Post on 14-Mar-2020
Capturing gender disparities: some stylized facts and suggestions from Europe
Third UNDP Conference on Measuring Human Progress
Session 2: „Capturing gender disparities“
Christina Boll
Hamburgisches WeltWirtschaftsInstitut (HWWI)
New York – 10 March, 2014
Aim of indicators
• Greater attention and awareness of gender issues in human development
• Boost political action
Requirements
• Indicators should be simple to communicate, transparent, suitable for
cross-country and cross-time comparison, …
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Indicators capturing gender disparities
1. Inequality does not necessarily imply a welfare loss
– Selection as a major challenge on the labor market
– Well-being: income ≠ consumption
– But: women‘s relative earnings are crucial for female empowerment
2. Adopting the life course perspective adds valuable information
– ‚Shadow price of children‘:lifetime earnings matter
– Women‘s personal resources impact on their intra-household bargaining power
3. Some (components of) indicators are of region-specific importance
– Different factors drive well-being and empowerment of women in different regions of the world
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Some suggestions drawn from stylized facts from Europe
INEQUALITY = WELFARE LOSS?
ADDRESSING THE LABOR MARKET
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Gender gaps: Reflecting institutional impediments or gendered preferences?
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
pe
rce
nta
ge
po
ints
< 6 years from 6 to 11 years 12 years or over
Gap in employment rates of women and men aged 25 to 54, by age of youngest child, 2012
Sources: Eurostat (2014); HWWI.
Note: child has to be in full social and economic dependence from other household member/-s (parents/ adults).
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3.1
17.51.1
3.3
19.60.8
17.60.7
17.4
19.61.5
21.1
9.80.0
35.28.3
9.2
29.42.0
4.4
17.52.0
1.10.6
10.33.0
4.20.9
21.12.0
13.85.3
2.11.7
0.7
6.40.5
3.81.4
23.43.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
DK femalesDK males
DE femalesDE males
FR femalesFR males
IT femalesIT males
NL femalesNL males
AT femalesAT males
PL femalesPL males
FI femalesFI males
SE femalesSE males
UK femalesUK males
NO femalesNO males
CH femalesCH males
Looking after children or incapacitated adults Other family or personal responsabilities
Inactive population aged 25 to 64 by sex and main reason why no job search, 2011
Sources: Eurostat (2012); HWWI.
%
1/3 of German inactive women: Family tasks =main reason why no job search
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Impediments to full-time work of mothers, particularly with small children
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
A B C A B C A B C A B C A B C A B C A B C A B C A B C A B C A B C A B C
DK DE ES FR IT NL AT PL FI SE UK NO
%
1-29 h min. 30 h
Formal childcare by children’s age and weekly hours as share over the
population of each age group in 2011
Sources: Eurostat (2013); HWWI.
Notes: A: <3 years; B: 3 years - compulsory school age; C: compulsory school age - 12 years.
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4.1
2.3
7.3
2.4
6.3
2.8
1.1
1.7
0.9
5.1
1.5
2.4
1.3
3.8
1.9
6.4
2.5
7.8
3.7
4.9
1.5
9.0
2.3
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M
DK DE FR IT NL AT PL FI SE UK NO CH
%
Involuntarily part-time employed aged 15 to 74 as a percentage of labour force, 2011
Sources: Eurostat (2012); HWWI.
Welfare implications are more easily drawn from reported preferences
In terms of working hours, the female labor force is more likely to be rationed.
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Women‘s relative earnings: relevant for women‘s empowerment
0
5
10
15
20
25
Gender pay gap in unadjusted form, 2012
Sources: Eurostat (2014); HWWI.
%
Note: France: Figure refers to 2011
4 driving factors: Occupational segregation, low representation in leadership, restricted working hours, interrupted careers
ADOPTING THE LIFE COURSE
PERSPECTIVE ADDS VALUABLE
INFORMATION
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“Having children is a lifelong undertaking.”
Siv Gustafsson, Swedish economist, 2003
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25000
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35000
40000
Att
ain
ed e
ducation /
age a
t la
bour
mark
et
entr
y
hig
h /
27
mediu
m /
22
lo
w /
19
Age at first birth
28 years 32 years 36 years
The ‚shadow price of children‘ over the life course: The case of West German women
Loss in gross wages (€) referring to a 6-years withdrawal from full-time employment up to age
45, by education and age at first birth
13 Hamburgisches WeltWirtschaftsInstitut (HWWI)
Aggregate loss in gross earnings up to age 45: West German women
80.411,15
26.115,09 26.115,0933.381,93
40.681,67
27.901,42
60.268,4349.443,96
72.806,90
76.926,56
66.688,48
0,00
25.000,00
50.000,00
75.000,00
100.000,00
125.000,00
150.000,00
175.000,00
200.000,00
225.000,00
3 years (0/3) 6 years (3/3) 3 years (1/2) 6 years (1/5)
Accumulated loss in gross earnings from age 30 to 45*, by withdrawal pattern (years OLF/part-time)- medium educated West German woman, birth of first child at age 30 -
Earnings loss during OLF time (€)Earings loss during part-time (€)Earnings loss af ter reentry in full-time (€)
€
*Difference in total earnings compared to a continuously full-time employed woman of same education and age.
Sources: Own calculations based on German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) 1984-2005, see Boll (2009; 2011)
Sources: - Boll, Christina (2011): Mind the gap – German motherhood risks in figures and game theory issues, International Economics and Economic Policy 2011 (4), 8, 363-
382. - Boll, Christina (2011): Lohneinbußen von Frauen durch geburtsbedingte Erwerbsunterbrechungen. Der Schattenpreis von Kindern und dessen mögliche Auswirkungen
auf weibliche Spezialisierungsentscheidungen im Haushaltszusammenhang, Eine quantitative Analyse auf Basis von SOEP-Daten, Monografische Dissertationsschrift, Reihe "Sozialökonomische Schriften" (Hrsg.: Prof. Dr. B. Rürup und Prof. Dr. W. Sesselmeier), Verlag Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main et al.
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Factors governing intra-household bargaining position of partners
• Fertility decisions • Gender does not matter per se
Pavetic/Stein 2011, Thomson/Hoem 1998, Bauer/Kneip 2013
• Personal resources • education
Germany: Bauer /Jacob 2010, Italy: Rosina/Testa 2009
• earnings Hener 2010
• Demand/supply ratio on the marriage market Bauer/Kneip 2013
• To whom child related public transfer payments are assigned Hener 2010
• Public grants to single parents Greenwood et al. 2003, McElroy 1990
• Likewise: Personal and assigned public resources govern decisions upon within-household work division and income distribution
• Employment decisions impact on the bargaining position of partners over the life cycle
• Anticipation of asymmetric specialization risks in t+1 prevents women from specialization in t
Iyigun/Walsh 2007, Steurer 2008, Boll 2011
Source: Beblo, Miriam, Christina Boll (2013): Couples – uniform groups with common interests? (Review of international empirical evidence, at present in German language only)
Research financially supported by:
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Intra-household work division: Gender gap in unpaid work
Own multivariate
analyses show:
Fathers‘childcare time
is positively
associated to father
friendly parental
leave schemes
(high wage
replacement rates,
exclusive father
weeks).
Boll, Christina, Julian S. Leppin and Nora Reich (2014): Paternal childcare and parental leave policies: evidence from industrialized countries. Review of Economics of the Household 12 (1), 129-158.
Research financially supported by
36
77
5360
167
6964 65
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
min
ute
s p
er day
Gender gap in household tasks at the turn of the millennium- dual earner couples, both partners full-time employed, youngest child in hh <5 years old -
Sources: Multinational Time Use Study (2010); calculations HWWI.
Norwegen (2000)
Niederlande (2000)
Kanada (1998)
Italien(2002)
Ver. Königr. (2000)
Finnland(1999)
Deutschland (2001)
Schweden (2001)
.
Norway(2000)
Netherlands (2000)
Canada (1998)
Italy (2002)
UK(2000)
Finland(1999)
Germany(2001/02)
Sweden (2001)
46
77
53
42
6471 69
64
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Schweden NorwegenNiederlande Kanada Italien Ver. Königr. Finnland Deutschland
min
ute
s p
er
da
y
Gender gap in childcare time at the turn of the millenium - dual earner couples, both partners full-time employed, youngest child in hh <5 years old -
Sources: Multinational Time Use Study (2010); calculations HWWI.
Sweden (2001)
Norway(2000)
Netherlands(2000)
Canada(1998)
Italy(2002)
UK(2000)
Finland(1999)
Germany(2001/02)
COMPONENTS OF INDICATORS
SHOULD VARY BY REGION
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Educational attainment in the Baltic Sea Region: Women outperform men…
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M
DK DE EE LV LT PL FI SE NO
Early leavers from education and training by gender, 2013
Sources: Eurostat (2014); HWWI.
0
50
100
150
200
250
DK DE EE LV LT PL FI SE NO
Women per 100 men graduating from ISCED levels 5-6 in 2011
Sources: Eurostat (2014); HWWI.
Source:
Biermann, Ulrike, Christina Boll, Nora Reich, Silvia Stiller (2013): Economic Perspectives, Qualification and Labour Market Integration of Women in the Baltic Sea Region,
Baltic Sea Academy - Max Hogeforster (Hrsg.), Norderstedt, Germany.
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…but women are more prone to overeducation: Employment biography matters
+ unemployment experience
+ Out of labour force (OLF) experience
+ weekly working hours 16-25
+ marginal employment (weekly working hours <16)
+ Re-entry into employment
- Employment experience
+ (-) Increasing (decreasing) the risk of overeducation (across models and educational levels)
West Germans > East Germans, except UE experience
Sources:
• Boll, Christina, Julian S. Leppin (forthcoming): From quantitative to qualitative aspects of work: Overeducation and Earnings in Germany, Baltic Sea Academy Series. • Boll, Christina, Julian S. Leppin (2014): Overeducation among graduates: An overlooked facet of the gender pay gap? Evidence from East and West Germany, HWWI
Research Paper No. 147; SOEPpaper No. 627.
Research financially supported by:
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Prevalence of overeducation among the medium educated
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010
According to both measures
Realized matches
Self-assessed
Sources: SOEP v28, 1992-2011, HWWI.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010
Sources: SOEP v28, 1992-2011, HWWI.
Men, medium education, West Germany Men, medium education, East Germany
Women, medium education, West Germany Women, medium education, East Germany
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010
Sources: SOEP v28, 1992-2011, HWWI.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010
Sources: SOEP v28, 1992-2011, HWWI.
Self-assessed overeducation West&East: Declining trend, but more frequent among women during the last decade.
RM overeducation: Increasing trend among women, women recently approaching (East) and outperforming men‘s level (West), respectively.
2011=14%
2011=8% 2011=12%
2011=10%
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Men, high education, West Germany Men, high education, East Germany
Women, high education, West Germany Women, high education, East Germany
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010
According to both measures
Realized matches
Self-assessed
Sources: SOEP v28, 1992-2011, HWWI.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010
Sources: SOEP v28, 1992-2011, HWWI.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010
Sources: SOEP v28, 1992-2011, HWWI.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010
Sources: SOEP v28, 1992-2011, HWWI.
Prevalence of overeducation among the highly educated
RM overeducation: Women outperformed (West) and almost reached (East) men‘s level,respectively.
2011=36%
2011=30%
2011=38%
2011=41%
Self-assessed overeducation W&E: Women outperform men.
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Earnings effects of overeducation: Returns to attained education
Ordinary Least Squares Model
Random Effects Model with Mundlak
Correction
2009–2010 1992–2011
Model Category 1 2
West German Female Graduates
RE 9.90 9.64
OE 2.62 5.38
UE -6.40 -6.76
R² (%) 44.27 33.75
West German Male Graduates
RE 10.04 6.89
OE 3.46 4.60
UE n.s. -3.18
R² (%) 37.32 32.49
East German Female Graduates
RE 9.50 7.07
OE 3.23 3.90
UE n.s. -5.33
R² (%) 39.12 41.44
East German Male Graduates
RE 9.85 5.32
OE n.s. 3.12
UE n.s. -4.06
R² (%) 53.34 31.2
How to read these figures? Example (West German women): One year of required education yields a wage premium of 9.90%, whereas one year of excess education yields only 2.62%. Overeducation entails severe wage losses! (≠ human capital theory)
But, on the other hand, returns are above zero! (≠ assignment theory)
Parliamen-
tary represen-
tation
Representation in economic leadership
Earnings
Bodily integrity
Reproductive health
Unwanted births
Life expectancy
Education
Leisure time
LFP rate Job match
quality
(Overeducation, job satistfaction)
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• All components refer to women and have to be converted into figures relative to men (if applying to both genders)
• bold: empowerment • italic: well-being universal components region-specific supplements for both genders region-specific supplements applying to women only
Suggestions referring to universal and region-specific components
Thank you very much for your attention.
boll@hwwi.org
Publications for download:
http://www.hwwi.org/en/research-areas/labour-economics-economics-of-education-family-economics/publications.html
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Benefits of fathers’ childcare time
• children’s well-being
Bonke and Greve 2012; Carlson and McLanahan 2004; Palkovitz 2002
• gain in social competences and work-life balance for fathers
Hook 2006
• higher fertility
Buber 2003; de Laat and Sevilla-Sanz 2011; Duvander and Andersson 2006; Lappegård
2010; Oláh 2003
• increased marital stability and satisfaction
Greenstein 1995; McHale and Crouter 1992; Oláh 2001; Sanchez and Gager 2000;
Sigle-Rushton 2010; Wengler et al. 2008
• Higher female employment rates and earnings
Boll 2011; Light and Ureta 1995; Mincer and Polachek 1974
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Childcare time of fathers
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Childcare time of fathers 1971-2005 in 8 countries
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
min
ute
s
Fathers' average minutes of childcare on the survey day
Sources: MTUS (Gershuny and Fisher 2010); own calculations and illustration.
Boll, Christina, Julian S. Leppin and Nora Reich (2014): Paternal childcare and parental leave policies: evidence from industrialized countries. Review of Economics of the Household 12 (1), 129-158.
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Women‘s representation in leading positions
Source: Holst/Kirsch (2014): Managerinnen-Barometer, DIW-Wochenbericht
3/2014, graph 2, p. 28.
Women in leading positions* in Europe‘s biggest listed enterprises, 2013 (percentages)
*referring to boards of directors (monistic corporate governance systems) and supervisory boards (dualistic systems), respectively
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Part-time is a specialty of women‘s employment in Western Europe
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
%
Females Males
Percentage of part-time employed aged 15 to 64 by sex in 2012
Sources: Eurostat (2014); HWWI.
Note: For Germany and Polang, figures refer to 2011 since 2012 is not available
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0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
EU (27) DK DE EE LV LT PL FI SE NO
Share of adult population aged 25 to 64 participating in education and training, 2012
Females Males
Sources: Eurostat (2014); HWWI.
Life-long learning varies across Baltic Sea Region countries
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Gender pay gaps translate into (even more wide) pension gaps
Source: OECD (ed.): Pensions at a Glance 2013. OECD and G20 Indicators
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Causal factors of overeducation: Models