Post on 14-Dec-2015
Communication
Communication is a characteristic of humans in all cultures and in all stages of development
Typically we use language to communicate Communication can occur without some type of
verbal exchange However, communication can occur using
interactions via gestures, facial expressions and body language
Language development has a biological basis and is specifically preprogrammed in human beings
It is also inter related to other domains such as cognition, psychosocial and motor development
Speech
Speech is the verbal mode used for communication Composed of individual sounds called phonemes Allophones are variations of the same phoneme Phonological rules are used to combine phonemes
in the correct order in order to produce words Word /cat/ is a combination of three sounds /k/,
/q/, /t/ Three sounds are combined using phonological
rules (consonant is usually followed by a vowel sound, vowel is the nucleus of a syllable, etc.)
Helps us to generate thousands of words with different meanings
Voice and articulation Vocal folds vibrate to create a complex tone that is composed of
many frequencies Movements of the lips, tongue and teeth together with breath
support produce various sounds Try out two sounds – one voiced and the other voiceless Articulation is the manner in which the oral and nasal cavities
come together to modify the air stream that comes from the larynx
Speech can be analyzed in three ways: Perceptual: Use of our auditory skills to receive and analyze
messages Physiology helps to us to understand production features of
various allophones Acoustical study utilized to quantify parameters of sound
frequency, intensity and time
The respiratory mechanism
Pulmonary system and the chest wall system Pulmonary system
Lungs and airways Upper respiratory system (oral and nasal cavities) Lower respiratory system (larynx, bronchial
system and the lungs) Chest wall system
Rib cage, abdomen and diaphragm http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=HiT621PrrO0&feature=player_embedded#!
Larynx
Cartilaginous tube Connects to the respiratory system (trachea and lungs)
inferiorly Superiorly to the vocal tract and oral cavity Position important because of its relationship and
integration between three subsystems Pulmonary power house Laryngeal valve Supraglottic vocal tract resonator
Lungs are the power supply for aerodynamic (subglottic tracheal) pressure that blows vocal cords apart – sets them into vibration
Vocal cords oscillate in a series of compressions and rarefactions
Modulate the subglottic pressure or transglottal pressure of short pulses of sound energy to produce human voice
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z_ZGqn1tZn8
Laryngeal system
Vocal cords can be moved in several ways Spread apart (abducted)
Gap between the vocal cords called the glottis Air moves in and out freely when gap is wide open Sounds harsh and noisy when somewhat constricted
Pulled together (adducted) Airway is blocked Air pressure builds up under the vocal cords causing them to
bulge up Eventually blown apart to release a puff of air Vocal folds fall back due to elastic recoil or aerodynamic effect Air pressure decreases when speed of airflow increases
(Bernoulli effect) Tensed or stretched
Laryngeal system
Vibrating vocal cords produce puffs of air Rate of vocal cord vibration (fundamental
frequency) 125 per second in males 250 per second in adult females 500 per second in young children (infants) Measured in Hertz (one complete cycle of vibration
per second) Fundamental frequency changes constantly to
produce intonation Faster they vibrate the higher the pitch or frequency
Laryngeal system
Greater the tension in the vocal cords Thinner the vocal cords Higher the frequency
Decrease in tension in the vocal cords Thicker the vocal cords Lower the frequency
The amount of air released will also change the loudness Greater the amount air released softer the tone Lesser the amount of air released the louder the tone Forceful adduction increase the loudness
Supralaryngeal system
Sound from the larynx has to be shaped or modulated by the supralaryngeal system
Complex sound is composed of a series of simple periodic sounds (pure tones) called harmonics
Each harmonic has a unique frequency and amplitude
Frequency is measured in cycles per second or Hertz (Hz)
Lowest harmonic is the fundamental frequency (Fo) – represents the rate of vocal cord vibration
Each subsequent harmonic is 120 Hz higher – 240 Hz, 360 Hz, etc.
Supralaryngeal system
Amplitude represented in decibels (dB) of sound pressure level or intensity level
Amplitude harmonics vary in a predictable manner
Fo has the highest amplitude Harmonics drop off at 12dB per octave 12 dB drop between the fundamental
frequency and first harmonic Graph (amplitude spectrum) shows amplitude
and frequency of each harmonic
Supralaryngeal system
Sound traveling through the upper airways (supralaryngeal or vocal tract) is modulated by shape and size of the tract
Some harmonics are amplified and some reduced (damped)
Humming sound of phonation acquires overtones called resonant or formant frequencies
As the cavity changes to form different sounds resonance or formants also change
Supralaryngeal system
Articulation Process of forming sounds by movement of the
articulators Vocal or supralaryngeal tract made up of tubes from
the larynx to the opening of the mouth and nose Oral cavity – lips to the back of the throat – changed
by the articulators Nasal cavity – from the nares to the velopharynx –
fixed Pharyngeal cavity between the vocal folds to the
nasal cavity
Supralaryngeal system
Pharyngeal oral-nasal system Pharynx
Divided into 3 cavities Laryngopharynx, oralpharynx and nasopharynx Direction of sound determined by the position of the velum
(soft palate) Velopharynx – velum (extension of the hard palate) and
pharyngeal walls Open position – nasal radiation for nasal sounds Closure of the velopharyngeal port for oral sounds
Upward movement of the velum Inward movement of the pharynx Different types of movements Cleft palate or short palate causes hypernasality
Supralaryngeal system
Articulation Coordination of fixed (teeth, alveolar ridge, hard
palate) and mobile (tongue, jaw, and soft palate) articulators
Upper jaw or maxilla and the mandible have teeth which help to produce sounds such as /’/ /;/ /f/ /v/
Alveolar ridge –bony shelf of the maxilla help to produce sounds such as /t/, /d/, /z/ and /s/
Hard palate which extends from the alveolar ridge helps to produce /c/ /y/, /j/,/./
Suprapharyngeal system
Oral cavity Lower jaw or mandible – moves the lower lip
and tongue Tempromandibular joint – hinge like movement Up and down as well as slightly forward and
backward and side to side Produces vowel sounds such as /e/, /i/, /o/ Movements produced by muscles
Temporalis Masseter Geniohyoid Mylohyoid
Suprapharyngeal system
Tongue Most important articulator Shortened, lengthened, widened, narrowed, flattened
and thickened No skeleton – skeletal support from the hyoid bone
and the jaw Attached to the palate, pharynx and the epiglottis Capable of complicated movements due to its own
musculature Body – main bulk – vowel production Tip – apex – 50% of consonants Blade – behind the tip – small number of sounds (/c/) Dorsum – back – velar sounds Root – front wall of the pharynx
Supralaryngeal system
Oral cavity Lips
Upper and lower lips contribute by opening and closing the oral cavity
Lower lip moved by the jaw – greater movement than the upper lip
Allows production of sounds such as /p/, /b/, and /m/
Phonetics
Four or five descriptors typically used to classify consonants Voicing Nasality Manner of articulation Place of articulation Secondary articulation /n/ is a voiced, alveolar, nasal, stop /f/ is a unvoiced, labiodental, fricative
Vowels are classified according to 3 characteristics Height – high, mid, low Frontness/backness – front, central or back Lip shape – spread, rounded, normal All vowels are voiced,
Phonetics
Suprasegmentals Classified according to:
Loudness Pitch Duration
Subject (noun) vs. subject (verb) Emphasis called stress Intonation used to differentiate between a
statement and a question (it’s a good time vs. it’s a good time?)
Language Complex and dynamic system of conventional symbols that is used in
various modes for thought and communication Langauge evolves within specific historical, social, and cultural contexts Language is rule governed
Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantic Pragmatic
Language learning is determined by biological, cognitive, psychosocial and environmental factors
Effective use of language requires understanding of human interaction (sociocultural roles, nonverbal cues and motivation)
Multifaceted behavior that is under constant change New advances in technology Dialects
Language structure
Phonology is the rules that govern combination of phonemes or sounds
Morphology is the study word structure Free morphemes (e.g., dog) Bound morphemes (e.g., s)
Syntax of the word order of language Subject followed by a verb which is followed by an
object Semantics
Referential meaning – meaning assigned to individual words (the word car induces a mental picture of a car), adult vocabulary of 80,000 words
Relational meaning – combination of referents Figurative meaning
Language structure
Pragmatics – rules for talking or the rules for what we say and how we say it Speech act conforms to the context Initiation Turn taking Commenting Requesting Termination Repair
Prelinguistic development Characterized by child’s exploration of his environment Cognitive, motor, and social domains develop in parallel to this
development At the end of this period the child learns to use words as
referents (abstract symbols of actual referents) First three months
Human voice calming effect when the infant is upset Caregivers constantly provide stimulation in the form of
auditory and visual input Develops into an early schema Crying is used to signal hunger or discomfort which will
result is satisfaction of the need (caregiver will produce a bottle)
Vowels emerge during periods of satisfaction
Prelinguistic development
Vowels are combined with back of throat sounds (/k/ and /g/) in the second month (called vocal play or cooing)
Prolongation of vowel sounds appears next Turning head towards a voice and responding
vocally to the speech of caregivers is also observed
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k2YdkQ1G5QI http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=Btg9PiT0sZg&feature=related
Prelinguistic development
Fourth to the twelfth month http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EPKum-
YIWnw&feature=related Consonant vowel combinations are strung
together and practiced during times of comfort and content (babbling)
Sounds produced are not specific to the native language
Emergence of suprasegmental features (rhythm and flow)
Five to nine months the child expands on prelinguistic behavior
Prelinguistic development
Variegated babbling replaces the repetitive babbling
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xaZSnwD_Zik&feature=related
Echolalia emerges towards the end of this period Child attempts to imitate the caregiver’s utterances http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=qS3GVCcIIKg&NR=1 Meaning is not associated with these imitations Infant understands angry intonations, his name
and some words They start to pay attention to conversation
Language development 12 months to 48 months Single word utterances
First words emerge at approximately 12 months of age Child uses single words (holophrases) just as competent
speakers do to convey meaning relations Relations are context based and the meaning is about the
here and now Object names and actions (e.g., eat for hungry) Consonant vowel or vowel consonant combinations Continues until 18 months of age Understands more words than he produces First 50 words are holophrases Not aware of the single sounds that form the words After 50 words they become more aware of the phonology
and start to combine sounds in a variety of ways to form different words
Language development Two word utterances
18 months to 24 months Best studied within the context the utterances are produced
(mommy shoe may mean different things in different contexts)
Morphological stage Marked by expansion in utterance length 27 to 30 months Begin to produce phrases (my doggie) and clauses (my
doggie eat) Preparation for adult sentence structure (agent-action-object) Inflections also appear to change the type and the meaning
of the sentence Caregivers are constantly stimulating the infant Caregivers speak with less complex language with children They provide expansions
Language Development
Development of syntax 31 to 34 months Continue to add detail Development of questions and imperatives (with
appropriate word order) Engage in conversations Take turns, repair may or may not be successful
Sentence embedding Phrases and clauses are embedded within each other
to create more complex utterances (put it under the table or I like the boy who helped)
Pragmatics continues to improve (more turns during conversation and the meaning of pausing - to pause for the communication partner to respond and that it is signal for the end of the utterance)
Language development
Co-joining sentences Complete utterances Begin to consider the perspective of the listener Continue to embed and start cojoining sentence (I
like cookies and I ate them all) Refining language skills
School experience places the child in a different environment with different interactions
Cognition continues to play a role Formalizes the language channels by learning to
read, write, and spell Uses language now to learn other concepts Development of metalinguistics (assess
phonological, syntax and semantic rules)
Communication disorders
Developmental delays or acquired problems 17% have communication disorders 11% have some type of hearing loss 6% a speech disorder Speech disorder includes disorders of voice,
articulation and fluency Language disorder refers to comprehension
and production of language
Language disorders
Language disorders in children Difficulty in acquiring language Cognitive impairment/developmental delay
Language impairment of varying degrees
As they grow the gap between their chronological age and language age continues to expand
Expressive language is shorter in length and less complex
Semantics and pragmatics are also a problem
Language disorders Autism
Social interaction Caregivers report that the child started to learn language but
then stopped Exhibit echolalia Usual or peculiar differences Person stores and produces the utterances but does not
process the utterances internally Hearing impairment
Severity of language impairment depends on the type and severity of the hearing loss
Evaluated by an audiologist Appropriate hearing may be prescribed Hearing aids apply hearing but they do not restore hearing Cochlear implants give direct stimulation to the cochlear Supplement their language with speech reading and manual
signs
Language disorders
Language disorders in children Specific language impairment
No cognitive, social, sensory, or motor problems
Demonstrate delays in language development Lack of achieving linguistic milestones Comprehend more than they produce Difficulties extracting irregularities of language Morphological disorders are evident Vocabulary growth might also be a problem Pragmatics may also be affected
Language disorders Neglect and abuse
Lack of maternal interaction has a negative effect on language development
Pragmatics is a severe problem They do not initiate and restrict their utterances in
conversation Traumatic brain injury
Effect on language varies with the site of lesion, degree and age of insult
Cognitive deficits such as attention, memory, perception, organization and problem solving are also affected
I million children and adolescents incur TBI Language deficits include deficits in comprehension and
difficulty with figurative language such as idioms, metaphors and proverbs
Problems with story grammar and sequencing parts of a narrative may also be affected
Language disorders
Language disorders in adults - Aphasias Disruption of blood supply to the brain Damage to neural tissue Degenerative disease Other problems co-exist with language
impairments (poor judgment, sensory or motor impairments, memory problems)
Associated swallowing or motor speech disorder
Language disorders
Fluent or Wernicke's aphasia http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aVhYN7NTIKU)
Non-fluent or Broca’s aphasia (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1aplTvEQ6ew)
Language disorders
Augmentative and alternative communication If the person is not capable of developing functional
speech, they may need to use an AAC system Total communication approach
No tech (manual sign language) Low tech (manual communication boards) Mid tech (static display devices) High tech (dynamic display devices)
Caregivers feel that use of AAC prevents further development of language but it only enhances language development
Strategies need to be taught on how to use the AAC systems