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AZMilHist9 Pershing’sHuntforPanchoVilla

In1916,theUSsentamilitaryforce,namedthe“PunitiveExpedition,”intoMexico.It’staskwastoneutralizeabandit(orMexicanpatriot)namedFrancisco“Pancho”VillaasathreattoUScitizensandinterestsalongthesouthernUSborderwithMexico.ThePunitiveExpeditionfailedtocaptureorkillVilla,butitdamagedhiscapabilitiestothepointthatheneveragainthreatenedUSterritory.TheoperationalsohelpedpreparetheUSArmyforWWIinthenewuseoftrucksandairplanesandprovidedvaluablefieldexperiencetoseveralthousandtroopsandofficers.However,theMexicanpeoples’resentmentsofthePunitiveExpedition,andtheearlierMexican-AmericanWar,lingertothisdayandinfluenceourrelationshipwithMexicoandtheMexicanpeople.ThemotivationforthePunitiveExpeditioncanbetracedtothe1910MexicanRevolutionaccordingtoArizonahistorianAndrewWallace.“ArebelfactionledbyFranciscoI.Madero,Jr.,andsupportedbyayoungmanofdubiousbackgroundnamedFrancisco‘Pancho’Villa,”forcedtheresignationofPorfirioDiaz,Mexico’sdictatorialpresident.TheUnitedStates,foritspart,watchedtheupheavalwithkeeninterest,seekingtoprotectAmericanbusinessinterestsinMexicoandUScitizensalongtheMexicanborder.Madero'svictorydidnotlastlong,saysNationalArchivistMitchellYockelson.“OnFebruary19,1913,GeneralVictorioHuertaforcedMaderotoresign.OnFebruary22,Maderowasassassinated,presumablyonordersfromGeneralHuerta.”Madero’sfollowerswereincensedandattackedHuerta'sforcesinretaliation.GovernorVenustianoCarranzanowledtheMaderofaction,assistedby“Pancho”Villa.Intheprocess,Villahadformedhisownmilitaryforce,“DivisiondelNorte”(DivisionoftheNorth),andbeganoperationsinthemountainsofnorthernMexico.Naturally,VillaandeveryoneelseatthattimeclaimedtobethetruepatriotsofMexico.

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AccordingtohistorianEileenWelsome,afteraseriesofincreasingconflicts,CarranzaandPanchoVillanowturnedagainsteachother.Meanwhile,theUSwasseekingastableMexicangovernmentwithwhomareliablepartnershipcouldbedeveloped.Carranza,atthetime,seemedtobetheanswer.SoonOctober19,1915,theUnitedStatesandsixLatinAmericannationsformallyrecognizedtheCarranzagovernment.Villawasstunned.HeadmiredUSPresidentWoodrowWilsonandhadmanywarmfriendsintheUnitedStates,includingWilson’sformerSecretaryofState,WilliamJenningsBryan.ButWilsonhadtomakeacommitment.HechosetobacktheseeminglystableCarranzagovernmentandheneededtoblunttheemerginginfluenceofGermanyandJapanonthisimportantsouthernneighbor.Nevertheless,PanchoVillaandhisfollowerstooktherecognitionofCarranzaasapersonal

insult.TheVillistasseemedtofeelbetrayedandweredeterminedtoretaliateagainsttheAmericans.OnJanuary8,1916,Villa'sirregularsbrazenlykilledseventeenU.S.citizenstravelingbyrailfromChihuahuaCitytotheCusiMineatSantaIsabelChihuahua.WhilethisactimmediatelyenflamedUSpublicopinion,thefollowingVillistaraidonColumbus,NewMexico,triggeredanAmericanmilitaryresponseintheformofthePunitiveExpedition.WhyVillachoseColumbusforhismostaudaciousraidisstillunclear.Thesmalltownhadonlyonehotel,afewstores,apopulationofsome350AmericansandMexicans,andwasgenerallyunremarkable.However,asignificantnumberofUSArmycavalrymenwerestationednearbyatthetime.Infact,WelsometellsusthatVillamighthavehadachangeofheartashisforceapproachedColumbus.VillapointedoutthatthecavalryregimentgarrisonedatColumbusseemedlarge,andhedidnotwanttoriskthelivesofhismenforsuchan“unimportanttown.”Buthiskeyadvisorsminimizedthethreatandpressedfortheattack.Villafinallysuccumbedtotheirarguments,tohislaterregret.AndrewWallaceoffersanotherview:“Somehavesupposedtheraidtobeonemoreangryoutburstofhatred.Itmayhavebeen,however,anintentionalandcalculatedgambittobringAmericaninterventionintotheaffairsofMexicoandtodiscreditCarranzaamongthepoorIndiansandpeonsofnorthernMexico.Ifthiswashispurpose,theraidsucceeded,foreventsthereaftermovedswiftlyinWashington.”SowhowasPanchoVilla,themanwhocausedsomuchtroublein1916andnearlystartedanotherMexican-Americanwar?WelsometellsusthatVilla’slifewassuchatangleofstories,myths,andhalf-truthsthatevenduringhislifetimebiographersandwritershadahardtimeprofilingthisman.Villaseemedlikeasimple,ordinaryman,animagehecultivatedpublicly.Butinfact,hewasanunusuallycomplexperson.Thedeprivationsandhumiliationshehadsufferedinhisyouthhadformedinhimavolatilepersonalitycapableofcruelandunpredictableacts.Thisveryproudmanandhisfamilyhadsufferedallthehumiliationsoflower-classpeopleinMexicansociety.ThesememorieshaddevelopedintoadeepresentmentintheadultVilla.“The

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Spaniards,hebelieved,hadexploitedandenslavedtheMexicanpeople;theChinesewereparasiteswhosenttheirprofitsbacktoChinainsteadofinvestinginMexico;andtheCatholicpriestsweresimplycorrupt.”However,itwasnotuntiltheWilson“betrayal”thatVillaturnedagainsttheAmericans.Villadidnotdrinkalcohol,buthesufferedrheumatismfromyearsofsleepingoutsideoncoldground.Hewasa“superbhorseman,wasfullofenergy,andheexudedagenuinecharisma.Onthebattlefield,amidthedustandsmoke,hisdashingfigurecouldinspirehismentohurlthemselves

willinglyintothewitheringmachine-gunfireoftheirenemies.”Villawasahardenedanddisciplinedopponentandwouldprovetobeaworthyadversary.

InresponsetoVilla’sraid,PresidentWilsonquicklyauthorizedArmySecretaryNewtonD.BakertosetinforcethePunitiveExpedition.Theofficialorderstotheareacommander,MajorGeneralFrederickFunston,dated10March1916,readasfollows:“CommandingGeneral,SouthernDepartmentFortSameHouston,Texas“Youwillpromptlyorganizeanadequatemilitaryforceoftroops,underthecommandofBrig.Gen.JohnJ.Pershing,andwilldirecthimtoproceedpromptlyacrosstheborderinpursuitoftheMexicanbandwhichattackedthetownofColumbus,N.M.andthetroopsthereonthemorningofthe9thinst.[sic]ThesetroopswillbewithdrawntoAmericanterritoryassoonasthedefactoGovernmentofMexicoisabletorelievethemofthiswork.Inanyevent,theworkofthesetroopswillberegardedasfinishedassoonasVila’sbandorbandsareknowntobebrokenup.”PershingThechoiceofcommanderfortheexpeditionwasnotdifficult.Funston,himself,wastoooldforstrenuousfieldservice.AsurveyofactivegeneralofficersquicklysuggestedPershing(Seephotobelow).Hisserviceincludedfrontiercavalrydutyandchallengingtoursworldwide.Pershinghadcommandedthe8thInfantryBrigadeatFortBliss,ElPaso,since1915andwasalready

familiarwitheventsinMexico.Wilsonendorsedhisappointmentwithouthesitation.PershinggraduatedfromWestPointin1886andwasassignedtotheSixthCavalryinNewMexico.“HeparticipatedinGeneralNelsonMiles’campaignagainstGeronimo.In1895hejoinedtheTenthCavalry,oneofthesixall-blackregimentsauthorizedbyCongressaftertheCivilWar.Thecoloredtroopersconsistedoftwocavalryandfourinfantryregimentsandwerecommandedmostlybywhiteofficers.TheIndianscalledthemBuffaloSoldiersallegedlybecausetheyworejacketsmadefrombuffalohideandhadhairthatwassimilartotheanimals’curlycoats.”PershingandtheBuffaloSoldiersgotonwellandhisassociationwiththemwouldbestowonhimthename“BlackJack.”

Whenwarbrokeoutin1898,PershingwassenttoCuba.HiscommanderinCubafoundadmirabletraitsinPershingandsaid,“PershingisthecoolestmanunderfireIeversaw.”Later,whileassignedtotheHeadquartersArmystaffinWashington,PershingmetandmarriedthedaughterofWyomingSenatorFrancisE.Warren,chairmanofthemilitaryaffairscommittee.

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In1913,PershingreturnedfromanothertourinthePhilippinesandwasstationedatthePresidioinSanFrancisco.Henowhadfourchildren.HewassoonorderedtoFortBlissinElPasoandpreparedtobringalonghisfamily.However,beforetheycouldjoinhim,thefamilydiedinanaccidentalfireintheirPresidiohouse.Onlyhisfive-year-oldsonsurvived.Pershingreactedstoicallyandbegantoassumeano-nonsensedemeanor.Withhisphysicalfitness,erectposture,ridingbootsandcrop,Pershingseemedtorepresenttheperfectimageofasoldier.Hissuperiorsviewedhimasastrictdisciplinarianandahighlycompetentleader.TheywereconfidenthewouldbeabletomaintainfirmcontrolofhismenandhisowntemperinfacingthechallengesanduncertaintiesofthePunitiveExpedition.“Butthereseemedanotherreasonthekindlyoldgeneralswantedhimtoleadtheexpedition:theassignmentmighteasehiscrushinggrief.”Inthespringof1916,Pershing’sgriefbegantoliftandhestarteddatingAnne“Nita”Patton,thetwenty-nine-year-oldsisterofLt.GeorgePatton.Bythen,PattonwasabrashyoungofficerstationedatFortBlisswiththeeighthcavalry.(SeePattonatrightinphotobelow;Pershingatleft)Pershingwasfifteenyearsolder,but“Nitaneverthelessfoundhimexceedinglyattractive,drawninpartbythetragicairthatnowsurroundedhim.”Thethirty-year-oldPattonhadmixedfeelingsabouttherelationship.Pattonhadbecomeasuperbhorsemanandexpertmarksman.Hewasdeterminedtoclimbthearmyranksonhisownmerits.Atthemomenthowever,hisprogressseemedstalledbecausehisregimenthadnotbeenincludedintheexpedition.Pattonwasdeterminedtogoanyway.HecontactedPershing’saide,andfinallythegeneralhimself.“Everyonewantstogo;whyshouldIfavoryou?”Pershingasked.”“BecauseIwanttogomorethananyoneelse,”answeredPatton.Pershingdidnotrespond.SometimelaterPershingreturnedandasked,”LieutenantPatton,howlongwillittakeyoutogetready?”Pattonrepliedthathewasalreadypacked.“Youareappointedmyaide,”Pershingresponded.OnMarch14,1916,Pershingwasassignedcommandoftwocavalrybrigadesandabrigadeofinfantry(roughly10,000men),withorderstofind,pursueanddestroyVilla’sforces.SoonMarch15th,PershingarrivedinColumbusandledthePunitiveExpeditionintoMexico.AtfirstPresidentCarranzasupportedtheexpedition.However,asthedeploymentworeonthroughthenext11months,hebecameincreasinglyhostileandeventuallyappearedtoactivelyopposeit.PershingstartedoutwithlittlecurrentintelligenceofVilla’slocation.AndthefartherVillaretreatedintothedepthsofthehugestateofChihuahua,themoredifficultitwouldbetofindhim.TheprospectsoffindingVillainthiswild,tracklessareaseemedremote.Thesullenandsometimesactiveresistanceofthelocalpopulacewouldaddtothechallenge.

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Pershing’sforcepushedsouthintoMexico(seemapatleft)lookingforVillaandestablishedaheadquartersfirstatColoniaDublanneartheCasasGrandesRiver.Supplyproblemsplaguedtheexpeditionfromthebeginning.TheUSArmyhadneverbeforeattemptedanoperationonthescaleofthisexpeditionandPershingwasbreakingnewground.PershingcouldnotusetheMexicanrailroadswithoutpermissionfromthedefactogovernment,whichitstubbornlywithheld.Sotheexpeditioninventedasystemof“trucktrains”usingDodgetruckstotransporttheneededsupplies100milesfromColumbus,N.M.HistorianAlejandrodeQuesadatellsusthatWorldWarIalliedarmiesinEuropewerealreadyusingthousandsoftrucks.However,the“USArmyonlyhadabout100vehicles,locatedatwidelyscatteredatpostsanddepotsthroughoutthecountry.”SotheArmy“QuartermasterGeneralpurchased54one-and-one-half-tontrucks”anddeliveredthembytraintoPershing’sforcesattheColumbusstagingpoint.Thetruckshelpedatonce,“validatingthetrucks’worthandintheprocessrevolutionizingtheUSArmy’stransport.”ThesecapabilitieswouldlaterprovevitalwhentheUSenteredWorldWarI.Infact,Pershinghimselfnowtraveledoftenbyanautomobilestaffcarduringtheexpeditiondeployment.ThenewflyingmachinesalsomadetheirfirstappearanceforthefledglingArmyAirServiceatthis

time.TheFirstAeroSquadron,underCaptainBenjaminFouloiswasAmerica’sentireairforce.TheirmachineryincludedeightCurtissJN-3s,orJennies,whichtheyflewintoMexicotosupporttheexpedition.“Fouloiswasanotherofthelarger-than-lifeofficerswhoseemedtofilltheranksof

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Pershing’sforce.”Hehadstartedhiscareerinhisfather’splumbingbusiness,butarestlessspiritledhimtojointheArmy.HehadservedasanenlistedmaninbothEngineersandInfantryandwascommissionedfromtheranksin1901.Heeventuallygravitatedtoaviationandlearnedtoflydirigibles.HeflewatestairplanewithOrvilleWrightin1909atFortMyer.“Inanacademicpaper,hemadeanumberoffar-fetchedstatementsaboutthenewflyingmachines.Forexample,hepredictedthat“theairplanewouldsomedayreplacethehorseinreconnaissancemissionsandthatitwouldsomedaybepossibletotransmitwordsandpicturesbetweenpeopleonthegroundandmenintheair.Theideasseemedwildlyimprobable,butneverthelesstheyattractedtheattentionoftheArmy’schiefsignalofficer,whoinstructedFouloistoconductairshipandaircrafttrials.”

CaptainFouloisnowsawachancetofurtherthecauseofhisnewairservice.HehadearlierbeeninchargeofthefirstairplaneownedandoperatedintheserviceoftheU.S.Army.Hewastheonlypilot,navigator,instructor,observerandcommanderintheheavier-than-airdivisionoftheU.S.Armyfrom1909until1911.HewouldgoontobecomethechiefoftheairserviceandatirelessadvocateforwhatisnowtheUSAirForce.Meanwhile,hefacedtheconsiderablechallengeofusingheavier-than-airmachinesinactualmilitaryoperationsforthefirsttime.

FouloisestablishedaforwardoperatingbaseatColoniaDublannearPershing’sheadquarters.Thesquadronwouldsupporttheexpeditionbycarryingmailanddispatches.ItwouldalsoflylimitedreconnaissanceandwouldactasliaisonbetweenPershingandforwardunits.DeeBrown,writinginTheAmericanWest,tellsusthatPershinglatersaid,“Oneairplaneiswortharegimentofcavalry.”Foulois’improbablepredictionswerebecomingmoreprobable.Meanwhile,ontheground,theexpedition’scampaignincluded

dozensofminorskirmisheswithsmallbandsofVillistasandbandits,andnothingespeciallysignificant.ThenonMarch29th,Col.GeorgeF.Dodd,theveryablecommanderofthefamed7thCavalry,attackedGuerrero,whichwasbelievedtobeaVillastronghold.GuerrerowouldmarkthefirstbattlebetweentheexpeditionandanyhostileforcesinMexico.DoddprevailedatGuerrero,butlearnedafterthebattlethatthatVillahadleftonlyhoursearlier.ArifleshotfromoneofVilla’sownmenhadshatteredhisshinboneandhewashurriedlyevacuatedbywagonjustbeforeDodd’sarrival.ArizonahistorianJimTurner,writingintheArizonaMilitaryMuseumCourier,tellsusthatthisfirstbattlewastheclosestthePunitiveExpeditionwouldcometocapturingVilla.Anearlyandcontinuingchallengefortheexpeditionwasdevelopingaccurate,reliableintelligenceandfindingtrustworthylocalguidesinanincreasinglyhostileenvironment.Withmorereliableguidesandinformationontheincomingmarch,DoddwouldprobablyhavecaughtVillaatGuerrero.LedbyMajorTompkins’13thCavalry,theexpeditioncontinuedtoadvancesouthtowardParralin

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pursuitofVilla.TompkinshadearlierconvincedPershingthatVillawouldheadforParralbecause,whenhardpressed,Villacouldhideinthemountainssurroundedbyhisfriends.HetoldthegeneralthathecouldtakeasmallforceandheadswiftlytoParraltosurpriseVilla.AsmallforcemightevendrawVillaoutandtempthimtoattack.Pershingconsentedandsaid,“GofindVillawhereveryouthinkheis.”Parral,however,wouldmarkaturningpoint.TompkinswouldnotfindVillainParralandParralwouldturnouttobethefarthesttheexpeditionwouldadvanceintoMexico,adistanceof516miles.

Whenthe13thCavalryreachedParralonApril13th,theyfacedahostilepopulaceandcontentiousandunpredictablegovernmentforces.WelsomesaysthattheMexicancommandertoldMajorTompkinsthatheshouldnothaveenteredthetownandmustleaveatonce.Alargeandhostilecrowdshouting“VivaVilla”pursuedTompkinsandhismenastheylefttown.“ThenTompkinsdidsomethingthatseemedtotallyoutofcharacter:wheelinghishorsearound,heshouted‘VivaVilla!’Themobstoppedandlaughed.Thenitsurgedforward.”OnceoutsideParral,Tompkins’smencameunderfirebyCarranzistasoldiers,thefirsttimetheexpeditionforceshadclasheddirectlyandopenlywiththedefactogovernment.Atthispoint,theopposingforcesgreatlyoutnumberedtheAmericansandweregatheringingreaternumbers.TompkinsdecidedhemustwithdrawandledhisforcesonaseriesofdelayingactionstobuytimeandtrytoputdistancebetweenhismenandtheCarranzistas.MeanwhileTompkins’scoutswereoutlookingforreinforcementsfortheoutnumbered13thandfoundelementsofthe10thafewmilesaway.MajorCharlesYoung(seeYoungatleftinphotobelow),oneofthefewblackofficersintheUSArmyatthattime,thenspurredhisBuffaloSoldierstothesupportofthe13th.MajorYoungwasanextraordinaryofficerhimself,asoutlinedinhisbiographyontheUSArmywebsite.WhenYoungwasborn,hisfatherwasstillaslave.ThefuturemajorwonanappointmenttoWestPointandbecameonlythethirdAfrican-AmericaninhistorytograduatefromtheMilitaryAcademy.NowinMexicowiththeexpedition,MajorYounghadledhistroopsinasuccessfulcavalrypistolchargeagainstVillaforcesatAguaCaliente,MexicoonApril1st.Histroopersdrovebackapproximately150enemytroopswithnolossestohisownforce.Twoweekslater,attheHaciendaSantaCruzdelaVillegas,YoungnowagainledhistroopstorelieveawoundedMajorFrankTompkinsandhis13thU.S.Cavalry,stillunderthreatbyMexicangovernmenttroops.YoungwouldsoonbepromotedtoLieutenantColonelandthenColonel,thefirstAfrican-AmericansoldierinUSArmyhistorytoreachthatrank.HewouldlaterserveascommanderofFortHuachuca,Arizona.Atthispoint,thesituationatParralhaddevelopedintoastandoffbetweenUSandMexicanforcesandpushedtheUSandMexicoclosertoopenwar.Toavertthispossibility,PershingorderedhisttroopstowithdrawnorthfromParral.

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“ThusendedthemostseriousengagementfoughtinMexicobythePunitiveExpedition.Anditwasn’tfoughtagainstPanchoVillabutratherwiththeuniformedtroopsofVenustianoCarranza’sdefactgovernment.”Pershingnow“realizedthathisgovernmentwasunwillingtocarrythepursuitofVillafartherthanParralinthefaceofMexicanopposition.”“OnApril21ColonelBrownandMajorTompkinsmetwiththeMexicansforthelasttime….TheMexicancommanderdemandedtheAmericanswithdrawatonce.ForthefirsttimeheissuedthepronunciamentoofCarranzathatAmericans‘wouldbepermittedtomovenorth,butnotsouth,eastorwest.’“Aswordofthesituationmadeitswayupthechainofcommand,Pershingwasorderedto“suspendalloperationsagainsttheVillistassouthofParral.”ThePunitiveExpeditionwasinstructed,ineffect,torevertroughlytothestatusofapoliceforce.WarwithMexicowastobeavoided.“OnJune21twotroopsofthe10thcavalryunderCapt.CharlesBoydwerescoutingtowardAhumada,”asWallacerelates.“WhentheyarrivedbeforethetownofCarrizal,theyweretoldbytheMexicansnottoenter.Boyd,forunfathomablereasons,deployedhistrooperstofightinthefaceofasuperiorforce.His“soleintention,presumably,wastoforcehiswaythroughthetown,anactionwhollyinconsistentwithhisreconnaissancemission.Inthetragicincidentthatfollowed,theMexicansemployedmachineguns,ofwhichBoydhadnone,withdeadlyeffects.Boyd,anotherofficer,andtentrooperswerekilled;twenty-fourAmericansweretakenprisoner.”TosomeAmericans,thiswassufficientcauseforwar.However,alltheprisonerscapturedbytheCarranzistatroopswerereturnedtoUScustodytendayslaterinElPaso,Texas.TheeventsinCarrizalshockedbothsidestothenegotiatingtable.PershingnotedthatanimositytowardtheUStroopswasgrowingand“thedefactogovernmentwasinacompleteshamblesandunabletocontrolthelocalwarlords.”HeevenadvocatedcapturingtheentirestateofChihuahuatoimposeorder.CoolerheadswithintheWarDepartmentquashedthisidea.WashingtondispatchedUSArmyChiefofStaff,GeneralHughScottandGeneralFunstontomeetwithMexicanofficials,seekingandendtotheconflict.“TheCarrizalincidentwasthelastfightofthePunitiveExpedition.”Pershing’ssuperiorsforbadehimeventosendoutpatrolsandlefthim“nothingtodobutawaitorderstowithdraw.”TheorderswouldnotcomeforanothersevenmonthsbecausePresidentWilsonfeltanearlywithdrawalwouldshowweakness.Pershing’stasknowwastokeepanarmyof10,000meninMexicooccupiedandoutoftrouble.Pershing’s“troopsweredividedintotwocamps,withroughly6,000menatColoniaDublanandanother4,000troopsstationedsixty-fivemilestothesouthnearthetownofElValle.”DozensofChineseentrepreneursdescendedupontheDublancampanditsoonhadlaundriesandconcessionstands.Pershingforbadealcoholinthecamps,so“cantinassprangupoutsidethefences.”Thecampsincludedanarenaforboxing,aswellasfootballandbaseballfields.Infact,thecampsbegantoresemblesmall,thrivingtowns.“Pershingdespisedidlenessanddrilledthetroopsrelentlesslyintheuseofmachinegunfireandmountedpistolcharges.”HecontinuedtorequestpermissiontohuntforVilla;hisrequestswerecontinuouslydenied.Hethenseemedtoresignhimselftoawaitingthewithdrawal.

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Pershing’saide,Lt.Patton,hadperformedwellandhadgainedvaluableexperienceunderGeneralPershing.ButbyNovember1916,hewascold,miserable,andbored.Hewrotetohiswifethathewasactuallyconsideringgettingoutofthearmy.“IfIwassurethatIwouldneverbeabovetheaveragearmyofficerIwould,forIdon’tlikethedirtandallexceptasameanstofame.IfIknewthatIwouldneverbefamousIwouldsettledownandraisehorsesandhaveagreattime.”PattonwouldstayinthearmyandrisetofameduringWorldWarIIascommanderoftheThirdUSArmy,racinghistanksthroughGermanarmydefensestowardhistory.

“Thefollowingmonthswereneitheridlenorwasted.Butthebattle-hardenedveterantroopersofthe5th,7th,10th,11th,and13thRegimentsdidnotknowtheyhadseenthelastinstancewhentheirunitswouldperformasindependenthorsecavalryagainstanenemy.Neveragainwouldtheyrushanenemyonhorseback,withonlydrawnpistols,cladinnomorearmorthanawoolshirt.Someoftheregimentswouldeventuallylosetheiridentityintankbattalionsorbepermanentlydismounted.Onlyoneunit,the11thcavalry,wasdestinedtoretainitsindependentorganizationasanarmoredregiment.Thedayofthehorsesoldierwasgoneforever.”Pershingreducedtheoverallscopeofhisoperations,concentratingaroundthemainbaseatColoniaDublan.PresidentWilsonwasfacedwithavoidingincreasedAmericanmilitarycommitmentinMexico.He“musthaveknownbynowthefutilityofnegotiatingwithaweakandvacillatingCarranza,andhehadlearnedthatGermanagentshadencouragedPanchoVillaandhadsuppliedhimwithmunitions.”But,intheend,VillahadbeenseverelywhippedandneveragainthreatenedtheborderoftheUnitedStates.”ThetroopsmarchedoutofColoniaDublanandre-crossedtheborderatColumbus,NewMexicoon5February1917.”Pershing’sReportofthePunitiveExpeditionof10October1916summarizedtheaccountingoftheColumbusraidersatthattime:“Ofthetotalnumberof485VillistaswhoattackedColumbus,N.M.March9,1916,twohundredseventythree[sic]havebeenreportedkilled;onehundredeight[sic]wounded,whowerenotcaptured;nineteenareheldinconfinementbyUStroops;onehundredfiftysix[sic]arestillatlarge,ofwhomsixtyhavebeenamnestiedbythedefactogovernment,leavingthirtyseven[sic]unaccountedfor.”

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ThePunitiveExpeditiondidnotkillorcaptureVilla,butitcouldclaimseveralachievements.TheydidneutralizeVillaasathreat,inlinewiththeirauthorizingdirective.Theyintroducedtheairplaneandthetrucktolarge-scalemilitaryoperationsandprovidedabaseforwartimeexpansion.Theexpeditiondevelopedaseasonedwell-trainedandexperiencedcoreofcombatsoldiersandofficersthatwouldprovideabaseforPershing’sexpeditionaryforceinWorldWarI.Pershing,Patton,Tompkins,andotherswouldgoontoservewithdistinction.Pershingwouldultimatelybeawardedfivestars,thehighestrankintheUSarmedforces.TheleadersoftheMexicanrevolution,ontheotherhand,alldiedviolentdeaths.OnJuly20,1923,assassinsinCanutilloshotVillahimselfinhistouringcar.Finally,thePunitiveExpeditionfurtherantagonizedaMexicothatstillrememberedtheeffectsoftheMexican-AmericanWarof1846-1848andyearsofeconomicdominationbyhernorthernneighbor.Thateffectmighthavebeenthemostlasting.References:Brown,Dee,TheAmericanWest,SimonandSchuster,1994DeQuesada,AlejandroM.,TheHuntforPanchoVilla,OspreyPublishing,2012Eisenhower,JohnS.D.,SoFarfromGod:TheUSWarwithMexico,RandomHouse,1989Pershing,JohnJ.,MajorGeneral,USArmy,ReportofthePunitiveExpedition,AppendixM,October10,1916.(WritteninColoniaDublan,Mexico.DocumentfromLibrary,USArmyWarCollege,Carlisle,PA.)Turner,Jim,BlackJackPershingandPanchoVilla:ThePunitiveExpedition,ArizonaMilitaryMuseumCourier,Issue41,Spring2014.Wallace,Andrew,TheSabreRetires:Pershing’sCavalryCampaigninMexico,1916,TheSmokeSignal,No.9,TheTucsonCorraloftheWesterners,Tucson,AZ,1964.Welsome,Eileen,TheGeneralandtheJaguar,Little,BrownandCompany,2006Yockelson,Mitchell,TheUnitedStatesArmedForcesandtheMexicanPunitiveExpedition,NationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration,1997www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1997/fall/mexican-punitive-expedition-1.htmlArmyCenterforHistory,Mexico1916-1917,14March1916-7February1917.http://www.history.army.mil/html/reference/army_flag/mexex.htmhttp://www.army.mil/article/129675/Colonel_Charles_Young__Buffalo_Soldier_and_Intelligence_Officer/ColonelCharlesYoung:BuffaloSoldierandIntelligenceOfficer,9July2014