienttoachievethenecessarymaintenanceoflifeandreproductionwasafarmoredifficultdevelop-mentthanreason-centeredcapabilities,asimpressiveastheyare.More

importantly, the latter emergedincontinuity with the former, not asadetachedoccurrencewithanunrelatedmeaning.

This is an importantcorrective to the abstraction of thought fromembodiment,andoughttoindicatethatmentalandemotionalexperiencesweknowwehavemightwellbesharedtosomedegreebyfellowcreatures,ourevolutionarykin;discerningthemisnotimposing humanattributesonanimalsbutjustacknowledgingtheresultsofacommonheritage.

Tobesure,thisfieldcomeswithitsownpitfalls,theretroactivejust-sostoriesthatspeculativelyexplaintheevolutionaryheritageofanybehavior,

asPoolediscussedabove.Butinanyevent,todaywehavereadmittedintorespectablescienceawholespectrumofbiologically-basedfeeling,thoughthisisactuallybecauseweareleavingbehindthemindforjustthematter.


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Pureconsciousrationality,insteadoftheonesurething,isbysomeaccounts

anelaboratedelusion.Thatisasubjectforanothertime,butforhereandnowthelessonofDescartesisthis:todenyobvioussufferingbasedonaprecon-ceivedideaisasunscientificasitisheartless.Believingthattheappearanceofboredom,loneliness,frustration,andgriefinanimalsissimplyananthro-pomorphicprojectionistolaborunderaforcedignorancethatisprotestedbyourownintuitionaswellasalltheevidence.Evenasnewdevelopmentsoffermoreinsightintothedistinctionsbetweentheirfeelingsandours,wehavetograntthebenefitofthedoubtthattheyarefeelingsomething.

Athirdobjectioncomesnotoutofsciencebutfromcultureandpolitics:theidea that acknowledgingevenfaintly human-seeming qualities inanimalswillultimatelyservenottoaffirmthemoralworthofanimalsbuttodebasetheworthofhumanbeings.TheexampleofPeterSingershowsthatthisfearisnotunfounded.Singersclassic1975manifestoAnimal Liberationisapassionatecallfortheprotectionoffeelinganimals,andinmanywaysthefoundingdocumentoftheanimaladvocacymovement.(Heeschewsrightstalk,althoughthishasmostlybeenlostonhisfollowersandcriticsalike.)

ButSingerisequallywellknownforpromotingreprehensibleideas

aboutthetreatmentofvulnerablehumanbeingstheyoung,theold,theill,andthedisabled.Theinsidiousconnectionbetweenthesetwostancesisaphilosophythatattachesvaluetospecific capacitiesratherthanbeingsasawhole:Ifacertainlevelofintelligenceorotherpropertiesmeansani-malsshouldbeaccordedmorevalue,conversely,toSingertheabsenceofthosepropertiesinsomepeoplemakesthoseindividualsworthless.

Incontrasttothiskindofutilitarian, la cartemoralvalue,thereisakindofanimaladvocacythatpromotesaradicallevelingofspecies:asPeople for the Ethical Treatment of Animals founder Ingrid Newkirk

famously said,When itcomestopain, love, joy, loneliness, and fear, aratisapigisadogisaboy.WhileNewkirkgroundsherclaimincoreemotions (which allthose species do have), others take the position towhattheyseeasitslogicalconclusion,equatinganykindoflifewithanyotheraspider,abacterium,achildaconceptwhosepracticalimplica-tionsmusteitherbenonexistentorparalyzinglyexhaustive.

Though based on nearly opposite standards for how to value livingbeings,boththeseapproachesbasicallyannihilatehumanequalityasaspe-cialideal,thatself-evidenttruththatsomehowinalltimesandplaceshas

beenshockinglyhardtodefend.Hencevaliantcrusadersagainstassaultson thisfront, suchasbioethicistWesleyJ.Smith(authorofa2010booktitledafterNewkirksstatement),smelldangerinanydiscussionofanimal


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sentienceandemotion.ThinkofthebeautifulstarksimplicityoftheIAma

Manbannerscarriedinthecivilrightsmarches;whatif,instead,theysaidIAmanOrganism,whoserightsareeithercontingentorunenforceable?Thisisthemoraluniversethatpeoplesuspiciousofanimaladvocacyfear.

Animalwelfare,ratherthananimalrights,istheproperlocusofourconcern, they seek to remind us (Smith commonly makes this distinc-tionthroughoutthebookandinhisbloggingandarticlesabouthumanexceptionalism);itisnottheanimalsstatureaslivingbeingsbutoursasmoralagentsthatobligatesustorelatetothemkindly.Whateverthephilosophicalmeritsofthisstance,itiscertainlytrueatapracticallevel

thatpeoplehavepoweroveranimalsinmostsituationsandsoitisuptoustosetthestandardfortheirtreatment.

So what does animal welfare entail? One approach is outlined inDominion (2002), Matthew Scullys rigorous critique of various indus-trialandsportingpracticesbasedonknownevidenceofanimalsentienceandemotionastraightforwardif gruesome argumentnotthatweareoffendingourequalsbutthatwearefailingourdependents.

Ontheotherhand,itishardtosaywhatSmithconsidersanacceptablelimitonhumanneedsanddesireswhenbalancedagainstanimals.Hechar-

acterizes Scullys book as outrageously anthropomorphic, and describessomeofthewritingsofJaneGoodall,theworldsleadinganimalscientist,aspurefigmentsof[her]imagination;Goodallalmostscreechesassheanthropomorphizes away. In Smiths view, Scully and Goodall go wrongbyinferringemotionalstatesfromanimalsobservablebehavior.Smithalsocriticizesanelementary-schoolprimeronfarmanimalsaspropaganda,notonlyfortheadmittedlyridiculousinclusionofthenamesofvegancelebri-ties,butalsoforanthropomorphicallyaimeditemssuchasthis:CowFact:Mothercowsseparatedfromtheircalvesbyafencewillmooloudlyandseem

veryupset.Theyllwaitthroughhunger,cold,andbadweathertobewiththeircalves.Smithdoesnotdisputethatthemooingactuallytakesplace;ifthereisanythingaboutanimalpsychologythatwouldseemtobeprettywellestablished,itismothersattachmenttotheiryoung.Butapparentlythesug-gestionthatthisbehaviorindicatesthepresenceofrecognizableemotionsisadangerouslyanthropomorphicideatobeputtingintheheadsofchildren.

Denying the obvious is a bad way to go about promoting causes,even (or especially) very good ones. And the emphasis on humanexceptionalismasSmithasks,Whatotherspeciesbuildscivilizations,

records history, creates art, makes music, thinks abstractly, commu-nicates in language, envisions and fabricates machinery, improves lifethroughscienceandengineering,orexploresthedeepertruthsfoundin


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philosophyandreligion?inaveinthatRaymondTalliscallsamis-

conceived,panic-strickendesiretopreservehumandignitybydistancingmanfromtheanimals,somewhatmissesthepoint.

IngridNewkirkdoesnotclaimthatratsandpigscanmakemachineryorpondermetaphysics,butthattheyfeelemotions,andthattakingthoseintoaccount,weshouldnotdegradeorharmanimalsinthewaysthatmattertothemnotbybeingdeniedsuffrage,say,butbybeingboredorscaredorseparatedfromtheirfamilies.Theirworthneednotbepeggedrelativetoanybodyelsestoacknowledgethis.

Forthatmatter,Smithslineofargumentservestounderminehismore

importantpoint.Thevulnerableanddisabledpeoplewhomhespendsmostofhistimefightingtoprotectarethemselvesoftenunabletodoagoodpor-tionoftheexceptionalthingshepraiseswhichisjustthesortoflimita-tionthatcausesPeterSingerandhiscrowdtoquestiontheirpersonhood.Arguingfromtheheightofhumanactivitymaynotbethemostpersuasivewaytomakethecaseforthosewhocannothopetoreachthatheight.

Ontheotherhand,asthesecapacitiesdohaveabearingonthestatureofthespeciesoverall,itoughttofollowthatotherspecieswithheight-enedabilities should beaccorded value for thosethingsaswell. In any

case,tacticallyspeaking,onewouldthinkthatsensitivityandrespectforlifeatdifferentlevelswouldfindthemselvesincommoncause.Wecanallrecallexamplesfromhumanhistoryinwhichpeoplesnaturalsympathies

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towardsothers,whomtheyknewdeepdowntobelikethem,wereclosed

offbyfeatsofideologyandofstillmoreexampleswherethebaselineofthosenaturalsympathiesleftmuchtobedesired.Ournaturalsympathies

representaninvaluablekindofmoralinsighttobenurturedratherthansquelchedwherevertheydoappear.Withoutestablishingequalityper se,

thissurelyappliestoourrelationshiptoanimalsaswell.

StaffmembersattheElephantSanctuarytoldmeofanincidentwith

oneoftheirgirls,whospottedafallenbirdoutsideherbarnandranrightovertoit,utterlydistraught.Shecroonedandstrokeditanddidnot

settledowntillithadbeenproperlylaidtorest.Whatdidthismeanto

her,exactly?Wedontknow.Butshewasclearlyverymovedbyafellow

creatureswoeandhadnotroubleseeingitforwhatitwas,differentlifeformsthoughtheywere.Howsadwhenwe,higheranimalswhoshare

thisgift,convinceourselvestodullit.

Arenottwosparrowssoldforapenny?Andnotoneofthemwillfallto

thegroundapartfromyourFather.Buteventhehairsofyourheadareallnumbered.Fearnot,therefore;youareofmorevaluethanmanysparrows

(Matthew10:29-31).Ifasinglelittlebirdisworththeall-consuminggrief

ofDularytheElephantandthecosmos-animatingmindoftheFatherofCreation,andhumanworthsurpassesthat,thenwhatistheretoloseinholisticallyappreciatingthelifeofthisonebird,eveninsofarasitresem-

blesours?Andhowmuchmorethanthebirdanelephant,whichbyitsown

extraordinarynatureshowsthatallspeciesarenotequalbutisaportal

totheworldofnon-humanlife,andthepossibilitiestherein.

Tool, Image, and Grave

The proper study of mankind is man, but when one regards the

elephant, one wonders.attributedtoAlexanderPope

Ifthecoreelementsoflife,sensation,andemotionaresowidelydistributedastoencompassahugeswathoftheanimalkingdom,what isthemoraldif-ferencebetweenaspecieswithhighercapabilitiesandonewithout?Inhis

thoughtful1985essayTool,Image,andGrave,thephilosopherofbiol-

ogyHansJonastakesupthreeactivitiesattributedsolelytohumansand

explorestheirdeeperimplications.Asithappens,givenwhatweknowtoday,

elephantsarguablymeetallthreetests.JonassstandardisworthrevisitinginthislightnottodiminishitssignificanceforHomo sapiens,buttocon-

siderwhatitmeansfortheoneotheranimal,atleast,thatmightshareit.


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Jonasselectstheseparticulartraitsonthebasisthattheyareknown

tohaveexistedeveninprehistoricman,andevenintheirmostincipientformsareindicatorsofimportantmentalandspiritualqualitiesthatwould

seemtomakehimunique.Thefirstexampleisthetool,whichJonasnotes

isverycloselyconnectedwiththerealmofanimalnecessity.Andyet,a

toolisanartificialconstruct,notanextensionoforganicactionbutasepa-

rateobject,oftencraftedwithanotherobject,andmostimportantlyneces-sitatingaconceptofwhatitanditspurposewillbeinordertobecrafted.

Ononecount,elephantsfailthetooltest,fortheydonotmakeartifacts

theythenreuse(andobviouslyhavenotdevelopedthekindoftechnology

thathascompletelyunleveledtheoddsinoureffortstohuntortraportrain

themorencroachupontheirhabitat).However,theydouseobjectsasinter-

mediariesbetweenthemandtheirenvironment,suchasstickstoscratch

betweentheirtoesandremovebugsfromotherareas,ortwistedclumpsofgrasslikeQ-tipstocleaninsidetheirearsorwhiskstoswatatflies.AsJ. H.

WilliamsrecountsinElephant Bill(1950),workelephantsinAsiacollared

withbellshavebeenknowntoplugupthebellswithmudsothattheycan

goandstealbananasinthemiddleofthenightunnoticedapurposeful

modification ofsomeoneelsestool.Elephantsdig holesforwater,coverthemwithplugsofbarkandgrass,andreturnlatertotheirsecretstash.

Elephantslearnbytrialanderrorwhatsortsofmaterialsdoanddonotshock them in their efforts to break through electric fencesand in at

leastonerecordedinstance(describedinLawrenceAnthonysThe ElephantWhisperer[2009]),followedthebuzzingofthefenceallthewayaround

toitsorigin,thegenerator,which,having been stompedtosmithereens,

allowedthemtountwinethefenceandgotheirmerryway.

Allthesebehaviorsareorienteddirectlytowardfulfillingbasicanimal

wantsandneeds,andallaresimilartothekindofinstinctualmodificationof selfandsurroundingshoarding,nesting,sneaking,groomingthat

anyanimaldoestosurviveintheworld.Thesophisticatedactionsthat

animalscarryoutthankstotheinstructionsofinstinctarereallyquite

amazing,anddifficulttocomprehendforwewhorelysomuchmoreon

consciousreasoning;howmuchdoestheanimalknow,andhowcanitdo

whatitsdoingifitdoesnt?Inanycase,thesecomplexelephantbehav-

iorswouldseemtoshowagreatdegreeofintelligence,anawarenessofcauseandeffect,andsomegraspofthemultiplepossibilitiesinherentin

thepropertiesoftheirsurroundingsthatis,whatJonascallsthepowerofimagination,agranderpowerthanthecold(thoughequallyapplicable)

contemporaryphrasehighcognitivecapacity.


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Jonasssecondexample,image-making,isacapabilitywhichdisplaysa

total,ratherthanagradual,divergencefromtheanimals.Theactivityis biologically useless, he notes, and requires sufficient mental abstrac-tiontodistinguishbetweenrealityandrepresentationthatis,betweenthesensationsofthepresentmomentthatallanimalsexperienceandtheformofsomethingelseinmemoryortheimagination.Image-makingisthetransferenceofthismetaphysicalideaontoaphysicalsubstrate;evenforaportraitorsomeotherpicturemodeledonsomethingrealandpres-ent,thecopyisdistinctfromtheoriginalbutlinkedtoitbyanonmaterialconcept.*

Itisworthnotingthatmakingimagesaswellastoolsdependsonnotonlysufficientmentalabstraction,butmorepracticallyhands,orsomekindofhand-likeappendage,suchasatrunk,somethingthatallowsforaspecialkindofactiveengagementwithenvirons.Infact,giventheirprehensilefacility,elephantscanbe trainedtomakerepresentationalpaintingsofflowers, balloons, and elephants, mainlyjust as they canbe trainedtoperform many other sophisticated tricks. (Given their intense boredomincaptivity,wherealmost anyactivitycanbeappealing,itisnotonlyacrowd-pleaserbutseeminglyfunfortheelephants,whoseworkisthensold

tofundtheircareandotherconservationefforts,otherwiseknownaswin-win-win.)Someelephants,however,makeartoftheirownaccordmostly,asitappears,abstract,butsomeborderingonrepresentational.Ruby,whospentalmostherentirelifeatthePhoenixZooandwasgivenpaintsforrecreation after her keepers observed her always doodling in the sand,wouldcommonlyselectpaintcolorsthatmatchedeventsaroundher,suchasvisitorsshirtsoutsidehercageorthered,yellow,andwhiteofafiretruckthathadpulledupwithflashinglightsearlierintheday.

The best documented example, however, is Siri of the Rosamond

GiffordZooinSyracuse,NewYork,whowasobservedin1980byher

*Morepoetically,thisideaappearsinthe2005novel/2010movie Never Let Me Go,con-cerningagroupofhumanclonesraisedfororgandonation.Aschildreninschool,theyareencouragedtodrawpicturesthatarespiritedawaytoagallerywhosepurposetheydont

know.Variousrumorsarisetofillthevacuum,amongthemthattheartworkmaybeusedtomatchyoutoyoursoulmateandperhapsdeferyourfate,becauseitrevealedwhatyouwerelikeinside . . . [it]revealedyoursoul.Whentwoofthemasadultlovers,desperatetohave

thisconfirmed,trackdownthemadamewhohadtakencustodyofalltheirpictures,shetells

themtheartwasnotsomuchtorevealtheirsoulsastoprove you had souls at all.Theyaretakenabackthatanyonewouldthinktheydidnt,butthatisasnaveasthemadamesbeliefthatitwouldmeananythingifshecouldprovetheydid:thesocietythatproducedthemtoexploittheirbodiesisemphaticallyuninterestedintheinconvenientmatteroftheirsouls.


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keeper to be drawing with a pebble on the floor of her enclosureall

alone,oftenatnight,entirelyofherownvolition.ThemoststrikingofthesemarkingswasalittledesignthatlookedforalltheworldliketheChinesecharacterforBuddha;thekeeper,DavidGucwa,bestowedonitthecheekyandevocativetitleToWhomItMayConcern,andfromthatpointonbegantosupplyherwithpaperandpencil.Hewouldsitquietlywith sketch pad in his lap and pencil sitting nearby, and without anypromptingorguidanceSiriwoulddraw.

Manyofthedrawingscollectedinalovely1985booktitledafterthatfirstetching,cowrittenbyGucwaandreporterJamesEhmannactually

dosomewhatresemblecorporealentities:abutterfly,abird,aperson.Thisislikelyhappenstance,though;byandlargethedrawingsaremuchmoreemotionallythanrationallyexpressive.Bethatasitmay,clearlytherewassomethinginSirisinnerlifeshefeltcompelledtobringforth.Theques-tionofwhattomakeofitisarevealingexampleofthecrypticexpansebetweentheintentoftheartistandthesignificancetoviewers.

Tosome,ofcourse,thewholethingissimplyasend-upoftheveryconceptofmodernartpeopletodaypaymoneytoacquirestuffthatIwouldpaymoneytogetridof,carpedonebiologyprofessorsentapacket

ofSirisworkforcomment.Ontheotherhand,onbeingshownthedraw-ingstwoseniorzookeepersimmediatelyresolvedtogovegetarian,blownawaybythisglimpseintoanunchartedrealmofanimalpsyches.Idontevensteponspidersanymore,onesaid,andIdontlikespiders.Nothingissimpleanymore.StephenJayGouldcalledtheportfoliofascinatingbutcautioned,Ihaveahardenoughtimeassessingmyownmotivations;Lordonlyknowswhatgoesoninsidethebrainofanelephant.

Art scholars, fortheir partmore content thanscientists to coexistwithendlessambiguity,andindeedtorevelinjustthatkindofclueintothe

deepunknownwereuniversallyenthusiastic,allremarkingontheenergyandlyricismandevenjoy,andaffirmingcertainspatialformsandtechniquesthatindicatedtheworkwasmorethanmerelyrandomscribbling.LiketheprehistoriccavepaintingsJonaspointsto,itisa creativemessagedefyingbothmeaninglessnessandeasyunderstanding, callingacross improbabledistancesoftimeorconsciousnessorspeciestowhomeveritmayconcern.

Incidentally, in an entirely different kind of image test, elephantsaredistinguishedaswell:theycanrecognizethemselvesinmirrors.Veryfewotheranimalshavebeenshowntodothis,mainlydolphinsandgreat

apes.Thetestisperformedasfollows:Whiletheanimalisunconscious,somepartofitsanatomyoutofitsrangeofvisionismarkedwithodorlesspaint,andoftenforcontrolacorrespondinglocationismarkedwithaclear


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versionofthepaint.Whenpresentedwithamirrorwhereinthemarkis

reflected,itturnstothatlocation on its own bodytoexploreit,indicatingbothself-awarenessandanunderstandingofthemeaningof themirror.Humanbeingsbegintopassthistestatabouteighteenmonthsofage.

Jonass final and strongest criterion is the grave, which would seemto separate man from animal unambiguously. The commemorationofthedeadperpetuatedinthecultofthegravebespeaksanawarenessof mortality that isthe foundation of metaphysics:in considering the

afterwardsandthethere,[man]alsoconsidersthenowandthehereofhisexistencethatis,hereflectsabouthimself.Withgraves,theques-tiontakesonconcreteform:WheredoIcomefrom;whereamIgoing?andultimately,WhatamIbeyondwhatIdoandexperienceatagiventime?Forman,hissenseofself,senseofhistory,andsenseoftheintem-

poral,howeverinchoate,aregesturedatwithhisremembranceofthosewhohavepassedon.

Buthereheisjoinedbytheelephants,theonlyotherknowncreaturesthatwhatever it maymean to thempurposivelycommemorate their

dead,inawayJoycePoolecallseerieanddeeplymoving:Itistheirsilencethatismostunsettling.Theonlysoundistheslowblowingofairoutoftheirtrunksastheyinvestigatetheirdeadcompanion.Itsasifeventhe birds have stopped singing. Using theirtrunksand sensitive hindfeet,theonestheyuseforwakinguptheirbabies,theytouchthebody

ever so gently, circling, hovering above, touching again, as if by doingsotheyareobtaininginformationthatwe,withourmorelimitedsenses,canneverunderstand.Theirmovementsareinslowmotion,andthen,insilence,theymaycoverthedeadwithleavesandbranches.

Afterburyingthebodyinbrushanddirt,familymembersmaystaysilentlywithitforoveraday;orifabodyisfoundunattendedbyelephantsnotrelatedtoit,theymaypauseandstandbyforsometime.Theydothiswithanydeadelephant,recentlydeceasedorlongdepartedwithonlytheskeletonremaining.Itisprobablythesinglestrangestthingaboutthem,

CynthiaMosswrites:

Evenbare,bleachedoldelephantboneswillstopagroupiftheyhave

not seenthem before.It isso predictablethatfilmmakershave been

able to get shots of elephants inspecting skeletons by bringing the

bonesfromoneplaceandputtingtheminanewspotnearanelephant

pathwayorawaterhole.Inevitablythelivingelephantswillfeeland

movethebonesaround,sometimespickingthemupandcarryingthem


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awayforquitesomedistancebeforedroppingthem.Itisahaunting

andtouchingsightandIhavenoideawhytheydoit.

Understandably,formanyyearsitwasrumoredthatelephantshaddesignat-edgraveyards.Thishasprovedessentiallyuntrue,althoughtheirskeletonsoftendocollectinthesameplace,suchasnearawaterhole,wheretheailingandelderlytendtostaytowardstheendoftheirlivesandasMossnotes,sometimesdogetmovedaround.Themotherofadeadbabymaydrapeitoverhertusksandcarryitwithherfordays,ifsheisnotstandingvigil.

Elephantsevenreacttocarvedivory,longdivorcedfromtheoriginal

remains and altered and handled extensively. Poole writes of a woman

Eerie and deeply moving: Temporal glands streaming with heightened emotion,elephants stroke and lay brush on a dead friend.

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who came to visit Tsavo National Park wearing ivory bracelets: as an

elephantapproached,theparkwardencautionedhertohidethembehindherback;butwhentheelephantarrived,shereachedaroundbehindthewomanandcontemplativelyperusedthebraceletswithhertrunk.Poolethenhadafriendstagearepeatperformancelater,andthesamethinghappened.Conversely,elephantshavealsobeenobservedtobecomequietandpensiveinanareawhererelativesdied,evenyearsago,althoughtheboneshavelongbeenremoved.

Whileelephantsareunfailinglyinterestedintheremainsoftheirownkindinwhateverform,theyhaveoccasionallybeenknowntoburydeadrhinos, lions, and humans aswell. In some cases, the people wereonlysleeping,andawoketofindthemselvestrappedunderenormousheapsoffoliage.Othertimes,theyhavebeeninjuredorparalyzedwithfearbyafuriouselephantinerampage,whichcametoanabruptendwhentheele-phantperceivedthemlyingstillontheground,andswitchedinaninstantfromferociousself-defensetosolemnlyperformingitsritesforthedead.

The Half-Reasoning Animal

Creatures, I give you yourselves, said the strong, happy voice of Aslan.I give to you forever this land of Narnia. I give you the woods, thefruits, the rivers. I give you the stars and I give you myself. The DumbBeasts whom I have not chosen are yours also. Treat them gently andcherish them but do not go back to their ways lest you cease to be TalkingBeasts. For out of them you were taken and into them you can return.

C. S.Lewis,The Magicians Nephew

Forthosewhofindthistypeofevidencesentimentalized,dubiouslyinter-pretable,orotherwiseunsatisfactory,therearevariousnicesolidmeasure-

mentsthatprovideusefulbutcrudeindicatorsofelephantsrelativeintel-ligence.Atbirth,anelephantbrainisaboutathirditsadultsize.Ahumanbrainatbirthisaquarteritsadultsize,whereasforchimpsit ishalfandformostmammalsthefigureismorelike90percent.Agreaterspanofgrowthoutsidethewomblikethisaccompaniesamoreimportantrolethatnurtureandlearnedskillsplayintheanimalsmaturationasinfantstheyaremorehelplessanddependentthananaveragemammal,butasadultstherewillbemuchmorethattheycando.Theelephantbrainisalsonotableforitshighlevelofspindleneurons(associatedwithsociability),verylarge

temporallobesandhippocampus(theprimaryseatofmemoryprocessing),andconvolutedneocortex(linkedtogeneralcognitivecomplexity,commontootherintelligentspeciessuchasdolphinsandhigher-orderprimates).


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Elephant Society

Among the ElephantsByIainandOriaDouglas-Hamilton~Viking~1975~283pp.

Elephant Memories: Thirteen Years in the Life of an Elephant FamilyByCynthiaMoss~Chicago~orig.1988~364pp.~$22.50(paper)

Coming of Age with Elephants: A MemoirByJoycePoole~Hyperion~1996~304pp.

Elephant Biology

Elephants: Majestic Creatures of the WildByJeheskelShoshani~Rodale~1992~240pp.

The Flexible Giant: Seeing the Elephant WholeByCraigHoldrege~NatureInstitute~2003~65pp.~$12(paper)

The Amboseli ElephantsByCynthiaJ.Moss,HarveyCroze,andPhyllisC.Lee(eds.)

Chicago~2011~383pp.~$65(cloth)

Elephant Language

Silent Thunder: In the Presence of ElephantsByKatyPayne~Penguin~orig.1998~288pp.~$19(paper)

The Elephants Secret Sense: The Hidden Life of the Wild Herds of Africa

ByCaitlinOConnell~Chicago~orig.2007~264pp.~$15(paper)

Elephant Talk: The Surprising Science of Elephant CommunicationByAnnDowner~TwentyFirstCentury~2011~112pp.~$33.26(cloth)

Elephant History

The Life and Lore of the ElephantByRobertDelort(trans.I.MarkParis)~Abrams~1990~192pp.

The African Elephant: Twilight in EdenByRogerL.DiSilvestro~Wiley~1991~206pp.

The Asian Elephant: A Natural History

ByJ. C.Daniel~Natraj~orig.1998~306pp.~$31.50(cloth)

Elephas Maximus: A Portrait of the Indian ElephantByStephenAlter~HoughtonMifflin~2004~336pp.

ElephantByDanWylie~Reaktion~2008~224pp.~$19.95(paper)

Elephants in Captivity

Love, War, and Circuses: The Age-Old Relationship Between Elephants and HumansByEricScigliano~HoughtonMifflin~2002~368pp.

Elephants and Ethics: Toward a Morality of Coexistence

ByChristenWemmerandCatherineA.Christen(eds.)~JohnsHopkins~2008~483pp.

Entertaining Elephants: Animal Agency and the Business of the American CircusBySusanNance~JohnsHopkins~2013~294pp.~$55(hardcover)


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Elephants in Danger

The Fate of the ElephantByDouglasChadwick~SierraClub~1992~492pp.

Elephant Destiny: Biography of an Endangered Species in AfricaByMartinMeredith~PublicAffairs~orig.2001~256pp.~$14.95(paper)

Elephants on the Edge: What Animals Teach Us About HumanityByG. A.Bradshaw~Yale~2009~352pp.~$28(cloth)

Ivorys Ghosts: The White Gold of History and the Fate of ElephantsByJohnFrederickWalker~AtlanticMonthly~2009~304pp.~$25(cloth)

Elephant Rescue

Battle for the ElephantsByIainandOriaDouglas-Hamilton~Viking~1992~386pp.

ByMarkandDeliaOwens:The Eye of the Elephant: An Epic Adventure in the African Wilderness

Mariner~orig.1992~306pp.~$18.95(paper)

Secrets of the Savanna: Twenty-three Years in theAfrican Wilderness Unraveling the Mysteries of Elephants and People

Mariner~orig.2006~272pp.~$14.95(paper)

The Elephant Whisperer: My Life with the Herd in the African WildByLawrenceAnthonyandGrahamSpence

St.MartinsGriffin~orig.2009~384pp.~$16.99(paper)Love, Life, and Elephants: An African Love Story

ByDaphneSheldrick~FSG~2012~352pp.~$27(cloth)

Elephant Photography

The Art of Being an ElephantByChristineandMichelDenis-Huot~Whitestar~2003~220pp.

ElephantBySteveBloom~Chronicle~2006~224pp.

Walking Thunder: In the Footsteps of the African Elephant

ByCyrilChristoandMarieWilkinson~Merrell~2009~160pp.~$60(cloth)Elephant Reflections

ByDalePetersonandKarlAmann~California~2009~288pp.~$39.95(cloth)

Elephant Documentaries

Echo and Other Elephants~BBC~2008~362min.~$29.98(DVD)Reflections on Elephants~NationalGeographic~2010~55min.~$19.95(DVD)Battle for the Elephants ~ NationalGeographic~2013~50min.~$24.95(DVD)

Elephant Organizations

ElephantVoices:elephantvoices.org

TheElephantSanctuary:elephants.comSavetheElephants:savetheelephants.org

TheDavidSheldrickWildlifeTrust:sheldrickwildlifetrust.orgTheElephantListeningProject:birds.cornell.edu/brp/elephant


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Caitrin Nicol


Butwhenyouaskwhatthesethingsmeanas lived,astranslatedinto

capabilitiesandactions,youfindyourselfbackinthemushyterritoryofobservingquasi-mythicalorvery-human-seemingbehaviorandtryingtoanalyzeitssignificancefromtheoutside.Andinthecategoryofthingsyoumightbepronetoromanticize,attheverytopthereisafacultythatalsotopsthe listof featuressupposedto distinguishmanfromanimalandthatcould,ifproperlydeciphered,unlocktherestofelephantexperienceforusinawaynothingelsewill.TheRomansfanciedthattheelephantshadreason,andunderstoodthelanguageofmen,thoughtheycouldnotanswerthem,thenineteenth-centuryhistorianJohnRankingobserved.

TheRomanswerenotalone.WhatelephantsmaybelackingmostofallisnotlanguagebuttheRosettaStonetoprovetheyhaveitandclueusintowhatonGodsgreenearththeyretalkingaboutallthetime.

Animalcommunicationisatrickysubject.Evencomparativelylowlycrittershavemind-bogglingwaysofsignalinginformationtoeachother.Bees,toconveytootherbeesthelocationofhomeorfoodorsomeotherdesireddestination,performabeewaggledancethatsimulatesthedirec-tionsinscaled-downformandtherearedifferentdialectsforthischore-ographyaspracticedbythesamespeciesindifferentregionsoftheworld.

Amotherbatreturningtothecavewithfoodforherlittleonecansome-howinstantlypickouthisspecificcheepingfromthethousandsofothershuddledonthewall.Thereisevenjustthedetailedsocialprofileofalltheneighbordogsyourpetchecksoutfromsniffinghydrantsonhiswalk.

However,thissortofthingdoesnotnecessarilyrisetothelevelcon-sideredworthyofthelabellanguagethoughdeterminingwherethatlevelshouldbeishardtosay.Eventakingintoaccounttheimpressivenessofalltheseformsofinterchange,andthefactthatthereismuchaboutthemyettobediscoveredandexplained,weriskdefiningthetermoutof

itsusefulmeaningifwestretchittoencompasssomuchthathuman(orhumanlike)powersofcomplexabstractdiscourseceasetoberecognizablyextraordinary.

Sincetimeimmemorial[speech]hasbeencorrectlyacknowledgedtobemansmostoutstandingtrait,Jonaswrote(thoughnotaddressingitinhisownessay).ThereisanintricatephilosophicallinkatleastintheWesterntraditionbetweenlanguageandbeliefsandchoices,andthusmoralreason-ingandself-determination.(Cultureswithahighergeneralestimationofanimalsthanoursmaynotpreciselysharethisview,ormayjustacceptthat

animalshavelanguagethatisobscuretopeople.Itisinterestingtoconsiderhowtheeverydayproximitytodifferentkindsofcreaturesmayhaveaffectedthedevelopmentofthesebeliefs.Thatis,elephants,higher-orderprimates,


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andthelikearenotnativetotheWest,andthusourbasiccommonsense

ofwhatanimalscanthinkordocalibratesatthelevelof,say,horsesanddogsnottomaligntheintelligenceofhorsesanddogs,whichwetendtounderappreciateanyway.ButinAsiaandAfrica,wheretheresbeenmuchmorenaturalinteractionbetweenpeopleandverysmartanimalsandnotasnoveltiesbutasmembersofothercommunitiesmostculturesseemtotakeamoreexpansiveviewofanimalpotential.)

For a careful analysis of the language question from the Westernphilosophicalperspective,theinterestedreadermayturntovirtueethi-cistAlasdairMacIntyresDependent Rational Animals(1999),whichwalks

through the discussion on this point while focusing especially on theexampleof dolphins.Remindingusthatmuchthatisintelligentanimalin us is not specifically human, MacIntyre goes to battle with someresidual Cartesian silliness, and takes care (as many philosophers havenot)tolocateanimalsonaspectrumofhigherandlesserintelligenceadog,forinstance,mayhavemoreincommonwithapersonthanwithacrabinmostsignificantrespectsdrawingoutthe implicationsateachstagetillhearrivesatconsciousaction.

Amoredistilled,whimsicalpresentationappearsinC. S.Lewissalle-

gorical world of Narnia, with the contrast between ordinary creaturesandtheTalkingBeasts.Theiranimalnaturesgivethemcertaininnatequalitiessteadfastnessinabear,valorinahorsebuttheirspeechgivesthemcontrolovertheiranimalinstinctsbythepowersofthoughtandself-directionitendows.Theyarethemoralequalsofhumancharactersbecauseofthis,andanyonewhotreatsthemasequivalenttoordinaryanimalsinsteadissuretobesuspectinotherways.

LateintheNarniaseriesthereisamontageofcreation,showinghowAslan,theChristfigure,firstdrewthemoutfromamongordinaryani-

malsandcalledthemintobeing.Theysing:Wehearandobey.Weareawake.Welove.Wethink.Wespeak.Weknowallthingsthatwouldbeimpossiblewithouttheirnewawareness.

AndAslan,instructingthem,saysfirstandforemostthathegives themthemselves.Inonesense,thepowertoriseaboveyourinstinctisthepowertobeotherthanyouare,tonotbeyournaturalself.Butinadeepersense,itisthepowertobewhoyou mostare,totakeresponsibilityforwhatyouthinkanddoandtoguideyourselftowardsthebetter(ornot).

Canelephantsdothat?

Weknowtheyundergoextensiveeducation:babiesfromtheirwholedotingfamilies,newlyfertilecowsguidedbythemoreexperienced,


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latelyindependentbullstaggingalongaftertheirmoremagisterialsupe-

riors.Insituationswheretheseteachingopportunitiesareabsentbabiesorphaned orseparated, cowsgiving birth alone inzoos, teenagemalesrunningrampant inplaceswhereall the olderbulls have beenshot fortheirtuskstheirnecessityisobvious.Asgoodaguideasinborninstinctisinsomanyrespects,thisisoneanimalforwhichsociety,too,makesallthedifferenceintheworld.

While much of what it means to be a better elephant is conveyedbyexamplealongwithear flaps,trunkmovements,smellsignals,andotherformsof bodylanguageelephantsvocalizeprodigiouslyaswell,

engaginginelaboratediscussionsaspartofeveryactivity.Theyhaveavocalrangeoftenoctaves(apianohasseven),anduptothree-quartersofthesoundstheyproduceareinaudibletohumanears.TheirinfrasoniccallshavebeenstudiedextensivelybyKatyPayne,awhale-callspecialistwhoin1984foundherselfatthePortlandZooobservingelephantscom-municatingsilentlythroughconcretewalls.Thethrobbingorshud-deringintheairremindedherofabasslineonanorganthatdescendedpast the point of hearing. In subsequent months at the zoo and yearsinthefield,sherecordedanddecipheredmanyoftheselowfrequencies

withthehelpofspectrogramanalysisandJoycePoole,whohadalreadylearnedtorecognizedozensoftherumbles,hoots,trumpets,andwhistlesthat are audible: lets go, Im lost, different referents to family andnonfamilymembers,andmore.(Conversely,likeothertrainableanimals,captiveelephantshaveaminimalfamiliaritywithhumanlanguages,rec-ognizingmanywordsspokenbytheircaretakers.Recently,anelephantnamedKoshikataSouthKoreanzooeventookituponhimselftolearntoarticulatehumanspeechsounds:bystickinghistrunkinhismouth,hecanconformittosayhello,no,sit down,lie down,andgoodinKorean.In

1983,therewerereportsofanelephantinKazakhstannamedBatyrwhocouldsayBatyrisgoodinRussianandtwentyotherphrases,buttheywerenotfolloweduponscientifically.)Thework,tantalizingbutinearlystagesyet,continuesattheElephantListeningProject.

Meanwhile, Caitlin OConnell-Rodwell, originally an insect biolo-gist, got involved when the Namibian government hired her to attacktheperennialproblemofkeepingelephantsfromraidingcrops.Fences,ditches,sirens,andborderrowsofchilipeppershadallfailedtoprotectlocalfarmerslivelihoodsorwereimpracticabletomaintain.OConnell-

Rodwellssolutionwastoisolateaparticularelephantalarmcalloutofarecordingoflayeredvocalizationsandrigituptoplaybackwhentheycametooclose.Thereactionwasastonishing:withnoneofthecustomary


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deliberationorsignalingfromaleader,theyinstantlyflappedouttheirearsandwhooshedaway.

Herlargerfinding,however,recountedinher2007bookThe ElephantsSecret Sense,wastoprovethattheycommunicatenotonlyinfrasonicallybut seismicallythrough waves in theground. This radicallyexpandedtheirknownrangeof contact,indicatingthattheycankeeptabsonwhoiswhereandwhatisgoingonbyfootfallsmanymilesaway.

Elephantfeetarepaddedwithakindoffat,similartothat foundinaquaticmammals,thatisidealforacoustictransmission.(Infact,itwas

onceusedforcandleoil,justlikewhaleblubber.)Seismicwavestravelingthroughthegroundarepickedupbythepaddingandtransmittedupthefootandlegbonestothehead,wheresmallerpocketsofthesamefatcon-necttotheauditorysystem.

(Because of this enhanced pedestrian sensitivity, the feet are alsoespecially susceptible to distresssometimes, as MarkShand writes inhis1999bookTravels on My Elephant,whenanelephantgoesrogue,itisbecauseastickthatitwasusingtocleanbetweenitstoeshassplinteredoff and lodged in out of reach. And severe elephant foot problems are

depressinglycommoninzoosandothercaptivesituations,wheretheani-malsmuststandonconcretesomuchofthetimeinsteadofwalkinglongdistancesoversoftdirtandvegetation.)

iStockphoto


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OConnell-Rodwellsdiscoverymadeimmediatesenseofanynumberof

strangeelephantphenomena:theirhabitofsynchronizedfreezing,fallingstilltogether tolistenon tiptoe toanincoming signal; theirdisturbedbehaviorjustbeforeamajorseismiceventsuchasanearthquakeortsunami;thewaythatbulls,whodontcasuallyintrudeonmatriarchalgroups,wouldseemtoknowfromfarawayexactlywhenacowwasgoingintoestrusandheadstraightforher.LongbeforePayneandOConnell-Rodwellswork,when early ethologists were just getting the lay of the land and usingradiotracking tomonitorelephant movements, they werebaffled by theelephantsabilitytoseeminglycoordinateacrosslongdistancesandchangecoursenear-simultaneously,regardlessofwinddirection(andthusscent)oranyotherexplanationtheycouldthinkof.WedidntmentionESPopenly,saidIainDouglas-Hamilton,butsomeofuswerereadytoentertaintheideathattheseanimalsweresendingbloodymindwavestoeachother.

With hard work and careful observation, a better explanation waseventuallyforthcoming,astheremayonedaybeforotherelephant-relat-edphenomenathatseemalittlespooky.Manypeople,forinstance,reporta kind of sixth sense about when an elephant is in the area, one theycannot actually perceive inany identifiable way but seem almost nevertobewrongabout.Pooledescribesitasavibrancyintheair,acertainwarmth,orbycontrastastillness,anemptinessinthelandscapewhenelephantsareabsent.Conceivably,thiselephantradarmaybeproducedbythetalkingtremors,feltviscerallyratherthanaudiblybutlessobvi-ouslyexplicableisPoolessimilarsenseofwhethersheisabouttofindacarcasswithivoryattached.

LyallWatsonsfascinating2002bookElephantomsislargelydevotedtoexploringthissortofnot-intrinsically-unreasonableeventthatverges

on the uncanny. One of his more straightforward stories concerns anincidentwitnessedbyarangerinAddoPark,SouthAfrica,hometoalineofelephantswithspecialhistoricalreasonstodistrusthumanbeings.Anefforttorepairafencehadresultedinamotherandbabybeingstrandedonoppositesidesofit.Becomingveryagitatedastheworkersapproached,therangersaid,thecowstopped,puthertrunkthroughthecablestocalmthecalf andseemedtobethinkingabouthernextmove.He saidhecouldnotprovewhathappenednext,nordidtheotherrangersbelievehim,butthisiswhathesaw:

Shetalkedtothatkid.Shetoldhimexactlywhattodo,andwithout

anyfurther fuss,he did.He turnedout awayfromher and the fence

andwentintothedeep shadeof atreetwentyyards away,wherehe


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stoodmotionless,becomingvirtuallyinvisible.Iknewexactlywhere

hewas,butcouldhardlyfindhimagainwhenIlookedaway.Isawherrushdowntothegapandoutontotheroad,andasthetruckappeared,

sheraisedahugecloudofdust,stampingandblowing,makingshortchargesatthevehicle,frighteningthecrewsufficientlytogetthemto

backoffandgoaway. . . . Andwhenthenoiseandconfusionwasatits

height,thecalfincamouflagemadehismove.Hesidledovertothefence, slipped quietly through the gap, and wentover towait inthe

coverofthesucculentforest.I was certain then that the cows entire performance hadbeen a

brilliantdiversion,beautifullyexecuted,forassoonasshewassurehe

hadmadegoodhisescape,sheignoredthetruckanditsoccupantsandturnedherback,sashayinginsatisfactionbacktojoinhercalfinthe

safetyofthepark.

Evidently it is not uncommon for those who spend their time outmonitoringoratleastminglingwithwildlifetowitnessoccurrencesthatgobeyondconventionalassumptionsaboutwhatanimalscanknowordo.WhenelephantwhispererLawrenceAnthonydiedin2012,thetwoherdsoftraumatizedrogueelephantshehadsavedandresocializedcrossedthe

vastSouthAfricangamereservewheretheylived,apparentlytopaytheirlastrespects.Theelephantshadnotbeenanywherenearthehouseforayearandahalfprior,Anthonyssonreported,andthetrekacrosstheparkcouldtakeaday,butwithinhoursofhisdeaththeyallshowedup.

Payne writes of a conversation she had with a senior scout fromNtaba Mangwe park in which she asked him how he speaks of eventsthatseemtobeoutsidenormalexperience.YOU JUST TELL WHATHAPPENED,hesurprisedherwithashoutandburningstare.YOUJUST TELL WHAT YOU SAW!

Youmustsimplytellwhathappened,herepeatedquietlyasshesatthereinshock.OnlyGodknowswhatitmeans.

Unpacking this remarkable exchange yields several items of note.First,thereisthedynamicpresenceoftheunknownindailylife.Second,thereisthequestionofwhattodoaboutit.Becauseitisunknowndoesnotmeanthatitisnecessarilyunknowablenorthatitisnt.Thechoicetotellaboutitrepresentsahopefuleffortthatitmightbeunderstood,though not a presumptive one: there is no undue effort to explain, toimposesomekindoftheoryonit,butanopennesstowhateveritmight

reveal. But finally, on the optimistic side of understanding, there is areminderoftheawesomesignificanceoflanguageintheurgingto tellwhat happened.Whatcouldbemorecrucialinthesearchfortruththan


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thisabilitytotranslateindividualexperienceintocommoncomprehensi-

bility?Youjusttellwhathappened,andsomeoneelsewillhearit.ThewebsiteLettersOfNote.comisawonderful,weirdarchiveofreal

epistles between all kinds of people in all times and places. A strikingproportion of them, however, seem to be letters from former slaves totheirerstwhilemasterssomeforgivingandgenerous,somerighteouslysly,afewburningwithrevenge,allatvaryingdegreesofwrittenliteracy,butuniformlypowerfulforthisreason:theysay, I have a mind. I have anindependent soul that never once belonged to you although my labor and all the

circumstances of my life unjustly did. You found it convenient to believe that I

was not a thinking, feeling person just like you no doubt supported by elaborate

rationalizations from the whole world around us which ought to have known

better but you cannot deny this anymore, because here I am, free and awake. I

love. I think. I speak. I know.

Itmustbeemphasizedthatthedirectcomparisonhereisnotfromtheharmandinjusticeofanimalcaptivitytothoseofhumanslavery,butintheabilitytocommandtheattentionofsomeoneinpowerwhodoesnotwanttoacknowledgethematall.Totheextentthatelephantsandotheranimalshavethoughtsandmemoriesandfeelingsandexperiencesthattheyarecapableofexpressingintheirowntongue,whatadisadvantageitistothemthatwehavenotcrackedthatcode.Ourfailuretounder-standthemmeansthatthereisnowaywecantrulyassessthelimitsoftheirabilitiesorsayforsurewhattheyarenotsaying,andmakesiteasytoignoretheirvalidityforanyonewithreasonto.Noanimalisgoingtocomeforwardwithawrittenmissiveinahumanlycomprehensiblelan-guagedetailingwrongsorsimplyprovinginourowntermsthescopeofitsexistencethat,atleast,isanabilitythatisdistinctlyours.Butifthey

could,theywouldhavealottotell.

Of Love and Liberty

When I saw this place, I told her that thered be no more chains. Shesfree now. And I just thought about, I dont know who was the first toput a chain on her, but Im glad to know that I was the last to take itoff. Shes free at last. Ill miss you, Shirley. My big girl.

SolomonJames,longtimecaretakerofazooelephant,onher

admissiontotheElephantSanctuaryafterforty-sixyears

incaptivity,givingherabathforthelasttime

Ironically,ithasbeentheelephantsmisfortunethatpeoplefinditwonder-ful.Anuglier,moreboring,orlessgraciousanimalmighthavebeenleft


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morealonetoliveoutitslifeinpeaceandfreedom,althoughcompetition

forhabitatwouldhaveeventuallybecomeaproblemanyway.Butbecausetheelephantissointriguing,ithasbeendragoonedintoanynumberofunhappycircumstances,outofasometimesinnocent,sometimeslesssohumanwishtopenetrateorpossessitsmystery.

MyfirstdirectencounterwithanelephanttooktheformofatrunktipmaterializinginmylapasIsatinacoveredmotorrickshawindown-town Pune, Maharashtra. What do you do with the sudden apparitionof awrithing,disembodiednose?Apparentlyyouplaceacoininside it.Thiscoinisrelayedtothecollectionofthenosesownersridersittingup

topandsteeringhischargethroughthechaosofIndiantraffic,wherehegetstomakeyourdaybygracingitwithanelephantandyougettogivehimmoney.Imetanotherelephantafewweekslater,standingoutsideatempledispensingblessingsinexchangeforacoinforthehandlerand,ifyoufeltlikeit,abananafortheelephant,whichwouldbeeatenpeelandall.Then,foronemagicalmoment,thetrunkwaslaidacrossthecrownofyourheadinbenediction.Istoodinlinewithcoinsandbananasgettingblessingsallafternoon.

Thesewereboth thrilling experiences, but looking back,thoseele-

phantswereconscriptedintounhealthy,lonelylivespreciselybecauseofthe monetarypotential intourists likeme.Inthesameveinbutworse,luxuryresortsinThailandkeepbabyelephantsonhandtoentertainanddelight visitors. Where and how these babies are obtainedand whatbecomesofthemwhentheyaremorethanayearortwooldandnolongerusefulforthepurposeisadismalthingtocontemplate;andinanycase,noelephantthatyoungiswelloffseparatedfromitsmotherandfamily,nomatterhowlavishtheaccommodations.

TrainedelephantsinAsiahaveacelebratedbutdisintegratinghistory.

Numerous Sanskrit texts on elephantology reveal tremendous respectfor the power and dignity of elephants and the care that was taken tounderstandandtreatthemhumanely.Amahout,theelephantskeeper/trainer/companion,wouldideallystaywiththesameanimalforlife,almostasifinmarriage(thoughtheotherkindofmarriagefitintothepicturesomewhere,asthiswasatradeoftenpassedonfromfathertoson).

Withglobalization,mahoutcultureisgoingthewayofotheroldtra-ditions.Itislessofafamilybusiness,thetrainingismoreslapdash,andmanyofthemenwhowouldmakethemostaffectionateanddedicated

elephantcompanionsfind,understandably,thattheyhavebetteropportu-nitieselsewhere.AsStephenAlterwritesinElephas Maximus: A Portraitof the Indian Elephant(2004),thisleavesthekindofmenwhohavefew


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otheroptions,butwhoforthesameunderlyingreasonsmaynotbeagood

fitwithelephantsatall.Theresultisneglect,misunderstanding,conflictandabuse,andbitterfrustrationonbothsides,feedingonitselfformoreofthesame.Butthedemandforserviceandshowelephantsisonlygoingup,andsomeonehastotakecareofthem.

Meanwhile,therestoftheworldnaturallywantsinontheelephantactionwhowouldnt?andsocamethediaspora.

As early as the ninth century, with a present from Caliph Harunal-Rashid to Charlemagne, elephants were offered as special gifts toEuropeanroyaltyandmarchedfromcourttocourtuntiltheydiedofcold

andloneliness.AfewsuchstorieshavebeenfictionalizedNobellaureateJos Saramagos The Elephants Journey (2008, translated 2010); young-adultfantasyauthorJudithTarrsHis Majestys Elephant(1993);andBBCWorldServiceproducerChristopherNicholsonsbleaklyenchantingfirstnovelThe Elephant Keeper(2009).Setineighteenth-centuryEngland,itbeginswiththepurchasebyarespectedgentlemanoftwohalf-deadbabyelephants from a merchant ship just returned from the East Indies. Astableboy,Tom,takesashinetothem,ismaderesponsiblefortheircare,andbecomesinseparablefromoneofthemforever.(Theotherisresold

andeventuallykilled.)Tomsattachmenttothiselephant,Jenny,openshiseyestothequag-

mireofhumanmotivationthatgivesrisetotheunjustworldtheylivein.Likemanyotherstories,thepresenceofananimalasakeycharacteroffersacompellingstand-inforthosemembersofsocietywhodonthavepowerandmetaphoricallycantspeakforthemselves.*Sometimes,theybecometalesof asympathetichumanfindinghisownvoicetorepresentthosewholiterallycannot.

Tom,however,isnotsimplyaherooravictim.HisdevotiontoJenny

alsoleadshimtobetrayhissweetheart,abandonhisfamily,ignoregraveevil, and descend into a sordid London underworld whose misery heactivelycontributesto.Ineverychoiceth

Do elephants have soul?

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