Post on 26-Aug-2018
Keywordscowry
manikongo
Essential Questions• Whatsimilaritiesanddifferencesemergedamongthekingdomsof
centralandsouthernAfrica?
• WhatsocialandgenderstructuresemergedinAfricankingdoms,empires,andcity-states?
• HowdidChristianityandIslamreachAfrica?
• WhatAfricanreligiousdevelopmentstookplaceamongthepeoplesofsub-SaharanAfrica?
• HowdidtheriseofIslamserveasaunifyingculturalforceinsub-SaharanAfrica?
• WhatwerethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenEuropeanandsub-SaharancontactswiththeIslamicworld?
Central and South Africa
Unit 4, Lesson 19
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Kingdoms of Central and South AfricaInthesavannaandplainsofcentralAfrica,riverssuchastheKwangoandZambezicutthroughthegeography.Severalpowerfulcity-statesformed,suchastheKongoandZimbabwekingdoms.BantumigrationsreachedtheZambeziRiverbythefifthcentury.Byabout1200C.E.,BantumigrationshadestablishedsettlementsacrosscentralandsouthernAfrica.TheseinteriorsettlementsweremostlyuntouchedbyIslam,whichremainedconcentratedinthetradingcentersofthetrans-SaharanandIndianOceantraderoutes.After1000C.E.,manyofthecentralandsouthernAfricansettlementsbegantoformlargerstates.
Acrosssub-SaharanAfrica,communitieswerebuiltonkinshipnetworks.Kinshipnetworksreliedonasenioritysysteminwhichacouncilofmaleheadsoffamiliesledthecommunity,andtheheadofthemostprominentfamilywaschiefofthecom-munity.Thechiefdealtwithanymattersthatarosewithneighboringcommunities.
Inlargerstates,thiskinshipsystemgavewaytokingshipsastherulingauthor-ity.Kingshipsruledbymaintainingcontroloftheirterritory,andritualsemergedtounderscoretheruler’spower.InKatanga,forexample,therulerandhisfamilywerebelievedtoholdfertilitypowersforpeopleandcrops.Asaresult,rulingpowerwassecuredwithinonefamily,asthespecialpowerwaspassedonlythroughbloodlines.
InmodernAngola,bothKongoandNdongoemergedaslargekingdomsbyabout1400.Duringthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies,manyBantukingdomsformedinthepresent-daynationsofZaire,Uganda,Zambia,andAngola.These
Set the StageThe elaborate medieval structures throughout sub-Saharan Africa testify of the wealth, power, and organization that many African states wielded at one time. Many of the distinctive beaten clay mosques of the Mali Empire, such as the mosque in Jenne, remain in use today. In Ethiopia, Christian churches still stand that were carved out of solid volcanic rock. Among the ruins of Swahili city-states such as Kilwa stand coral stone mosques with dramatic columns and arches. The ruins of the capital city of Great Zimbabwe in the interior of the continent reveal an extensive network of stone palaces and mosques within the city walls.
These religious structures reveal the integration of Islam and Christianity into African culture. They also stand as reminders of the particular way that sub-Saharan converts took these foreign faiths and blended them into traditional African religious beliefs. The Mali rulers brought Muslim architects to design mosques, but these new mosques did not mimic those in the rest of the Islamic world. Instead, a unique style of mosque made of beaten clay emerged in the empire. The carved Christian churches in Ethiopia were derived directly from the traditional African practice of worshipping at rock shrines. Throughout sub-Saharan Africa, converts took their new religion and wove it into their existing belief system.
Unit 4, Lesson 19 2
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centralAfricankingdomsincludedLubaandLunda,whichwerebasedalongtheupperCongobasinandconductedtradeonbothAfrica’swestandeastcoasts.InKatangainthesouthernpartofZaire,thekingdomofKazembehadanagriculturaleconomyanddidnotencounterdifficultyuntilthemidnineteenthcentury.Withitsart,music,anddancing,thekingdomofKazembeaddedconsiderablytoAfricanculture.IntheeasternregionofcentralAfrica,thekingdomsofBuganda,Rwanda,andBurundigrewupinthehighlandsaroundLakeVictoriaandLakeTanganyika.
Kingdom of KongoAmongthemostcentralizedoftheBantukingdomswasthekingdomofKongo,whichbegannear1375C.E.,whentherulersofthekingdomsofMpembaKasiandMbatamadeapoliticalalliancetojointogether.Therulersjoinedtheirheirlinestocreateanewlineofsuccessionthatclaimedbothrulingfamiliesasancestors.LukeniluaNimiroseastherulerinthisnewlyjoinedrulingline.Around1400,LukeniluaNimifoundedthekingdomofKongowhenheconqueredthekingdomofMweneKabunga,whichfurtherexpandedthenewkingdom’srealm.
ThekingdomofKongothrivedbythelate1400s,encompassingmuchofmod-ernAngolaandRepublicofCongo.Kongoreliedprimarilyonagriculture,butasthekingdomprospered,weavers,potters,carvers,andblacksmithsmadeadditionalgoodsfortheeconomy.Menclearedland,hunted,madepalmoilandwine,builtstructures,andconductedlong-distancetrade.Womencultivatedcrops,tendedtothedomesticanimals,andwereinchargeofdomesticworkandchildrearing.InthecoastalregionsofKongo,womenalsomadesaltfromseawaterandcollectedcowries,whichweretheIndianOceanseashellsusedasthekingdom’scurrency.
Kongowasruledbyaking,calledamanikongo,alongwithotherofficialswhodirectedmilitary,legal,andeconomicaffairs.Bytheearlysixteenthcentury,theareaaroundthecapitalcityofMbanzaKongohadapopulationofbetween60,000and100,000people.Outsideofthisregion,thekingdomwasmadeupofsmallvillagesofextendedfamilies,whichwerestillledbychiefs.Theking’sauthoritywashereditary,whilethechiefs’powerwasnot.
Withinthekingdomweresixprovinces,andthekingappointedagovernortoleadeachprovince.Eachoftheseprovinceswasmadeupofseveraldistricts,andthegovernorswereinchargeofthelocalauthoritiesthatoversawthedistricts.TheextensivekingdomofKongowashighlyorganizedwithcentralizedpower,whichwasunusualforBantukingdomsoftheera.
ThePortuguesearrivedbyseatothecoastofWestAfricain1471andopenedupanewavenuefortradeforWestandcentralAfricankingdoms.PortuguesetradersestablishedrelationshipswiththekingdomsofBeninandKongo,bringingcopper,brass,finecloth,glassbeads,andhorsesinexchangeforpepper,ivory,andslaves.TheleadersofBeninandKongoallowedPortugueseChristianmissionariesaswellasalliedPortuguesesoldiersintheirkingdoms.
ThemanikongoofKongosentrepresentativestoPortugalin1485andcreatedaroyalmonopolyontradewithPortuguesemerchants.Christianmissionariescon-vertedKongo’srulerandotherstotheirfaith,andthemanikongomadeCatholicismtheofficialreligionofthekingdomofKongo.ContinueddivisionsbetweenChris-tiansandthosewhopracticedtraditionalAfricanreligionsstrainedthekingdom.
cowry a kind of shell from the Indian Ocean that was used as currency in the kingdom of Kongo
manikongo title of the head ruler in the kingdom of Kongo; sometimes written as
“Mwene Kongo”
Unit 4, Lesson 19 3
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TheChristianmanikongoAlfonsoI(r.1506–1542or43)triedtopersuadethepeopleofKongotoadoptbothChristianityandEuropeanculture.ThePortuguesewhocametoKongo,though,wereinKongomostlyforfinancialgain,particularlyintheslavetrade.Kongo’sparticipationintheslavetradeprovedtoweakenboththekingdom’spoliticalstructureanditssocialstructure.
KongodidnothaveaccesstothepepperandivorythatBeninhad,andthusreliedontradingslavestoacquiregoodsfromPortuguesemerchants.TheroyalmonopolyontradebrokedownwhenothersinthekingdomwereeagertoengageintradewithPortugal.In1526,AlfonsoIwrotetothekingofPortugaltointervenebecuaseKongolesewereslaveraidingfromwithinthekingdom,sellinganyonetheycouldgettheirhandson.AlfonsoIwantedPortugaltohonorhisroyalmonopolyontrade,butthePortuguesewerenowfocusedonbuildinguptradealongtheIndianOceansearoute,andhedidnothearbackfromthekingofPortugal.
TheunauthorizedslavetradedisruptedtheauthorityofKongo’scentralgovern-ment,andrebellionseruptedwithinthekingdom.AfterAlfonsoI’sdeath,Kongofellintocivilwars.TherelocationoftheforeignslavetradeawayfromKongotothemoresouthernkingdomofNdongofurtherdisabledthemanikongo’sholdonthekingdom.LaterKongorulerscutofftradewithPortugal,thoughaninvasionbytheJagasin1568promptedthemanikongotoseekthehelpofPortugaltofighttheattack.Overtheyears,thekingdomofKongobothfoughtforandagainstPortugueseforcesandbecameaformalcolonyofPortugalin1885.
ZimbabweTheBantusettlementsoftheShonatribesinthelandbetweentheZambesiandLimpoporiverswerethebasisofthekingdomofZimbabweinsouth-centralAfrica.TheShonabeganasfarmersandherders,butbecameskilledatminingandironsmeltingoverthecenturies.TheShonaprovidedgoldfortheIndianOceantradenetwork,andtheprosperousmarketbroughtwealthintoEastandcentralAfrica.PowerfulkingdomssuchasZimbabweemergedinland.
Thewordzimbabwemeansa“chief’sdwelling.”WiththenumerousBantusettlementsacrossEastAfrica,woodenchiefdwellingsappearedacrosspresent-dayZimbabweandMozambiqueasearlyasthefifthcenturyC.E.Bytheninthcentury,enoughwealthhadreachedtheregiontofacilitatethebuildingofstonezimbabwe,reflectinganewleveloforganizationandpoliticalpower.
Sometimearound1200C.E.,theenormousprojectofbuildingthecapitalcityofGreatZimbabwebegan.LocatednearthetownofNyandainmodernZimbabwe,GreatZimbabwewasamassivecomplexofstonebuildingssurroundedbywalls16feet(5meters)thickand32feet(10meters)tall.Insidethewalls,thecityofGreatZimbabwehadpalaces,towers,andotherstonebuildingsforrulers,priests,andthewealthy.Thesestoneedificeswerebuiltofcutstone,assembledwithouttheuseofmortar.Thebuildingsandwallswereofsuchascalethatnineteenth-centuryexplorerswhocameupontheruinsofGreatZimbabwedidnotbelievethatnativeAfricanscouldhavebuiltsuchacityandwronglyattributeditsconstructiontoArabsorPhoenicians.
Inadditiontoitspoliticalimportanceasthecapitalcity,GreatZimbabwecar-riedreligiousimportance.ThebirdofGodwasasymbolthatappearedfrequently
1SeLf-CheCK
Who oversaw the
provinces of the
kingdom of Kongo?
Unit 4, Lesson 19 4
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inthecity’sstructuresandthroughouttheregionunderGreatZimbabwe’scontrol.ThebirdofGodwasaneaglethatlinkedthisworldtospirits.InthekingdomofZimbabwe,traditionalAfricanreligionfocusedonthecreatorgod,Mwali,whobroughtrainandensuredfertility.Mwaliwasbothmaleandfemale.ThemalepartofMwaliwasevidentinlightning,andthefemalepartintheearth’swater.
Mwalishrineswerebuiltacrosstheland,oftenincavesandnearpoolsofwater.Shrineswerebuiltforrain,healing,andevenforwartoempowerrulersintheirconquests.Priestsandpriestessestendedtheshrinesandwelcomedpil-grimswhoarrivedtoworship.PriestessescouldbepossessedwithdivinepowersandspeakinthevoiceofMwali,whileprieststranslatedthesewordsintocom-mandmentsfortheattendingcongregation.Worshipperstranscendedkinshipnetworks,politicalstates,andlanguagegroups.Bythenineteenthcentury,theonce-numerousshrineswerereducedtoregionsmostlyinthemountainsofthesouthwestpartofthekingdom.
AsinmanyotherAfricansocieties,inZimbabwetheoriginalancestorsofaclanorcommunityfiguredprominentlyintraditionalreligiousbeliefs.AmongthepeopleinthekingdomofZimbabwe,manybelievedthatancestors’spiritsreturnedaslionsandcouldpossesstheliving.Theoriginalancestorsclaimedownershipofthelandanditsresources.Manyoriginalancestorshadbeenconquerors,andassuchtheygrantedpowertosoldiersandalsoprovidedtacticalguidanceintimesofwar.ThebeliefinthepowerofancestorspiritswasmostconcentratedinthenortheastpartofZimbabwe.
TheeconomyofthekingdomofZimbabwewasbuiltonagricultureandherd-ing,butasthetrademarketinEastAfricagrew,thekingdomcapitalizedontradetobuilditswealth.Initially,thekingdomtradedcopper,salt,andothergoodswithneighboringinteriorcommunities.Inthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies,Zim-babweprofitedhandsomelybyexportingmostlygold,alongwithivoryandslaves,toportmarkets.ThepopulationofthecityofGreatZimbabwegrewsomuchoverthesecenturiesthatthedepletionoflocalforestsandherdovergrazingapparentlytriggeredanecologicaldevastationthatcontributedtothekingdom’sdecline.
KingsofZimbabwecontrolledthetradebetweenthecoastalcity-statesandinteriorregionsofEastandcentralAfrica.Zimbabweorganizedandtaxedthelucrativegold,ivory,andslavetradesinEastAfrica.Zimbabweankingsbuiltalli-anceswithotherleaderstofacilitatethecontinuedflowofimmenseprofitsfromthetrademarket.Evidenceofgoodssuchasgold,glassbeads,copperornaments,soapstonefigures,irontools,Persianartworks,andChineseporcelainamongtheruinsofGreatZimbabwerevealsanextensivetradenetwork.
Inthefifteenthcentury,thekingdomofZimbabweexpandedconsiderablyundertheruleofKingMutotaandthesubsequentruleofhissonMatopebycon-queringlandstothenorthandtheeast.Atitsheightduringthelatefifteenthcen-tury,thekingdomofZimbabwecoveredmuchofsouth-centralAfricaandreachedjustoutsidethecoastalcityofSofalainEastAfrica.KingMutotamovedthecapitalfromGreatZimbabwetothenorthandassumedthetitle“MwanaMutapa.”ThePortuguesepronouncedthistitle“Monomotapa,”andthisbecametheEuropeannameforthekingdom.
Unit 4, Lesson 19 5
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AfterKingMatopediedsometimearound1490,civilwarstorethekingdomapart,andtwoseparatekingdomsemerged.TheRozvisruledthesouthernportionfromGreatZimbabwe.TheMwanaMutaparuledthenorthernkingdom.Aslateasthenineteenthcentury,thekingdomofMwanaMutapastood,butitencompassedamuchsmallerareaofrulethanthegreatkingdomofZimbabwehadatitspeak.
Social and Gender Structures in AfricaAstheBantumigratedandestablishedsettlementsacrosssub-SaharanAfricaformorethan2,000years,communityorganizationmostoftenemergedasastatelesssociety.WhiletherewasstillterritoryavailableinAfrica,statelesssocietiesflour-ished.Socialorpoliticalconflictsthatarosewithinacommunitycouldberesolvedbysendingdissidentsoutofthecommunitytosettlesomewhereelse.Statelesssocietiesworkedwellinsmallcommunities,butascommunitiesprosperedandtheirpopulationsgrew,thesystemstruggled.
Thesestatelesssocietiesdidnothaveaheadofpoliticalpowerwhoseprimaryoccupationwastorule.Instead,thesocietiesreliedonkinshipnetworkstogovernthemselves.Bantucommunitiestendedtoincludeabout100people,anddisciplinegenerallytookplacewithinafamilygroup.Acouncilofmaleheadsoffamiliesledthecommunity,andtheheadofthemostprominentfamilywaschiefofthecom-munity.Thechiefdealtwithanymattersthatarosewithneighboringcommunities.
FamilialtiescharacterizedtheorganizationofstatelesssocietiesinAfrica.Col-lectiveapproachestoworkingthelandweretakenasthesestatelesssocietiesviewedpropertyascommunalratherthanprivate.Manygroupsbelievedthatthecommu-nity’soriginalancestorsheldownershipofthelandanditsresourcesasitsfirstsettlers.Theseancestorshadthepowertograntfertilitytopeople,crops,herds,andgame.Forsomecommunities,thelandcarriedreligiousimport,andlivingandworkingonthelandheldreligiousmeaning.Inthesecommunities,thelandprovidedmorethaneconomicneeds.Thelandwasalsofullofreligiousandhistoricimportance.
Themaleheadsoffamilieswhoformedthecommunity’scouncildeterminedtheworkoftheirgivenfamily.Theseheadsalsoassignedwhichsectionsofthelandtheirfamilywouldworkandoversawthedistributionoffoodamongthecommunity.Theorganizationinthesecommunitieswaswhollycenteredonfamilynetworks.
SomeforestpeoplesofWestAfricaformedsecretsocietiesinwhichmenandwomenlimitedtheauthorityofrulers.Kinshipnetworksoftenhadbitterrivalries,andsomesecretsocietiestranscendedthesekinshipnetworks.Ratherthanstayingloyaltotheirkinshipnetwork,memberswouldmaintainloyaltytotheirsecretsociety.Thesesecretsocietiesmanagedtoresolveconflictswithinandbetweencommunitiesandpresentedanalternativetotheestablishedauthorityofchiefsorotherrulers.
IntheBantucommunities,genderroleswerewell-defined.MendominatedpublicaffairswithintheirlocalcommunitiesSpecializedworksuchasleathertan-ningandblacksmithingwerestrictlyreservedformen.Inagriculturalarenas,menpreparedthesoilforplantingwhilebothmenandwomenparticipatedinsewingandreapingtheharvest.Women’srolesoftenrevolvedarounddomesticspheresandchildrearing.Insomecases,womeninfluencedandformallyparticipatedinpublicaffairs.
2SeLf-CheCK
What was Zimbabwe’s
economy based on?
Unit 4, Lesson 19 6
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Acrosssub-SaharanAfrica,womenoftenhadmorepublicinvolvementthanwomeninotherpartsoftheworld.Femalemerchantsengagedintrade,bothwithlocalmerchantsandwiththosefromdistantlocations.Femalemerchantswerealsopermittedtotradeatmarkets,frequentlytradingagriculturalgoods,pottery,andothercrafts.Somewomenevenservedinall-femalemilitaryunits.
WhiletheintroductionofIslamdrasticallychangedwomen’sstandingacrossArabiaandsouthwestAsia,insub-SaharanAfricathespreadofIslamdidlittletowomen’sstanding.ThefirstconvertsintheregionwererulersandmerchantswhodealtdirectlywithArabmerchantscomingthroughonthetrans-SaharanandIndianOceantraderoutes.Islamgrewslowlyinsub-SaharanAfrica,andasthereligiontookroot,AfricanconvertskepttheirtraditionalbeliefsandcustomsalongsideIslam.Asaresult,Islamtookonadifferentcastinsub-SaharanAfricathaninArabia,southwestAsia,andNorthAfrica.
MostMuslimwomensouthoftheSaharadidnotwearveilsorlimittheirsocialcontactwithmeninthecommunity.Sub-SaharanMuslimwomenalsocon-tinuedtheirpublicworkinthecommunity.WhentheArabtravelerIbnBattuta(1304–1368)visitedMali,hewasshockedthatnoMuslimwomenworeveils,andthatwomenopenlyconversedwithunrelatedmeninpublic.TheconversiontoIslaminsub-SaharanAfricadidnotalterwomen’sstatusorinvolvementinthecommunityasitdidinotherpartsoftheMuslimworld.
The Arrival of Christianity and Islam in AfricaChristianitywasintroducedtoEgyptandNorthAfricaduringthefirstcenturyC.E.,withindecadesafterthereligion’semergence,atthesametimeorevenbeforethereligionreachednorthernEurope.TraditionholdsthattheapostleMarkbroughtChristianitytoEgyptin60C.E.InEgypt,thecityofAlexandriabecameanimpor-tantcenterofChristianthought.EgyptianChristians,knownasCopts,maintainedcontactwiththeByzantineChristiansandtranslatedreligioustextsfromGreektoCoptic.SaintAugustineandotherearlyChristianleaderslivedinnorthAfrica.
ThespreadofChristianityacrossNorthAfricawasslow,movingwestfromAlex-andriatotherestofNorthAfricaandeasttoEthiopia.Christianitywasanoppos-ingforcetotheRomanEmpireintheregionuntilConstantinemadeChristianitytheRomanEmpire’sofficialreligionin312C.E.EvenwithaflourishingChristianpopulationinNorthAfricancommunitiesinEgyptandNubia,Christianitytookhundredsofyearstogaintractioninsub-SaharanAfrica.
Duringthefourthcentury,ChristianityspreadwithinthekingdomofAxum,inpresentdayEthiopia.Thefirstsub-SaharanconvertswereprobablymerchantswhotradedwithChristiansattheRedSeaportofAdulis.TherulersofAxumalsoconvertedtothereligion.ThefirstrulerstoconverttoChristianityinAxumwereamongthefirstroyalconvertsanywherebecausetheyconvertednotlongaftertheRomanemperorConstantine.ChristianmissionariesinAxumestablishedmonasteriesandtranslatedtheBibleintothelocaltongue.
IslamalsoreachedAfricabywayofNorthAfrica.ChristianityhadtakenrootalongtheMediterraneancoastofnorthernAfricabytheendoftheRomanEmpire.However,subsequentwarringbetweentheVandalsandtheByzantinesdisrupted
Unit 4, Lesson 19 7
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theregion,andbetween640C.E.and700C.E.MuslimforcesinvadedNorthAfrica,capturingTunisiain670andcrossingtheMediterraneantoenterSpainby711.TheadvanceofMuslimconquerorsthroughouttheMediterraneanwasstoppedin732inFrance.WithMuslimstrongholdsinNorthAfricaandundertheruleoftheMuslimAbbasiddynasty,muchofNorthAfricaconvertedtoIslam.
TheMuslimpresenceacrossNorthAfricawasacriticalelementtotheintro-ductionofIslamtosub-SaharanAfrica.Muslimmerchantscomingacrossthetrans-Saharancaravanroutes,andlateronIndianOceansearoutesinEastAfrica,broughtIslamtotherestofthecontinent.Rulersandmerchantsintradingcenterswereamongthefirstsub-Saharanconverts.
African Religious DevelopmentsChristianityandIslamwerenotthefirstreligionsinsub-SaharanAfrica;nativeAfricanreligiousbeliefsandtraditionshadbeenestablishedacrossthecontinentcenturiesbeforeeitherreligionreachedAfrica.
Traditional African BeliefsOnthesurface,thecommunitiesthatdottedsub-SaharanAfricahadverydifferentreligioustraditions.Deitiesdidnotsharenamesorstoriesfromonecommunitytothenext,nordidreligiousritualsoverlap.However,eveninthefaceofapparentlydistinctreligioustraditions,commonelementslinkedthedifferentAfricanreligions.Traditionalreligiousbeliefswereflexible,sowhensettlementsencountereddiffer-ingbeliefs,aspectsofthosebeliefswereincorporatedintotheirownbeliefsystem.
AtthetimeofearlyBantuagriculture,manygroupshadmonotheisticbeliefs.Withextensivemigrationcamethesharingofculturesandreligions,andearliermonotheisticreligionsevolvedasadherentslearnedaboutothers’beliefs.Effortstounderstandgodsandtheirinteractionsintheworld’sworkingsalsochangedreligiousbeliefsovertime.
Evenwiththeintroductionofnewdeities,manycommunitiescontinuedtobelieveinamalegodwhowasthedivineforce,whocreatedtheworldandorganizeditsworkings.Formost,thisgodwasall-knowing,all-powerful,orboth.Somecommunitiesbelievedthatthecreatorgodcontinuedtointerveneinhumanaffairsthroughlessergods,spirits,andthecommunity’soriginalancestors.Theseancestorsheldownershipofthelandanditsresourcesandhadthepowertograntfertilitytopeople,crops,herds,andgame.
IntheanimisticreligionsofAfrica,thelessergodsandspiritswereconnectedtonaturalforcessuchasthesun,rain,rivers,andotherelementsinnaturesuchastrees.Whilethecreatorgod’sinvolvementwasmoredistant,thelessergodshelddynamicrolesintheworld’severydayevents.Thesegodsandspiritshadpowertoblessorcursehumans.
InmanyAfricancommunities,thereligioustiestoancestorsincludedrecentlydeceasedancestors,whocouldconnectthelivingtothespiritworld.Theseancestorscouldalsointervenetoblessorpunishdescendantsaccordingtothedescendants’behaviorandthedegreeofhonorgiventoancestors’memory.Withsuchreligiousimportanceplacedonancestorsinthesecommunities,family,lineage,andclanwerefundamentalaspectsofthecommunityorganization.Ancestorswerepartofthesamereligioussystemasthegods,andthesebeliefsboundacommunity’s
3SeLf-CheCK
What did Ibn Battuta
find when he visited the
empire of Mali?
Unit 4, Lesson 19 8
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memberstogetherthroughcommonancestorsandcommonland.Thevenerationofancestorswaspartofeverydaylife,andthesebeliefscontinuedwellafterthemonotheismofIslamorChristianitypermeatedtheregion.
Ritualsacknowledgingandhonoringgods,spirits,andancestorstoensurecontinuedfavorortoregainfavorwerekeyelementsofreligiousworshipformanyAfricancommunities.Mostworshipwasdirectedtowardancestorsandlocalspir-its,whoneededtobekepthappyinordertopreventmisfortunefrombefallingindividualsorthecommunity.Prayers,animalsacrifices,dancing,anddivinationallplayedrolesinreligiousrituals.Religiousceremoniesaccompaniedmajorlifeeventssuchasbirth,marriage,anddeath.
Tohelpnavigatereligiouspracticeandprotectthecommunity,manycommuni-tieshaddiviners:peoplewhocouldmediatebetweenthisworldandgods,spirits,andancestors.Divinershadeithernaturalabilityorconsiderabletrainingtofulfilltheirroles,whichalsocouldincludeprovidingprotectionforacommunity.Divinersweregenerallymen,andtobeeffective,theyhadtograsptheinterconnectednetworksoffamily,economics,andpoliticsthatboundacommunitytogether.Adivinerwasconsultedtodeterminethecauseofdifficultiessuchasillness,lackofchildren,dwindlingherds,orbarrenfields.Divinersusedoraclestoidentifytheproblemandcombatedtheissuewithritualsorotherprescriptionsneededtoresolvetheproblem.
Morethananythingelse,thesereligionsgavetheircommunitiesaframeworkforhowtheuniverseworksandatemplateforsocialandmoralethics.Ratherthanfocusingontheologicalmatters,Africanreligionssoughttomakesenseofand
Masks were central to traditional African rituals, and conversion to Christianity or Islam did not preclude sub-Saharan Africans from continuing their participation in these traditional ceremonies.
Unit 4, Lesson 19 9
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controlaspectsofthehumanexperience.Strictmoralcodeswererequiredtosafe-guardorderintheworld.Disobedienceandtheresultingdisorderandmisfortunethatcamemeantthatgods,spirits,orancestorswereunhappy.
Communityrulewasalsotiedtoreligiouspractice.Chiefsandkingsdrewauthorityfromtheinstitutionofdivinekingshipthatemerged.Theimportanceofworshippingancestorspiritshelpedunifyacommunitywithinanuncertainworld.Tomaintainorderandgoodwillwiththesupernaturalworld,familynetworkswatchedoverfamilymembersanddisciplinedthosewhothreatenedtosummondivineretributionontheindividualorthecommunitywiththeiractions.
Christianity in Sub-Saharan AfricaChristianityhadtakenholdinEgyptandEthiopiabeforetheMuslimconqueststhroughoutNorthAfricabetween640and700C.E.TheseMuslimconquestsleftpocketsofChristianityintheregion.WhenEgyptwasconqueredandbecameMuslim,theCopticChristianstherekepttheirfaithanddidnotconverttoIslam.TheChristiansinNubiaresistedMuslimpenetrationintheninthcenturyandremainedindependentChristiancommunitiesuntilthethirteenthcentury.
WiththeMuslimconquestofEgyptandtheRedSea,theChristiansintheweakenedkingdomofAxuminEthiopiawerecutofffromtherestoftheChristianworld.ChristianityinEthiopiablendedwiththebeliefsandtraditionsofthelocalpopula-tionandJewishimmigrants.Inthetwelfthcentury,anewChristiandynastyrosetopowerbywayofconqueringandconvertingpeoplesintheregion.
Duringthefirstpartofthethirteenthcentury,KingLalibela(r.c.1180–1220)launchedabuildingprojectofelevenenormouschurchestobecarvedoutofsolidvolcanicrockinthecapitalcityofLali-bela.EachchurchcommemoratedaChristiansiteinJerusalem,thoughtheactualpracticeofcarv-ingstructuresoutofrockechoedthetraditionalAfricanreligiouspracticeofrockshrines.
AChristianstateemergedinEthiopiainthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturieswithadynastythatclaimeddirecttiestothemarriageofKingSolo-monandShebaintheBible.WithoutthebenefitofcontactwithotherChristians,theChristianreligionthatevolvedinEthiopiadepartedfromtherestoftheChristianworld.EthiopianChristianitymaintainedessentialaspectsofChristiantheologyandpractices,butalsoadoptedtraditionalAfricanbeliefs.Among
4SeLf-CheCK
What role did the
original ancestors play
in a community?
Built in 1896, the Saint George cathedral in the capital city of Addis Ababa stands as a testament to Christianity’s continued influence and presence in Ethiopia.
Unit 4, Lesson 19 10
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thesetraditionalbeliefswasabeliefinevilspiritsthatpopulatedtheworldandtheuseofamuletstoprotectagainstthesespirits.
WithChristianEthiopiasurroundedbyMuslimstatesonallsides,battlesbetweenChristiansandMuslimsoftenflaredupintheregion.ThearrivalofPortu-guesemerchantsandexplorerstonortheastAfricainthesixteenthcenturyreintro-ducedChristiansinEthiopiatoothersoftheirbroaderfaith.WhenaneighboringMuslimstatebackedbytheOttomansthreatenedEthiopia,PortugalsentforcestosupportEthiopiain1542andkeptEthiopiafrombeingconquered.PortugaltriedtobringEthiopiaintothefoldoftheRomanCatholicChurch,buteffortsfailed.ThoughEthiopiaremainedChristian,thekingdomalsoremainedindependentfromotherChristians.ThePortugueseweremoresuccessfulwiththeireffortstoconvertthekingdomofKongototheRomanCatholicfaith,givingChristianityanotherfootholdinsub-SaharanAfrica.
Christianitybroughtconsiderablechangetosub-SaharanAfrica.Christianmis-sionariesbroughthopeandeducationtomanyonthecontinentandincreasedliteracyrates.RelationshipswithEuropeanChristiancolonistsandtradersbroughtwealthandopportunitiestosomeAfricans,buttheyalsoweakenedplentyofAfricankingdoms.Christianitybroughtcolonistsinterestedinfinancialgainandthoseinter-estedinconvertingAfricanpeoples.Forcenturies,theseEuropeanChristiancolonistspushedtosubdueordestroytraditionalAfricanculture,religiousbeliefs,andrituals.
Islam in Sub-Saharan AfricaDevelopmentsinNorthAfricawereprecursorstotheintroductionofIslaminsub-SaharanAfrica.TheMuslimdesertBerbersinNorthAfricasplitfromNorthAfricanstatesruledbyArabicrulersandformedtheirownstatesbasedinthecityofFezinMoroccoandinSijilimasa,atradingcenterontheMoroccansideofthetrans-Saharancaravanroutes.WiththethreatofnewMusliminvadersencroaching,thedesertBerberslaunchedapuritanicalreformmovementbytheeleventhcentury.Almoravids,asthoseinthemovementwerecalled,wagedawarwithnon-MuslimsandmovedsouthacrosstheSaharadesertintoWestAfricaandSpain.In1130asimilargroup,theAlmohads,followedananalogouspath.WhileIslamwasprimarilyintroducedtosub-SaharanAfricabyNorthAfricanmerchantsalongtraderoutes,religiousmovementssuchastheAlmoravidsandAlmohadsembracedaggressivemilitaryactionandcontributedtothespreadofIslamsouthoftheSahara.
Muslimmerchantsdominatedthetrans-SaharanandIndianOceantraderoutesandintroducedthereligiontosub-Saharanmerchantsandrulers.Thoughitwasnottheonlyreasonforconversion,sharingacommonreligiondidhelpfacilitatetradebetweencultures.Islamestablishedacommoncodeofmoralityandlaw,andincreasedtrustbetweentraders.Acrosssub-SaharanAfrica,Islamtookrootfirstintradingcitiesandportsattheendofthetraderoutes,andthenspreadtotheinterior.ThepastoralFulanipeoplesofWestAfricaandtheSomaliineasternAfricawereamongthefirstruralAfricanpeoplestoconverttoIslam.
Asrulersofwealthyandpowerfulkingdomsinsub-SaharanAfricaconvertedtoIslam,theylaunchedbuildingprojectstoaddmosquesandplacesofstudyintheircities.TheybroughtforeignexpertsinIslamiclawtotheirkingdoms.GreatmosqueswerebuiltwithMiddleEasterninfluencebutmadeoflocalmaterials,such
Unit 4, Lesson 19 11
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asthedistinctivebeaten-claymosquesinthecityofJenneintheMaliEmpireandthecoralstonemosquesbuiltinSwahilicoastalcity-states.
ChristianityinEthiopiaencouragedthestudyofreligioustexts,therebypromotingliteracyinEthiopia.Inasimilarmanner,thespreadofIslamacrosssub-SaharanAfricaencouragedliteracyamongMuslimconverts.Booksweresym-bolsofcivilizationforMuslimsatthetime,andexpensivebookswereimportedfromNorthAfrica.ThecityofTimbuktuintheMaliEmpirebecameacenterforIslamicstudy.Inthesixteenthcentury,morethan150schoolstaughttheQur’aninTimbuktu.
NewlyconvertedMuslimrulersinsub-SaharanAfricadidnotgenerallyimposetheirreligionontheirsubjects.Also,theconversiontoIslamdidnotmeantheendoftraditionalAfricanbeliefsandrituals.AfricanconvertscontinuedtopracticetraditionalanimistreligiousritualsalongsideIslam,suchasritualstopleasetraditionalgodsandancestorspirits.Notably,Muslimwomeninsub-SaharanAfricadidnotaltertheirpublicbehaviororwearaveil,aswascustomaryinmostpartsoftheIslamicworld.
Islam as a Unifying Cultural force in Sub-Saharan AfricaTheadoptionofIslamamongpeoplesofsub-SaharanAfricahelpeddrawtogetherdis-paratecultures.Whilethereligionestablishedacommonbondbetweensub-SaharanrulersandmerchantsandtheirNorthAfricanandArabcounterparts,Islamalsounitedpeoplesofvariouscultureslivingtogetherinsub-SaharanAfrica.ThespreadofIslamwasnotforcedanddidnotdisplacetraditionalAfricanreligiousbeliefs,bothfactorsthatcouldhavemadeIslamadivisiveforceinsub-Saharanculture.
Muslimrulersinsub-SaharanAfricareliedonIslamtojustifyandsolidifytheirruleandtounifytheirkingdoms.Islamservedasaunifyingforceinareaswherediverseethnicgroupslivedside-by-side.Islamicbeliefsassertedtheequalityandworthofindividuals,whichunderminedpotentialdiscordwhenaMuslimrulerconqueredanotherMuslimterritory.
AccordingtoIslamiclaw,convertsinsub-SaharanAfricawereconsideredequaltoMuslimBerbersandArabs.Inreality,equalitywasnotappliedacrossethnicgroups.Inaddition,womenwerenotonequalfootingwithmenincertainpointsofIslamiclaw.Forexample,thepenaltyforkillingamanresultedintwicethepenaltyforkillingawoman.
european and Sub-Saharan Contacts with the Islamic WorldTheIslamicworldinfluencedbothEuropeandsub-SaharanAfrica,thoughinverydifferentways.TradebroughtMuslimmerchantstobothregionsoftheworld,andwiththetradenetworksthatwereestablished,bothEuropeandsub-SaharanAfricahadregularcontactwiththeIslamicworld.Astheworldcenteroftrade,culture,andlearningatthetime,theIslamicworldbroughtlearningtoEuropeandrevivedinterestinthephilosophy,science,andmedicineofancientGreece.AsmerchantstraveledthroughouttheIslamicworld,theyintroducednewcropsacrosstheMediterranean,inSpain,andtheislandsofCyprus,Crete,Sicily,and
5SeLf-CheCK
What country backed
Ethiopia’s efforts to keep
a neighboring Muslim
state from invading?
Unit 4, Lesson 19 12
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Sardinia.ChristianityhadalreadyemergedasthedominantreligionofEurope,andasaresultthespreadofIslamtherewaslimited.
Insub-SaharanAfrica,however,IslamwasincorporatedalongsideexistingtraditionalAfricanreligiousbeliefs,andmanyAfricanrulersandmerchantscon-verted.TheAfricanstatesconductingtradewithMuslimmerchantswerepoliti-callyorganizedenoughtofacilitatethespreadofIslamwithintheirborders.TheIslamicworldheavilyinfluencedsub-SaharanAfricareligiously,politically,andsociallybeginningintheseventhandeighthcenturies.TheconversionoftradersandrulersprovidedaneconomicadvantagewhentraderelationshipswerebuiltupwithforeignMuslimmerchantswhonowsharedcommonreligiousground.Islambecametheprominentreligionacrossmuchofsub-SaharanAfrica,particularlyintradingcentersandports,whenrulersbuiltelaboratemosques,Islamicschools,andwelcomedMuslimscholarstotheirstates.
Insub-SaharanAfrica,conversiontoIslamwasmostlyapeacefulprocess.Peopleweregenerallynotconstrainedtoconvert,andtheblendingofIslamwithtraditionalAfricanreligionmadeacceptanceofthereligioncommon.InEurope,though,Islambroughtconflict.
BothChristianityandIslamencouragedthespreadoftheirreligionsthroughconversion.WithChristianitywell-establishedinEurope,anyIslamicpresenceintheregionwasboundtocauseconflict.AfterthesuccessfulMuslimconquestoftheChristianIberianPeninsula,EuropeanrivalriesbetweenMuslimsandChris-tiansintensified.DuringtheReconquista,Christianssucceededinretakingtheregion.ThissuccessledPopeUrbanIItolaunchtheCrusadesin1095.ThepopeviewedIslamasadirectaffronttoChristianityandpromisedcrusadingChristianssalvation.HoardsofChristianswenttorestoreByzantineterritoryandtogainChristiancontrolofJerusalem.ManyoftheseChristianswerenotsoldiersandwereunpreparedforcombatofanysort.
WithEuropeanChristiansattackingintheMiddleEast,Muslims,Turks,andEgyptiansjoinedforcestofightagainsttheinvaders.In1187,theseforcessuc-cessfullypushedChristiansoutoftheeastMediterranean.TheCrusadesfurtherspreadIslamiccultureandscientificknowledge.CrusadersreturnedtoEuropewithknowledgeofArabicnumerals,papermakingmethods,Muslimdevelopmentsinscienceandastronomy,andtheideasofAristotlerevisitedbyMuslimscholars.
Insub-SaharanAfrica,Islamcametopermeateanddefinethesocietyandcul-tureinwaysthatneverhappenedinEurope.Islamattacheditselftothepoliticalframeworkofmanysub-Saharanstates,allowingIslamicstatestoemergeintheregion.InEurope,withwellestablishedpoliticalstatesandChristianity’ssaturatedpresence,IslamonlysucceededinpenetratingtheedgesofEuropeanterritory,suchastheIberianPeninsulaandMediterraneanislands.
SummaryAskinshipsystemsgavewaytokingships,largekingdomsemergedthroughoutcen-tralandsouthernAfrica.ThekingdomofKongowasamongthemostcentralized,withakingatthehelmofprovincesledbygovernors.KongotradedslaveswiththePortuguese,andCatholicismbecamethekingdom’sofficialreligion.Theprosperous
6SeLf-CheCK
Who launched the
Crusades in 1095?
Unit 4, Lesson 19 13
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IndianOceantradenetworkmadetheinteriorkingdomofZimbabwewealthy,whichbroughtgold,ivory,andslavestoeasternportsfortrade.Insmallcommunities,kinshipbasedcouncilsandchiefscontinuedtodirectlocalmatters.Womeninsub-SaharanAfricahadmorepublicinvolvementthanwomeninmanyotherpartsoftheworld.
WhiledifferentAfricanreligioustraditionsemerged,manysharedcommonele-ments,includingbeliefinacreatorgod,lessergods,spirits,andancestorswhointerveneinthehappeningsofthisworld.ChristianitywasintroducedtoEgyptandNorthAfricaduringthefirstcenturyC.E.andreachedEthiopiaduringthefourthcentury.MuslimforcesinvadedNorthAfricabetween640C.E.and700C.E.andsuccessfullyestablishedMuslimstrongholdsthroughouttheregion.Muslimmerchantsonthetrans-SaharanandIndianOceantraderoutesintroducedIslamtosub-SaharanAfrica.Merchantsandrulerswereamongthefirstconvertsthere.AfricanconvertstoChristianityandIslamcontinuedtopracticetraditionalAfricanrituals.TradebroughtbothEuropeandsub-SaharanAfricaincontactwiththeIslamicworld.InAfrica,Islamtookholdandinfluencedcultureandpolitics.InEurope,sinceChristianitywasalreadythedominantreligion,Islambroughtcon-flict,andtheCrusadeswerelaunched.Eveninthishostileenvironment,IslamiccultureandscientificknowledgereturnedtoEuropewiththeCrusaders.
Looking AheadThePortuguesepresenceinsoutheastandcentralAfricabeganwithtradeandmis-sionariesbutquicklyturnedmoresinisterasthePortuguesestruggledtogaincontroloftradenetworks.By1515,theportcitiesofSofalaandKilwaweredestroyed,andthePortuguesemovedfurtherinland.TheydiscoveredtheZimbabweandMwanaMutapakingdomsandestablishedrelationsinthe1560s.ThePortuguesewerein-terestedinconvertingAfricanstoChristianity,buttheregion’seconomicpotentialasasourceforgoldandothergoodswasatleastasgreatafactorintheirdealingswithAfricankingdoms.Portuguesecontrolincreasedintheregion,extendingattimestopoliticalcontrol.Theemergingcolonialdominanceprovedtobeapre-viewofthevariousEuropeanpowersthatwouldinvadesub-SaharanAfricainthecomingcenturiestopursueEuropeaneconomic,political,andmissionaryinterests.
1.The king of Kongo appointed a governor to lead and oversee each of the kingdom’s six provinces.
2. Zimbabwe’s economy was based on agriculture and herding, but as the trade market in East Africa grew, the kingdom also capitalized on trade of copper, salt, gold, ivory and slaves to build its wealth.
3. Ibn Battuta was shocked to find that no Muslim women wore veils and that women openly conversed with unrelated men in public.
4.The original ancestors of a community held ownership of the land and had the power to grant fertility to people, crops, herds, and game.
5.When a neighboring Muslim state threatened Ethiopia, Portugal sent forces to support Ethiopia in 1542 and kept Ethiopia from being conquered.
6.Pope Urban II launched the Crusades in 1095 because he viewed Islam as a direct affront to Christianity.
SeLf-CheCK AnSWeRS
Unit 4, Lesson 19 14
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Unit 4, Lesson 19All images © K12 Inc. unless otherwise noted. 1, 9 Traditional Congolese mask. © brytta/iStockphoto 10 Cathedral in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. © Ariadne Van Zandbergen/africanpictures.net/The Image Works
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