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Master's Theses Graduate College
1975
A Family Affair: Pampangan Hukism A Family Affair: Pampangan Hukism
James P. Hardy
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Part of the Social and Cultural Anthropology Commons
Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Hardy, James P., "A Family Affair: Pampangan Hukism" (1975). Master's Theses. 2476. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/masters_theses/2476
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A FAMILY AFFAIR: P A M P M G M HUKISM
by
James P. Hardy
A Thesis Submitted to the
Facu lty o f th e Graduate College in p a r t i a l fu l f i l lm e n t
o f theDegree o f Master o f Arts
Western Michigan U n ivers ity Kalamazoo, Michigan
1975
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Here i t i s cu s tom ary to g iv e r e c o g n i t i o n t o i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t
have a id e d in t h e p ro d u c t io n o f t h i s p ap e r and t h e sh ap in g o f my
t r a i n i n g t h a t I m ight someday be s c h o l a r l y . I o f f e r my g r a t i t u d e
to s e v e r a l o f t h e f a c u l t y o f t h e A nth ropo logy D epartm en t, W estern
M ichigan U n iv e r s i t y . The encouragem ent and exam ples p ro v id e d by
P r o f e s s o r s B a rb a ra W. Lex, E r ik a L o f f l e r , and R obert J a c k Smith
w i l l a lways s ta n d ou t i n my mind. I e s p e c i a l l y w ish t o th a n k
P r o f e s s o r R ob er t F. Maher, n o t o n ly f o r encouragem ent and exam ple,
b u t f o r h i s t o l e r a n c e and p a t i e n c e w ith t h i s bum bling s tu d e n t .
Thank you.
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MASTERS THESIS M-7505
HARDY, Janies P.A FAMILY AFFAIR: PAMPANGAN HUKISM.
Western Michigan University, M.A., 1975 Anthropology, cultural
Xerox University Microfilms t Ann Arbor, M ichigan 48106
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
PAGE
1
TRADITIONAL PAMPANGAN CULTURE 5
CHINESE INFLUENCES 11
SPANISH INFLUENCES 1L
AMERICAN INFLUENCES 28
JAPANESE INFLUENCES
POST-WAR EVENTS 39
HUKS AND COMPADRES b 2
TODAY'S HUKISM b j
SUMMARY b 9
MAP 5b
FOOTNOTES 55
RESOURCES 57
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INTRODUCTION
T his s tu d y i s a s y n th e s i s o f p u b l i s h e d and u n p u b l ish e d m a te r
i a l s . R e lev an t f a c t s were winnowed from a c c o u n ts w r i t t e n f o r
d iv e r s e r e a d e r s . My a n a l y s i s a r r a n g e s in fo rm a t io n t o a d d re s s
s p e c i f i c p u rp o s e s . D e sp i te t h e s e e f f o r t s , a cc o u n ts may have been
o v e r lo o k e d o r u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y o m i t te d ; t e l l t a l e f a c t s may no t
have been re c o rd e d .
The i n t e n t i s t o rev ie w s e l e c t e d and i n t e r r e l a t e d e lem en ts o f
t h e l i f e s t y l e o f t h e Pampangan t a o ( p e a s a n t ) d e m o n s t ra t in g in v o lv e
ment i n t h e Huk o r g a n iz a t i o n as c o n s i s t e n t w i th t h a t l i f e s t y l e .
T h is c o n t r i b u t e s tow ard answ ering c e r t a i n q u e s t io n s abou t th e
Huks. I s t h e p re se n c e o f th e t a o w i th in t h e H ukbalahap(Huk organ
i z a t i o n ) prompted by economic s t r e s s e s , o r by t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n s ?
Do e n c o u n te r s w i th Kuks a f f e c t p a t t e r n s o f ta o l i f e i n any
s i g n i f i c a n t ways? Why have t h e Huks endured?
An a n t h r o p o l o g ic a l approach i s u se d . Such a p e r s p e c t iv e i s more
em bracing o f m u l t i p l e f a c t o r s and r e l a t i o n s h i p s th a n p re v io u s
s t u d i e s o f t h e Huks. I t i s p ro p o sed t h a t t h e t a o 1s involvem ent
w i th t h e Huk o r g a n iz a t i o n i s c o n s i s t e n t w i th t h e t a o ' s l i f e s t y l e .
The Pam pangan's u n iq u e ly d eve loped compadre system i s n o te d as
a r e l e v a n t f a c t o r .
S e v e ra l h y p o th e ses can be s u c c e s s f u l l y s u p p o r te d . F i r s t , a
b e l i e f in communal v a lu e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s pe rm ea tes Pampangan
1
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2
l i f e s t y l e s and i n f l u e n c e s b eh av io r a t t im e s o f s t r e s s and need.
Second, t h i s a t t i t u d e i s an e s s e n t i a l e lem ent in t h e r i s e and p e r
s i s t e n c e c f t h e H ukbalahap . And, t h i r d , i t i s a dominant m o t iv a
t i n g f o r c e i n t h e l i f e o f t h e Pampangan t a o .
In t h e n a t i v e to n g u e t a o means "common man." When TO t o 80
p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u la t io n a r e t a o s and l i v e i n com m unities of
r e l a t i v e l y i s o l a t e d b a r r i o s u s u a l l y l a c k in g r o a d s , e l e c t r i c i t y , o r
p u b l i c s e r v i c e s w i th sm a l l p o p u la t io n s o f 500 t o 1 ,0 0 0 p e r s o n s ,
a c e r t a i n to n e t o t h e way o f l i f e i n Pampanga em erges(T ay lo r
1 9 6 1 :2 5 ) . The t a o i s f r e q u e n t l y a fa rm e r . In Pampanga he u s u a l l y
i s a t e n a n t fa rm e r . Pampanga has a p o p u la t io n j u s t u n d e r one m i l -
l i o n ( l 9 7 2 e s t i m a t e , i n T a y lo r 1961:19) and t h e t a o s c o n s t i t u t e a
m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e p e o p le . Taos l i v i n g in t h e u rban a r e a o f
A ngeles C i ty -C la rk A ir Base may p ro v id e a n o te w o rth y v a r i a t i o n on
t h e dominant t a o l i f e s t y l e . T he ir im pact upon t h e f i n a n c i a l sup
p o r t o f t h e Hukbalahap i s c o n s id e re d l a t e r in t h e p a p e r .
I n s p e c t t h e map a t t h e end o f t h e p ap e r f o r l o c a t i o n s o f
c i t i e s t h a t a r e r e f e r r e d t o in p o r t i o n s o f t h e t e x t . The map o f
Pampanga P ro v in c e , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , and Luzon may a l s o be u s e f u l
t o e s t im a te t h e s i z e s and r e l a t i o n s o f t h e s e a r e a s .
B a r r io s a r e t h e s m a l l e s t r e c o g n iz e d governm enta l u n i t s in t h e
P h i l i p p i n e s . They a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y sm a l l ---- one o r more
c l u s t e r s o f h ouses p r o v id in g homes f o r o n ly a few h o u s e h o ld s . The
i n h a b i t a n t s u s u a l l y work s c a t t e r e d f a rm s te a d s and a r e g e n e r a l ly
k i n s f o l k who d i s p l a y a h ig h degree o f s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y , group
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i d e n t i t y , and group u n i ty (H o v a rd 1 9 6 5 :1 9 -2 2 ) . In Pampangan towns
o r c i t i e s t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s a r e d iv id e d i n t o n e ighbo rhoods com
posed o f p e o p le who c o n s t a n t l y work and l i v e t o g e t h e r which a r e
a l s o d e s ig n a t e d a s b a r r i o s .
The Pam pangan 's i n i t i a l and c u r r e n t a d a p t a t i o n s t o t h e i r
p h y s i c a l env ironm ent p la c e em phasis on c o o p e r a t iv e communal a c t i v
i t y . S e a so n a l l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e r i c e growing a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o c e s s e s
demand modes o f t e c h n i c a l c o - o p e r a t io n t h a t e n fo rc e a s en se o f
community. With c o n t in u a l u se and t h e p a s sa g e o f t im e t h e c o o p e r
a t i v e q u a l i t y o f t h e i r s u b s i s t e n c e b e h a v io r has become f i r m ly
a s s o c i a t e d w i th o th e r a s p e c t s o f t h e i r c u l t u r e . When t h e t a o con
f r o n t s p rob lem s an a t t i t u d e o f c o o p e r a t io n , which I s h a l l r e f e r t o
i n t h e t e x t a s h i s / h e r "communal s e n s e ," o r t h a t t h e Pampangan
m ight te rm may m a la s a k i t sa pa^mayanan^(community c o n s c io u s n e s s ) ,
f u r n i s h e s t h e param ount exem plars and h a b i t p a t t e r n s upon which
s o l u t i o n s a r e b a se d .
Assuming t h a t Pampangan l i f e s t y l e p o s s e s s e s an u n d e r ly in g
theme o f communal s en se p e rm i ts s e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f t h e t a o ' s l i f e
t o be r e l a t e d and b e t t e r u n d e r s to o d . Once f u n c t i o n i n g , t h e com
munal s e n s e and c o o p e r a t iv e a c t i v i t i e s work t o s t r e n g t h e n one an
o t h e r . The communal s en se o f t h e t a o h e lp s d e te rm in e how t o a c t ,
who a r e f r i e n d s , and g e n e r a l l y p r o v id e s an i m p l i c i t theme f o r
l i f e . Both t h e Pampangan compadre system and s u p p o r t o f t h e Huks
can a l s o be c o n s id e r e d as m u tu a l ly r e i n f o r c i n g m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f
t h e communal s e n s e .
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k
A b r i e f p rev ie w o f my ap p ro ach i s i n o r d e r . P re v io u s s t u d i e s
w i l l be c i t e d and th e v a lu e o f r e a n a l y s i s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d . P re
c o n t a c t a d a p t a t i o n s o f Pampangans t o t h e i r env ironm ent w i l l be de
s c r ib e d . C e r t a in e f f e c t s o f i n t e r a c t i o n w ith C h in e se , S p a n ia rd s ,
A m ericans , and J a p a n e s e w i l l be r e l a t e d t o r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e
Pampangan compadre sy s tem , c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f l a n d o w n ersh ip , in d e p
endence o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , p e r s i s t e n c e o f t h e Huks, and t h e con
tem p o ra ry p o s i t i o n o f t h e Pampangan t a o . F i n a l l y , I o f f e r my con
c l u s i o n s .
P r i o r r e p o r t s d e a l t w i th p re -S eco n d World War Pampangan c u l
t u r e (Gal ang 1 9 k 0 ) , C h inese i n t e r a c t i o n w i th Pampangans(Liao 1 9 6 k ) ,
A ngeles C ity (H enson 1965* 19k8a, 1 9 k 8b) , Pampangan h i s to r y ( L a r k i n
1 9 7 2 ) , a g r a r i a n u n r e s t ( S t u r t e v a n t 1969; Manahan 1 9 6 7 ) , a g r a r i a n
economics(Dwyer 1 9 7 0 ) , d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i th government(Abaya
1 9 6 7 ) , U.S. B ases(Loveday 1 9 7 1 ) , communism(Hoeksema 1 9 5 7 ) , Huks
(L a c h ic a 1971; M i t c h e l l 1969; A verch , e t . a l . 1972 , 1971, 1970a,
1 9 7 0 b ) , and c r i t i c i s m o f RAND s t u d i e s o f H u k s(K e rk v l ie t 19 7 3 ) .
T here a r e g e n e r a l works t h a t by e x te n s io n can be u sed t o i l l u m i
n a t e th e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e Pampangan p easan t(C am p b e l l 1970; C a r r o l l
1970; Fox 1970; H un ter 1969; N elson 1968; Dow 1966 ; F r ie n d 1965;
Howard 1965; Meyer 1965; T a y lo r 196k; Jacoby 1961 ) . R esea rc h on
t h e f a m i ly has been r e p o r t e d (P o e th ig 1971; C a r r o l l 1970; Quiambo
1 9 7 0 ) .
The above acc o m p lish e d s p e c i f i c g o a l s . But none a t te m p te d t o
r e l a t e e le m e n ts i n t h e way t h a t I s h a l l . From such d i s p a r a t e
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5
p a r t s a new e x p la n a to r y s y n th e s i s i s p o s s i b l e . A r e - a n a l y s i s o f
t h e Pampangans and t h e Huks a t t h i s t im e s e rv e s two g e n e r a l and
two s p e c i f i c ends . One, i t d e m o n s t ra te s t h e c a p a c i t y o f an a n t h
r o p o l o g i c a l ap p ro ach to d e t e c t fo rm e r ly i n e x p l i c i t r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
Two, i t p r o v id e s an example o f such a h o l i s t i c s tu d y . T h ree , i t
o f f e r s an o p p o r tu n i ty t o examine a s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t o f Pampangan
c u l t u r e i n a manner t h a t l e n d s a d d i t i o n a l i n s i g h t i n t o p r i o r work;
a s a r e s u l t , f o c u s in g upon t h e Huks and th e Pampangan ta o i l l u s
t r a t e s a r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t o n ly now becomes p e r c e p t a b l e . F o u r ,
and l a s t , i t shows t h a t a b e l i e f i n communal v a lu e s and r e s p o n s i
b i l i t i e s p e rm e a te s t h e l i f e o f t h e Pampangan t a o and in f l u e n c e s
b e h a v io r a t t im e s o f s t r e s s and n eed . The m u tu a l ly r e i n f o r c i n g
l i n k s o f t h e t a o ' s communal se n se and p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n b o th com-
p a d re system and Huk o r g a n iz a t i o n become e v id e n t a s an outcome o f
t h i s a n a l y s i s .
TRADITIONAL PAMPANGAN CULTURE
In John A. L a r k i n ' s Pampangan h i s t o r y a v e ry u s e f u l r e c o n
s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i r e a r l y l i f e i s p r e s e n t e d (19 7 2 :1 8 , 2 0 -2 2 ) .
P r e - c o n t a c t Pampangans l i v e d m a in ly i n s o u th e rn p a r t s o f t h e
C e n t r a l Luzon P l a i n a long th e r i v e r S p a n ia rd s would name th e Rio
Grande de l a Pampanga and i t s t r i b u t a r i e s . N e g r i to f o r e s t
d w e l l e r s o c c u p ie d a d j a c e n t in l a n d wooded a r e a s . Pampangans had
b a s i c i n s t i t u t i o n s w e l l ad a p te d t o t h e env ironm ent and t h e i r
n e e d s . They had p r o d u c t iv e a g r i c u l t u r a l , c r a f t , and t r a d e
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6
sy s tem s , an e f f e c t i v e government and code o f l a v , and an e s t a b
l i s h e d c l a s s system . I f l e f t unchecked , Pampangans v o u ld have
c l e a r e d p r o g r e s s i v e l y more la n d fo r r i c e f i e l d s a t t h e i r own pace
and d i s p la c e d th e n e g r i t o e s .
Pampangan s o c i e t y had t h r e e c l a s s e s : d a tu , freem an , and
s l a v e . P a tu s were l e a d e r s who s u p e rv is e d a c t i v i t i e s such as
p l a n t i n g , h a r v e s t i n g , f i g h t i n g , and made judgem ents in d i s p u te s .
U s u a l ly , th e d a tu would n o t be ju d g e i f p e r s o n a l l y in v o lv e d in a
c a s e b u t would have a n o th e r d a tu p r e s i d e . A lthough a p p a r e n t ly
h e r e d i t a r y in n a t u r e , th e p o s i t i o n had many p o t e n t i a l l y q u a l i f i e d
a s p i r a n t s . Only t h e b e s t s u i t e d d a t u m a in ta in e d t h e p o s i t i o n f o r
any l e n g t h o f t im e . The d a tu had t o farm and make im plem ents ,
c l o t h , and t o o l s n e c e s s a ry to s u p p o r t a h o u seh o ld , j u s t a s any
o th e r member o f t h e Pampangan community. Datu was no t synonymous
w i th r u l e r and d e s p i t e e x e c u t iv e , j u d i c i a l , o r m i l i t a r y d u t i e s ,
had no s p e c i a l p r i v i l e g e s . In o th e r w ords, t h e d a tu s t i l l had to
work f o r a l i v i n g .
O rd in a ry o r common p e o p le c o n s t i t u t e d a m a jo r i t y o f t h e popu
l a t i o n . These t a o ( common p e o p le ) were r e s p o n s ib l e t o d a tu s on a
few o c c a s i o n s , a s a t t h e busy p a r t s o f t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l y e a r , d u r
in g p l a n t i n g o r h a r v e s t i n g . I n d i v i d u a l s became s l a v e s i f t h e y had
lo n g u n p a id d e b ts and t h e c o n d i t i o n was n o t n e c e s s a r i l y perm anent.
M arr iag e o ccu red betw een freem an and s l a v e . I f a man co u ld a f f o r d
and manage more th a n one w ife po lygyny was a c c e p ta b l e .
A g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d was n o t c o n s id e r e d p r i v a t e p r o p e r ty . The
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7
community, under t h e s u p e r v i s io n o f a d a t u , p o s se s s e d la n d . And
t h e community worked th e la n d . Kinsmen su p p l ie d a s o u rc e o f co
o p e r a t i v e l a b o r t h a t was b o th e f f e c t i v e and n e c e s s a r y . I d e a l l y ,
l a r g e k in u n i t s o r f a m i l i e s would c l e a r f i e l d s , p l a n t , h a r v e s t ,
b u i l d homes, and hun t t o g e t h e r . Community f e a s t and d r i n k f e s t fo r
k in and n e ig h b o rs was a common o c c u r re n c e a f t e r peak p e r io d s o f
a c t i v i t y ( F o x 1 9 7 0 :3 7 -3 8 ) . Very l i k e l y , t h e community r e p r e s e n te d
c o u ld a l s o be c o n s id e r e d a c o r p o r a t e group in t h e sen se d e s c r ib e d
by Murdock:
" . . . a c o r p o r a t e group i s one whose members s h a re an e s t a t e , e s p e c i a l l y one c o n s i s t i n g o f l a n d , d w e l l in g s , o r o th e r m a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e s which i t s members have t h e r i g h t t o u se or e x p l o i t a c c o rd in g to c u l t u r a l l y a c c e p te d r u l e s o f t e n u r e . As a p r a c t i c a l m a t t e r , I would r e s t r i c t t h e concep t t o g roups whose r i g h t s a r e r e g u l a r l y r a t h e r th a n s p o r a d i c a l l y e x e r c i s e d , e s p e c i a l l y r i g h t s to th e la n d (and i t s im provem ents) on which th e members l i v e and from which th e y e x t r a c t t h e i r economic l i v e l i h o o d . " (1 960b :1)
B efo re S p a n is h i n t r u s i o n , Pampangans had a l r e a d y committed
th e m se lv e s t o c e r t a i n en v iro n m en ta l a d a p t a t i o n s . In t h e i r h a b i t a t
such a d a p ta t i 'o n s n o t o n ly p e r m i t t e d , b u t more o r l e s s n e c e s s i t a t e d
a d i s t i n c t i v e mode o f l i f e . With th e te c h n o lo g y Pampangans p o s
s e s s e d and raw m a t e r i a l s t h e i r environm ent p ro v id e d , th e y s t i l l
needed som eth ing e l s e . C o o p e ra t iv e l a b o r was a key f a c t o r . A l
t o g e t h e r d i f f e r e n t a d a p t a t i o n s might have been made had b e h a v io r
p a t t e r n s o f t h e Pampangans n o t been conducive t o c o o p e r a t io n .
F o r t u n a t e l y , e x c e s s iv e w a r f a r e , i s o l a t e d s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s w i th
o u t t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s t o b r in g p e o p le t o g e t h e r , c o n f l i c t
in g system s o f government o r a u t h o r i t y , o r o th e r s u f f i c i e n t l y
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d i s r u p t i v e in f l u e n c e s were m is s in g .
C oo p era t io n was an e s s e n t i a l . In t h i s c o n t e x t , i t would seem
t h a t a man/woman who f a i l e d to in v o lv e h i m s e l f / h e r s e l f o r g iv e a i d
t o h i s / h e r f e l lo w s would be acc u se d o f deny ing th e v a lu e o f com
munal l i f e . Among Pampangans, l i v i n g a community o r i e n t e d l i f e
was l i k e l y t o be a c r u c i a l f a c t o r f o r o n e ' s own s u r v iv a l . I f an
i n d i v i d u a l draws upon communal a s s i s t a n c e f o x s u r v iv a l o f
h i s / h e r im m ediate h o u seh o ld , h e / s h e would be a f o o l t o deny t h e
v a lu e c f communal l i f e o r to r e f u s e s i m i l a r communally based r e
q u e s ts f o r s u p p o r t from o t h e r s .
G re a te r i n s i g h t r e g a r d in g t h e s t r e n g t h o f communal sen se a s
th e Pampangan i n t e r p r e t s i t i s g a in e d i f we c o n s id e r e t h e r e x p r e s
s io n s o f Pampangan c o o p e ra t io n . Blood p a c t s had o r i g i n a l l y been
employed to e n la r g e k in g ro u p s . O ffen se a g a i n s t any member was
c o n s id e re d an o f f e n s e a g a i n s t a l l . F a m i l i a l g roups assumed r e s p o n
s i b i l i t y f o r a c t s o f members in v e ry r e a l and s e r io u s ways. T h is
c o u ld and d id l e a d to v e n d e t ta s (F o x 1 9 7 0 :3 7 -3 8 ) .
When r e f e r r i n g t o t h e Pam pangan 's " f a m i l y , " i t i s im p o r ta n t
t o n o te t h a t more th a n one way o f v iew ing t h i s te rm i s p o s s i b l e .
For i n s t a n c e , t h e sm all group t h a t l i v e s un d er t h e r o o f o f a t a o ' s
n ip a h u t may o n ly in c lu d e husband , w i f e , c h i l d r e n . A l a r g e r g roup
may a l s o in c lu d e a n o th e r r e l a t i v e o r f r i e n d . A lso , a Pampangan
v e ry c o r r e c t l y may p o in t o u t t h a t h e / s h e i s p a r t o f a l a r g e and
w id esp read group which i n c lu d e s many h o u s e h o ld s . Such a l a r g e
f a m i l i a l group may in c lu d e i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t became members th ro u g h
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9
f i c t i v e m eans. The Pampangan " fa m i ly " i s a f l e x i b l e concep t which
p l a c e s s t r e s s on t h e f r a t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s t h a t i t en g en d e rs . A
b ro ad n o t i o n o f a " f a m i l i a l g roup" and a r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e i n d i
v i d u a l ’ s p l a c e i s an outcome o f th e n e c e s s a r y em phasis on co o p er
a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i th th e e a r l y Pampangan1s r i c e - b a s e d environm en
t a l a d a p t a t i o n s .
A p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e scope o f a Pampangan fa m i ly may
seem d i f f i c u l t ; b u t p e rh a p s t h i s i s a p p r o p r i a t e . In d e a l in g w ith
i n s t i t u t i o n s and symbols o f P h i l i p p i n e s o c i e t y T a y l o r (196^ : l U - l 5)
s u b m it te d :
" . . . i n s t i t u t i o n s w i th f a m i l i a r names do n o t have th e same c o n t e n t ; and ( t h a t ) men u s in g th e same symbols do no t a lw ays g iv e them th e same m eaning. I t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e r e i s a u n iq u e P h i l i p p i n e s o c i e t y t h a t i s n e i t h e r a l i t t l e Ameri c a n o r a l i t t l e A s ia , and t h a t t h e f i r s t c o n d i t i o n o f our u n d e r s ta n d in g i s t o a c c e p t P h i l i p p i n e c u l t u r a l d i s t i n c t n e s s and p o l i t i c a l independence i n f a c t a s w e l l a s in name."
Even t h e s p e c i a l i s t i n s t u d i e s o f k in s h ip and i n s t i t u t i o n s m ight
u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y become en sn a re d w i th in a n e t o f te rm in o lo g y .
B e l i e f s o f what i s a c c e p te d as a co n ce p t o f f a m i ly can b i a s p e r
c e p t io n s when f a m i l i a r te rm s a r e u sed i n u n f a m i l i a r ways.
"Fam ily" i s a v e ry im p o r ta n t co n ce p t t o t h e Pampangan. I t i s a
c r u c i a l and dom inant f a c t o r i n l i f e . U n d e rs ta n d in g th e s i g n i f i
cance o f " f a m i ly " i s r e l e v a n t t o an a p p r e c i a t i o n o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l
r e l a t i o n s o f Pampangans.
T oday, t h e Pampangan w i l l say t h a t h i s / h e r fam .ili a r e f e r s
t o t h e members o f h i s im m ediate h o u seh o ld . T h is may be d e c e p t iv e
b e ca u se a Pampangan househ o ld can be e i t h e r n u c le a r (m o s t a r e ) o r
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
ex ten d ed and may o r may no t in c lu d e a few d w e l l e r s t h a t have no
c o n sa n g u in e a l o r a f f i n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i th t h e e t h e r members, j u s t
f i c t i v e d e r iv i n g from p ro lo n g e d common r e s id e n c e . A nother p o in t
o f c o n fu s io n may a r i s e when t h e Pampangan t a l k s o f t h e f a m i l i a
meaning a l l t h e p eo p le t h a t h e / s h e can c la im a s some s o r t o f ccn -
s a n g u in e a l , a f f i n a l , o r f i c t i v e k in . T h is l a t e r u s e o f t h e te rm
f a m i l i a does n o t imply t h a t t h e Pampangan f a i l s to d i s t i n g u i s h be
tw een d i f f e r e n t g roups o f h i s k in . H e/she r e c o g n iz e s t h e cc n sa n -
g u in e a l and a f f i n a l r e l a t i v e s o f h i s / h e r own and o f h i s / h e r spouse
as t h e i r kam ag-anak. But o d d ly enough, anyone r e s i d i n g in h i s / h e r
h ouseho ld i s c o n s id e re d f a m i l i a and n o t r e f e r r e d t o a s kam ag-anak.
F i c t i v e r e l a t i v e s g e n e ra te d by t h e compadre system a r e s im u l ta n e
o u s ly t h e c h i l d ' s sp o n so rs and t h e p a r e n t s ' com padres , w i th t h e
p r im a ry em phasis upon t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e p a r e n t s and th e
compadre s .
No c la n s o r s i m i l a r u n i l a t e r a l g ro u p in g s a r e u t i l i z e d in r e c
kon ing r e l a t i o n s ( F o x 1 9 7 0 :3 7 -3 8 ) . A b i l a t e r a l k in - s y s te m l e t s
Pampangans d e te rm in e k in from b o th th e f a t h e r ' s and m o t h e r 's s id e s
(G alang 1 9 ^ 0 :5 2 ) . I t i s t h i s v iew o f b o th a m o t h e r 's and a
f a t h e r ' s s id e which j u s t i f i e s c a l l i n g t h e f a m i ly and k in s h ip n e t
work b i l a t e r a l ( F o x 1 9 7 0 :3 8 ) .
The Pampangan b i a l t e r a l k in group was fo rm a l iz e d a t t h e b i r t h
o f a c h i l d . T h is i s b e c a u s e , a c h i l d i s c o n s id e re d e q u a l ly r e l a
t e d t o b o th i t s m o th e r ' s and f a t h e r ' s r e l a t i v e s . A p a r e n t , e i t h e r
t h e m other o r th e f a t h e r , i s n o t so r e l a t e d to i t s s p o u s e 's r e l a -
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11
t i v e s . B u t , w i th t h e "baby's b i r t h t h e Pampangan p a r e n t s a r e
p e r c e iv e d a s u n i t e d in m arr iage(now f u l l y consummated) and
r e l a t e d , th ro u g h th e f i r s t c h i l d , t o b o th b ra n c h e s o f t h e c h i l d ' s
r e l a t i o n s . One p o s s i b l e im p l i c a t io n in such a system i s t h a t
Husbands and w ives a re n o t c o n s id e re d r e l a t e d and n e i t h e r , by
e x t e n s i o n , a r e t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e k in d re d s u n t i l a l i v i n g l i n k , a
c h i l d , i s p roduced . In o t h e r w ords, Pampangans do n o t f e e l t h a t
th e y have a c q u i r e d a s p o u s e 's r e l a t i v e s u n t i l a f t e r c h i l d b i r t h .
When t h i s o c c u r s , t h e c h i l d s e rv e s a s a f o c u s , th ro u g h which new
r e l a t i o n s h i p s can be d e te rm in ed n o t o n ly f o r t h e c h i l d , b u t f o r
i t s p a r e n t s ( F o x 1 970 :37 )- P a r e n ts may r e p e a t e d l y u se o f f s p r i n g
as a fo c u s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g f r a t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s w i th o t h e r s . I
w i l l expand upon t h i s t o p i c l a t e r .
Now, c e r t a i n e f f e c t s o f i n t e r a c t i o n w i th C hinese and
S p a n ia rd s w i l l be p r e s e n te d .
CHINESE INFLUENCES
B efo re A. D. 1270 some ad v en tu ro u s C hinese had t r a v e l e d to
th e P h i l i p p i n e s . Trade r o u t e s e x i s t e d betw een th e m a in land and
th e i s la n d s (B e n d a 1 9 6 7 :7 ) - A few com m unities o f C hinese e x i s t e d
when S p a n ia rd s a r r i v e d . I n i t i a l l y , C h inese m erch an ts were few and
p ro v id e d o n ly l i m i t e d s e r v i c e s t o Pam pangans(L ark in 1 9 7 2 :1 7 ) .
M an ila came in t o S p an ish hands i n 1571- Use o f Chinese
p o t t e r y , even a f t e r S p a n ish c o n t a c t , h i n t s a t e x t e r n a l t r a d e . In
f a c t , Pampangans may have m a in ta in e d s e v e r a l s u c c e s s f u l t r a d e
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12
r o u t e s t o and from C hina . But "by 1650, S pan ish M anila o f f e r e d a
c l o s e r s o u rc e o f exchange and th e C hinese m erch an ts had r e p l a c e d
any s e a f a r i n g Pam pangans(L ark in 1972:17 -18 ) . E v e n t u a l l y , C hinese
bus inessm en came t o f u n c t i o n as middlemen in t r a d e betw een th e
Pampangans and M a n i la (H a r r i s o n 1966:135) . S p an ish o f f i c i a l s ex
e r t e d param ount c o n t r o l o v e r exchanges . Whenever C hinese seemed
to o s t r o n g o r s u c c e s s f u l , t h e S p a n ia rd s a s s e r t e d t h e i r power(Buss
1 9 6 1 :9 5 -9 6 ) . At l e a s t f o u r t im e s 1603, I 63I , 1662 , 1782 m ajor
m a ssa c re s o f C h inese o c c u r r e d in M an ila . H a ll c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h i s
r e l a t i o n s h i p : "M utual h o s t i l i t y was t h e normal s t a t e o f a f f a i r s be
tw een th e S p a n ia rd s and t h e C h i n e s e . . . "(196 8 :2 5 0 -2 5 1 ) . The i n f l u
ence o f C hinese m ig ra n ts on th e Pampangans was no t a p p a re n t u n t i l
t h e i r p r e s e n c e combined w i th o th e r f a c t o r s ( H a r r i s o n 1966:135) .
The C hinese p r e s e n c e c o n t r i b u t e s t o a c u r r e n t b e l i e f t h a t
Pampangans p o s s e s s a m i n i - s u b - c u l t u r e o f t h e i r own, s u b t l y d i s t i n c t
from o th e r low land F i l i p i n o s . A number o f C hinese escaped th e
m a ssa c re s by m ig r a t i n g t o Pampanga (L a rk in 1 9 7 2 :1 8 -1 9 ) . C-augau,
and l a t e r B a c o lo r , were s i t e s o f o r i g i n a l s e t t l e m e n t s , r e s p e c t i v
e l y , o f C h inese and C hinese m e s t i z o s (mixed b lo o d s ) . I t i s from
th e s e towns t h a t many o f t h e Pampangan e l i t e c la im o r i g i n .
C hinese i n t e r m a r r i e d w i th Pampangans and a f t e r a s i n g l e g e n e ra
t i o n , f a m i l i e s w ere d e l e t e d from o f f i c i a l Span ish r e c o r d s a s
C hinese and added a s Pampangans. P e rh ap s due t o t h e i r d i s t a n c e
from t h e s t r i c t e r a tm osphere o f t h e M anila C h in e se , r e s i d e n t s o f
Pampanga found r e f u g e and a more e q u i t a b l e s i t u a t i o n . Today, many
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modern u rb an r e s i d e n t s open ly acknowledge C h inese a n c e s t r y . A num
b e r o f w id esp read fa m i ly names a r e c o n s id e re d Pampangan bu t a c t u
a l l y d e r iv e from C hinese s o u rc e s . In t h e s e r e s p e c t s , Pampangans
show a more p e r c e p t i b l e l i n k w ith C hinese e lem en ts th a n do most
low land F i l i p i n o s ( L a c h i c a 1 9 7 1 :5 2 ) .
A lthough C hinese c o n ta c t w i th Pampangans p receded t h a t o f
S p a n ia rd s , t h e i r i n f l u e n c e became f u l l y e s t a b l i s h e d o n ly a f t e r th e
S p a n ia rd s had a r r i v e d . At v a r io u s t im e s C h inese were r e s t r i c t e d
from c e r t a i n a c t i v i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y buy ing o r o p e r a t in g fa rm s . As
a r e s u l t , C h inese f a i l e d t o become in v o lv e d in landow nersh ip o r
fa rm in g bu t c o n c e n t r a te d on commerce and p r o c e s s in g o f a g r i c u l t u r a l
p r o d u c t s ( L a r k in 1 9 7 2 :7 6 -7 7 ) . Even to d a y , C h inese may no t be f a r
m ers in t h e P h i l ip p in e s (B e n d a 1 9 6 7 :2 1 1 ) . T h is c o n c e n t r a t i o n e f f e c
t i v e l y f o r c e d Pampangans( in c lu d in g m e s t i z o s ) o u t o f a lm ost a l l non-
a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s ( L a r k i n 19 7 2 :8 L -8 8 ) . E v e n tu a l ly , t h e o f f
s p r in g o f C h inese and Pampangan u n io n s , C h inese m e s t i z o s , came to
be a c c e p te d as n a t i v e s . And C h inese m e s t i z o s , f r e q u e n t ly a f t e r
g iv in g up t r a d i t i o n a l C hinese ways, came t o s h a re p o s i t i o n s o f
dominance a s landow ners a lo n g s id e w e a l th y d e s c e n d e n ts o f t h e o r i
g i n a l d a t u s . Thus, m e s t iz o s were n o t c o n s id e re d o u t s i d e r s a t te m
p t i n g t o e n t e r Pampangan s o c i e t y b u t s im ply as f e l lo w Pampangans
who had C hinese r e l a t i v e s .
By t h e m id - n in e t e e n th c e n tu ry most d i s t r i b u t i o n and m a rk e t in g
o f c ro p s was c o n t r o l l e d i n Pampanga by C h inese m e rc h a n ts , money
l e n d e r s , o r b an k e rs (B u ss 196J+:212). By t h e m id - tw e n t i e th c e n tu ry
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l i t
j u s t under o n e - t h i r d o f a l l P h i l i p p i n e f o r e ig n t r a d e was c o n t r o l l e d
by C h in e s e (H a r r i s o n 1 9 6 6 :2 2 6 ) . In 1961, t h e r e were o v e r 1 ,5 0 0
Chinese l i v i n g i n Pampanga(Liao 196-U: J+27) • About 50 sm all m anufac
t u r i n g o r p r o c e s s in g f i rm s owned by C hinese r e s i d e n t s had a lm o s t
900 Pampangans on t h e i r p a y r o l l s ( L i a o 196L :236). In 1>6U, t h e r e
were li+1 C hinese r e t a i l e r s i n Pampanga(Liao 196 I+: U30). In a l l ,
C hinese r e t a i l e r s employed an a d d i t i o n a l U26 F i l i p i n o s a t t h a t
t im e and had t o t a l a s s e t s o f o v e r t h r e e m i l l i o n pesos w i th s a l e s
e x ce ed in g t h i r t y th o u sa n d p e s o s 1 w o r th " d u r in g an a v e ra g e d ay (L iao
1 9 6 k : k k O ) .
SPANISH INFLUENCES
When, o v e r f o u r c e n t u r i e s ago , S p a n ia rd s came t o t h e P h i l i p
p i n e s , th e y had a p ro fo u n d e f f e c t on l i f e s t y l e s . In Pampanga, t h e
communally b ased s o c i e t y was t r a n s fo rm e d by in d i v id u a l o w n ersh ip ,
l a n d g r a n t s , c a sh c ro p economy, c o n s c r i p t e d l a b o r , and C a th o l ic is m .
P r e s s u r e s , m en tioned above , t h a t were b rough t t o b ea r upon C h inese
r e s i d e n t s caused r e p e r c u s s io n s among Pampangans. U n t i l t h i s cen
t u r y S p a in c o n t in u e d t o dom inate t h e scen e .
S p a n ia rd s s t r e s s e d c o n c e p ts o f i n d i v i d u a l ow nersh ip and o f f e r
ed rew ard s o f l a n d g r a n t s , th e r e b y a l t e r i n g t h e Pampangan system
o f communally owned a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d . D atus became la n d o w n ers ;
t h e i r f e l l o w Pampangans were unknow ingly changed in t o t e n a n t s . In
Pampanga, t h e r e were few S p an ish landow ners b u t i n t h o s e i n s t a n c e s
t h a t e s t a t e s were n o t owned by Pampangans th e y had g e n e r a l l y been
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
p u rc h a se d from F i l i p i n o s by A u g u s t in ia n c l e r g y . Thus, t h e e x p l o i
t a t i o n o f Pampangan p e a s a n t s was l a r g e l y a cc o m p lish e d by t h e i r own
d a t u s , t h e e v e n tu a l d e s c e n d e n ts o f d a t u s , and C a th o l ic c l e r g y ( H a l l
1968 :252 ; Howard 1 9 6 5 :2 1 6 -2 1 8 ) .
S p a n is h g r a n t s were o r i g i n a l l y in t e n d e d t o be n o n - h e r e d i t a r y .
However, a h e r e d i t a r y system d id ev o lv e i n w hich landow ners c la im
ed a s h a re o f c ro p and were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l t e n a n t s ' non -fa rm
in g i n t e r e s t s , l e n d in g money and h e lp in g o u t i n t im e s o f n a t u r a l
d i s a s t e r ( T a y l o r 1 9 6 ^ :8 2 -8 3 ) . T h is was t h e economic b a s i s o f
S p an ish r u l e . D e s p i te m ajor c h an g e s , H a r r i s o n o b s e r v e s :
" . . . a l t h o u g h S p an ish r u l e t r a n s fo rm e d t h e p r i m i t i v e so c i e t y o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t o a c o n s id e r a b le d e g r e e , i t d id no t i n v i g o r a t e i t ; r a t h e r i t s e t i t in a m e d ie v a l mould , f r o z e i t i n t o a r i g i d i m m o b i l i t y . . . Under S p a n ish r u l e t h e P h i l i p p i n e s rem a ined a s i t were i n a s t a t e o f su spended a n i m a t i o n . "(1966: 133-13U)
The commoners( t a o s ) were red u ce d to t e n a n t r y and fa v o re d F i l i p i n o s ,
S p a n ia rd s o r f r i a r s g iv e n la n d g r a n t s . N a t iv e a r i s t o c r a t s adop ted
t h e S p a n ish la n g u a g e . Landowner and l a n d l e s s emerged a s d i s t i n c t
Pampangan c l a s s e s . T ie s between t h e s e two c l a s s e s weakened a s i n
t e r e s t s d iv e rg e d ( L a r k in 1972 :233-235; Buss 1 9 6 L :9 5 -9 6 ) .
In t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w i th t h e developm ent o f a mar
k e t economy, a p r o g r e s s i v e l y g r e a t e r number o f landow ners tu rn e d
e s t a t e s o v e r t o t h e s u p e r v i s io n o f c a s h t e n a n t s , o r m anagers , who
p a id r e n t t o t h e a b s e n te e landow ner and in t u r n c o l l e c t e d payment
in c a sh o r c ro p from sh a re t e n a n t s . A no ther wedge s l i p p e d between
landow ners and l a n d l e s s . The b e n e v o le n t la n d o w n er- t a o r e l a t i o n s h i p
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
16
weakened, chang ing t o an a b s e n te e landow ner-m anager- t a o a r r a n g e
m ent, a s t h e c a sh te n a n c y system e v o lv e d (T a y lo r 1 9 6 L :8 2 -8 3 ) . Al
th o u g h a t t h a t t im e t h e a c t u a l number o f S p a n ia rd s p r e s e n t i n t h e
P h i l i p p i n e s n ev er exceeded f i v e thousand (B uss 196^ :211-212) th e y
had a trem endous im p a c t , e s p e c i a l l y w i th r e s p e c t t o ow nersh ip con
c e n t r a t i o n .
In t h i s c e n tu r y , e x te n s io n s o f th e ow nersh ip c o n c e n t r a t i o n
i n i t i a t e d by t h e S p a n ia rd s can be seen . Ownership c o n c e n t r a t i o n
has p ro ceed ed a t an a c c e l e r a t e d r a t e i n Pampanga s in c e 1939(<Iaccby
1 9 6 l :2 0 6 ) . At t h a t t im e 67 p e r c e n t o f th e a r e a was c u l t i v a t e d
and farmed by t e n a n t s ( L a c h i c a 1 9 7 1 :^ 2 ) . In 19^8, 1 1 .7 p e r c e n t o f
t h e fa rm e rs were f u l l owners who worked l e s s th a n 6 p e r c e n t o f
t h e farmed la n d in Pampanga and t h e rem a in ing 88 .3 p e r c e n t o f th e
fa rm e rs were t e n a n t s who worked 9^ p e r c e n t o f t h e farm ed la n d
(Dwyer 1 970 :93 ; Dow 1 9 6 6 :9 0 ) . N ationw ide , th e te n a n c y r a t e had
r i s e n t o ^6 p e r c e n t by 1952(Dow 1 9 6 6 :9 0 ) . Ownership c o n c e n t r a
t i o n c o n t in u e d t o i n c r e a s e and by i 960 t e n a n t fa rm e rs had re a c h e d
63.31 p e r c e n t f o r a l l C e n t r a l Luzon(Howard 1 9 6 5 :1 2 5 -1 2 6 ) . T h is
f i g u r e ap p ro ac h es t h e e a r l i e r 67 p e r c e n t o f 1939 f o r Pampanga
a lo n e . In 1963 t h a t was s u rp a s se d when th e p e rc e n ta g e o f l a n d
l e s s f a rm e r s , n a t io n w id e re a c h e d J O p e r cent(Dow 1 96 6 : 9 0 ) . Pam
panga has c o n s i s t e n t l y had a h ig h e r p e rc e n ta g e o f t e n a n c y th a n
t h e n a t i o n a l a v e ra g e . I t shou ld n o t be hard t o guess w hich p r o
v in c e Huber had i n mind when he commented, in an u n p u b l i s h e d man
u s c r i p t , Land T en u re , t h a t " . . . i n one d i s t r i c t in C e n t r a l Luzon,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
17
n in e ty p e r c e n t o f t h e la n d i s owned by two p e rc e n t o f t h e p e o p l e . "
(Huber, quo ted in Howard 1965 :1 2 6 ) .
Pam panga's p a t t e r n o f l e a d in g o th e r P h i l i p p i n e p ro v in c e s in
i t s te n a n c y r a t e c o u ld provoke some i n t e r e s t i n g s p e c u l a t i o n s .
P erhaps t h e p re s e n c e o f t h e C hinese p la y ed a more s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t
th a n i s r e a l i z e d . C h inese p ro v id e d an a p p a re n t r e l i e f from d e b t s
i n ' t h e form o f l o a n s . The t a o cou ld p la y th e game o f bo rrow ing
from t h e m oneylender t o pay t h e landow ner , and l a t e r from t h e
landowner to pay t h e m oneylender ---- a n ever end ing game t h a t
se rv ed t o t r a p t h e t a o i n t o t h e te n a n c y s i t u a t i o n . At t h e same
t im e , any t a o t h a t m ight be i n d u s t r i o u s enough to seek e n t r a n c e
to a Pampangan m id d le c l a s s had t o compete w ith t h e C h inese t h a t
a l r e a d y o ccu p ied t h i s n i c h e , a v e ry d i f f i c u l t t a s k . A s p e c u l a t i o n
in v o lv in g a t t i t u d e s o f Pampangans tow ards t h e i r k i n - f o l k t h a t have
encouraged a h ig h d e g re e o f m utual dependency may a l s o a i d i n an
u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e Pampangan te n a n c y s i t u a t i o n . P e rh ap s t h e co
o p e r a t io n and m u tu a l a s s i s t a n c e t h a t t y p i f i e d t h e P re -S p a n is h
p e r io d a c t u a l l y worked t o th e d is a d v a n ta g e o f t h e t a o in a w orld
o f h a c ie n d a s and c a s h c ro p economy, by p e r p e t u a t i n g te n a n c y .
N e v e r th e le s s , Pampanga has kep t ahead o f t h e n a t i o n a l a v e ra g e
w ith r e s p e c t t o t h e te n a n c y r a t e .
Cash c ro p economy and c o n s c r ip t e d l a b o r combined t o c r e a t e a
s t r e s s f i l l e d a tm osphere o f p l e n t y f o r some and f r u s t r a t i o n f o r
many. F a v o ra b le e c o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , e s t a b l i s h e d p a t t e r n s o f
communal fa rm in g , and an em erging m arke t c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
developm ent o f a new c a s h c ro p : su g a r . B eg inn ing a t t h e mid
e ig h te e n t h c e n t u r y , i t s p ro d u c t io n p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s e d t o th e
p o in t t h a t i n 1900 a lm ost a l l Pampangan m u n i c i p a l i t i e s were
r a i s i n g b o th r i c e and su g a r (L a rk in 1972:6-8, L5-L6 ). Both L a rk in
(1972:233) and Harrison(l966:235) make th e p o in t t h a t v h i l e mon
e t a r y w e a l th and o t h e r ad v a n ta g e s o f S pan ish c u l t u r e became p a r t
o f Pampanga o n ly members o f th e e l i t e were a b le t o o b t a in maximal
b e n e f i t s . The t a o ' s s h a re in p r o s p e r i t y t h a t had been c r e a t e d a l l
around t h e Pampangans f a i l e d t o m a t e r i a l i z e . Most p e a s a n t s d id
n o t u n d e r s ta n d t h e changes t h a t were o c c u r r in g . A d d i t i o n a l l y ,
th e y were o f t e n r e s t r a i n e d by t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s , in a d e
qu a te p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s o r geog rap h ic i s o l a t i o n . So, any p o te n
t i a l a c c e s s t o new b e n e f i t s from th e changed s i t u a t i o n was e f f e c
t i v e l y o u t o f t h e i r r e a c h . Landowners, u rban a r e a s , and g o v e rn
ment had a l l t h e a d v a n ta g e s and most p e a s a n ts were unaware t h a t
t h e r e were a d v a n ta g e s t o be had.
P e a s a n ts a l s o l o s t th e i n i t i a t i v e w i th r e s p e c t t o c o n s c r ip t e d
l a b o r . In f a c t , s i n c e t h e e s ta b l i s h m e n t o f S p an ish pow er, Pampan
gan p e a s a n t s have been u n a b le t o r e g a in com plete c o n t r o l over
t h e i r own l a b o r . I f t h e y were no t working a s t e n a n t f a r m e r s , th e y
had few a l t e r n a t i v e s . They q u ic k ly l e a r n e d t h a t th e y co u ld no t
s u c c e s s f u l l y compete w i th t h e C hinese i n "middle-man" o p e r a t i o n s .
And u n a n t i c i p a t e d d r a f t i n g o f men f o r work in lum ber camps, s h ip
y a r d s , o r a s g a l l e y s l a v e s was no t uncommon d u r in g e a r l y y e a r s o f
S p an ish r u l e ( d e l a C os ta 1 9 6 7 :6 k - 6 5 ) . L eve ls o f c o n s c r i p t i o n
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
19
became a lm ost i n t o l e r a b l e i n 161-9, bu t no t u n t i l 1660 d id Pampan
gans r e v o l t . They were p o t e n t i a l l y c ap a b le o f a s u c c e s s f u l p r o - *
t e s t . Of p e o p le s i n h a b i t i n g C e n t r a l Luzon th e y were t h e b e s t
o rg a n iz e d s o c i a l l y , had many s u p p o r t e r s , and due t o p r i o r i n s t a n
ces o f c o n s c r i p t i o n t o m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e had become f a m i l i a r w ith
S p an ish methods o f w a r f a r e . B u t , t h e r e v o l t f a i l e d . With t h i s
f a i l u r e , I b e l i e v e t h a t t h e t a o tu rn e d to a n o th e r commitment a s a
way o f d e a l in g w ith f r u s t r a t i o n t h a t seemed in s u rm o u n ta b le . The
t a o found s o la c e w i th i n t h e s e c u r i t y o f t h a t p r o t e c t i v e s o c i a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h a t d o m e s t ic g ro u p , so s t r o n g and f l e x i b l e , which
t h e s e p eo p le had a lw ays had a v a i l a b l e : th e Pampangan f a m i ly
(F r ie n d 1 9 6 5 :2 0 -2 1 ) . C a th o l ic c l e r g y encouraged t h i s commitment
a s c o n s i s t e n t w i th i d e a l s o f f a m i ly u n i t y and C h r i s t i a n c h a r i t y .
S p an ish i n t r o d u c t i o n o f C a th o l ic is m had two outcom es: t h e
g e n e ra l c o n v e r s io n o f F i l i p i n o s and a un ique e x p r e s s io n o f th e
compadre system among Pampangans. The A u g u s t in ia n s s e t ou t t o
s p re a d C a th o l ic is m i n Pampanga and succeeded in t h e i r e f f o r t s .
They u sed a t e c h n iq u e o f c o n v e rs io n t h a t r e l a t e d C h r i s t i a n i t y to
l o c a l va lues(H ow ard 1 9 6 5 :2 1 6 -2 1 8 ) . The communal v a lu e s and t h e
s p e c i a l im p o rtan ce Pampangans a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e b i r t h o f a
c h i l d were t u r n e d i n t o avenues t o in t ro d u c e t h e new r e l i g i o n .
P e a s a n t s ' b e l i e f t h a t C a th o l ic r i t u a l s , e s p e c i a l l y b a p t i s m , had
m a g ica l p r o p e r t i e s c o n t r i b u t e d t o a c c e p ta n c e o f C h r i s t i a n i t y ( H a l l
1968:21+9). F o lk C a th o l ic is m became a b len d o f C h r i s t i a n p r a c
t i c e s and d o c t r i n e combined w i th p r e - c o n t a c t b e l i e f s ( F o x 1970:1+2).
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20
The compadre system emerged as a way f o r Pampangans t o g iv e com
munal v a lu e s fo rm al r e c o g n i t i o n ( T a y lo r 1 9 6 4 :2 5 ) . The A u g u s t in -
i a n s e s t a b l i s h e d th e m s e lv e s so s u c c e s s f u l l y i n Pampanga t h a t by
t h e end o f t h e S p an ish p e r io d o f r u l e t h i s p ro v in c e had more
Roman C a th o l ic c h u rch e s th a n any o th e r i n t h e P h i l i p p in e s ( L a r k i n
1 9 7 2 :1 3 ) .
Members o f t h e c h u rch o r g a n i z a t i o n , i n p a r t i c u l a r th e a r c h
b ish o p o f M an ila , e s t a b l i s h e d a r e p u t a t i o n o f d e fe n d in g r i g h t s o f
n a t i v e c o n v e r t s a g a i n s t i n j u s t i c e s o f S p an ish r u l e . P r i e s t s and
f r i a r s l e a r n e d in d ig e n o u s la n g u a g e s , e s t a b l i s h e d f i rm l i n k s w i th
c o n v e r t s , and came to assume t h e r o l e o f i n t e r m e d i a r i e s when con
f l i c t s a ro s e betw een F i l i p i n o s and S p a n ia rd s (B u ss 1 9 6 4 :9 4 -9 7 ) .
S p an ish i n f l u e n c e and Roman C a th o l ic is m r e e n f o r c e d f a m i ly
s o l i d a r i t y and u n i t y , s t r e n g th e n e d p a r e n t a l a u t h o r i t y over
c h i l d r e n , and te n d e d t o r e l e g a t e F i l i p i n o women t o an i n f e r i o r
p o s i t i o n in r e l a t i o n t o men(Quiambo 1 9 7 0 :8 8 ) . The p re -S p a n is h
Pampangan h u sb an a -w ife r e l a t i o n s h i p was rem a rk ab ly e q u a l i t a r i a n ;
in f a c t , t o t h e d e g ree t h a t t h e i r h o u seh o ld s co u ld no t be te rm ed
p a t r i c e n t r i c a t t h a t t im e(F o x 1 9 7 0 :3 7 -3 8 ) . With t h e adven t o f
th e S p a n ia rd s , naming o f c h i l d r e n and spouses became p a t r i l i n e a l ,
t h a t i s , an i n d i v i d u a l to o k t h e surname o f t h e f a t h e r o r husband
(Howard 1 9 6 5 :1 5 7 -1 5 8 ) ; and a l l F i l i p i n o s were o b l i g e d , i n 1849,
t o adop t S p an ish f a m i ly names(Buss 1964:211) w i th o u t , o f
c o u r s e , t o t a l s u c c e s s .
Then and now, t h e Pampangan sen se o f community te n d s t o be
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
co te rm in o u s w i th a sen se o f f a m i l i a ; i t sp re a d s ou t and s to p s
w i th k in . I t does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y in c lu d e th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s
b u s in e s s o r g a n i z a t i o n , p o l i t i c a l s t a t e , o r even r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i
a t i o n . These a r e a l l g roups to he d e a l t w i th and used f o r th e
b e n e f i t o f th e f a m i l i a (F r ie n d 1 9 6 5 :2 3 -2 5 ) . On b e h a l f o f f a m i l i a ,
an i n d i v i d u a l may go so f a r as t o rob th e p u b l i c t r e a s u r y w h ile
f u l l y c o n f id e n t t h a t t h i s i s th e ex p e c te d and c o r r e c t a c t i o n . At
t h e same t im e , th e code o f p e r s o n a l honor i n s i d e t h e f a m i l i a i s
h e ld i n v e ry h ig h r e g a r d ----- many t h i n g s a Pampangan m igh t do to
o u t s i d e r s would n ev e r even be c o n s id e re d p o s s i b l e w i th r e s p e c t to
a n o th e r member o f h i s / h e r f a m i l i a (T ay lo r 1 9 6 1 :1 5 5 -1 5 6 ) .
S iz e and ran g e o f t h e Pampangan f a m i l i a i s o f im p o r tan ce be
cau se o f t h e s t r e n g t h and s e c u r i t y i t o f f e r s members. The f a m i l i a
i s a f r a t e r n i t y , a s o r o r i t y , s o c i a l s e c u r i t y , a r o t a r y c l u b , an
o ld f o l k s ' home, a sometimes c lo se d - s h o p u n io n , f r e q u e n t l y a bus
i n e s s , and always a sm all government i n i t s own r i g h t . R e g a rd le s s
o f e x t e r n a l l e g a l c la im s , many Pampangan p e a s a n t s s t i l l t h i n k o f
" t h e i r " l a n d a s a f a m i l i a t r u s t . W ealth o r income i s f a m i ly
s h a re d . R e l ig io n i s f a m i l i a o r i e n t e d . In d e e d , t h e f a m i l i a t a k e s
c a r e o f i t s own(Fox 1 970 :38 ; F r ie n d 1 9 6 5 :2 3 ) .
C e r t a in d is a d v a n ta g e s d e r iv e from such a system . I t may d i s
cou rag e t h e grow th o f l a r g e s c a l e b u s in e s s o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I t de
f i n e s t h e se n se o f community t o ex c lu d e n o n - r e l a t i v e s . I t c o n t r
a s t s t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e f a m i l i a a g a i n s t a c e r t a i n weakness o f
e x t e r n a l - t o - t h e - f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s . S u s p ic io n and i n s e c u r i t y
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
22
can e a s i l y e n t e r i n t o a l l d e a l in g s w i th any u n r e l a t e d in d i v i d u a l s
and te n d s t c d is c o u ra g e a c a p i t a l i s t , e n t r e p r e n e u r p e r s p e c t i v e .
In modern p o l i t i c a l and economic sp h e re s o f a c t i v i t y i n th e
P h i l i p p i n e s u n iq u e d i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s e . Assuming one a c t s on be
h a l f o f f a m i l i a , t h e lo s in g o f an e l e c t i o n o r b u s in e s s c o n t r a c t
becomes a compounded em barrassm en t. F a i l u r e s in a c t i v i t i e s r e l e
v a n t t o f a m i l i a r e s u l t in l o s s o f p e r s o n a l d i g n i t y , damage o f s e l f
e s te e m , and r e f l e c t back upon t h e f a m i ly (T a y lo r 1 9 6 1 :1 5 5 -1 5 6 ) .
Fam ily and r e l a t i v e s assume c o l l e c t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
a c t s o f f a m i l i a members. There i s a lw ays th e p o t e n t i a l f o r d e v e l
o p in g a v e n d e t t a . T h e re fo re , i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s o u t s id e
o n e ' s f a m i l i a a r e conducted w i th t h e th o u g h t t o a v o id o f f e n d in g
o r lo w e r in g t h e esteem o f t h e o t h e r p a r ty (F o x 1 9 7 0 :3 8 ) .
To h e lp i n c o n t a c t s o u t s id e o n e ' s f a m i l i a a p a t t e r n o f r e c i p
r o c a l conce rn had d ev e lo p ed . These p a t t e r n s in v o lv e o b l i g a t i o n s
and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f r e c i p r o c a l h o s p i t a l i t y , g e n e r o s i t y , and
e u p h e m is t ic speech t o a v o id ambiguous o r s t r a i n e d s i t u a t i o n s .
F u r t h e r , th e s o c i e t y has become s t r u c t u r e d by g e n e r a t io n s and by
a p r i n c i p l e o f ra n k in g by r e l a t i v e a g e . R espec t f o r t h e aged i s
em phasized: younger in d i v id u a l s show d e fe r e n c e in speech and be
h a v io r to a l l o ld e r p e r s o n s ( l b i d ) .
Even th e o r i e n t a t i o n program c u r r e n t l y g iv e n t o newly a r r i v e d
American m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l and d e p e n d e n ts a t C la rk A ir B ase ,
Pampanga, em phasizes a need t o be c a u t io u s when in v o lv e d in i n t e r
p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s w i th Pampangans. O ra l d e fam a tio n t o d e t r a c t
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
23
from a n o t h e r ' s r e p u t a t i o n o r to r e f e r t o a p e r s o n o r r e l a t i v e a s a
g a n g s te r o r hoodlum i s a c r im in a l o f f e n s e l i a b l e f o r p ro se c u
t i o n by P h i l i p p i n e a u t h o r i t i e s . D e s p i te w a rn in g s , o r a l d efam ation
i s th e most common c r im in a l com pla in t charged a g a i n s t Americans.
When c o n s id e r e d r e l a t i v e t o th e ra n k in g o f o t h e r l o c a l c r im in a l
c o m p la in t s , i t i s seen t h a t s e l f e s teem o r t h e r e p u t a t i o n o f o n e 's
f a m i ly i s v e ry i m p o r t a n t ( M i l i t a r y l e t t e r n . d . : 2 ) .
An e f f e c t i v e way t h e Pampangan has found t o c o n t r o l p e r s o n a l
r e l a t i o n s o u t s i d e t h e f a m i l i a has been t o expand th e web o f k in
s h ip th ro u g h e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f r e c i p r o c a l d u t i e s and o b l i g a t i o n s in
th e compadre s y s te m (T a y io r 1 9 6 ^ :2 4 9 ) . R i t u a l s and a f f i n i t i v e ways
e x i s t f o r t h e p u rp o se o f in c lu d in g f r i e n d s , p a r t n e r s , em ployers ,
and t h o s e t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l e x p ec ts someday t o engage i n v i t a l
b u s in e s s w i th in f a m i l i a (F r ie n d 1 9 6 5 :2 M . At c e r t a i n r i t u a l o c c a
s io n s o f l i f e p a r e n t s a r e r e q u i r e d by t h e i r r e l i g i o n to s e l e c t
a n o th e r a d u l t sp o n so r f o r t h e i r o f f s p r i n g . B ap tism , c o n f i rm a t io n ,
m a r r ia g e each p ro v id e such o p p o r t u n i t i e s .
In a c t u a l p r a c t i c e , Pampangan p a r e n t s w i l l s e l e c t no t one o r
two b u t s e v e r a l s p o n so r s . The r e l i g i o u s p u rp o se i s t ra n s fo rm e d
i n t o a f a m i ly g o a l : t o expand th e k in w e b ( lb id ) . Howard, who has
s tu d i e d t h e F i l i p i n o s a s a s o c i o l o g i s t , i n d i c a t e s sp o n so rs a re
chosen f o r v a r io u s r e a s o n s :
(1)They have p l e a s i n g p e r s o n a l i t i e s .(2)They h e lp make c o n n e c t io n s and improve o n e 's s t a t u s .(3)They i n c r e a s e o n e ' s number o f f r i e n d s .(U)They can assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n t h e c a r e o f t h e i r
g o d c h i ld r e n a f t e r d e a th o f t h e p a r e n t s .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2h
( 5 ) N o n - r e l a t i v e s a r e chosen b ecause o f good o r c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p .
(6)Some f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s o f f e r t o he s p o n so r .(7)The p e rs o n can g iv e s p i r i t u a l a d v ic e .(8)They a r e chosen beca u se o f g r a t i t u d e . (1965:161)
C lose r e l a t i o n s h i p s which deve lop a r e not t u t o r i a l between
c h i l d and g o d p a re n t , b u t f r a t e r n a l betw een p a r e n t and g o d p a re n t .
Sponsors and p a r e n t s a d d re s s each o th e r a s copad re and coraadre■
Pampangans f e e l v e ry r e a l r e c i p r o c a l t i e s , no t j u s t w i th t h e i r
copad re a n d /o r com adre , bu t t o a h igh d e g re e w i th t h e s e i n d i v i d
u a l s ' b r o t h e r s , s i s t e r s , and spouses .
The p o t e n t i a l t o m u l t i p l y q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y o f k in
th ro u g h ju d i c i o u s s e l e c t i o n i s trem endous . However i t i s p r a c t i c
a l l y im p o s s ib le f o r th e av e ra g e Pampangan f a m i ly c o n t a in in g seven
c h i l d r e n to g e n e r a te t h e maximal q u a n t i t y o f c o n c e iv a b le a d d i t i o n
a l k in (G a la n g 1 9 ^ 0 :5 3 ) . O p t im a l ly , i f n u c l e a r f a m i l i e s were a l l
a v e ra g e w i th seven c h i l d r e n each and s i x sp o n so rs had been s e l e c t
ed on each o c c a s i o n ( r a r e l y a r e more th a n 6 sp o n so rs s e l e c t e d ,
Quiambc 1 9 7 0 :9 1 ) , t h e p o t e n t i a l number o f new k in would be l ,76 i* .
T h is i s u n r e a l i s t i c , e s p e c i a l l y a s most Pampangan v i l l a g e s do not
even have a p o p u la t io n t h a t r e a c h e s t h i s f i g u r e . A red u ce d e s t i
m ate would be more a c c u r a t e . A d d i t i o n a l l y , i f based on a s m a l le r
th a n a v e ra g e s i z e n u c l e a r f a m i ly i t i s l i k e l y t o r e f l e c t t h e s i t
u a t i o n among h o u seh o ld s w i th g r e a t e r th a n av e rag e m o r t a l i t y r a t e s
f o r members, such a s h o u se h o ld s in v o lv ed in Hukbalahap a c t i v i t i e s .
T hat H uk-invo lved h o u se h o ld s a r e s m a l le r th a n no n -H u k - in v o lv ed i s
s p e c u l a t i o n on my p a r t , b u t i t i s an a ssu m p tio n t h a t does n o t
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25
n e c e s s a r i l y harm my argum ent a t t h i s p o i n t . Thus, I h av e , some
what a r b i t r a r i l y , d e c id e d to u se h o u seh o ld s w i th fo u r c h i ld r e n to
i l l u s t r a t e t h e g e n e r a t io n o f a k in web t h a t has been expanded un
d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s ta n c e s .
Now, assume t h a t a t b a p t is m , c o n f i r m a t i o n , and m a rr ia g e fo u r
sp o n so rs a r e s e l e c t e d , each one o f f o u r s i b l i n g s , each m a r r ie d .
The sp o n so r a c t u a l l y r e p r e s e n t s a p o t e n t i a l f o r a s many as e ig h t
new k in . Taken t o g e t h e r t h i s co u ld p roduce 38k new k in w ith which
th e c h i l d r e n s ' n a t u r a l p a r e n t s may e s t a b l i s h f r a t e r n a l bonds. The
l a r g e number o f f r a t e r n a l bonds t h a t a r e g e n e r a te d r e s u l t from
t h i s fo rm u la : t h e number o f c h i l d r e n ( C ) , t im e s t h e number o f occa
s io n s t h e c h i l d s e r v e s a s a f o c u s ( F ) , t im e s t h e number o f a c t u a l
s p o n s o r s ( S ) , t im e s t h e number o f a c t u a l k in t h e s p o n se r s r e p r e
s e n t ^ ) , which e q u a ls th e number o f new k in (K ) p ro d u ced . The
i d e a l c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r t h e t y p i c a l h o u seh o ld s o f seven c h i ld r e n
and t h e s m a l le r h o u se h o ld s o f fo u r a r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y :
C(7) x F (3 ) x S (6 ) x R ( lk ) = K(176U), a n d ,
C (k ) x F (3 ) x S(U) x R(8) = K(38U).
T h is does n o t in c lu d e t h e new k in t h a t would be a c q u i r e d i f t h e s e
p a r e n t s became s p o n so r s f o r o th e r p a r e n t s ' c h i l d r e n . I t needs t o
be s t r e s s e d t h a t ch o o s in g p a r t n e r s from e x i s t i n g b lo o d k i n , r e p i -
t i t i o n o f s e l e c t i o n s , o v e r la p p in g o f r e l a t i v e s , e t c . w i l l make
t h e a c t u a l number l e s s th a n 38k new k in .
T h is system p r o v id e s a te c h n iq u e f o r b u i l d i n g up a f i c t i v e
k in d r e d . The f a c t t h a t p a r e n t s may e x e r c i s e v o l u n t a r y c h o ic e in
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
26
t h e s e l e c t i o n o f new r e l a t i v e s ( a n d w hereas th e r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t
d e v e lo p s i s m a in ly f r a t e r n a l between p a r e n t s and sponsors /new k in )
makes i t p o s s i b l e f o r d i f f e r e n t f i c t i v e k in d re d t o be b o th d i s
c r e t e u n i t s and f a r l e s s o v e r la p p in g th a n t h e n a t u r a l k in d re d d e -O
s c r ib e d by Murdock . And b ecau se t h e Pam pangan 's f i c t i v e k in d re d
have a p o t e n t i a l to d ev e lo p i n t o d i s c r e t e u n i t s , a p o t e n t i a l to
d ev e lo p i n t o a c o r p o r a t e g roup may a l s o e x i s t . F u r th e r , t h e f i c
t i v e k in d re d may have a p o t e n t i a l t o a c t as a c o l l e c t i v i t y and
d ev e lo p a c e r t a i n c o n t i n u i t y o v e r t im e .
G a la n g ( l9 ^ 0 :53) s u g g e s te d t h a t t o a v i s i t o r to Pampanga i t
would seem as though e v e ry Pampangan was r e l a t e d to every o th e r .
C u r re n t laws ( C i v i l Code T i t l e 7 , A r t i c l e s 2 1 6 -2 5 3 ) , which were
b ased upon e a r l i e r S p an ish p r a c t i c e s , r e e n f o r c e s o l i d a r i t y and
u n i t y o f expanded k in webs. In f a c t , t h e code e x p l i c i t l y e n j o in s :
" . . . a l l members o f th e f a m i ly t o owe m utual a i d t o eacho t h e r . A fa m i ly c o u n c i l i s e s t a b l i s h e d by law which in c lu d e s n o t o n ly t h e im m ediate members o f t h e f a m i ly and o th e r r e l a t i v e s bu t even f r i e n d s t o keep t h e f a m i ly k n i t and u n i t e d .
"The s i z e o f t h e f a m i ly i s n o t dependen t a l t o g e t h e r on t h e b i r t h r a t e b u t i s ex ten d ed by t h e compadre sy s tem ."( C i v i l Code, quo ted i n Quiambo 1 9 7 0 :9 2 ) .
L et me r e p e a t f o r em phasis : t h e f a m i ly c o u n c i l in c lu d e s "even
f r i e n d s t o keep t h e f a m i ly k n i t and u n i t e d " and t h i s p u b l i c law
r e c o g n iz e s f a m i ly s i z e can be " ex ten d e d by t h e compadre system ".
Pampangans know k in : by b lo o d , by r i t e , and by r i t u a l i z e d
a f f i n i t y ; t h e s e a r e f a m i l i a ; a l l o t h e r s a r e enem ies , n e u t r a l s and
p e r s o n s o f no s i g n i f i c a n c e ( F r i e n d 1965:25)* One o th e r c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c s ta n d s o u t : a p l i a n c y t o s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l change . The
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
27
b i l a t e r a l k in system i s q u i t e a d a p t iv e and f o r t u n a t e l y t h e P h i l i p
p in e i n s t i t u t i o n s have no t become r i g i d o r h ig h ly i s o l a t e d from
each o th e r (Fox 1970:1+3).
Many communal l o y a l t i e s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e compadre
system . These c o n t in u e to make p o s s i b l e needed e c o lo g ic a l adap
t a t i o n s . In Pampanga, th e a g r i c u l t u r a l based way o f l i f e depen
d en t on su g a r and r i c e fa rm ing r e q u i r e s communal a c t i v i t y and co
o p e r a t io n . I submit t h a t t h e Pampangan communal l o y a l t i e s have
become a f e a t u r e o f seem ing ly r e v o l u t i o n a r y b e h a v io r . I i n t e r p r e t
t h i s a s i n d i c a t i v e o f a d e s i r e t o m a in ta in and r e v i t a l i z e t r a d i t i
o n a l ways o f l i f e in a changing w orld .
In o rd e r to p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e modern b u s in e s s w orld o r in
p o l i t i c s , t h e Pampangan t a o must become somewhat a l i e n a t e d from
t r a d i t i o n a l ways o f l i f e . The c h o ic e i s t o rem ain a c o n fo rm is t
and p e rfo rm on a f a m i l i a s c a le i n b u s i n e s s , o r a c q u i r e d i f f e r e n t
a t t i t u d e s and v a lu e s (T a y lo r 1 9 6 ^ :1 5 6 ) . On th e o th e r hand, i f a
f a m i ly condones an a c t i v i t y , such a s a b u s in e s s , p o l i t i c s , o r
r e v o l u t i o n , th e n th e i n d i v i d u a l may become in v o lv ed w ith a minimum
o f a l i e n a t i o n . S e v e r a l r e c e n t s t u d i e s (K aplan and Huang 197^;
Goode 1969; G r e e n f ie ld 1969; J a v i l l o n a r and P e t e r s 1969 ) have de
fended th e c a se f o r f a m i ly and k in d re d s u p p o r t c o n s t i t u t i n g an im
p o r t a n t f a c t o r and p o s i t i v e avenue in t o modern b u s in e s s p r a c t i c e .
Now, c e r t a i n e f f e c t s o f i n t e r a c t i o n w ith Americans and J ap an ese
w i l l be p r e s e n te d .
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28
AMERICAN INFLUENCES
American p re s e n c e i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s p ro v id e d an a tm osphere
f o r developem nt and in n o v a t io n hu t f a i l e d t o in c lu d e ad e q u a te con
t r o l s t o p re v e n t u n i n t e r r u p t e d landow ner e x p l o i t a t i o n o f p e a s a n t s .
Freedom o f r e l i g i o n and P r o t e s t a n t i s m a r r i v e d v i a t h e A m ericans.
In t i m e , C la rk A ir B ase , Pampanga became a dominant e lem ent on th e
economic h o r iz o n o f one s p e c i f i c l o c a l i t y : A ngeles C i ty .
George T a y lo r , a p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t , p o i n t s o u t :
" . . . f o r f i f t y y e a r s th e U n ite d S t a t e s imposed upon th e F i l i p i n o i t s own concep t o f what a n a t i o n shou ld b e , and l a r g e e lem en ts i n t h i s concep t have been a c c e p te d . But to d a y th e F i l i p i n o s th e m se lv e s a r e d e c id in g who th e y a r e and where th e y a r e g o in g , and i t i s w i th t h i s i s s u e t h a t th e y a r e more and more e n g a g e d . " ( l 96L : i L - l 5 )
E s s e n t i a l l y , i t would a p p e a r , th e p re -A m erican o rd e r i s b e in g r e -
e s t a b l i s h e d ( H u n te r 1969 :220 -221 , 2 3 2 ) . American p re s e n c e has r e
s u l t e d in no r a d i c a l changes i n t h e e x i s t i n g f e u d a l economic and
s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s ( J a c o b y 1 9 6 1 :1 9 1 ) .
Dwyer and Von C p p en fe ld , r e s p e c t i v e l y head o f t h e Geography
and Geology D epartm en t, U n iv e r s i t y o f Hong Kong and P r o f e s s o r ,
C o l le g e o f A g r i c u l t u r e , U n iv e r s i t y o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , Laguna
P r o v in c e , have been i n t e r e s t e d in t h e i n t e r p l a y among te c h n o lo g y ,
m icroeconom ics , and s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s o f t h e t e n a n t r i c e fa rm e r .
Based upon Von O p p e n fe ld 's s u rv e y ( i 9 6 0 ) o f 3 ,800 fa rm e rs in t h e
C e n t r a l P l a i n o f Luzon, Dwyer(l970) r e c o n s t r u c t e d a com parison
betw een two r e p r e s e n t a t i v e F i l i p i n o f a rm e rs : one w i th and one
w i th o u t i r r i g a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s . T h is example i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t an
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
29
advanced te c h n o lo g y has f a i l e d t o s e rv e t h e p e a s a n t . I n s t e a d , t h e
landow ner i s t h e one who p r o f i t s .
M iguel la c k e d i r r i g a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s . Ju an p o s s e s s e d i r r i g a
t i o n f a c i l i t i e s and t h u s c o u ld r a i s e two c ro p s o f r i c e p e r y e a r ,
p ro d u c in g a h a r v e s t t h r e e t im e s th e s i z e o f M ig u e l 's . They were
r e l a t i v e s who l i v e d a c r o s s th e ro a d from each o t h e r . Both were
t e n a n t fa rm e rs . The d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e d i f f e r e n c e betw een h a r v e s t s
o f t h r e e t o one was t h e outcome o f a t e c h n o l o g i c a l im provement.
The su b seq u en t r e d u c t i o n and l e v e l i n g o f t h e two f a r m e r s 1 incomes
was th e r e s u l t o f s o c i a l and economic fa c to rs (D w y e r 1 9 7 0 :8 5 , 9 0 -2 ) .
M iguel r e n t s 2 .3 h e c t a r e s o f l a n d , r a i s e s one c rop o f r i c e
p e r y e a r , t i l l s a s m a l l v e g e t a b l e p a t c h , h i r e s l a b o r a t p l a n t i n g
and h a r v e s t i n g t i m e s , and beca u se he s e l l s n e i t h e r c h ic k e n s nor
p i g s has a r e l a t i v e l y few number o f work h o u rs p e r y e a r and a con
s i d e r a b l e amount o f t im e on h i s h an d s , most o f t h e y e a r . H is t o t
a l r i c e y i e l d f o r t h e y e a r was 2112 kg. He a l s o p ro v id e d l a b o r
t o o t h e r s and th u s e a rn e d 880 kg. o f r i c e . —On.ce h i s h a r v e s t was
i n , he had t o pay o p e r a t i n g ex p en ses . In t h e end he o n ly had 198
kg . o f r i c e l e f t o v e r f o r home consum ption , w hich would be in a d e
q u a te f o r h i s h o u se h o ld f o r t h e whole year(D w yer 1 9 7 0 :9 0 -9 1 ) .
On t h e o th e r h an d , J u a n r e n t s 2 .08 h e c t a r e s o f l a n d , s h a re s
i n t h e u se o f a 3 - h .p . i r r i g a t i o n pump, r a i s e s one c ro p o f r i c e on
h i s u n i r r i g a t e d la n d and two c ro p s p e r y e a r on h i s i r r i g a t e d l a n d ,
t i l l s a sm a l l v e g e t a b l e p a t c h , a l s o h i r e s h e lp and a l s o does n o t
s e l l c h ic k e n s o r p i g s . However, Juan p u t s i n a lm o s t tw ic e a s many
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
m an/hours a s M iguel due t o t h e a d d i t i o n a l r i c e c ro p s . His t o t a l
r i c e y i e l d f o r t h e y e a r was 6^72 kg . He a l s o p ro v id e d h i s l a b o r
t o o t h e r s , few er h o u rs p e rh a p s th a n M iguel , bu t was s t i l l a b l e t o
e a rn 673 kg. o f r i c e . He a l s o had t o pay o p e r a t i n g ex p en ses . In
t h e end , Juan co u ld o n ly keep 220 kg. and s o ld 13 kg . o f r i c e t o
r a i s e cash(Dwyer (1 9 7 0 :9 1 ) .
While t e c h n o l o g i c a l improvement r e s u l t s in l a r g e r h a r v e s t s
from l a n d , t h e s i t u a t i o n s o f M iguel and Juan s t i l l have s i m i l i a r
ou tcom es . Landowners u s u a l l y r e a l i z e d t h e ad v a n ta g e s o f l a r g e r
h a r v e s t s . Tenant f a r m e r s , l i k e J u a n , who were h ig h ly dependen t
on t h e la n d owner p roduced l a r g e h a r v e s t s bu t had l a r g e overhead
ex p en ses and p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y l e s s p r o f i t f o r h i s e f f o r t s a t t h e
end o f t h e y e a r . M iguel d id l i t t l e b e t t e r . He o p e r a t e d on a
s m a l le r s c a l e , p a id l e s s t o d e b t s o r o v e rh ea d , bu t s t i l l ended
t h e y e a r w i th o u t e s c a p in g h i s un tow ard predicam ent(D w yer 1 9 7 0 :9 0 ) .
The example o f Ju an and M iguel o f f e r s some i n s i g h t in t o t h e
l i f e o f t h e t a o . A nother v iew o f t h e con tem porary r i c e fa rm ing
t a o * s l i f e s t y l e i s u s e f u l h e r e .
L a c h ic a , a F i l i p i n o w r i t e r and j o u r n a l i s t , s t u d i e d t h e a g r a r
i a n l i f e s t y l e in d e p t h ( l 9 7 l ) . F o r s h o r t p e r i o d s , Pampangan r i c e
fa rm in g i s one o f t h e most l a b o r i o u s o f P h i l i p p i n e a g r i c u l t u r a l
a c t i v i t i e s . I t i s h a r d e s t a t p l a n t i n g and a g a in a t h a r v e s t i n g .
I f t h e p a r t i c u l a r a r e a has an i r r i g a t i o n system two o r even t h r e e
c ro p s p e r y e a r a r e p o s s i b l e . Many farms in Pampanga, however,
l a c k i r r i g a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s so o n ly one r i c e c rop i s p o s s i b l e .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
31
Between t h e heavy working p e r io d s o f p l a n t i n g and h a r v e s t i n g
th e fa rm e r may have l i t t l e o r n o th in g to do f o r s e v e r a l m onths.
A l i t t l e e x t r a income from f i s h i n g , h a n d i c r a f t s , o r o th e r sm a ll
g a rd en c ro p s i s p o s s i b l e . The main so u rce o f income rem a ins th e
s h a re o f t h e r i c e h a r v e s t . That s h a r e , which i s r e c e iv e d o n ly
once o r tw ic e a y e a r , t h e househo ld must budge t c a r e f u l l y .
Long p e r i o d s o f i d l e n e s s combine w ith lo n g e r income c y c l e s
t o i n f l u e n c e t h e f a r m e r s ' l i f e s t y l e . P e r io d s o f i n a c t i v i t y a r e
o r d i n a r i l y f i l l e d w i th l o c a l forms o f gam bling . On Sunday, t h e
whole f a m i ly may a t t e n d p i n t a k a s i , a c o c k f ig h t h e ld i n honor o f a
p a t ro n s a i n t . The ta o w i l l gamble a t p i n t a k a s i and may even p a r
t i c i p a t e w i th a p r i z e d cock o f h i s / h e r own. Weekdays, v i l l a g e
monte t a b l e s o r b ingo games a r e p r e s e n t i n most b a r r i o s .
To be s u r e , i f someone w in s , someone must be a l o s e r . Some
fa rm e rs a r e a lw ays in need o f c a s h . In h i s / h e r d i s t r e s s , t h e
l o s i n g t a o may f e e l f o r c e d to c h e a t on h i s / h e r landow ner. The
t e n a n t fa rm e r i s e x t re m e ly dependen t on c r e d i u , m a in ly from th e
landow ner and t o a d e g re e from r e l a t i v e s , f o r t h e s u r v i v a l o f
h i s / h e r h o u se h o ld .
A r e c o l l e c t i o n o f a p re -S eco n d World War in fo rm a n t , i d e n t i t y
unknown, p ro v id e s a s t r i k i n g p o r t r a y a l o f t h e t a o ' s p l i g h t :
"From t h e t im e t h e p low ing and p l a n t i n g a r e f i n i s h e d in e a r l y A u g u s t , up t o h a r v e s t t im e , which comes i n F e b ru a ry , t h e fa rm e r has p r a c t i c a l l y n o th in g t o do b u t see t h a t h i s f i e l d s a r e w e l l - s u p p l i e d w i th w a te r . He r e s t s a t home mosto f t h e d a y , g iv i n g h i s f i n g e r s and t o e - n a i l s ----- l o s t i n t h emud d u r in g t h e p low ing and h a r v e s t s e a s o n a chance t oreg ro w , o r t o p a t c h h i s tumble-down h ouse .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
32
"Sometimes when t h e fa rm e r has no more r i c e t o e a t , he w i l l h im s e l f t h r e s h a sm a ll p a r t o f t h e s t i l l u n d iv id e d h a r v e s t , b u t t h i s i s p r o h i b i t e d by th e hacendero who sends ou t h i s ' k a t i w a l a ' , p r i v i t e g u a r d s , a t n i t e t o d e t e c t v i o l a t o r s . I f t h e fa rm er i s caugh t he e i t h e r f o r f i t s t h e whole h a r v e s t t o t h e landowner o r i s h a u le d t o c o u r t , whence he goes s t r a i g h t t o j a i l f o r t h e f t th o u g h he may p le a d , h o n e s t l y , t h a t he in te n d e d t o r e p o r t t o t h e hacendero th e e x a c t amount he had th r e s h e d to save h i s f a m i ly from s t a r v a t i o n . "( r e c o rd e d and r e p o r t e d by S t u r t e v a n t , quo ted in L a c h ic a 1971: ^ 7 -^ 8 , s p e l l i n g e r r o r s in L a c h i c a ' s v e r s io n )
The t e n a n t system governs t h e l i f e o f t h e t a o ; and t h e t a o ' s
a n n u a l income i s i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e s u b s i s t e n c e o f h i s househo ld
(Jacoby 1 9 6 1 :2 0 9 ) . R ice r a t i o n s , borrow ed from la n d o w n ers , a r e
lo a n e d w h ile c rops a r e m a tu r in g , a t u s u r io u s r a t e s o f i n t e r e s t
(Jacoby 1961 :2 0 7 ) .
Most s e r io u s o f a l l i s when f a r m e r s , l a c k in g any c ro p ,
c r e d i t , o r c a s h , c o n t r a c t w i th landow ners t o borrow n o t o n ly cash
b u t a l s o r i c e f o r food u n t i l t h e n e x t h a r v e s t . The t a o , v e ry
l i k e l y , w i l l never escap e t h i s c y c l e ( i b i d ) .
Taos s t a y on farm s b ecau se o t h e r employment i s a lm o s t impos
s i b l e t o f i n d . T h is i s th e c a s e d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t s m a l ln e s s
o f i n d i v i d u a l farm s p e rm i ts much f r e e t im e d u r in g th e y e a r . E x t ra
t im e i s eco n o m ica l ly w as ted . M i l l i o n s o f m an-hours a r e l o s t and
th o u s a n d s o f Pampangan t a o a r e f o r c e d t o s u rv iv e on income d e r iv e d
from 600 o r few er hou rs o f l a b o r . The l o c a l economy i s m arked ly
u n d i v e r s i f i e d ; t h e r e a r e s im ply no jo b s a v a i l a b l e to p r o v id e sup
p le m e n ta l incom es(Jacoby 1 9 6 1 :2 1 0 ) .
How d id American r u l e in f l u e n c e t h e te n a n c y s i t u a t i o n ? When
t h e P h i l i p p i n e s were t r a n s f e r r e d t o American hands i t was
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33
e s t im a te d t h a t U00,000 t a o had no la n d t i t l e s . Methods were made
o p e r a t i o n a l t o o b t a in c l e a r l a n d t i t l e s . Not by i n t e n t , b u t nev
e r t h e l e s s , t h e system gave t h e ed u ca ted and w e a lth y ad v an tag es
b e c a u se c o u r t p ro c e d u re s c o s t money and were l a r g e l y incom prehen
s i b l e t o t h e ig n o r a n t t a o . Very few ta o managed t o s e c u re t i t l e
t o l a n d , r a t h e r , many l o s t what th e y had . In a d d i t i o n , S p an ish
r o y a l g r a n t s were re c o g n iz e d a s p a r t o f t h e T r e a ty o f F a r i s ( T a y l o r
196^ : 83 ) •
As m en tioned p r e v i o u s l y , ow nersh ip c o n c e n t r a t i o n , begun d u r
in g S p an ish r u l e , p ro ceed ed a t an a c c e l e r a t e d r a t e i n Fampanga
s in c e 1939, and r e c e n t l y i t was su g g e s te d t h a t o n ly two p e r c e n t
o f t h e p eo p le owned n i n e t y p e r c en t o f t h e la n d (H u b e r , quo ted in
Howard 1 9 6 5 :1 2 6 ) .
J a c o b y ( l9 o l :2 2 7 ) b e l i e v e s t h a t "No r e a l chance e x i s t s f o r
fu ndam en ta l ch an g e s , bu t o n ly t h e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r c o r r e c t i o n s o f
m inor im p o r ta n c e ." and t h a t t h e d i s t r e s s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e t a o has
become a c c e p te d a s a f a c t o f l i f e ( l 9 6 l : 2 0 9 - 2 1 0 ) . The P h i l i p p in e
government was a d v is e d t o s e t up a l a n d t e n u r e a u t h o r i t y w i th
power t o a l t e r c o n d i t i o n s ( T a y l o r 1 9 6 ^ :2 0 ^ -2 0 5 ) . In f in d in g s o f a
s tu d y c a l l e d t h e H ard ie R e p o r t (1951:5) t h e recom mendation was t h a t
t h e F i l i p i n o e l i t e , h o ld in g p o l i t i c a l and economic power based
l a r g e l y on l a n d o w n e rsh ip , sh o u ld undermine t h e i r own s o c i a l , eco
nom ic, and p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n . I n s t e a d , t h e l i m i t e d p ro g re s s and
newly c r e a t e d income o f t h e p o s t war p e r io d was ch an n e led t o gov
ernm en t, l a n d l o r d s , and u rb an a r e a s ( T a y lo r 1961+:20^-205). P e rhaps
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
3U
t h i s i s u n d e r s ta n d a b le . A f te r a l l , t h e congressmen who would
i n i t i a t e re fo rm s were a l l to o o f t e n e i t h e r t h e v e ry landow ners
who h e ld Pampangan l a n d o r owned la n d e lsew h ere i n t h e P h i l i p
p i n e s . They g e n e r a l l y r e t a i n e d t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s o f la n d o w n ers .
P e rh ap s Cam pbell(1 9 7 0 ) , a s p e c i a l i s t i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s
w i th tw e lv e y e a r s e x p e r ie n c e a s an A sian c o r re s p o n d e n t f o r Time
m a g az in e , i s c o r r e c t when he say s :
"The R ep u b lic o f th e P h i l i p p i n e s was lo n g an American c o lo n y ; and i t i s a co lony s t i l l , b u t n o t an American one.I t i s c o lo n iz e d by 50 r i c h F i l i p i n o f a m i l i e s . . .
" . . . t h e u n iq u e , f e u d a l f a m i ly t i e s . . . a r e r e a l l y a l l t h a t p r e v e n t t h e P h i l i p p i n e s b low ing up p o l i t i c a l l y , and w hich a t t h e same t im e h in d e r t h e c o u n t ry from d e v e lo p in g f a s t e r e c o n o m ic a l ly ." (2 1 6 -2 1 7 )
Americans were n o t t h e o n ly o u t s i d e r s t o dom inate th e
P h i l i p p i n e s i n t h i s c e n tu r y . Between t h e y e a r s 19^2 and 19^5
Ja p a n e s e had th e upper hand. B uss , a p r o f e s s o r o f h i s t o r y a t
S ta n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y , summed up t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e F i l i p i n o p e a
s a n t a f t e r t h i s e x p e r i e n c e : " T h e ir o r d e a l co u ld n o t f a i l t o r e
s u l t i n a deep h a t r e d o f J a p a n . " ( I 96U: i+9 5 ) .
JAPANESE INFLUENCES
The J a p a n e se o c c u p a t io n o f Pampanga was c a t a l y t i c i n n a t u r e .
S u sp en s io n o f norm al Pampangan o r American a u t h o r i t y a l lo w e d t h e
Hukbalahap i t s c l a s s war a g a i n s t landow ners under a g u i s e o f r e
s i s t a n c e t o t h e J a p a n e s e , w i th o u t f e a r o f im m ediate r e p r i s a l s
from t h e fo rm er s o u rc e s o f power. C ontinued e x p l o i t a t i o n by l a n d
owners and i n t r u s i v e e x p l o i t a t i o n by J a p a n e se p r e s s e d down upon
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35
t h e p e a s a n t ; and t h e p e a s a n t r e a c t e d . The im m ediate r e l e a s e o f
lo n g endu red f r u s t r a t i o n s was r e a l i z e d f o r many i n d i v i d u a l t a o by
j o i n i n g i n t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e H ukbalahap . Once th e y had become
"H uks," s t r o n g f r a t e r n a l t i e s d ev e lo p ed and were r e c o g n iz e d
th ro u g h t h e compadre system . The h a r d s h ip s and c o o p e ra t io n deman
ded in t h e s e y e a r s p roduced an u n a n t i c i p a t e d outcome. R e s i s ta n c e
b e h a v io r was l e g i t i m i z e d a s communally a c c e p te d a c t i v i t y by Fam-
pangan p e a s a n t s . American and o th e r p r e - J a p a n e s e a u t h o r i t i e s r e
tu r n e d b u t f a i l e d t o t a k e i n t o acc o u n t o r f u l l y u n d e r s ta n d what
had happened. E v e n tu a l ly , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s became an ind ep en d en t
n a t i o n .
D uring t h e Second World War, some p o l i t i c i a n s and landow ners
became c o l l a b o r a t o r s . S e v e ra l f a c t i o n s a r o s e t o p r o t e c t p a r t i c u
l a r i n t e r e s t s . C o n s e rv a t iv e p o l i t i c i a n s b a r e l y managed t o ho ld
t h e P h i l i p p i n e i n s t i t u t i o n o f government t o g e t h e r . At t h e t im e ,
t h e s e men were c o n s id e re d t r a i t o r s by many F i l i p i n o s . D uring t h e
o c c u p a t io n , J a p a n e se m a n ip u la te d l o c a l a s s i s t a n c e and p la y e d up
rem oval o f American f o r c e s a s a P h i l i p p i n e l i b e r a t i o n .
In r e t r o s p e c t , i t m ight be a rg u ed t h a t t h e s e c o l l a b o r a t o r s
h e lp e d save P h i l i p p i n e d em o cra tic i n s t i t u t i o n s and red u ce d l a t e r
p o l a r i z a t i o n o f p o l i t i c s . However, i t i s n e e d fu l t o p o in t ou t
t h a t t h e y a l s o s t r o v e t o p r e s e r v e t h e o ld f e u d a l i s t i c and o l i g a r c
h i c a l so c io -eco n o m ic sy s tem , which was o f param ount im p o rtan ce to
t h e i r own way o f l i f e . In any c a s e , t h e c o l l a b o r a t o r s were g e n e r
a l l y a b l e t o cope w i th t h e J a p a n e s e p r e s e n c e , t h e subsequen t
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36
American r e t u r n , and P h i l i p p i n e independence t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t
th e y emerged a s s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s i n each s u c c e s s iv e
reg im e .
A n ta g o n i s t i c camps v e r e p r e s e n t i n t h e i s l a n d s , and , t o he
s u r e , were s o u rc e s o f many c o n f l i c t s and o u t b u r s t s o f v io l e n c e in
t h e war y e a r s . The p r o - J a p a n e s e camp was composed o f J a p a n e s e
Armed f o r c e s and p ro - J a p e n e s e F i l i p i n o s . An o p pos ing camp was
r e a l i z e d in t h e g u e r r i l l a f o r c e s , in p a r t i c u l a r t h e H ukbalahap ,
who had s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t s s e rv e d by t h i s o p p o r tu n i ty t o engage in
com bat. Huks b e l i e v e d any engagements th e y co u ld encourage would
h e lp t h e i r c au se :
(1) by t r a i n i n g t h e i r t r o o p s ,(2) by f u r t h e r j u s t i f y i n g t a o ( p e a s a n t ) s u p p o r t ,(3) by g e n e r a l l y l e g i t i m i z i n g t h e i r own p r e s e n c e ,(U) by o f f e r i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o o b t a i n arms ana s u p p l i e s .
In a d d i t i o n , p ro lo n g ed Huk p r e s e n c e in Pampanga s e rv e d t o in c r e a s e
l i n k s w i th l o c a l f a m i l i e s th ro u g h an a c t i v e compadre system .
E i t h e r becoming a Huk o r i n c lu d in g Huks among f i c t i v e k in d re d be
came a h ig h ly d e s i r e d means o f s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n a t t h i s time..
The war may have been an ongo ing ev en t b u t p eo p le s t i l l c o n t in u e d
to p a r t i c i p a t e in m a r r i a g e s , b a p t i s m s , c o n f i r m a t i o n s , and expand
in g t h e i r k in webs when o p p o r t u n i t i e s a r o s e .
A system o f m utual dependency has lo n g been a m a n i f e s t p a r t
o f Pampangan s u r v i v a l . I n b a r r i o s (s m a l l c o m m u n it ie s ) , p e r s o n a l
b a s e s o f c o o p e ra t io n made p o s s i b l e t h e p l a n t i n g o f r i c e s e e d l i n g s ,
h a r v e s t i n g , moving a n ip a h u t t o a new l o c a t i o n , o b t a in in g c r e d i t ,
and a whole way o f l i f e r e v o lv i n g a round h e lp in g k i t h and k in .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
The p r i n c i p a l s u p p o r t o f Huks was found among k i n , n e ig h b o rs , and
b a r r io m a te s (L a c h ic a 1 9 7 1 :2 8 -2 9 ) .
Pampangans and c o n c e p ts o f f r a t e r n a l i s m were no s t r a n g e r s .
F r a t e r n a l i s m in t h e compadre system o f e n l a r g in g f a m i l i e s and ex
panding ne tw orks o f k i n - l i k e t i e s t o n o n -k in was e a sy t o i d e n t i f y
and a d a p t t o needs o f Pampangan g u e r r i l l a s . Huks encouraged f r a
t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . They c a l l e d each o th e r k a p a t a d ( b r o t h e r ) ,
k ay ab e( com rade) , c o p a d re , o r comadre; a l l were l a b e l s w ith power
f u l em o tio n a l c h a rg e to t h e Pampangan p e a s a n t ( I b i d ).
C o lone l I d i o n g c o ( l b i d ) , h im s e l f a Pampangan, s t a t e s c o n f id
e n t l y t h a t m u tua l dependency in Huk a r e a s has always been g r e a t e r
th a n e lsew h ere i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . C e r t a i n l y , in C e n t r a l Luzon,
where t h e r e has been much a g r a r i a n s t r i f e s in c e t h e 1 9 2 0 's , t h e s e
bonds o f i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p a r e ex tre m e ly c r u c i a l t o l i f e and s u r
v i v a l . W ith in t h e f a r r e a c h in g lim bs and b ran ch e s o f any Pampan
gan f a m i ly th e t a o f i n d s s u p p o r t . A d eg ree o f em o tio n a l and mat
e r i a l s e c u r i t y i s a v a i l a b l e t o a l l members from t h e most b ad ly
used a g r i c u l t u r a l w orker t o t h e most r a d i c a l K uk(Friend 1965 :20 -
2 1 ) . In t h e p a s t t h i s ne tw ork o f th ; Pampangan p e a s a n t te n d ed t o
f o s t e r an a tm osphere o f a p a th y and f a i t h ; one co u ld alw ays t u r n
t o th e f a m i ly a t t im e s o f extrem e need . Now, i t h a s become a
haven and t o o l f o r t h e p e a s a n t who d a re s t o m o b i l iz e a g a i n s t l a n d
l o r d s , governm ent, P h i l i p p i n e C o n s ta b u la r y ( lo c a l p o l i c e ) , o r any
one e l s e t h a t i s b e l i e v e d t o be a t h r e a t o r an e x p l o i t e r .
L ead ers such a s Sumulong and L u is Taruc a p p e a re d . With each
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f a i l u r e o f some o th e r movement o r p r o t e s t a few more men were r e
c r u i t e d . From q u i t e humble o r i g i n s men were coming f o r t h t o l e a r n
what th e y would need t o s u rv iv e a s an " a n t i - J a p a n e s e P e o p le 's
Army," t h e H ukbalahap, and l a t e r a s t h e r e b e l Huks o f th e p o s t
Second World War P h i l i p p i n e s ( F r i e n d 1 9 6 5 : l 6 0 , 257).
In many r e s p e c t s , t h e Huks' w artim e a c t i v i t i e s resem bled
th o s e o f t h e i r C hinese c o u n t e r p a r t s ( T a y l o r 1961 :121 -122 ) . D uring
t h e o c c u p a t io n th e y h a r r a s s e d Ja p a n e se and s im u l ta n e o u s ly a t te m p
t e d t o d e p r iv e them o f l o c a l r e s o u r c e s . Whenever p o s s i b l e , Huks
would p r e v e n t J a p a n e se from o b ta in in g food s u p p l i e s in a r e a s th e y
d o m in a ted (H a l l 1 9 6 8 :7 7 9 ) . H a rra ssm en t , how ever, was viewed a s a
way t o t r a i n new Huk t r o o p s . F ig h t in g J a p a n e s e p ro v id ed e x p e r
ie n c e Huk l e a d e r s fo re saw would be needed a f t e r th e war. Any who
opposed Huks were l a b e l e d p u p p e ts . Of 25 ,000 c la im ed k i l l e d by
Huks d u r in g t h e war o n ly 5 ,000 were J a p a n e s e ; o t h e r s were F i l i p i n o
v ic t im s o f t h e c l a s s war. Abandoned h a c ie n d a s were s e i s e d and
F i l i p i n o s b e l i e v e d t o be t r a i t o r s w ere l i q u i d a t e d . A veraging
10 ,000 men w ith a back-up m i l i t i a e s t im a te d a t 100 ,000 th e Hukba
la h a p had d eve loped t h e b i g g e s t , b e s t t r a i n e d , and b e s t equ ipped
F i l i p i n o army in th e P h i l i p p i n e s tow ard t h e end o f t h e war. But
u n l i k e C h inese p e a s a n t g u e r r i l l a s t h e Huks were d i r e c t l y i n t h e
p a t h o f American f o r c e s t h a t were p r o g r e s s in g tow ard an in v a s io n
o f J a p a n (H artendo rp 19 6 7 b :21+2-2^3, 293 , 512; Meyer 1965:56;
T ay lo r 196U:121-122) .
The t a o , e x p l o i t e d and f r u s t r a t e d , b e l i e v e d s u c c e s s was in
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h i s / h e r r e a c h a t l a s t . Through a c t i o n s o f t h e H ukbalahap i n j u s
t i c e s co u ld be s e t r i g h t . A lthough t h e Huks d id n o t im m ed ia te ly
r e se m b le s u p e r n a tu r a l f o r c e s o r s a i n t s , i t was n o t lo n g b e fo re
rum ors began to s p re a d . The charmed l i v e s o f some Huks became ex
a g g e r a te d and d e a th s o f o t h e r s t r a n s fo rm e d them t e m p o r a r i l y in t o
m a r ty r s . To be a Huk became s p e c i a l . To h e lp r e d r e s s wrongs was
commendable. To f i g h t e v i l - d o e r s and e x p l o i t e r s d id no t make th e
Huk a b a n d i t . R a th e r , th e Huk became a h e ro .
C e r t a i n l y , th e Pampangan te n a n c y s i t u a t i o n may have been an
i n i t i a l r a l l y i n g p o in t f o r a p a r a - m i l i t a r y movement such a s t h e
H ukbalahap . In l a t e r y e a r s i t was p e r p e t u a te d by a co m b in a tio n o f
f a c t o r s . C o n t in u i ty o f t h e id e o lo g y o f f i n d i n g j u s t i c e f o r t h e
t a o , t e r r o r i s m and c o e rc io n t o s u rv iv e a s an o r g a n i z a t i o n , and
c r i m i n a l , m a f i a - l i k e b e h a v io r f o r p e r s o n a l g a i n , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e
A ngeles C i ty - C la r k A ir Base n e ig h b o rh o o d , a l l have c o n t r i b u t e d to
t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h i s f o r c e in Pampanga(Averch 1972 ) .
Remember, t h e H ukbalahap i s an o r g a n i z a t i o n . I t has u n d e r
gone grow ing p a in s a t t i m e s , changes i n mem bership, and o th e r p r o
blems w hich I need n o t d e t a i l . Huk a c t i v i t i e s have n o t a lways
been p r a i s e w o r th y . O p p o s i t io n t o Huks has met w i th mixed r e s u l t s .
Y e t, t h e Huks p e r s i s t .
POST-WAR EVENTS
P o s t-S eco n d World War e v e n ts e m b i t t e r e d many Pampangans. The
U n ite d S t a t e s s e t c o n d i t i o n s on war damage paym ents: American
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b usinessm en wanted eq u a l r i g h t s w i th F i l i p i n o s t o e x p l o i t P h i l i p
p in e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s . To a l lo w t h i s a change was needed i n t h e
P h i l i p p i n e c o n s t i t u t i o n . Newly e l e c t e d Pampangan congressm en
opposed such a c t i o n . P r e s id e n t Roxas to o k o f f i c e on May 2 8 , 19^6 ,
ig n o re d t h e s e p a r t s o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n :
"The v a l i d i t y o f an e l e c t i o n can be de te rm ined by t h e e l e c t o r a l t r i b u n a l o f each house o f c o n g re s s . . . and o n ly t h e e l e c t o r a l t r i b u n a l c o u ld , a f t e r a p ro p e r h e a r in g , u n s e a t a m e m b e r ." (P h i l ip p in e c o n s t i t u t i o n , q uo ted in Abaya 1967 :32)
And he o u s te d i n d i v i d u a l s who had a l r e a d y been a cc ep ted by t h e
com mission on e l e c t i o n s . Seven o f t h e e i g h t Pampangan c a n i d a t e s
were removed. American b u s in e s s go t e q u a l r i g h t s w ith F i l i p i n o s .
To c o n fu se m a t t e r s m ore, p r e v io u s l y i n c a r c e r a t e d members o f th e
J a p a n e s e puppe t reg im e were g iv e n a g e n e r a l amnesty and many once
a g a in became a c t i v e i n p o l i t i c s ( C a r r o l l 1970 :138-139; Buss 196b:
585).
Landowners r e a l i z e d th e t im e was r i p e and demanded s t r o n g
government s u p p o r t in C e n t r a l Luzon. A r i c h landow ner, Pab lo
A ngeles D avid , became governo r o f Pampanga. David s e t up a rm ie s
o f c i v i l i a n g u a rd s , armed and d e p u t iz e d by government b u t a c t u a l l y
on la n d o w n e rs ' p a y r o l l s , t o c o n t r o l l a w l e s s n e s s and p r o t e c t p e o p le .
Almost s e v e n ty p e r c e n t o f t h e s e g u a rd s had se rv ed in t h e J a p a n e s e
O ccupa tion P h i l i p p i n e C o n s ta b u la ry . One m ight wonder who were t h e
p e o p le t h a t g o v e rn o r David in te n d e d t o p r o t e c t . Many Pampangan
p e a s a n t s w anted and needed p r o t e c t i o n and enforcem ent o f t h e i r
r i g h t s . I t i s l i k e l y t h a t t h e p e o p le D avid w ished t o p r o t e c t were
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n o t t h e p e asan ts (A b ay a 1967:31-31+).
Kuks v e r e s t i l l a c t i v e . A g ra r ia n d i s c o n t e n t and p o s t-S eco n d
World War t u r m o i l p e r m i t t e d a c o n t in u e d c l a s s w ar. They v e re a
v e ry r e a l i r r i t a t i o n t o th e government(M eyer 1 9 6 $ :5 6 ) . On August
21+, 191+6, c i v i l i a n g u a rd s und er m i l i t a r y e s c o r t , k idnapped and be
headed Juan F e le o , t h e second i n command o f t h e Huks. C i v i l war
e r u p te d . Roxas l a b e l l e d an a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i v e armed in d i v id u a l s
an " i n s u r r e c t i o n , " and a m e e t in g o f t h r e e o r more an " i l l e g a l a s
s o c i a t i o n . " T here v e re mass a r r e s t s . O ther o f f i c i a l a t t i t u d e s
cau sed c o n fu s io n . Roxas d id n o t o u t la w Huks u n t i l March 6 , 19^8.
F iv e weeks l a t e r he d ie d . P r e s id e n t Q u ir in o g r a n te d them amnesty
i n J u n e , I 9I+8 . The am nesty program f a i l e d . By O ctober 191+8,
Q u ir in o and American G en era l A lb e r t M. Jo n e s had d e v is e d y e t an
o t h e r p la n t o c o n t a in and e l im i n a t e a l l Huks(Abaya 1 9 6 7 :3 1 -3 5 , 37 ) .
T h is and su b seq u en t a t t e m p t s f a i l e d . T h i r t y y e a r s a f t e r t h e
Second World War Huks a r e s t i l l a c t i v e i n Pampanga(Hunter 1969 :
220- 221 , 2 32 ).
Even a f t e r in d e p en d en ce , Americans rem ained i n t h e P h i l i p
p i n e s . In Pampanga, t h e A ngeles C i ty - C la r k A ir Base complex
c r e a t e d a busy u rb an a r e a . In t h i s n o r th w e s te rn p o r t i o n o f th e
p r o v in c e , ab o u t 35 ,000 American se rv icem en and d ep en d e n ts t r y t o
f o r g e a U . S . - l i k e a tm osphere a t t h e second l a r g e s t m i l i t a r y base
i n t h e w o rld . About 2 0 ,000 F i l i p i n o s a r e employed on th e b a s e .
O ff b a s e , l o c a l F i l i p i n o s e n jo y m i l l i o n s o f p e so s w o rth o f b u s i
n e s s a s a r e s u l t o f American m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e (L a c h ic a 197 1 :5 2 ,
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1^0; C la rk n . d . ) . I t would p ro b a b ly be s a f e t o assume t h a t t h e
p re s e n c e o f t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r Americans p ro v id e s a c e r t a i n p o r t i o n
o f t h e f i n a n c i a l su p p o r t f o r t h e Huks.
Pampanga has managed t o rem ain p red o m in a te ly Pampangan in h a b
i t e d . Pampangans f a i l t o l e a v e t h e i r p ro v in c e in g r e a t numbers.
Groups such a s T aga logs o r I lo c a n o s have hom esteaded s o u th e rn i s
la n d s in l a r g e numbers; Pampangans have n o t . Non-Pampangans have
moved to u rban a r e a s l i k e M anila o r Cebu C ity t o c r e a t e s i z a b l e
m i n o r i t i e s in t h e s e c i t i e s . P erhaps because Pampangans have a
busy u rb an a r e a o f t h e i r own, th e A ngeles C i ty -C la rk A ir Base
com plex, few have l e f t Pampanga f o r th e b ig c i t i e s . Pampanga
m a in ta in s a p o p u la t io n h e a v i l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f in d ig en eo u s
kapampango sp eak in g p e o p le w h i le o th e r p ro v in c e s te n d to fo l lo w
p a t t e r n s em phasiz ing g r e a t e r f low s o f p e o p le (L a c h ic a 1 9 7 1 :^ 9 )-
HUKS AflD COMPADRES
L u is Taruc has p o r t r a y e d th e Pampangan: "They r e f u s e t o be
b r u t a l i z e d , i f you g e t on t h e wrong s id e o f them , th e y become im
p l a c a b l e fo e s" (Q u o te d i n L a c h ic a 1 9 7 1 :5 3 ) . L ach ica a l s o im p l ie s
a s i m i l a r q u a l i t y when he speaks o f t h e i r c h a r a c t e r : "Pampango
c h a r a c t e r . . . a q u ix o t i c s e n s e o f m ora l o b l i g a t i o n t h a t t e n d s t o
p r e v a i l o v e r e x t e r n a l c o m p u ls io n s " (1 971 :^ 7 )• With t h e ad v en t o f
t h e Huks he c a r r i e s t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s p r e d i l e c t i o n o r tem
peram ent even f u r t h e r when d e p i c t i n g t h e Huk sen se o f i d e n t i t y ,
b rav ad o , o r s p i r i t .
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"The Huk s p i r i t i s b a s i c a l l y an 'u s a g a i n s t them ' id e n t i f i c a t i o n . 'T h ey ' a r e th e PC, th e c i t y - s l i c k e r l a n d r e f o r m i s t s , d o -g o o d e rs t r y i n g t o win p e a sa n t f a v o r , and t h e r e s t o f t h e ' o u t s i d e r s ' who c o n t in u e to 'm i s u n d e r s ta n d ' C e n t r a l L u zo n ." (1 9 7 1 :3 0 )
Who i s th o u g h t t o have t h i s Huk s p i r i t ? In l a t e 1969, a P h i l i p
p in e H era ld e s t i m a t e i n d i c a t e d t h a t in Huk c o n t r o l l e d a r e a s ,
s e v e n ty p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u la t io n had th e Huk s p i r i t ( L a c h i c a
1 9 7 1 :3 1 ) .
Even t h e man/woman who i s a " c i v i l i a n " ( a n i n d i v i d u a l who i s
n e i t h e r a Huk nor an in fo rm e r f o r t h e governm ent) can bf c o n s id
e re d a t r u s t e d p e rso n in a c i r c l e o f Huk f r i e n d s and sh a re i n th e
Huk s p i r i t . L ike Huks, h e / s h e w i l l m a in ta in a f a i t h t h a t p a s t
wrongs w i l l e v e n t u a l l y be s e t r i g h t by th e good p e o p le . The
t r u s t e d Huk sy m p a th iz e r may d e r iv e a sense o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e
e v e n tu a l r e d r e s s o f w rongs, perh ap s f e e l a s en se o f p e r s o n a l power,
and a d e g re e o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l l e v e r a g e may be n i s / h e r s t o u s e over
o th e r t a o s who l a c k a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i th any H uks(L ach ica 19 7 1 :3 1 ) .
F a i t h and c o n s ta n c y t o i d e a l s i s r e f l e c t e d i n T a r u c 's rem arks
when he r e c a l l e d i n i t i a l f r i c t i o n t h a t b e f e l l S o c i a l i s t P a r ty and
Communist P a r t y o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s members when t h e y f i r s t u n i t e d .
"We were n o t accustom ed t o th e i r o n d i s c i p l i n e o f th e Communist P a r ty b u t what we la c k e d i n d i s c i p l i n e and d o c t r i n e we made up in i d e a l i s m and en th u s ia sm . When we were t r o u b l e d by t h e t h i n g s o u r comrades d i d , we c o n s o le d o u r s e lv e s w i th t h e th o u g h t t h a t d e d i c a t i o n t o a good c au se would p roduce good m e n ." (q u o te d in L ac h ica 1971 :1 0 2 ) .
B a n d i t ry i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s can be looked upon a s p a r t o f a "Robin
Hood" t r a d i t i o n . R e v e r t in g t o t h e c a r e e r o f o u t la w as a means o f
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uu
e s c a p in g an i n s u f f e r a b l e s i t u a t i o n o f s e m i- fe u d a l t e n a n t r y i s not
an u n f a m i l i a r e x p e r ie n c e to t h e t a o (L ach ica 1 9 7 1 :6 3 ) .
E x p l o i t a t i o n and f r u s t r a t i o n a r e v e ry r e a l e lem en ts in t h e
l i v e s o f th e Pampangan t a o s . E x te r n a l powers c o n t r o l and e x p l o i t
t h e Pampangans. I n t e r n a l i z e d v a lu e s cause f r u s t r a t i o n by c o n s t r a
in i n g a t a o ' s c h o ic e s and l i m i t i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r growth o u t
s id e t h e c o n te x t o f " f a m i ly ." These same v a lu e s have .a l s o been
s o u rc e s o f r e l i e f from th e t a o 1s s i t u a t i o n . F a m i l ia p ro v id e s th e
t a o a sen se o f d i r e c t i o n and a c lo a k o f s e c u r i t y . In p re v io u s
d eca d es t h i s se rv ed to a s s u r e t a o s t h a t no m a t t e r how bad t im e s
migh "C 36c;iu5 Lhere was a p la c e t o t u r n f o r c o n s o l a t i o n . P a r t o f
t h e t a o s * w orld view in c lu d e d a f i r m f a i t h t h a t ( h o p e f u l ly ) i n th e
f u t u r e t h i n g s would be b e t t e r . Now, t h e f a m i l i a p r o t e c t s t h e Huk
sy m p a th iz e r and i n t e r a c t s w i th t h e Pampangan compadre system to
s e rv e a s a t o o l o f l i n k a g e w i th t h e Huks th e m s e lv e s .
In an environm ent o f p o v e r ty one m ight adm it need and cause
f o r d i s s i d e n c e , b u t s im u l ta n e o u s ly a sk : How can t h e s e poor p eo p le
a f f o r d th e day t o day o p e r a t i o n and m a in tenance o f a g u e r r i l l a
movement such a s t h e Huks? In n o r th e r n Pampanga a su g ar b e l t ru n s
above th e s o u th e rn r i c e r e g io n th ro u g h A ngeles C i t y , F lo r id a - B la n c a ,
P o ra c , M a b a la c a t , and M agalang. A ngeles C i ty (a n d B a l ib a g o ) manages
t o e x t r a c t s e v e r a l m i l l i o n p eso s y e a r l y a s a r e s u l t o f t h e p re s e n c e
o f C la rk A ir B ase (L ach ica 1 9 7 1 :5 2 ) . A s s u re d ly , t h e Huk b ase con
s i s t s o f t h e m a f ia wing in A ngeles C i t y , b u t i t a l s o in c lu d e s many
t a o s t h a t a r e exposed t o d i s s i d e n t i n f l u e n c e s , p r o f e s s i o n a l s such
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
as law yers and doctors g iv in g fr e e s e r v ic e s , and both p e tty and
prominent p o l i t i c ia n s exchanging patronage fo r support.
C ontributions from a s in g le tao may amount to no more than
$2 .50 to $3 .50 per year . A c a le sa d r iv er (a c a le s a i s a P h ilip p in e
version o f a hanson cab) may donate f iv e c e n ta v o s ( le s s than one
cen t) a day. However, many thousands o f such workers and farmers
support the Huk fin a n ce system and i f considered a l l togeth er i t
can be seen th at th e y ea r ly income o f th e Huks must be f a ir ly
large(L ach ica 1 971 :28 -29 ).
Personal correspondence(dela P ina 197L) in d ica te d th a t the
r a t e of exchange in the immediate a re a of the American m i l i t a ry
base was s ix t c one in lo c a l F i l ip in o b u s in esse s . The u n o f f ic i a l
(blackmarket) r a t e f lu c t u a t e s , on good days i t may go as high as
seven and one h a l f pesos to th e d o l l a r . More r e c e n t , and no doubt
more a c c u ra te , in fo rm ation in d ic a te s th a t th e o f f i c i a l r a t e has
held a t seven to one(Wall S t r e e t J o u r n a l ) w ithout much change in
recen t y ea rs . However, th e purchasing power o f th e money, whether
P h i l ip p in e or American has been a f f e c te d by re c e n t problems in th e
world economy. Now, i t may cost 2 pesos fo r a beer , a peso fo r a
lo a f of b read , and perhaps 15 pesos fo r a s teak dinner in a r e s t a
u ran t .
The P h i l ip p in e government p re s se s to e l im in a te Huks and con
firm the o ld o rd e r . S im ultaneously , Huk fa m i l ia in Pampanga seek
o u t l e t s and a l t e r n a t i v e s to th e e x p lo i ta t io n and f r u s t r a t i o n th a t
has plagued them. Perhaps Huks may d e s i r e to p e rp e tu a te t h e i r way
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o f l i f e s im p ly b ecause i t s c o n t in u e d e x i s t e n c e i s b e l i e v e d t o be
ad v an tag eo u s even i f t h e o r i g i n a l g o a l s o f th e Hukbalahap f a d e , a r e
r e p l a c e d , o r a re e v e n t u a l l y a c h ie v e d .
The "Huk" e x p e r ie n c e exposed t h e t a o t o a l t e r n a t i v e s beyond
h i s / h e r c o n s t r a i n e d f e u a a l i s t i c w o rld . For some, Huk l i f e i t s e l f
r e p r e s e n t e d a v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e way. For o t h e r s , i t p ro v id e d a
p rom ise o f a means t o e f f e c t needed ch an g e s . Less a l t r u i s t i c
men/women may have s im ply c o n s id e r e d t h e Hukbalahap a s som eth ing
to be e x p l o i t e d . More i d e a l i s t i c Fampangans b e l i e v e l a n d l o r d - t a o
i n e q u i t i e s and c o r r u p t governm ent can be in f lu e n c e d by Huk a c t i v i t y .
The Huk movement made v a r io u s a d a p t a t i o n s i n o rd e r t o cope
w i th d e te rm in ed r e s i s t a n c e . The "d e te rm in e d r e s i s t a n c e , " bo be
s u r e , was an e x p re s s io n o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e g o v e rn m e n t 's and l a n d
ow ners ' d i s p l e a s u r e w i th t h e Huks.
D o c t r in a l f l u c t u a t i o n s , p r a c t i c a l p o l i t i c a l a n d /o r d ip lo m a t ic
c o n c e s s io n s and u se o f f o r c e and t e r r o r i s m were a l l r e s o r t e d t o
f o r t h e p u rp o se o f rem oving o r r e d u c in g c o n f l i c t s . As t h e group
grew and m atu red s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t su b -g ro u p s and an in c r e a s e d v a r
i e t y o f demands r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e l e a d e r s c o n s t a n t l y r e v i s e d and
m o d if ie d d o c t r i n e . E v e n t u a l l y , t h e governm en ta l h o s t i l i t y d e v e lo p
ed t o an i n t e n s i t y t h a t Huks s h i f t e d em phasis from c u l t i v a t i o n o f
o r i g i n a l i d e a l s t o a c r y s t a l i z a t i o n o f c o u n t e r - h o s t i l i t y and com
b a t a g a i n s t non-Huks.
The p r i m a r i l y s e c u l a r Huk group em phasized a n a t i v i s t i c d i
mension i n i t s i n i t i a l e f f o r t s t o l i q u i d a t e l a n d l o r d s . L a t e r in
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fc7
i t s developm ent t h e Hukbalahap seemed t o seek e q u i t a b l e la n d re fo rm ;
and assumed a somewhat l e s s d r a s t i c s ta n c e tow ard c e r t a i n l a n d l o r d s .
The h a r d - c o r e Huks m a in ta in e d a s u f f i c i e n t l y r e a l i s t i c u n d e r s ta n d in g
o f government r e s i s t a n c e . As a r e s u l t , Huks succeeded in sc f a r as
th e y s u rv iv e d lo n g enough t o a c h ie v e a d eg ree o f r o u t i n i z a t i o n .
T h is does n o t n e c e s s a r l y b e a r any r e l a t i o n t o s u c c e ss i n te rm s o f
g a in in g g o a l s such a s la n d re fo rm o r b e t t e r l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s f o r
t h e Pampangan t a o s . An i m p l i c i t a s p e c t o f t h e Huk r o u t i n i z a t i o n
has been t h e i r a lm os t sy m b io t ic r e l a t i o n to t h e Pampangans. A c o r
o l l a r y o f t h i s may w e l l be t h e i r p oo r r e c o r d o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
non-Pampangan a f f a i r s and w i th non-Pampangans.
Huks a r e s t i l l a c t i v e among Pampangans and new have s t r o n g
h o ld s i n kapapango sp eak in g p o r t i o n s o f T a r l a c , an a d j a c e n t p ro
v in c e n o r th o f Pampanga. The f e u d a l i s t i c w orld o f t h e t a o p e r s i s t s .
The income o f t h e t a o has p e rh ap s doub led in t h e p e r io d from 1968
t o t h e p r e s e n t . In t h e same p e r io d t h e p r i c e o f r i c e a t t h e
A ngeles C i ty m a rk e tp la c e has r i s e n from two pesos p e r s a l o p (abou t
s i x pounds) t o t e n p e so s p e r s a l o p ( d e l a P in a n . d . ) . The Pampangan
t a o c o n t in u e s t o have a h a rd l i f e and improvements rem ain u n r e a l
iz e d .
TODAY'S HUKISM
Today, many o f t h e most a c t i v e Huks a r e ex tre m e ly young, some
in t h e i r t e e n s . F r e q u e n t ly second g e n e r a t io n ( a n d maybe t h i r d ) ,
t h e i r f a m i l i e s o r o ld e r r e l a t i v e s c la im some s o r t o f k i n o r
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k i n - l i k e l i n k t o t h e H uks(L achica 1 9 7 1 :2 k ) . A f te r managing t o s u r
v iv e so lo n g Huks a r e f i r m ly e n t re n c h e d among Pampangans Middle
and upper c l a s s b ra n c h e s o f some Pampangan f a m i l i e s have begun to
support Kuks. In d e e d , w i th in t h e c u r r e n t Huk u n d e r s t r u c t u r e i t i s
p o s s i b l e t o f in d b u s in e s s f i r m s , s u b d iv i s io n opera to rs(com pound o r
apa rtm en t o w n ers ) , and n i g h t c l u b , b a r , and je ep n ey d r i v e r s ' a s s o c
i a t i o n s (L ac h ica 1 9 7 1 :2 8 -2 9 ) . As t im e p a s s e d , th e Huk sp h ere o f
c o n ta c t expanded.
The Huk a b i l i t y t o m a in ta in c o n t in u o u s c o n ta c t w i th p e a s a n t s
i s due i n p a r t t o t h e i r a b i l i t y t o b le n d t h e i r i d e n t i t y w i th t h a t
o f th e l o c a l t a o .
" ’Why c a n ’t t h e armed f o r c e s g e t t h i s group o f 300 o r so h a r d - c o r e Huks and s o lv e th e C e n t r a l Luzon problem once and f o r a l l ? ’ p eo p le a s k . That i s im p o s s ib le a Huk sy m p a th ize r e x p la in e d ’b eca u se t h e m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s and t h e i r a g e n ts do n o t even know t h e s e Huks and would n o t be a b l e t o i d e n t i f y t h e m . ’
"Then who knows t h e Huks? Who co u ld i d e n t i f y them? Only t h e members o f t h e mass base s u p p o r t ------ t h e v i l l a g e communi t i e s ----- know t h e wanted Huks. Those who know t h e Huks andt e l l on them u s u a l l y pay w i th t h e i r l i v e s . " ( L a c h i c a 1 971 :28 -9 )
Today, t h e g o v e rn m e n t 's p s y -w a r f a r e u n i t s do no t m a in ta in s u s
t a i n e d program s lo n g enough to be e f f e c t i v e . On t h e o th e r hand,
Huks a r e r e l e n t l e s s i n t h e i r p ropaganda among t h e t a o s . Huks have
succeeded i n c o n v in c in g many b a r r i o r e s i d e n t s t h a t w ith o u t them ,
n o t a s i n g l e b r id g e o r ro a d would e v e r be b u i l t . T h is may o r may
no t be t h e c a s e . P e rh ap s t h e c e n t r a l government o n ly becomes s u f
f i c i e n t l y a ro u s e d t o meet needs o f Pampangan t a o s when s p u r re d t o
a c t i o n by t h e Huks. In any e v e n t , Huks g e t c r e d i t f o r a lm o s t a l l
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government sponso red p r o j e c t s in th e b a r r i o s . Many t a o s i n c e r e l y
b e l i e v e t h a t t h e l a n d re fo rm q u e s t was born b ecause o f Huk i n s u r
gency and w ith o u t t h e Huks any o p p o r tu n i ty t o e f f e c t l a n d re fo rm
would be l o s t ( L a c h i c a 1 9 7 1 :3 3 ) .
"Down some v i l l a g e s t r e e t s o f C e n t r a l Luzon, men a r e hudd led by t h e b a r r i o s t o r e s over b o t t l e s o f g in o r j a r s o f t u b a ( n a t i v e w in e ) . They t a l k i n w h is p e rs .
" In t h e g roup i s one man who dom inates t h e d i s c u s s i o n . He u s u a l l y t a l k s o f how h a rd l i f e has been f o r t h o s e poor p e o p le , o f t h e poor h a r v e s t , o f t h e i r r i g a t i o n pump t h a t was p rom ised bu t n e v e r d e l i v e r e d , o f t h e p r e - f a b sc h o o l t h a t was a l s o p rom ised b u t n e v e r b u i l t . That man i s a Huk a g i t a t o r . The m enfo lk g a t h e r a round him a s he n a r r a t e s a l i t a n y o f government f a i l u r e s and e x p la in s why th e poor w i l l rem ain n e g le c te d and abandoned f o r th e r e s t o f t h e i r l i v e s . . . . s o o n th e group w i l l be ad d in g t h e i r own sad s x p e r i e n c e s . " ( L a c h i c a 1971 :31-32)
And so i t g o e s . . .
SUMMARY
In o rd e r t o p ro v id e a g e n e r a l overv iew and a r a p i d r e c a p o f
e v e n ts i n t h i s a r e a , l e t me p r e s e n t some rem a rk s , s l i g h t l y e d i t e d ,
o f A lex Campbell:
"There a r e 36 m i l l i o n F i l i p i n o s , and about t h r e e q u a r t e r s o f them a r e u n d e r t h e age o f 25. . . . r a t e o f human g ro w th , 3 .5 p e r c e n t , one o f t h e h ig h e s t in t h e w orld .
" . . .M a n y p e o p le have t o make do on an income o f l e s s th a n $100 p e r y e a r . Because o f th e bu rgeon ing p o p u l a t i o n , 800,000 new jo b s a r e needed each y e a r . But o n ly 600 ,000 become a v a i l a b l e , and many o f them a r e f o r o n ly a h a l f - d a y ’ s p a y . . . u n d e r employed F i l i p i n o s f e e l t h e i r d e p r i v a t i o n a l l t h e more k een ly b ecau se most o f them a r e w e l l e d u c a t e d . . .More th a n 30 ,000 F i l i p i n o s l e a v e t h e i r own c o u n t ry each y e a r t o go t o t h e U n ite d S t a t e s a l o n e . . . L i f e might be more b e a r a b le w ere i t no t t h a t a v a s t g u l f yawns betw een t h e h a n d fu l o f v e ry r i c h and t h e mass o f v e ry poor F i l i p i n o s , and t h a t t h e w e l l - t o - d o manage t o pay no t a x e s . . .
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50
" In 1953, t h e u n i v e r s a l l y p o p u la r Magsaysay v as e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , and by 1955 t h e Huk movement seemed t o be b ro k en . But a f t e r t h e d e a th o f Magsaysay i n an a i r p l a n e c r a s h in 1957 , t h e o ld gap between t h e r i c h and t h e p o o r , t h e government and t h e p e a s a n t , reo p en e d . The Huks c r e p t th ro u g h t h e gap and came b a c k , d e d ic a te d t o a long p e r io d o f ’p r o t r a c t e d c o n f l i c t . ' Today, th e y have i n e f f e c t a shadow government in c e n t r a l Luzon. There th e y d e a l o u t ro u g h j u s t i c e , sh o o t in g o p p r e s s iv e l a n d l o r d s and in o th e r ways a t t e m p t in g t o win t h e p e a s a n t s b ack to t h e i r s i d e . They a l s o r u n b r i s k gam bling and o t h e r p r o f i t a b l e r a c k e t s in A ngeles C i t y , a t t h e g r e a t American b a s e , and a r e s a id t o make $6 m i l l i o n a y e a r from t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s . . . " ( 1 9 7 0 :2 0 6 - 8 )
The Huks have been s e c u la r r a t h e r th a n r e l i g i o u s . M y s t ic a l
o r s u p e r n a t u r a l f o r c e s o r powers were n o t e x p l i c i t l y c la im ed n o r
c a l l e d upon by t h e e a r l y Huks. N e v e r t h e l e s s , many t a o c r e d i t e d
t h e Huks w i th u n u su a l powers i n t h e u n c o n s c io u s hope t h a t such
m ight a c t u a l l y be th e c a s e . So, w h i le t h e Hukbalahap was e s s e n
t i a l l y a s e c u l a r g roup , i t c e r t a i n l y had some r e l i g i o u s o v e r to n e s
imposed upon i t .
E ven ts o f t h e Second World War c a t a p u l t e d t h e Huks to th e
fo re g ro u n d and e s t a b l i s h e d them a s l e g i t i m a t e and r e l e v a n t t o th e
t a o .
The compadre system and t h e s o l i d a r i t y o f t h e Pampangan
k in d re d e n s u re d t h a t once t h e Hukbalahap had a wide enough b ase
e s t a b l i s h e d , i t would p e r s i s t . Now Kukism i s a p a r t o f Phe way o f
l i f e o f t h e Pampangans.
Pampangan compadre system and f a m i l i a le n d th e m se lv e s to
s u p p o r t o f a l l k in and k i n - l i k e members and f u r t h e r m a in ta in a s
e le m e n ta l t o t h e i r way o f l i f e t h e b e l i e f i n c o o p e r a t io n n e c e s s a ry
to t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e t a o . Hukism has become in t e r t w i n e d w i th
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51
t h e b ra n c h e s o f Pampangan f a m i l i e s t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t in many i n
s ta n c e s i t may be im p o s s ib le t o d i s t i n g u i s h v in e from b ra n c h , w ild
bush from p r o t e c t i v e t r e e . The Second World War opened th e door
f o r t h e Hukbalahap and th e movement r a p i d l y became a l e g i t i m a t e
way to r e s i s t any p e r c e iv e d i n j u s t i c e s . By t h a t t im e i t was a
v e ry r e a l o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t had a v e s t e d i n t e r e s t in i t s own s u r
v i v a l .
T h is i n v e s t i g a t i o n has d e a l t w i th a complex t o p i c o f in q u i r y .
I t i s no t d i f f i c u l t t o r a i s e o b j e c t i o n s t o s u p e r f i c i a l t r e a tm e n t
o f many a r e a s , o r t o i t s r e l a t i v e l y s i n g u l a r ap p ro ach t o a t o p i c
which m ight c a l l f o r m yriad a p p ro a c h e s . I t sh o u ld be s t r e s s e d t h a t
ap p ro ac h es o th e r th a n t h e a n t h r o p o l o g ic a l one u sed h e r e in c o u ld ,
f o r v a r io u s p u rp o se s and v a l u e s , p rove t o be q u i t e p r o f i t a b l e .
Von L a u e ( l9 5 0 : i ) s t a t e s t h a t " h i s t o r y can be w r i t t e n from q u i t e
d iv e rg e n t v ie w p o in ts b u t s t i l l w i th com ple te ad h e re n ce to th e
t r u t h . " T h is a n a l y s i s i s no t in te n d e d t o p reem pt o th e r v iew
p o i n t s ; one m easure o f i t s su c c e s s m ight be t h e e x t e n t t o which
i t sh a rp e n s o t h e r p e r s p e c t i v e s o r exposes d i f f e r e n c e s in u n d e r
l y i n g v a lu e s and a s s u m p tio n s .
In numerous i n s t a n c e s I have s i m p l i f i e d o r e d i t e d o t h e r s '
a c c o u n ts t o s e rv e my p u rp o s e s . H a r d i n ' s (1966 :637) r a t i o n a l e i s
a p p l i c a b l e :
" H i s to r y i s n o t a c h a in o f d i s c r e t e e v e n ts l a i d o u t l i k e bead s on a c h a in . There i s a trem endous amount o f tem p o ra l o v e r la p o f d i f f e r e n t p ro c e s s e s i n t h e developm ent o f b o th id e a s and i n s t i t u t i o n s . The t o t a l r e a l i t y o f h i s t o r y i s so
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
r i c h in d e t a i l t h a t we c an n o t g a in a com plete knowledge o f t h e p a s t w ith o u t s a c r i f i c i n g our own l i v e s . T h e r e f o r e , we s im p l i f y . . . r a t h e r th a n e n t i r e l y g iv e up our e f f o r t s t o u n d e r s t a n d . . . "
E a s to n (1965 :33) a l s o s t r e s s e d t h a t " c o n c e p ts a r e n e i t h e r t r u e nor
f a l s e ; th e y a r e more o r l e s s u s e f u l . " I have looked a t Pampangan
communal v a lu e s o r c o o p e ra t io n w i th th e aim o f i l l u s t r a t i n g c e r
t a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t a r e o n ly now becoming p e r c e p t a b l e . In
p a r t i c u l a r , I wanted to b r in g o u t t h a t a r e l a t i o n s h i p d i d , i n f a c t
e x i s t between th e compadre s y s tem , t h e t a o 1s l i f e s t y l e and t h e p e r
s i s t e n c e o f th e Huks.
From t h e c u t s e t , Pampangan t a o s have been viewed as s e e k in g
s u r v i v a l a g a i n s t c o n t r a r y f o r c e s . At d i f f e r e n t t im e s th e y have
had v a r io u s t o o l s t o a id them. C o n s t r a i n t s and l i m i t a t i o n s t h a t
were en c o u n te re d by Pampangans in f lu e n c e d s u r v iv a l i n p a r t i c u l a r
s i t u a t i o n s . The p h y s i c a l env ironm ent p ro v id e d raw r e s o u r c e s .
P r e -S p a n is h Pampangans chose how th e y w ished t o e x p l o i t t h o s e r e
s o u rc e s . L im it in g f e a t u r e s c f t h e i r environm ent in f lu e n c e d how
Pampangans would a c h ie v e t h e i r e n v iro n m e n ta l a d a p t a t i o n s . The
p o s t - S p a n i s h t a o s p r o g r e s s i v e l y s u r r e n d e re d i n i t i a t i v e and la n d
to t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e l a n d lo r d s w h i le p re v io u s c o o p e r a t iv e and a g r i
c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s rem ained s t r o n g . O u ts id e f o r c e s ( C h in e s e ,
S p a n ia rd s , A m ericans , and J a p a n e s e ) in f lu e n c e d Pampangans. At a l l
t im e s c o o p e r a t io n was n e c e s s a r y t o make a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s
s u c c e s s f u l . S tro n g l i n k s grew a s an outcome o f community a c t i v
i t i e s and n eed s . L inks and a c t i v i t i e s r e i n f o r c e d each o t h e r .
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Fam ily r e l a t i o n s p ro v id ed a p r im a ry s o u rc e o f support a t d i f
f i c u l t t im e s . The compadre system o f expand ing o n e 's k in -v e b r e
l a t e d w e l l t o b o th Roman C a th o l ic is m and f a m i ly g o a l s . Problems
c o n f ro n te d by t h e Pampangan t a o s were found t o be s o lv a b le o r a t
l e a s t e n d u ra b le so lo n g a s t h e c o o p e ra t io n o f k in cou ld be r e l i e d
upon. A b e l i e f i n communal v a lu e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s perm ea tes
Pampangan l i f e s t y l e s . Economic s t r e s s e s prom pted some s o r t o f
communal o r f a m i ly based re sp o n se i n t h i s c e n tu r y . The un ique
compadre system Pampangans have d ev e lo p ed and th e e x p e r ie n c e o f
l e g i t i m i z e d g u e r r i l l a a c t i v i t i e s d u r in g t h e Second World War com
b in e d to c r e a t e a f a v o r a b le environm ent f o r a l a s t i n g f i c t i v e k in
d re d o f Kuks. As I see i t , Kukism became a f a m i ly a f f a i r . Once
t h i s o c c u r r e d , i t was a l r e a d y to o l a t e f o r any k in d o f easy s e p a r
a t i o n t o be e f f e c t e d between Pampangan t a o and Huk.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
PAMPANGA b ase d on "Map o f Pampanga", A t l a s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ,
P h i l - A s ia n Pub. M an ila , c o p ie d from draw ing in Lachica(l971:50),I T .........*1
MILES:0 5 10
'M abalacal
/ V Magal2— C la rk :
'A i r J: Eas6.JaBalibas°
H B A ngeles C i tyS an ta Ana ®
/%
%t
\ Pampanga 3an LuisBSAN FERNANDO©
Ana fSa„ *M e x ic o /S ^ Candaba #
II S an ta R ita®
F lo r id a - S l a n c a 0 Bacolo:^Saijg Simon
a-V GaugL
Lubao Sexmoa
aUnshaded i s l a n d i s Luzon
/ LizonPHILIPPINES and LUZON b ased on E spenshade(1970 :157 , 1 6 9 ) .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
55
FOOTNOTES
1 . With r e s p e c t t o v h a t a peso was w orth a t t h a t t im e : from
1966 t o 1968 , w h ile I was i n Pampanga, t h e r a t e o f exchange f o r
P h i l i p p i n e t o American c u r re n c y was k . 2 p e so s t o one d o l l a r . The
u n o f f i c i a l ( b l a c k m a r k e t ) r a t e was u s u a l l y f i v e t o one . And a t t h e
end o f t h e m onth, f o u r o r f i v e days p r i o r t o t h e s e rv ic e m e n 's pay
d ay , a r a t e o f s i x to one was p o s s i b l e . The buying power o f a
peso in A ngeles C ity can b e s t be i l l u s t r a t e d by a few exam ples .
The p r i c e o f a San M ig u e l (b e e r ) ranged from one peso t o 30 c e n t a
vos depend ing on p la c e o f p u r c h a s e , th e n ig h t c lu b s t r i p i n B a libago
o r t h e " D i r ty Dozen" d i s t r i c t i n downtown A ngeles C i ty o r a s id e
s t r e e t s a r i - s a r i ( sm a ll ne ighbo rhood g r o c e r y / g e n e r a l s t o r e ) . A l o a f
o f b re a d would c o s t ab o u t U5 c e n ta v o s . A two bedroom tow nhouse
p e rh a p s 200. p e s o s (g iv e o r t a k e 25) p e r month. A t a i l o r made m an 's
s u i t , 75 p e s o s . And, f o r s i x and one h a l f pesos a t o u r i s t co u ld
p u rc h a s e a f i l e t mignon a t t h e E s q u i re Supper Club on MacArthur
Highway, a main t h r o u g h f a r e o f A ngeles C i ty and B a l ib a g o .
2 . The f i c t i v e k in d re d w hich I have in mind d i f f e r s from
t h e k in d re d d e s c r ib e d by Murdock i n t h e fo l lo w in g p a s s a g e s :
"The most d i s t i n c t i v e s t r u c t u r a l f a c t ab o u t k in d re d i s t h a t , save th ro u g h a c c i d e n t , i t can n ev e r be t h e same f o r any two i n d i v i d u a l s w i th t h e e x c e p t io n o f own s i b l i n g s . F or any g iv e n p e r s o n , i t s membership r a m i f i e s o u t th ro u g h d i v e r s e k in s h ip c o n n e c t io n s u n t i l i t i s t e rm in a t e d a t some d e g re e o fr e l a t i o n s h i p f r e q u e n t l y w i th second c o u s in s , a l th o u g h th el i m i t s a r e o f t e n drawn somewhat c l o s e r o r f a r t h e r away th a n
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
56
t h i s and may he r a t h e r i n d e f i n i t e . The k in d re d s o f d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n s o v e r l a p o r i n t e r s e c t r a t h e r th a n c o i n c i d e . . .
"S in c e k in d r e d s i n t e r l a c e and o v e r l a p , th e y do n o t and ca n n o t form d i s c r e t e o r s e p a r a t e segm ents o f t h e e n t i r e s o c i e t y . N e i th e r a t r i b e no r a community can be su b d iv id e d i n t o c o n s t i t u e n t k i n d r e d s . . .
"One r e s u l t o f t h i s p e c u l a r i t y i s t h a t t h e k in d re d , though i t s e rv e s a d e q u a te ly t o d e f in e t h e j u r a l r i g h t s o f an i n d i v i d u a l , can r a r e l y a c t a s a c o l l e c t i v i t y . One k in d re d c a n n o t , f o r exam ple , t a k e b lo o d vengence a g a i n s t a n o th e r i f t h e two happen t o have mambers in common. M oreover, a k in d re d canno t h o ld la n d o r o th e r p r o p e r t y , n o t o n ly b ecause i t i s n o t a group ex ce p t from th e p o in t o f v iew o f a p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l , b u t a l s o becau se i t has no c o n t i n u i t y o ver t im e . Hence u n d e r c i r c u m s ta n c e s f a v o r a b l e e i t h e r t o t h e communal o w nersh ip o f p r o p e r t y o r t o t h e c o l l e c t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f k insm en , t h e k in d r e d l a b o r s under d e c id e d h an d ic a p s in comp a r i s o n t o t h e L ineage o f s i b . " ( 1 9 6 0 a : 60-61)
"The k in d re d sh o u ld a l s o be r e c o g n iz e d a s a b i l a t e r a l k in g ro u p s . I t i s a lw ays E g o - o r ie n te d , i . e . , composed o f p e rso n s r e l a t e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l (o r group o f s i b l i n g s ) b i l a t e r a l l y ( l i t e r a l l y "on b o th s i d e s " ) . The members o f a k in d r e d , o t h e r th a n t h e c o re i n d i v i d u a l and h i s s i b l i n g s , need n o t b e , and f r e q u e n t l y a r e n e t , r e l a t e d t o one a n o th e r . In any s o c i e t y , k in d r e d s n e c e s s a r i l y o v e r l a p one a n o th e r e n d l e s s l y . They a r e n o t d i s c r e t e u n i t s ; a s o c i e t y can n e v e r be d i v i ded i n t o s e p a r a t e k in d re d s a s i t can be segm ented in t o d i s c r e t e f a m i l i e s , l i n e a g e s , c l a n s , o r com m unit ie s . From th e p o i n t o f v iew o f t h e c o re i n d i v i d u a l o r s i b l i n g s h i p , t h e memb e r s h ip o f t h e k in d re d can be d e f in e d in te rm s t o s e r i a l l i n k s o f f i l i a t i o n p roduced by t h e r a m i fy in g i n t e r s e c t i o n o f fam il i e s o f p r o c r e a t i o n and o r i e n t a t i o n . The membership can n o t be d e f in e d , how ever, i n l i n e a l te rm s by d e s c e n t from a common an c e s t o r . A k in d r e d t h e r e f o r e i s n o t , and can n o t b e , a d e s c e n t g ro u p . . .
"Because o f i t s l a c k o f d i s c r e t n e s s a k in d re d can n o t be a c o r p o r a t e g r o u p . . . " ( I 9 6 0 b : l )
In c o n t r a s t , I s u g g e s t t h a t t h e Pam pangan's f i c t i v e k in d re d co u ld
be b o th d i s c r e t e and c o r p o r a t e .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
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