A Family Affair: Pampangan Hukism

Western Michigan University Western Michigan University

ScholarWorks at WMU ScholarWorks at WMU

Master's Theses Graduate College

1975

A Family Affair: Pampangan Hukism A Family Affair: Pampangan Hukism

James P. Hardy

Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/masters_theses

Part of the Social and Cultural Anthropology Commons

Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Hardy, James P., "A Family Affair: Pampangan Hukism" (1975). Master's Theses. 2476. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/masters_theses/2476

This Masters Thesis-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Master's Theses by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact [email protected].

http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/


https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/

https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/masters_theses

https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/grad

https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/masters_theses?utm_source=scholarworks.wmich.edu%2Fmasters_theses%2F2476&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages

http://network.bepress.com/hgg/discipline/323?utm_source=scholarworks.wmich.edu%2Fmasters_theses%2F2476&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages

https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/masters_theses/2476?utm_source=scholarworks.wmich.edu%2Fmasters_theses%2F2476&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages

mailto:[email protected]



A FAMILY AFFAIR: P A M P M G M HUKISM

by

James P. Hardy

A Thesis Submitted to the

Facu lty o f th e Graduate College in p a r t i a l fu l f i l lm e n t

o f theDegree o f Master o f Arts

Western Michigan U n ivers ity Kalamazoo, Michigan

1975

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Here i t i s cu s tom ary to g iv e r e c o g n i t i o n t o i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t

have a id e d in t h e p ro d u c t io n o f t h i s p ap e r and t h e sh ap in g o f my

t r a i n i n g t h a t I m ight someday be s c h o l a r l y . I o f f e r my g r a t i t u d e

to s e v e r a l o f t h e f a c u l t y o f t h e A nth ropo logy D epartm en t, W estern

M ichigan U n iv e r s i t y . The encouragem ent and exam ples p ro v id e d by

P r o f e s s o r s B a rb a ra W. Lex, E r ik a L o f f l e r , and R obert J a c k Smith

w i l l a lways s ta n d ou t i n my mind. I e s p e c i a l l y w ish t o th a n k

P r o f e s s o r R ob er t F. Maher, n o t o n ly f o r encouragem ent and exam ple,

b u t f o r h i s t o l e r a n c e and p a t i e n c e w ith t h i s bum bling s tu d e n t .

Thank you.

i i


INFORMATION TO USERS

This material was produced from a microfilm copy of the original document. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original submitted.

The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction.

1. The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity.

2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You will find a good image of the page in the adjacent frame.

3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being photographed the photographer followed a definite method in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is continued again — beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete.

4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver prints of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by writing the Order Department, giving the catalog number, title, author and specific pages you wish reproduced.

5. PLEASE NOTE: Some pages may have indistinct print. Filmed as received.

Xerox University Microfilms300 North Zeeb RoadAnn Arbor, Michigan 48106


MASTERS THESIS M-7505

HARDY, Janies P.A FAMILY AFFAIR: PAMPANGAN HUKISM.

Western Michigan University, M.A., 1975 Anthropology, cultural

Xerox University Microfilms t Ann Arbor, M ichigan 48106


TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

PAGE

1

TRADITIONAL PAMPANGAN CULTURE 5

CHINESE INFLUENCES 11

SPANISH INFLUENCES 1L

AMERICAN INFLUENCES 28

JAPANESE INFLUENCES

POST-WAR EVENTS 39

HUKS AND COMPADRES b 2

TODAY'S HUKISM b j

SUMMARY b 9

MAP 5b

FOOTNOTES 55

RESOURCES 57

i i i


INTRODUCTION

T his s tu d y i s a s y n th e s i s o f p u b l i s h e d and u n p u b l ish e d m a te r

i a l s . R e lev an t f a c t s were winnowed from a c c o u n ts w r i t t e n f o r

d iv e r s e r e a d e r s . My a n a l y s i s a r r a n g e s in fo rm a t io n t o a d d re s s

s p e c i f i c p u rp o s e s . D e sp i te t h e s e e f f o r t s , a cc o u n ts may have been

o v e r lo o k e d o r u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y o m i t te d ; t e l l t a l e f a c t s may no t

have been re c o rd e d .

The i n t e n t i s t o rev ie w s e l e c t e d and i n t e r r e l a t e d e lem en ts o f

t h e l i f e s t y l e o f t h e Pampangan t a o ( p e a s a n t ) d e m o n s t ra t in g in v o lv e

ment i n t h e Huk o r g a n iz a t i o n as c o n s i s t e n t w i th t h a t l i f e s t y l e .

T h is c o n t r i b u t e s tow ard answ ering c e r t a i n q u e s t io n s abou t th e

Huks. I s t h e p re se n c e o f th e t a o w i th in t h e H ukbalahap(Huk organ

i z a t i o n ) prompted by economic s t r e s s e s , o r by t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n s ?

Do e n c o u n te r s w i th Kuks a f f e c t p a t t e r n s o f ta o l i f e i n any

s i g n i f i c a n t ways? Why have t h e Huks endured?

An a n t h r o p o l o g ic a l approach i s u se d . Such a p e r s p e c t iv e i s more

em bracing o f m u l t i p l e f a c t o r s and r e l a t i o n s h i p s th a n p re v io u s

s t u d i e s o f t h e Huks. I t i s p ro p o sed t h a t t h e t a o 1s involvem ent

w i th t h e Huk o r g a n iz a t i o n i s c o n s i s t e n t w i th t h e t a o ' s l i f e s t y l e .

The Pam pangan's u n iq u e ly d eve loped compadre system i s n o te d as

a r e l e v a n t f a c t o r .

S e v e ra l h y p o th e ses can be s u c c e s s f u l l y s u p p o r te d . F i r s t , a

b e l i e f in communal v a lu e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s pe rm ea tes Pampangan

1


2

l i f e s t y l e s and i n f l u e n c e s b eh av io r a t t im e s o f s t r e s s and need.

Second, t h i s a t t i t u d e i s an e s s e n t i a l e lem ent in t h e r i s e and p e r

s i s t e n c e c f t h e H ukbalahap . And, t h i r d , i t i s a dominant m o t iv a

t i n g f o r c e i n t h e l i f e o f t h e Pampangan t a o .

In t h e n a t i v e to n g u e t a o means "common man." When TO t o 80

p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u la t io n a r e t a o s and l i v e i n com m unities of

r e l a t i v e l y i s o l a t e d b a r r i o s u s u a l l y l a c k in g r o a d s , e l e c t r i c i t y , o r

p u b l i c s e r v i c e s w i th sm a l l p o p u la t io n s o f 500 t o 1 ,0 0 0 p e r s o n s ,

a c e r t a i n to n e t o t h e way o f l i f e i n Pampanga em erges(T ay lo r

1 9 6 1 :2 5 ) . The t a o i s f r e q u e n t l y a fa rm e r . In Pampanga he u s u a l l y

i s a t e n a n t fa rm e r . Pampanga has a p o p u la t io n j u s t u n d e r one m i l -

l i o n ( l 9 7 2 e s t i m a t e , i n T a y lo r 1961:19) and t h e t a o s c o n s t i t u t e a

m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e p e o p le . Taos l i v i n g in t h e u rban a r e a o f

A ngeles C i ty -C la rk A ir Base may p ro v id e a n o te w o rth y v a r i a t i o n on

t h e dominant t a o l i f e s t y l e . T he ir im pact upon t h e f i n a n c i a l sup

p o r t o f t h e Hukbalahap i s c o n s id e re d l a t e r in t h e p a p e r .

I n s p e c t t h e map a t t h e end o f t h e p ap e r f o r l o c a t i o n s o f

c i t i e s t h a t a r e r e f e r r e d t o in p o r t i o n s o f t h e t e x t . The map o f

Pampanga P ro v in c e , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , and Luzon may a l s o be u s e f u l

t o e s t im a te t h e s i z e s and r e l a t i o n s o f t h e s e a r e a s .

B a r r io s a r e t h e s m a l l e s t r e c o g n iz e d governm enta l u n i t s in t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s . They a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y sm a l l ---- one o r more

c l u s t e r s o f h ouses p r o v id in g homes f o r o n ly a few h o u s e h o ld s . The

i n h a b i t a n t s u s u a l l y work s c a t t e r e d f a rm s te a d s and a r e g e n e r a l ly

k i n s f o l k who d i s p l a y a h ig h degree o f s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y , group


i d e n t i t y , and group u n i ty (H o v a rd 1 9 6 5 :1 9 -2 2 ) . In Pampangan towns

o r c i t i e s t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s a r e d iv id e d i n t o n e ighbo rhoods com

posed o f p e o p le who c o n s t a n t l y work and l i v e t o g e t h e r which a r e

a l s o d e s ig n a t e d a s b a r r i o s .

The Pam pangan 's i n i t i a l and c u r r e n t a d a p t a t i o n s t o t h e i r

p h y s i c a l env ironm ent p la c e em phasis on c o o p e r a t iv e communal a c t i v

i t y . S e a so n a l l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e r i c e growing a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o c e s s e s

demand modes o f t e c h n i c a l c o - o p e r a t io n t h a t e n fo rc e a s en se o f

community. With c o n t in u a l u se and t h e p a s sa g e o f t im e t h e c o o p e r

a t i v e q u a l i t y o f t h e i r s u b s i s t e n c e b e h a v io r has become f i r m ly

a s s o c i a t e d w i th o th e r a s p e c t s o f t h e i r c u l t u r e . When t h e t a o con

f r o n t s p rob lem s an a t t i t u d e o f c o o p e r a t io n , which I s h a l l r e f e r t o

i n t h e t e x t a s h i s / h e r "communal s e n s e ," o r t h a t t h e Pampangan

m ight te rm may m a la s a k i t sa pa^mayanan^(community c o n s c io u s n e s s ) ,

f u r n i s h e s t h e param ount exem plars and h a b i t p a t t e r n s upon which

s o l u t i o n s a r e b a se d .

Assuming t h a t Pampangan l i f e s t y l e p o s s e s s e s an u n d e r ly in g

theme o f communal s en se p e rm i ts s e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f t h e t a o ' s l i f e

t o be r e l a t e d and b e t t e r u n d e r s to o d . Once f u n c t i o n i n g , t h e com

munal s e n s e and c o o p e r a t iv e a c t i v i t i e s work t o s t r e n g t h e n one an

o t h e r . The communal s en se o f t h e t a o h e lp s d e te rm in e how t o a c t ,

who a r e f r i e n d s , and g e n e r a l l y p r o v id e s an i m p l i c i t theme f o r

l i f e . Both t h e Pampangan compadre system and s u p p o r t o f t h e Huks

can a l s o be c o n s id e r e d as m u tu a l ly r e i n f o r c i n g m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f

t h e communal s e n s e .


k

A b r i e f p rev ie w o f my ap p ro ach i s i n o r d e r . P re v io u s s t u d i e s

w i l l be c i t e d and th e v a lu e o f r e a n a l y s i s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d . P re

c o n t a c t a d a p t a t i o n s o f Pampangans t o t h e i r env ironm ent w i l l be de

s c r ib e d . C e r t a in e f f e c t s o f i n t e r a c t i o n w ith C h in e se , S p a n ia rd s ,

A m ericans , and J a p a n e s e w i l l be r e l a t e d t o r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e

Pampangan compadre sy s tem , c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f l a n d o w n ersh ip , in d e p

endence o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , p e r s i s t e n c e o f t h e Huks, and t h e con

tem p o ra ry p o s i t i o n o f t h e Pampangan t a o . F i n a l l y , I o f f e r my con

c l u s i o n s .

P r i o r r e p o r t s d e a l t w i th p re -S eco n d World War Pampangan c u l

t u r e (Gal ang 1 9 k 0 ) , C h inese i n t e r a c t i o n w i th Pampangans(Liao 1 9 6 k ) ,

A ngeles C ity (H enson 1965* 19k8a, 1 9 k 8b) , Pampangan h i s to r y ( L a r k i n

1 9 7 2 ) , a g r a r i a n u n r e s t ( S t u r t e v a n t 1969; Manahan 1 9 6 7 ) , a g r a r i a n

economics(Dwyer 1 9 7 0 ) , d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i th government(Abaya

1 9 6 7 ) , U.S. B ases(Loveday 1 9 7 1 ) , communism(Hoeksema 1 9 5 7 ) , Huks

(L a c h ic a 1971; M i t c h e l l 1969; A verch , e t . a l . 1972 , 1971, 1970a,

1 9 7 0 b ) , and c r i t i c i s m o f RAND s t u d i e s o f H u k s(K e rk v l ie t 19 7 3 ) .

T here a r e g e n e r a l works t h a t by e x te n s io n can be u sed t o i l l u m i

n a t e th e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e Pampangan p easan t(C am p b e l l 1970; C a r r o l l

1970; Fox 1970; H un ter 1969; N elson 1968; Dow 1966 ; F r ie n d 1965;

Howard 1965; Meyer 1965; T a y lo r 196k; Jacoby 1961 ) . R esea rc h on

t h e f a m i ly has been r e p o r t e d (P o e th ig 1971; C a r r o l l 1970; Quiambo

1 9 7 0 ) .

The above acc o m p lish e d s p e c i f i c g o a l s . But none a t te m p te d t o

r e l a t e e le m e n ts i n t h e way t h a t I s h a l l . From such d i s p a r a t e


5

p a r t s a new e x p la n a to r y s y n th e s i s i s p o s s i b l e . A r e - a n a l y s i s o f

t h e Pampangans and t h e Huks a t t h i s t im e s e rv e s two g e n e r a l and

two s p e c i f i c ends . One, i t d e m o n s t ra te s t h e c a p a c i t y o f an a n t h

r o p o l o g i c a l ap p ro ach to d e t e c t fo rm e r ly i n e x p l i c i t r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

Two, i t p r o v id e s an example o f such a h o l i s t i c s tu d y . T h ree , i t

o f f e r s an o p p o r tu n i ty t o examine a s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t o f Pampangan

c u l t u r e i n a manner t h a t l e n d s a d d i t i o n a l i n s i g h t i n t o p r i o r work;

a s a r e s u l t , f o c u s in g upon t h e Huks and th e Pampangan ta o i l l u s

t r a t e s a r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t o n ly now becomes p e r c e p t a b l e . F o u r ,

and l a s t , i t shows t h a t a b e l i e f i n communal v a lu e s and r e s p o n s i

b i l i t i e s p e rm e a te s t h e l i f e o f t h e Pampangan t a o and in f l u e n c e s

b e h a v io r a t t im e s o f s t r e s s and n eed . The m u tu a l ly r e i n f o r c i n g

l i n k s o f t h e t a o ' s communal se n se and p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n b o th com-

p a d re system and Huk o r g a n iz a t i o n become e v id e n t a s an outcome o f

t h i s a n a l y s i s .

TRADITIONAL PAMPANGAN CULTURE

In John A. L a r k i n ' s Pampangan h i s t o r y a v e ry u s e f u l r e c o n

s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i r e a r l y l i f e i s p r e s e n t e d (19 7 2 :1 8 , 2 0 -2 2 ) .

P r e - c o n t a c t Pampangans l i v e d m a in ly i n s o u th e rn p a r t s o f t h e

C e n t r a l Luzon P l a i n a long th e r i v e r S p a n ia rd s would name th e Rio

Grande de l a Pampanga and i t s t r i b u t a r i e s . N e g r i to f o r e s t

d w e l l e r s o c c u p ie d a d j a c e n t in l a n d wooded a r e a s . Pampangans had

b a s i c i n s t i t u t i o n s w e l l ad a p te d t o t h e env ironm ent and t h e i r

n e e d s . They had p r o d u c t iv e a g r i c u l t u r a l , c r a f t , and t r a d e


6

sy s tem s , an e f f e c t i v e government and code o f l a v , and an e s t a b

l i s h e d c l a s s system . I f l e f t unchecked , Pampangans v o u ld have

c l e a r e d p r o g r e s s i v e l y more la n d fo r r i c e f i e l d s a t t h e i r own pace

and d i s p la c e d th e n e g r i t o e s .

Pampangan s o c i e t y had t h r e e c l a s s e s : d a tu , freem an , and

s l a v e . P a tu s were l e a d e r s who s u p e rv is e d a c t i v i t i e s such as

p l a n t i n g , h a r v e s t i n g , f i g h t i n g , and made judgem ents in d i s p u te s .

U s u a l ly , th e d a tu would n o t be ju d g e i f p e r s o n a l l y in v o lv e d in a

c a s e b u t would have a n o th e r d a tu p r e s i d e . A lthough a p p a r e n t ly

h e r e d i t a r y in n a t u r e , th e p o s i t i o n had many p o t e n t i a l l y q u a l i f i e d

a s p i r a n t s . Only t h e b e s t s u i t e d d a t u m a in ta in e d t h e p o s i t i o n f o r

any l e n g t h o f t im e . The d a tu had t o farm and make im plem ents ,

c l o t h , and t o o l s n e c e s s a ry to s u p p o r t a h o u seh o ld , j u s t a s any

o th e r member o f t h e Pampangan community. Datu was no t synonymous

w i th r u l e r and d e s p i t e e x e c u t iv e , j u d i c i a l , o r m i l i t a r y d u t i e s ,

had no s p e c i a l p r i v i l e g e s . In o th e r w ords, t h e d a tu s t i l l had to

work f o r a l i v i n g .

O rd in a ry o r common p e o p le c o n s t i t u t e d a m a jo r i t y o f t h e popu

l a t i o n . These t a o ( common p e o p le ) were r e s p o n s ib l e t o d a tu s on a

few o c c a s i o n s , a s a t t h e busy p a r t s o f t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l y e a r , d u r

in g p l a n t i n g o r h a r v e s t i n g . I n d i v i d u a l s became s l a v e s i f t h e y had

lo n g u n p a id d e b ts and t h e c o n d i t i o n was n o t n e c e s s a r i l y perm anent.

M arr iag e o ccu red betw een freem an and s l a v e . I f a man co u ld a f f o r d

and manage more th a n one w ife po lygyny was a c c e p ta b l e .

A g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d was n o t c o n s id e r e d p r i v a t e p r o p e r ty . The


7

community, under t h e s u p e r v i s io n o f a d a t u , p o s se s s e d la n d . And

t h e community worked th e la n d . Kinsmen su p p l ie d a s o u rc e o f co

o p e r a t i v e l a b o r t h a t was b o th e f f e c t i v e and n e c e s s a r y . I d e a l l y ,

l a r g e k in u n i t s o r f a m i l i e s would c l e a r f i e l d s , p l a n t , h a r v e s t ,

b u i l d homes, and hun t t o g e t h e r . Community f e a s t and d r i n k f e s t fo r

k in and n e ig h b o rs was a common o c c u r re n c e a f t e r peak p e r io d s o f

a c t i v i t y ( F o x 1 9 7 0 :3 7 -3 8 ) . Very l i k e l y , t h e community r e p r e s e n te d

c o u ld a l s o be c o n s id e r e d a c o r p o r a t e group in t h e sen se d e s c r ib e d

by Murdock:

" . . . a c o r p o r a t e group i s one whose members s h a re an e s t a t e , e s p e c i a l l y one c o n s i s t i n g o f l a n d , d w e l l in g s , o r o th e r m a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e s which i t s members have t h e r i g h t t o u se or e x p l o i t a c c o rd in g to c u l t u r a l l y a c c e p te d r u l e s o f t e n u r e . As a p r a c t i c a l m a t t e r , I would r e s t r i c t t h e concep t t o g roups whose r i g h t s a r e r e g u l a r l y r a t h e r th a n s p o r a d i c a l l y e x e r c i s e d , e s p e c i a l l y r i g h t s to th e la n d (and i t s im provem ents) on which th e members l i v e and from which th e y e x t r a c t t h e i r economic l i v e l i h o o d . " (1 960b :1)

B efo re S p a n is h i n t r u s i o n , Pampangans had a l r e a d y committed

th e m se lv e s t o c e r t a i n en v iro n m en ta l a d a p t a t i o n s . In t h e i r h a b i t a t

such a d a p ta t i 'o n s n o t o n ly p e r m i t t e d , b u t more o r l e s s n e c e s s i t a t e d

a d i s t i n c t i v e mode o f l i f e . With th e te c h n o lo g y Pampangans p o s

s e s s e d and raw m a t e r i a l s t h e i r environm ent p ro v id e d , th e y s t i l l

needed som eth ing e l s e . C o o p e ra t iv e l a b o r was a key f a c t o r . A l

t o g e t h e r d i f f e r e n t a d a p t a t i o n s might have been made had b e h a v io r

p a t t e r n s o f t h e Pampangans n o t been conducive t o c o o p e r a t io n .

F o r t u n a t e l y , e x c e s s iv e w a r f a r e , i s o l a t e d s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s w i th

o u t t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s t o b r in g p e o p le t o g e t h e r , c o n f l i c t

in g system s o f government o r a u t h o r i t y , o r o th e r s u f f i c i e n t l y


d i s r u p t i v e in f l u e n c e s were m is s in g .

C oo p era t io n was an e s s e n t i a l . In t h i s c o n t e x t , i t would seem

t h a t a man/woman who f a i l e d to in v o lv e h i m s e l f / h e r s e l f o r g iv e a i d

t o h i s / h e r f e l lo w s would be acc u se d o f deny ing th e v a lu e o f com

munal l i f e . Among Pampangans, l i v i n g a community o r i e n t e d l i f e

was l i k e l y t o be a c r u c i a l f a c t o r f o r o n e ' s own s u r v iv a l . I f an

i n d i v i d u a l draws upon communal a s s i s t a n c e f o x s u r v iv a l o f

h i s / h e r im m ediate h o u seh o ld , h e / s h e would be a f o o l t o deny t h e

v a lu e c f communal l i f e o r to r e f u s e s i m i l a r communally based r e

q u e s ts f o r s u p p o r t from o t h e r s .

G re a te r i n s i g h t r e g a r d in g t h e s t r e n g t h o f communal sen se a s

th e Pampangan i n t e r p r e t s i t i s g a in e d i f we c o n s id e r e t h e r e x p r e s

s io n s o f Pampangan c o o p e ra t io n . Blood p a c t s had o r i g i n a l l y been

employed to e n la r g e k in g ro u p s . O ffen se a g a i n s t any member was

c o n s id e re d an o f f e n s e a g a i n s t a l l . F a m i l i a l g roups assumed r e s p o n

s i b i l i t y f o r a c t s o f members in v e ry r e a l and s e r io u s ways. T h is

c o u ld and d id l e a d to v e n d e t ta s (F o x 1 9 7 0 :3 7 -3 8 ) .

When r e f e r r i n g t o t h e Pam pangan 's " f a m i l y , " i t i s im p o r ta n t

t o n o te t h a t more th a n one way o f v iew ing t h i s te rm i s p o s s i b l e .

For i n s t a n c e , t h e sm all group t h a t l i v e s un d er t h e r o o f o f a t a o ' s

n ip a h u t may o n ly in c lu d e husband , w i f e , c h i l d r e n . A l a r g e r g roup

may a l s o in c lu d e a n o th e r r e l a t i v e o r f r i e n d . A lso , a Pampangan

v e ry c o r r e c t l y may p o in t o u t t h a t h e / s h e i s p a r t o f a l a r g e and

w id esp read group which i n c lu d e s many h o u s e h o ld s . Such a l a r g e

f a m i l i a l group may in c lu d e i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t became members th ro u g h


9

f i c t i v e m eans. The Pampangan " fa m i ly " i s a f l e x i b l e concep t which

p l a c e s s t r e s s on t h e f r a t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s t h a t i t en g en d e rs . A

b ro ad n o t i o n o f a " f a m i l i a l g roup" and a r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e i n d i

v i d u a l ’ s p l a c e i s an outcome o f th e n e c e s s a r y em phasis on co o p er

a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i th th e e a r l y Pampangan1s r i c e - b a s e d environm en

t a l a d a p t a t i o n s .

A p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e scope o f a Pampangan fa m i ly may

seem d i f f i c u l t ; b u t p e rh a p s t h i s i s a p p r o p r i a t e . In d e a l in g w ith

i n s t i t u t i o n s and symbols o f P h i l i p p i n e s o c i e t y T a y l o r (196^ : l U - l 5)

s u b m it te d :

" . . . i n s t i t u t i o n s w i th f a m i l i a r names do n o t have th e same c o n t e n t ; and ( t h a t ) men u s in g th e same symbols do no t a lw ays g iv e them th e same m eaning. I t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e r e i s a u n iq u e P h i l i p p i n e s o c i e t y t h a t i s n e i t h e r a l i t t l e Ameri c a n o r a l i t t l e A s ia , and t h a t t h e f i r s t c o n d i t i o n o f our u n d e r s ta n d in g i s t o a c c e p t P h i l i p p i n e c u l t u r a l d i s t i n c t n e s s and p o l i t i c a l independence i n f a c t a s w e l l a s in name."

Even t h e s p e c i a l i s t i n s t u d i e s o f k in s h ip and i n s t i t u t i o n s m ight

u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y become en sn a re d w i th in a n e t o f te rm in o lo g y .

B e l i e f s o f what i s a c c e p te d as a co n ce p t o f f a m i ly can b i a s p e r

c e p t io n s when f a m i l i a r te rm s a r e u sed i n u n f a m i l i a r ways.

"Fam ily" i s a v e ry im p o r ta n t co n ce p t t o t h e Pampangan. I t i s a

c r u c i a l and dom inant f a c t o r i n l i f e . U n d e rs ta n d in g th e s i g n i f i

cance o f " f a m i ly " i s r e l e v a n t t o an a p p r e c i a t i o n o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l

r e l a t i o n s o f Pampangans.

T oday, t h e Pampangan w i l l say t h a t h i s / h e r fam .ili a r e f e r s

t o t h e members o f h i s im m ediate h o u seh o ld . T h is may be d e c e p t iv e

b e ca u se a Pampangan househ o ld can be e i t h e r n u c le a r (m o s t a r e ) o r


ex ten d ed and may o r may no t in c lu d e a few d w e l l e r s t h a t have no

c o n sa n g u in e a l o r a f f i n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i th t h e e t h e r members, j u s t

f i c t i v e d e r iv i n g from p ro lo n g e d common r e s id e n c e . A nother p o in t

o f c o n fu s io n may a r i s e when t h e Pampangan t a l k s o f t h e f a m i l i a

meaning a l l t h e p eo p le t h a t h e / s h e can c la im a s some s o r t o f ccn -

s a n g u in e a l , a f f i n a l , o r f i c t i v e k in . T h is l a t e r u s e o f t h e te rm

f a m i l i a does n o t imply t h a t t h e Pampangan f a i l s to d i s t i n g u i s h be

tw een d i f f e r e n t g roups o f h i s k in . H e/she r e c o g n iz e s t h e cc n sa n -

g u in e a l and a f f i n a l r e l a t i v e s o f h i s / h e r own and o f h i s / h e r spouse

as t h e i r kam ag-anak. But o d d ly enough, anyone r e s i d i n g in h i s / h e r

h ouseho ld i s c o n s id e re d f a m i l i a and n o t r e f e r r e d t o a s kam ag-anak.

F i c t i v e r e l a t i v e s g e n e ra te d by t h e compadre system a r e s im u l ta n e

o u s ly t h e c h i l d ' s sp o n so rs and t h e p a r e n t s ' com padres , w i th t h e

p r im a ry em phasis upon t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e p a r e n t s and th e

compadre s .

No c la n s o r s i m i l a r u n i l a t e r a l g ro u p in g s a r e u t i l i z e d in r e c

kon ing r e l a t i o n s ( F o x 1 9 7 0 :3 7 -3 8 ) . A b i l a t e r a l k in - s y s te m l e t s

Pampangans d e te rm in e k in from b o th th e f a t h e r ' s and m o t h e r 's s id e s

(G alang 1 9 ^ 0 :5 2 ) . I t i s t h i s v iew o f b o th a m o t h e r 's and a

f a t h e r ' s s id e which j u s t i f i e s c a l l i n g t h e f a m i ly and k in s h ip n e t

work b i l a t e r a l ( F o x 1 9 7 0 :3 8 ) .

The Pampangan b i a l t e r a l k in group was fo rm a l iz e d a t t h e b i r t h

o f a c h i l d . T h is i s b e c a u s e , a c h i l d i s c o n s id e re d e q u a l ly r e l a

t e d t o b o th i t s m o th e r ' s and f a t h e r ' s r e l a t i v e s . A p a r e n t , e i t h e r

t h e m other o r th e f a t h e r , i s n o t so r e l a t e d to i t s s p o u s e 's r e l a -


11

t i v e s . B u t , w i th t h e "baby's b i r t h t h e Pampangan p a r e n t s a r e

p e r c e iv e d a s u n i t e d in m arr iage(now f u l l y consummated) and

r e l a t e d , th ro u g h th e f i r s t c h i l d , t o b o th b ra n c h e s o f t h e c h i l d ' s

r e l a t i o n s . One p o s s i b l e im p l i c a t io n in such a system i s t h a t

Husbands and w ives a re n o t c o n s id e re d r e l a t e d and n e i t h e r , by

e x t e n s i o n , a r e t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e k in d re d s u n t i l a l i v i n g l i n k , a

c h i l d , i s p roduced . In o t h e r w ords, Pampangans do n o t f e e l t h a t

th e y have a c q u i r e d a s p o u s e 's r e l a t i v e s u n t i l a f t e r c h i l d b i r t h .

When t h i s o c c u r s , t h e c h i l d s e rv e s a s a f o c u s , th ro u g h which new

r e l a t i o n s h i p s can be d e te rm in ed n o t o n ly f o r t h e c h i l d , b u t f o r

i t s p a r e n t s ( F o x 1 970 :37 )- P a r e n ts may r e p e a t e d l y u se o f f s p r i n g

as a fo c u s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g f r a t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s w i th o t h e r s . I

w i l l expand upon t h i s t o p i c l a t e r .

Now, c e r t a i n e f f e c t s o f i n t e r a c t i o n w i th C hinese and

S p a n ia rd s w i l l be p r e s e n te d .

CHINESE INFLUENCES

B efo re A. D. 1270 some ad v en tu ro u s C hinese had t r a v e l e d to

th e P h i l i p p i n e s . Trade r o u t e s e x i s t e d betw een th e m a in land and

th e i s la n d s (B e n d a 1 9 6 7 :7 ) - A few com m unities o f C hinese e x i s t e d

when S p a n ia rd s a r r i v e d . I n i t i a l l y , C h inese m erch an ts were few and

p ro v id e d o n ly l i m i t e d s e r v i c e s t o Pam pangans(L ark in 1 9 7 2 :1 7 ) .

M an ila came in t o S p an ish hands i n 1571- Use o f Chinese

p o t t e r y , even a f t e r S p a n ish c o n t a c t , h i n t s a t e x t e r n a l t r a d e . In

f a c t , Pampangans may have m a in ta in e d s e v e r a l s u c c e s s f u l t r a d e


12

r o u t e s t o and from C hina . But "by 1650, S pan ish M anila o f f e r e d a

c l o s e r s o u rc e o f exchange and th e C hinese m erch an ts had r e p l a c e d

any s e a f a r i n g Pam pangans(L ark in 1972:17 -18 ) . E v e n t u a l l y , C hinese

bus inessm en came t o f u n c t i o n as middlemen in t r a d e betw een th e

Pampangans and M a n i la (H a r r i s o n 1966:135) . S p an ish o f f i c i a l s ex

e r t e d param ount c o n t r o l o v e r exchanges . Whenever C hinese seemed

to o s t r o n g o r s u c c e s s f u l , t h e S p a n ia rd s a s s e r t e d t h e i r power(Buss

1 9 6 1 :9 5 -9 6 ) . At l e a s t f o u r t im e s 1603, I 63I , 1662 , 1782 m ajor

m a ssa c re s o f C h inese o c c u r r e d in M an ila . H a ll c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h i s

r e l a t i o n s h i p : "M utual h o s t i l i t y was t h e normal s t a t e o f a f f a i r s be

tw een th e S p a n ia rd s and t h e C h i n e s e . . . "(196 8 :2 5 0 -2 5 1 ) . The i n f l u

ence o f C hinese m ig ra n ts on th e Pampangans was no t a p p a re n t u n t i l

t h e i r p r e s e n c e combined w i th o th e r f a c t o r s ( H a r r i s o n 1966:135) .

The C hinese p r e s e n c e c o n t r i b u t e s t o a c u r r e n t b e l i e f t h a t

Pampangans p o s s e s s a m i n i - s u b - c u l t u r e o f t h e i r own, s u b t l y d i s t i n c t

from o th e r low land F i l i p i n o s . A number o f C hinese escaped th e

m a ssa c re s by m ig r a t i n g t o Pampanga (L a rk in 1 9 7 2 :1 8 -1 9 ) . C-augau,

and l a t e r B a c o lo r , were s i t e s o f o r i g i n a l s e t t l e m e n t s , r e s p e c t i v

e l y , o f C h inese and C hinese m e s t i z o s (mixed b lo o d s ) . I t i s from

th e s e towns t h a t many o f t h e Pampangan e l i t e c la im o r i g i n .

C hinese i n t e r m a r r i e d w i th Pampangans and a f t e r a s i n g l e g e n e ra

t i o n , f a m i l i e s w ere d e l e t e d from o f f i c i a l Span ish r e c o r d s a s

C hinese and added a s Pampangans. P e rh ap s due t o t h e i r d i s t a n c e

from t h e s t r i c t e r a tm osphere o f t h e M anila C h in e se , r e s i d e n t s o f

Pampanga found r e f u g e and a more e q u i t a b l e s i t u a t i o n . Today, many


modern u rb an r e s i d e n t s open ly acknowledge C h inese a n c e s t r y . A num

b e r o f w id esp read fa m i ly names a r e c o n s id e re d Pampangan bu t a c t u

a l l y d e r iv e from C hinese s o u rc e s . In t h e s e r e s p e c t s , Pampangans

show a more p e r c e p t i b l e l i n k w ith C hinese e lem en ts th a n do most

low land F i l i p i n o s ( L a c h i c a 1 9 7 1 :5 2 ) .

A lthough C hinese c o n ta c t w i th Pampangans p receded t h a t o f

S p a n ia rd s , t h e i r i n f l u e n c e became f u l l y e s t a b l i s h e d o n ly a f t e r th e

S p a n ia rd s had a r r i v e d . At v a r io u s t im e s C h inese were r e s t r i c t e d

from c e r t a i n a c t i v i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y buy ing o r o p e r a t in g fa rm s . As

a r e s u l t , C h inese f a i l e d t o become in v o lv e d in landow nersh ip o r

fa rm in g bu t c o n c e n t r a te d on commerce and p r o c e s s in g o f a g r i c u l t u r a l

p r o d u c t s ( L a r k in 1 9 7 2 :7 6 -7 7 ) . Even to d a y , C h inese may no t be f a r

m ers in t h e P h i l ip p in e s (B e n d a 1 9 6 7 :2 1 1 ) . T h is c o n c e n t r a t i o n e f f e c

t i v e l y f o r c e d Pampangans( in c lu d in g m e s t i z o s ) o u t o f a lm ost a l l non-

a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s ( L a r k i n 19 7 2 :8 L -8 8 ) . E v e n tu a l ly , t h e o f f

s p r in g o f C h inese and Pampangan u n io n s , C h inese m e s t i z o s , came to

be a c c e p te d as n a t i v e s . And C h inese m e s t i z o s , f r e q u e n t ly a f t e r

g iv in g up t r a d i t i o n a l C hinese ways, came t o s h a re p o s i t i o n s o f

dominance a s landow ners a lo n g s id e w e a l th y d e s c e n d e n ts o f t h e o r i

g i n a l d a t u s . Thus, m e s t iz o s were n o t c o n s id e re d o u t s i d e r s a t te m

p t i n g t o e n t e r Pampangan s o c i e t y b u t s im ply as f e l lo w Pampangans

who had C hinese r e l a t i v e s .

By t h e m id - n in e t e e n th c e n tu ry most d i s t r i b u t i o n and m a rk e t in g

o f c ro p s was c o n t r o l l e d i n Pampanga by C h inese m e rc h a n ts , money

l e n d e r s , o r b an k e rs (B u ss 196J+:212). By t h e m id - tw e n t i e th c e n tu ry


l i t

j u s t under o n e - t h i r d o f a l l P h i l i p p i n e f o r e ig n t r a d e was c o n t r o l l e d

by C h in e s e (H a r r i s o n 1 9 6 6 :2 2 6 ) . In 1961, t h e r e were o v e r 1 ,5 0 0

Chinese l i v i n g i n Pampanga(Liao 196-U: J+27) • About 50 sm all m anufac

t u r i n g o r p r o c e s s in g f i rm s owned by C hinese r e s i d e n t s had a lm o s t

900 Pampangans on t h e i r p a y r o l l s ( L i a o 196L :236). In 1>6U, t h e r e

were li+1 C hinese r e t a i l e r s i n Pampanga(Liao 196 I+: U30). In a l l ,

C hinese r e t a i l e r s employed an a d d i t i o n a l U26 F i l i p i n o s a t t h a t

t im e and had t o t a l a s s e t s o f o v e r t h r e e m i l l i o n pesos w i th s a l e s

e x ce ed in g t h i r t y th o u sa n d p e s o s 1 w o r th " d u r in g an a v e ra g e d ay (L iao

1 9 6 k : k k O ) .

SPANISH INFLUENCES

When, o v e r f o u r c e n t u r i e s ago , S p a n ia rd s came t o t h e P h i l i p

p i n e s , th e y had a p ro fo u n d e f f e c t on l i f e s t y l e s . In Pampanga, t h e

communally b ased s o c i e t y was t r a n s fo rm e d by in d i v id u a l o w n ersh ip ,

l a n d g r a n t s , c a sh c ro p economy, c o n s c r i p t e d l a b o r , and C a th o l ic is m .

P r e s s u r e s , m en tioned above , t h a t were b rough t t o b ea r upon C h inese

r e s i d e n t s caused r e p e r c u s s io n s among Pampangans. U n t i l t h i s cen

t u r y S p a in c o n t in u e d t o dom inate t h e scen e .

S p a n ia rd s s t r e s s e d c o n c e p ts o f i n d i v i d u a l ow nersh ip and o f f e r

ed rew ard s o f l a n d g r a n t s , th e r e b y a l t e r i n g t h e Pampangan system

o f communally owned a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d . D atus became la n d o w n ers ;

t h e i r f e l l o w Pampangans were unknow ingly changed in t o t e n a n t s . In

Pampanga, t h e r e were few S p an ish landow ners b u t i n t h o s e i n s t a n c e s

t h a t e s t a t e s were n o t owned by Pampangans th e y had g e n e r a l l y been


p u rc h a se d from F i l i p i n o s by A u g u s t in ia n c l e r g y . Thus, t h e e x p l o i

t a t i o n o f Pampangan p e a s a n t s was l a r g e l y a cc o m p lish e d by t h e i r own

d a t u s , t h e e v e n tu a l d e s c e n d e n ts o f d a t u s , and C a th o l ic c l e r g y ( H a l l

1968 :252 ; Howard 1 9 6 5 :2 1 6 -2 1 8 ) .

S p a n is h g r a n t s were o r i g i n a l l y in t e n d e d t o be n o n - h e r e d i t a r y .

However, a h e r e d i t a r y system d id ev o lv e i n w hich landow ners c la im

ed a s h a re o f c ro p and were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l t e n a n t s ' non -fa rm

in g i n t e r e s t s , l e n d in g money and h e lp in g o u t i n t im e s o f n a t u r a l

d i s a s t e r ( T a y l o r 1 9 6 ^ :8 2 -8 3 ) . T h is was t h e economic b a s i s o f

S p an ish r u l e . D e s p i te m ajor c h an g e s , H a r r i s o n o b s e r v e s :

" . . . a l t h o u g h S p an ish r u l e t r a n s fo rm e d t h e p r i m i t i v e so c i e t y o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t o a c o n s id e r a b le d e g r e e , i t d id no t i n v i g o r a t e i t ; r a t h e r i t s e t i t in a m e d ie v a l mould , f r o z e i t i n t o a r i g i d i m m o b i l i t y . . . Under S p a n ish r u l e t h e P h i l i p p i n e s rem a ined a s i t were i n a s t a t e o f su spended a n i m a t i o n . "(1966: 133-13U)

The commoners( t a o s ) were red u ce d to t e n a n t r y and fa v o re d F i l i p i n o s ,

S p a n ia rd s o r f r i a r s g iv e n la n d g r a n t s . N a t iv e a r i s t o c r a t s adop ted

t h e S p a n ish la n g u a g e . Landowner and l a n d l e s s emerged a s d i s t i n c t

Pampangan c l a s s e s . T ie s between t h e s e two c l a s s e s weakened a s i n

t e r e s t s d iv e rg e d ( L a r k in 1972 :233-235; Buss 1 9 6 L :9 5 -9 6 ) .

In t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w i th t h e developm ent o f a mar

k e t economy, a p r o g r e s s i v e l y g r e a t e r number o f landow ners tu rn e d

e s t a t e s o v e r t o t h e s u p e r v i s io n o f c a s h t e n a n t s , o r m anagers , who

p a id r e n t t o t h e a b s e n te e landow ner and in t u r n c o l l e c t e d payment

in c a sh o r c ro p from sh a re t e n a n t s . A no ther wedge s l i p p e d between

landow ners and l a n d l e s s . The b e n e v o le n t la n d o w n er- t a o r e l a t i o n s h i p


16

weakened, chang ing t o an a b s e n te e landow ner-m anager- t a o a r r a n g e

m ent, a s t h e c a sh te n a n c y system e v o lv e d (T a y lo r 1 9 6 L :8 2 -8 3 ) . Al

th o u g h a t t h a t t im e t h e a c t u a l number o f S p a n ia rd s p r e s e n t i n t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s n ev er exceeded f i v e thousand (B uss 196^ :211-212) th e y

had a trem endous im p a c t , e s p e c i a l l y w i th r e s p e c t t o ow nersh ip con

c e n t r a t i o n .

In t h i s c e n tu r y , e x te n s io n s o f th e ow nersh ip c o n c e n t r a t i o n

i n i t i a t e d by t h e S p a n ia rd s can be seen . Ownership c o n c e n t r a t i o n

has p ro ceed ed a t an a c c e l e r a t e d r a t e i n Pampanga s in c e 1939(<Iaccby

1 9 6 l :2 0 6 ) . At t h a t t im e 67 p e r c e n t o f th e a r e a was c u l t i v a t e d

and farmed by t e n a n t s ( L a c h i c a 1 9 7 1 :^ 2 ) . In 19^8, 1 1 .7 p e r c e n t o f

t h e fa rm e rs were f u l l owners who worked l e s s th a n 6 p e r c e n t o f

t h e farmed la n d in Pampanga and t h e rem a in ing 88 .3 p e r c e n t o f th e

fa rm e rs were t e n a n t s who worked 9^ p e r c e n t o f t h e farm ed la n d

(Dwyer 1 970 :93 ; Dow 1 9 6 6 :9 0 ) . N ationw ide , th e te n a n c y r a t e had

r i s e n t o ^6 p e r c e n t by 1952(Dow 1 9 6 6 :9 0 ) . Ownership c o n c e n t r a

t i o n c o n t in u e d t o i n c r e a s e and by i 960 t e n a n t fa rm e rs had re a c h e d

63.31 p e r c e n t f o r a l l C e n t r a l Luzon(Howard 1 9 6 5 :1 2 5 -1 2 6 ) . T h is

f i g u r e ap p ro ac h es t h e e a r l i e r 67 p e r c e n t o f 1939 f o r Pampanga

a lo n e . In 1963 t h a t was s u rp a s se d when th e p e rc e n ta g e o f l a n d

l e s s f a rm e r s , n a t io n w id e re a c h e d J O p e r cent(Dow 1 96 6 : 9 0 ) . Pam

panga has c o n s i s t e n t l y had a h ig h e r p e rc e n ta g e o f t e n a n c y th a n

t h e n a t i o n a l a v e ra g e . I t shou ld n o t be hard t o guess w hich p r o

v in c e Huber had i n mind when he commented, in an u n p u b l i s h e d man

u s c r i p t , Land T en u re , t h a t " . . . i n one d i s t r i c t in C e n t r a l Luzon,


17

n in e ty p e r c e n t o f t h e la n d i s owned by two p e rc e n t o f t h e p e o p l e . "

(Huber, quo ted in Howard 1965 :1 2 6 ) .

Pam panga's p a t t e r n o f l e a d in g o th e r P h i l i p p i n e p ro v in c e s in

i t s te n a n c y r a t e c o u ld provoke some i n t e r e s t i n g s p e c u l a t i o n s .

P erhaps t h e p re s e n c e o f t h e C hinese p la y ed a more s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t

th a n i s r e a l i z e d . C h inese p ro v id e d an a p p a re n t r e l i e f from d e b t s

i n ' t h e form o f l o a n s . The t a o cou ld p la y th e game o f bo rrow ing

from t h e m oneylender t o pay t h e landow ner , and l a t e r from t h e

landowner to pay t h e m oneylender ---- a n ever end ing game t h a t

se rv ed t o t r a p t h e t a o i n t o t h e te n a n c y s i t u a t i o n . At t h e same

t im e , any t a o t h a t m ight be i n d u s t r i o u s enough to seek e n t r a n c e

to a Pampangan m id d le c l a s s had t o compete w ith t h e C h inese t h a t

a l r e a d y o ccu p ied t h i s n i c h e , a v e ry d i f f i c u l t t a s k . A s p e c u l a t i o n

in v o lv in g a t t i t u d e s o f Pampangans tow ards t h e i r k i n - f o l k t h a t have

encouraged a h ig h d e g re e o f m utual dependency may a l s o a i d i n an

u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e Pampangan te n a n c y s i t u a t i o n . P e rh ap s t h e co

o p e r a t io n and m u tu a l a s s i s t a n c e t h a t t y p i f i e d t h e P re -S p a n is h

p e r io d a c t u a l l y worked t o th e d is a d v a n ta g e o f t h e t a o in a w orld

o f h a c ie n d a s and c a s h c ro p economy, by p e r p e t u a t i n g te n a n c y .

N e v e r th e le s s , Pampanga has kep t ahead o f t h e n a t i o n a l a v e ra g e

w ith r e s p e c t t o t h e te n a n c y r a t e .

Cash c ro p economy and c o n s c r ip t e d l a b o r combined t o c r e a t e a

s t r e s s f i l l e d a tm osphere o f p l e n t y f o r some and f r u s t r a t i o n f o r

many. F a v o ra b le e c o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , e s t a b l i s h e d p a t t e r n s o f

communal fa rm in g , and an em erging m arke t c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e


developm ent o f a new c a s h c ro p : su g a r . B eg inn ing a t t h e mid

e ig h te e n t h c e n t u r y , i t s p ro d u c t io n p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s e d t o th e

p o in t t h a t i n 1900 a lm ost a l l Pampangan m u n i c i p a l i t i e s were

r a i s i n g b o th r i c e and su g a r (L a rk in 1972:6-8, L5-L6 ). Both L a rk in

(1972:233) and Harrison(l966:235) make th e p o in t t h a t v h i l e mon

e t a r y w e a l th and o t h e r ad v a n ta g e s o f S pan ish c u l t u r e became p a r t

o f Pampanga o n ly members o f th e e l i t e were a b le t o o b t a in maximal

b e n e f i t s . The t a o ' s s h a re in p r o s p e r i t y t h a t had been c r e a t e d a l l

around t h e Pampangans f a i l e d t o m a t e r i a l i z e . Most p e a s a n t s d id

n o t u n d e r s ta n d t h e changes t h a t were o c c u r r in g . A d d i t i o n a l l y ,

th e y were o f t e n r e s t r a i n e d by t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s , in a d e

qu a te p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s o r geog rap h ic i s o l a t i o n . So, any p o te n

t i a l a c c e s s t o new b e n e f i t s from th e changed s i t u a t i o n was e f f e c

t i v e l y o u t o f t h e i r r e a c h . Landowners, u rban a r e a s , and g o v e rn

ment had a l l t h e a d v a n ta g e s and most p e a s a n ts were unaware t h a t

t h e r e were a d v a n ta g e s t o be had.

P e a s a n ts a l s o l o s t th e i n i t i a t i v e w i th r e s p e c t t o c o n s c r ip t e d

l a b o r . In f a c t , s i n c e t h e e s ta b l i s h m e n t o f S p an ish pow er, Pampan

gan p e a s a n t s have been u n a b le t o r e g a in com plete c o n t r o l over

t h e i r own l a b o r . I f t h e y were no t working a s t e n a n t f a r m e r s , th e y

had few a l t e r n a t i v e s . They q u ic k ly l e a r n e d t h a t th e y co u ld no t

s u c c e s s f u l l y compete w i th t h e C hinese i n "middle-man" o p e r a t i o n s .

And u n a n t i c i p a t e d d r a f t i n g o f men f o r work in lum ber camps, s h ip

y a r d s , o r a s g a l l e y s l a v e s was no t uncommon d u r in g e a r l y y e a r s o f

S p an ish r u l e ( d e l a C os ta 1 9 6 7 :6 k - 6 5 ) . L eve ls o f c o n s c r i p t i o n


19

became a lm ost i n t o l e r a b l e i n 161-9, bu t no t u n t i l 1660 d id Pampan

gans r e v o l t . They were p o t e n t i a l l y c ap a b le o f a s u c c e s s f u l p r o - *

t e s t . Of p e o p le s i n h a b i t i n g C e n t r a l Luzon th e y were t h e b e s t

o rg a n iz e d s o c i a l l y , had many s u p p o r t e r s , and due t o p r i o r i n s t a n

ces o f c o n s c r i p t i o n t o m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e had become f a m i l i a r w ith

S p an ish methods o f w a r f a r e . B u t , t h e r e v o l t f a i l e d . With t h i s

f a i l u r e , I b e l i e v e t h a t t h e t a o tu rn e d to a n o th e r commitment a s a

way o f d e a l in g w ith f r u s t r a t i o n t h a t seemed in s u rm o u n ta b le . The

t a o found s o la c e w i th i n t h e s e c u r i t y o f t h a t p r o t e c t i v e s o c i a l

o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h a t d o m e s t ic g ro u p , so s t r o n g and f l e x i b l e , which

t h e s e p eo p le had a lw ays had a v a i l a b l e : th e Pampangan f a m i ly

(F r ie n d 1 9 6 5 :2 0 -2 1 ) . C a th o l ic c l e r g y encouraged t h i s commitment

a s c o n s i s t e n t w i th i d e a l s o f f a m i ly u n i t y and C h r i s t i a n c h a r i t y .

S p an ish i n t r o d u c t i o n o f C a th o l ic is m had two outcom es: t h e

g e n e ra l c o n v e r s io n o f F i l i p i n o s and a un ique e x p r e s s io n o f th e

compadre system among Pampangans. The A u g u s t in ia n s s e t ou t t o

s p re a d C a th o l ic is m i n Pampanga and succeeded in t h e i r e f f o r t s .

They u sed a t e c h n iq u e o f c o n v e rs io n t h a t r e l a t e d C h r i s t i a n i t y to

l o c a l va lues(H ow ard 1 9 6 5 :2 1 6 -2 1 8 ) . The communal v a lu e s and t h e

s p e c i a l im p o rtan ce Pampangans a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e b i r t h o f a

c h i l d were t u r n e d i n t o avenues t o in t ro d u c e t h e new r e l i g i o n .

P e a s a n t s ' b e l i e f t h a t C a th o l ic r i t u a l s , e s p e c i a l l y b a p t i s m , had

m a g ica l p r o p e r t i e s c o n t r i b u t e d t o a c c e p ta n c e o f C h r i s t i a n i t y ( H a l l

1968:21+9). F o lk C a th o l ic is m became a b len d o f C h r i s t i a n p r a c

t i c e s and d o c t r i n e combined w i th p r e - c o n t a c t b e l i e f s ( F o x 1970:1+2).


20

The compadre system emerged as a way f o r Pampangans t o g iv e com

munal v a lu e s fo rm al r e c o g n i t i o n ( T a y lo r 1 9 6 4 :2 5 ) . The A u g u s t in -

i a n s e s t a b l i s h e d th e m s e lv e s so s u c c e s s f u l l y i n Pampanga t h a t by

t h e end o f t h e S p an ish p e r io d o f r u l e t h i s p ro v in c e had more

Roman C a th o l ic c h u rch e s th a n any o th e r i n t h e P h i l i p p in e s ( L a r k i n

1 9 7 2 :1 3 ) .

Members o f t h e c h u rch o r g a n i z a t i o n , i n p a r t i c u l a r th e a r c h

b ish o p o f M an ila , e s t a b l i s h e d a r e p u t a t i o n o f d e fe n d in g r i g h t s o f

n a t i v e c o n v e r t s a g a i n s t i n j u s t i c e s o f S p an ish r u l e . P r i e s t s and

f r i a r s l e a r n e d in d ig e n o u s la n g u a g e s , e s t a b l i s h e d f i rm l i n k s w i th

c o n v e r t s , and came to assume t h e r o l e o f i n t e r m e d i a r i e s when con

f l i c t s a ro s e betw een F i l i p i n o s and S p a n ia rd s (B u ss 1 9 6 4 :9 4 -9 7 ) .

S p an ish i n f l u e n c e and Roman C a th o l ic is m r e e n f o r c e d f a m i ly

s o l i d a r i t y and u n i t y , s t r e n g th e n e d p a r e n t a l a u t h o r i t y over

c h i l d r e n , and te n d e d t o r e l e g a t e F i l i p i n o women t o an i n f e r i o r

p o s i t i o n in r e l a t i o n t o men(Quiambo 1 9 7 0 :8 8 ) . The p re -S p a n is h

Pampangan h u sb an a -w ife r e l a t i o n s h i p was rem a rk ab ly e q u a l i t a r i a n ;

in f a c t , t o t h e d e g ree t h a t t h e i r h o u seh o ld s co u ld no t be te rm ed

p a t r i c e n t r i c a t t h a t t im e(F o x 1 9 7 0 :3 7 -3 8 ) . With t h e adven t o f

th e S p a n ia rd s , naming o f c h i l d r e n and spouses became p a t r i l i n e a l ,

t h a t i s , an i n d i v i d u a l to o k t h e surname o f t h e f a t h e r o r husband

(Howard 1 9 6 5 :1 5 7 -1 5 8 ) ; and a l l F i l i p i n o s were o b l i g e d , i n 1849,

t o adop t S p an ish f a m i ly names(Buss 1964:211) w i th o u t , o f

c o u r s e , t o t a l s u c c e s s .

Then and now, t h e Pampangan sen se o f community te n d s t o be


co te rm in o u s w i th a sen se o f f a m i l i a ; i t sp re a d s ou t and s to p s

w i th k in . I t does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y in c lu d e th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s

b u s in e s s o r g a n i z a t i o n , p o l i t i c a l s t a t e , o r even r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i

a t i o n . These a r e a l l g roups to he d e a l t w i th and used f o r th e

b e n e f i t o f th e f a m i l i a (F r ie n d 1 9 6 5 :2 3 -2 5 ) . On b e h a l f o f f a m i l i a ,

an i n d i v i d u a l may go so f a r as t o rob th e p u b l i c t r e a s u r y w h ile

f u l l y c o n f id e n t t h a t t h i s i s th e ex p e c te d and c o r r e c t a c t i o n . At

t h e same t im e , th e code o f p e r s o n a l honor i n s i d e t h e f a m i l i a i s

h e ld i n v e ry h ig h r e g a r d ----- many t h i n g s a Pampangan m igh t do to

o u t s i d e r s would n ev e r even be c o n s id e re d p o s s i b l e w i th r e s p e c t to

a n o th e r member o f h i s / h e r f a m i l i a (T ay lo r 1 9 6 1 :1 5 5 -1 5 6 ) .

S iz e and ran g e o f t h e Pampangan f a m i l i a i s o f im p o r tan ce be

cau se o f t h e s t r e n g t h and s e c u r i t y i t o f f e r s members. The f a m i l i a

i s a f r a t e r n i t y , a s o r o r i t y , s o c i a l s e c u r i t y , a r o t a r y c l u b , an

o ld f o l k s ' home, a sometimes c lo se d - s h o p u n io n , f r e q u e n t l y a bus

i n e s s , and always a sm all government i n i t s own r i g h t . R e g a rd le s s

o f e x t e r n a l l e g a l c la im s , many Pampangan p e a s a n t s s t i l l t h i n k o f

" t h e i r " l a n d a s a f a m i l i a t r u s t . W ealth o r income i s f a m i ly

s h a re d . R e l ig io n i s f a m i l i a o r i e n t e d . In d e e d , t h e f a m i l i a t a k e s

c a r e o f i t s own(Fox 1 970 :38 ; F r ie n d 1 9 6 5 :2 3 ) .

C e r t a in d is a d v a n ta g e s d e r iv e from such a system . I t may d i s

cou rag e t h e grow th o f l a r g e s c a l e b u s in e s s o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I t de

f i n e s t h e se n se o f community t o ex c lu d e n o n - r e l a t i v e s . I t c o n t r

a s t s t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e f a m i l i a a g a i n s t a c e r t a i n weakness o f

e x t e r n a l - t o - t h e - f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s . S u s p ic io n and i n s e c u r i t y


22

can e a s i l y e n t e r i n t o a l l d e a l in g s w i th any u n r e l a t e d in d i v i d u a l s

and te n d s t c d is c o u ra g e a c a p i t a l i s t , e n t r e p r e n e u r p e r s p e c t i v e .

In modern p o l i t i c a l and economic sp h e re s o f a c t i v i t y i n th e

P h i l i p p i n e s u n iq u e d i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s e . Assuming one a c t s on be

h a l f o f f a m i l i a , t h e lo s in g o f an e l e c t i o n o r b u s in e s s c o n t r a c t

becomes a compounded em barrassm en t. F a i l u r e s in a c t i v i t i e s r e l e

v a n t t o f a m i l i a r e s u l t in l o s s o f p e r s o n a l d i g n i t y , damage o f s e l f

e s te e m , and r e f l e c t back upon t h e f a m i ly (T a y lo r 1 9 6 1 :1 5 5 -1 5 6 ) .

Fam ily and r e l a t i v e s assume c o l l e c t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r

a c t s o f f a m i l i a members. There i s a lw ays th e p o t e n t i a l f o r d e v e l

o p in g a v e n d e t t a . T h e re fo re , i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s o u t s id e

o n e ' s f a m i l i a a r e conducted w i th t h e th o u g h t t o a v o id o f f e n d in g

o r lo w e r in g t h e esteem o f t h e o t h e r p a r ty (F o x 1 9 7 0 :3 8 ) .

To h e lp i n c o n t a c t s o u t s id e o n e ' s f a m i l i a a p a t t e r n o f r e c i p

r o c a l conce rn had d ev e lo p ed . These p a t t e r n s in v o lv e o b l i g a t i o n s

and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f r e c i p r o c a l h o s p i t a l i t y , g e n e r o s i t y , and

e u p h e m is t ic speech t o a v o id ambiguous o r s t r a i n e d s i t u a t i o n s .

F u r t h e r , th e s o c i e t y has become s t r u c t u r e d by g e n e r a t io n s and by

a p r i n c i p l e o f ra n k in g by r e l a t i v e a g e . R espec t f o r t h e aged i s

em phasized: younger in d i v id u a l s show d e fe r e n c e in speech and be

h a v io r to a l l o ld e r p e r s o n s ( l b i d ) .

Even th e o r i e n t a t i o n program c u r r e n t l y g iv e n t o newly a r r i v e d

American m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l and d e p e n d e n ts a t C la rk A ir B ase ,

Pampanga, em phasizes a need t o be c a u t io u s when in v o lv e d in i n t e r

p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s w i th Pampangans. O ra l d e fam a tio n t o d e t r a c t


23

from a n o t h e r ' s r e p u t a t i o n o r to r e f e r t o a p e r s o n o r r e l a t i v e a s a

g a n g s te r o r hoodlum i s a c r im in a l o f f e n s e l i a b l e f o r p ro se c u

t i o n by P h i l i p p i n e a u t h o r i t i e s . D e s p i te w a rn in g s , o r a l d efam ation

i s th e most common c r im in a l com pla in t charged a g a i n s t Americans.

When c o n s id e r e d r e l a t i v e t o th e ra n k in g o f o t h e r l o c a l c r im in a l

c o m p la in t s , i t i s seen t h a t s e l f e s teem o r t h e r e p u t a t i o n o f o n e 's

f a m i ly i s v e ry i m p o r t a n t ( M i l i t a r y l e t t e r n . d . : 2 ) .

An e f f e c t i v e way t h e Pampangan has found t o c o n t r o l p e r s o n a l

r e l a t i o n s o u t s i d e t h e f a m i l i a has been t o expand th e web o f k in

s h ip th ro u g h e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f r e c i p r o c a l d u t i e s and o b l i g a t i o n s in

th e compadre s y s te m (T a y io r 1 9 6 ^ :2 4 9 ) . R i t u a l s and a f f i n i t i v e ways

e x i s t f o r t h e p u rp o se o f in c lu d in g f r i e n d s , p a r t n e r s , em ployers ,

and t h o s e t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l e x p ec ts someday t o engage i n v i t a l

b u s in e s s w i th in f a m i l i a (F r ie n d 1 9 6 5 :2 M . At c e r t a i n r i t u a l o c c a

s io n s o f l i f e p a r e n t s a r e r e q u i r e d by t h e i r r e l i g i o n to s e l e c t

a n o th e r a d u l t sp o n so r f o r t h e i r o f f s p r i n g . B ap tism , c o n f i rm a t io n ,

m a r r ia g e each p ro v id e such o p p o r t u n i t i e s .

In a c t u a l p r a c t i c e , Pampangan p a r e n t s w i l l s e l e c t no t one o r

two b u t s e v e r a l s p o n so r s . The r e l i g i o u s p u rp o se i s t ra n s fo rm e d

i n t o a f a m i ly g o a l : t o expand th e k in w e b ( lb id ) . Howard, who has

s tu d i e d t h e F i l i p i n o s a s a s o c i o l o g i s t , i n d i c a t e s sp o n so rs a re

chosen f o r v a r io u s r e a s o n s :

(1)They have p l e a s i n g p e r s o n a l i t i e s .(2)They h e lp make c o n n e c t io n s and improve o n e 's s t a t u s .(3)They i n c r e a s e o n e ' s number o f f r i e n d s .(U)They can assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n t h e c a r e o f t h e i r

g o d c h i ld r e n a f t e r d e a th o f t h e p a r e n t s .


2h

( 5 ) N o n - r e l a t i v e s a r e chosen b ecause o f good o r c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p .

(6)Some f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s o f f e r t o he s p o n so r .(7)The p e rs o n can g iv e s p i r i t u a l a d v ic e .(8)They a r e chosen beca u se o f g r a t i t u d e . (1965:161)

C lose r e l a t i o n s h i p s which deve lop a r e not t u t o r i a l between

c h i l d and g o d p a re n t , b u t f r a t e r n a l betw een p a r e n t and g o d p a re n t .

Sponsors and p a r e n t s a d d re s s each o th e r a s copad re and coraadre■

Pampangans f e e l v e ry r e a l r e c i p r o c a l t i e s , no t j u s t w i th t h e i r

copad re a n d /o r com adre , bu t t o a h igh d e g re e w i th t h e s e i n d i v i d

u a l s ' b r o t h e r s , s i s t e r s , and spouses .

The p o t e n t i a l t o m u l t i p l y q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y o f k in

th ro u g h ju d i c i o u s s e l e c t i o n i s trem endous . However i t i s p r a c t i c

a l l y im p o s s ib le f o r th e av e ra g e Pampangan f a m i ly c o n t a in in g seven

c h i l d r e n to g e n e r a te t h e maximal q u a n t i t y o f c o n c e iv a b le a d d i t i o n

a l k in (G a la n g 1 9 ^ 0 :5 3 ) . O p t im a l ly , i f n u c l e a r f a m i l i e s were a l l

a v e ra g e w i th seven c h i l d r e n each and s i x sp o n so rs had been s e l e c t

ed on each o c c a s i o n ( r a r e l y a r e more th a n 6 sp o n so rs s e l e c t e d ,

Quiambc 1 9 7 0 :9 1 ) , t h e p o t e n t i a l number o f new k in would be l ,76 i* .

T h is i s u n r e a l i s t i c , e s p e c i a l l y a s most Pampangan v i l l a g e s do not

even have a p o p u la t io n t h a t r e a c h e s t h i s f i g u r e . A red u ce d e s t i

m ate would be more a c c u r a t e . A d d i t i o n a l l y , i f based on a s m a l le r

th a n a v e ra g e s i z e n u c l e a r f a m i ly i t i s l i k e l y t o r e f l e c t t h e s i t

u a t i o n among h o u seh o ld s w i th g r e a t e r th a n av e rag e m o r t a l i t y r a t e s

f o r members, such a s h o u se h o ld s in v o lv ed in Hukbalahap a c t i v i t i e s .

T hat H uk-invo lved h o u se h o ld s a r e s m a l le r th a n no n -H u k - in v o lv ed i s

s p e c u l a t i o n on my p a r t , b u t i t i s an a ssu m p tio n t h a t does n o t


25

n e c e s s a r i l y harm my argum ent a t t h i s p o i n t . Thus, I h av e , some

what a r b i t r a r i l y , d e c id e d to u se h o u seh o ld s w i th fo u r c h i ld r e n to

i l l u s t r a t e t h e g e n e r a t io n o f a k in web t h a t has been expanded un

d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s ta n c e s .

Now, assume t h a t a t b a p t is m , c o n f i r m a t i o n , and m a rr ia g e fo u r

sp o n so rs a r e s e l e c t e d , each one o f f o u r s i b l i n g s , each m a r r ie d .

The sp o n so r a c t u a l l y r e p r e s e n t s a p o t e n t i a l f o r a s many as e ig h t

new k in . Taken t o g e t h e r t h i s co u ld p roduce 38k new k in w ith which

th e c h i l d r e n s ' n a t u r a l p a r e n t s may e s t a b l i s h f r a t e r n a l bonds. The

l a r g e number o f f r a t e r n a l bonds t h a t a r e g e n e r a te d r e s u l t from

t h i s fo rm u la : t h e number o f c h i l d r e n ( C ) , t im e s t h e number o f occa

s io n s t h e c h i l d s e r v e s a s a f o c u s ( F ) , t im e s t h e number o f a c t u a l

s p o n s o r s ( S ) , t im e s t h e number o f a c t u a l k in t h e s p o n se r s r e p r e

s e n t ^ ) , which e q u a ls th e number o f new k in (K ) p ro d u ced . The

i d e a l c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r t h e t y p i c a l h o u seh o ld s o f seven c h i ld r e n

and t h e s m a l le r h o u se h o ld s o f fo u r a r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y :

C(7) x F (3 ) x S (6 ) x R ( lk ) = K(176U), a n d ,

C (k ) x F (3 ) x S(U) x R(8) = K(38U).

T h is does n o t in c lu d e t h e new k in t h a t would be a c q u i r e d i f t h e s e

p a r e n t s became s p o n so r s f o r o th e r p a r e n t s ' c h i l d r e n . I t needs t o

be s t r e s s e d t h a t ch o o s in g p a r t n e r s from e x i s t i n g b lo o d k i n , r e p i -

t i t i o n o f s e l e c t i o n s , o v e r la p p in g o f r e l a t i v e s , e t c . w i l l make

t h e a c t u a l number l e s s th a n 38k new k in .

T h is system p r o v id e s a te c h n iq u e f o r b u i l d i n g up a f i c t i v e

k in d r e d . The f a c t t h a t p a r e n t s may e x e r c i s e v o l u n t a r y c h o ic e in


26

t h e s e l e c t i o n o f new r e l a t i v e s ( a n d w hereas th e r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t

d e v e lo p s i s m a in ly f r a t e r n a l between p a r e n t s and sponsors /new k in )

makes i t p o s s i b l e f o r d i f f e r e n t f i c t i v e k in d re d t o be b o th d i s

c r e t e u n i t s and f a r l e s s o v e r la p p in g th a n t h e n a t u r a l k in d re d d e -O

s c r ib e d by Murdock . And b ecau se t h e Pam pangan 's f i c t i v e k in d re d

have a p o t e n t i a l to d ev e lo p i n t o d i s c r e t e u n i t s , a p o t e n t i a l to

d ev e lo p i n t o a c o r p o r a t e g roup may a l s o e x i s t . F u r th e r , t h e f i c

t i v e k in d re d may have a p o t e n t i a l t o a c t as a c o l l e c t i v i t y and

d ev e lo p a c e r t a i n c o n t i n u i t y o v e r t im e .

G a la n g ( l9 ^ 0 :53) s u g g e s te d t h a t t o a v i s i t o r to Pampanga i t

would seem as though e v e ry Pampangan was r e l a t e d to every o th e r .

C u r re n t laws ( C i v i l Code T i t l e 7 , A r t i c l e s 2 1 6 -2 5 3 ) , which were

b ased upon e a r l i e r S p an ish p r a c t i c e s , r e e n f o r c e s o l i d a r i t y and

u n i t y o f expanded k in webs. In f a c t , t h e code e x p l i c i t l y e n j o in s :

" . . . a l l members o f th e f a m i ly t o owe m utual a i d t o eacho t h e r . A fa m i ly c o u n c i l i s e s t a b l i s h e d by law which in c lu d e s n o t o n ly t h e im m ediate members o f t h e f a m i ly and o th e r r e l a t i v e s bu t even f r i e n d s t o keep t h e f a m i ly k n i t and u n i t e d .

"The s i z e o f t h e f a m i ly i s n o t dependen t a l t o g e t h e r on t h e b i r t h r a t e b u t i s ex ten d ed by t h e compadre sy s tem ."( C i v i l Code, quo ted i n Quiambo 1 9 7 0 :9 2 ) .

L et me r e p e a t f o r em phasis : t h e f a m i ly c o u n c i l in c lu d e s "even

f r i e n d s t o keep t h e f a m i ly k n i t and u n i t e d " and t h i s p u b l i c law

r e c o g n iz e s f a m i ly s i z e can be " ex ten d e d by t h e compadre system ".

Pampangans know k in : by b lo o d , by r i t e , and by r i t u a l i z e d

a f f i n i t y ; t h e s e a r e f a m i l i a ; a l l o t h e r s a r e enem ies , n e u t r a l s and

p e r s o n s o f no s i g n i f i c a n c e ( F r i e n d 1965:25)* One o th e r c h a r a c t e r

i s t i c s ta n d s o u t : a p l i a n c y t o s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l change . The


27

b i l a t e r a l k in system i s q u i t e a d a p t iv e and f o r t u n a t e l y t h e P h i l i p

p in e i n s t i t u t i o n s have no t become r i g i d o r h ig h ly i s o l a t e d from

each o th e r (Fox 1970:1+3).

Many communal l o y a l t i e s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e compadre

system . These c o n t in u e to make p o s s i b l e needed e c o lo g ic a l adap

t a t i o n s . In Pampanga, th e a g r i c u l t u r a l based way o f l i f e depen

d en t on su g a r and r i c e fa rm ing r e q u i r e s communal a c t i v i t y and co

o p e r a t io n . I submit t h a t t h e Pampangan communal l o y a l t i e s have

become a f e a t u r e o f seem ing ly r e v o l u t i o n a r y b e h a v io r . I i n t e r p r e t

t h i s a s i n d i c a t i v e o f a d e s i r e t o m a in ta in and r e v i t a l i z e t r a d i t i

o n a l ways o f l i f e in a changing w orld .

In o rd e r to p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e modern b u s in e s s w orld o r in

p o l i t i c s , t h e Pampangan t a o must become somewhat a l i e n a t e d from

t r a d i t i o n a l ways o f l i f e . The c h o ic e i s t o rem ain a c o n fo rm is t

and p e rfo rm on a f a m i l i a s c a le i n b u s i n e s s , o r a c q u i r e d i f f e r e n t

a t t i t u d e s and v a lu e s (T a y lo r 1 9 6 ^ :1 5 6 ) . On th e o th e r hand, i f a

f a m i ly condones an a c t i v i t y , such a s a b u s in e s s , p o l i t i c s , o r

r e v o l u t i o n , th e n th e i n d i v i d u a l may become in v o lv ed w ith a minimum

o f a l i e n a t i o n . S e v e r a l r e c e n t s t u d i e s (K aplan and Huang 197^;

Goode 1969; G r e e n f ie ld 1969; J a v i l l o n a r and P e t e r s 1969 ) have de

fended th e c a se f o r f a m i ly and k in d re d s u p p o r t c o n s t i t u t i n g an im

p o r t a n t f a c t o r and p o s i t i v e avenue in t o modern b u s in e s s p r a c t i c e .

Now, c e r t a i n e f f e c t s o f i n t e r a c t i o n w ith Americans and J ap an ese

w i l l be p r e s e n te d .


28

AMERICAN INFLUENCES

American p re s e n c e i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s p ro v id e d an a tm osphere

f o r developem nt and in n o v a t io n hu t f a i l e d t o in c lu d e ad e q u a te con

t r o l s t o p re v e n t u n i n t e r r u p t e d landow ner e x p l o i t a t i o n o f p e a s a n t s .

Freedom o f r e l i g i o n and P r o t e s t a n t i s m a r r i v e d v i a t h e A m ericans.

In t i m e , C la rk A ir B ase , Pampanga became a dominant e lem ent on th e

economic h o r iz o n o f one s p e c i f i c l o c a l i t y : A ngeles C i ty .

George T a y lo r , a p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t , p o i n t s o u t :

" . . . f o r f i f t y y e a r s th e U n ite d S t a t e s imposed upon th e F i l i p i n o i t s own concep t o f what a n a t i o n shou ld b e , and l a r g e e lem en ts i n t h i s concep t have been a c c e p te d . But to d a y th e F i l i p i n o s th e m se lv e s a r e d e c id in g who th e y a r e and where th e y a r e g o in g , and i t i s w i th t h i s i s s u e t h a t th e y a r e more and more e n g a g e d . " ( l 96L : i L - l 5 )

E s s e n t i a l l y , i t would a p p e a r , th e p re -A m erican o rd e r i s b e in g r e -

e s t a b l i s h e d ( H u n te r 1969 :220 -221 , 2 3 2 ) . American p re s e n c e has r e

s u l t e d in no r a d i c a l changes i n t h e e x i s t i n g f e u d a l economic and

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s ( J a c o b y 1 9 6 1 :1 9 1 ) .

Dwyer and Von C p p en fe ld , r e s p e c t i v e l y head o f t h e Geography

and Geology D epartm en t, U n iv e r s i t y o f Hong Kong and P r o f e s s o r ,

C o l le g e o f A g r i c u l t u r e , U n iv e r s i t y o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , Laguna

P r o v in c e , have been i n t e r e s t e d in t h e i n t e r p l a y among te c h n o lo g y ,

m icroeconom ics , and s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s o f t h e t e n a n t r i c e fa rm e r .

Based upon Von O p p e n fe ld 's s u rv e y ( i 9 6 0 ) o f 3 ,800 fa rm e rs in t h e

C e n t r a l P l a i n o f Luzon, Dwyer(l970) r e c o n s t r u c t e d a com parison

betw een two r e p r e s e n t a t i v e F i l i p i n o f a rm e rs : one w i th and one

w i th o u t i r r i g a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s . T h is example i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t an


29

advanced te c h n o lo g y has f a i l e d t o s e rv e t h e p e a s a n t . I n s t e a d , t h e

landow ner i s t h e one who p r o f i t s .

M iguel la c k e d i r r i g a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s . Ju an p o s s e s s e d i r r i g a

t i o n f a c i l i t i e s and t h u s c o u ld r a i s e two c ro p s o f r i c e p e r y e a r ,

p ro d u c in g a h a r v e s t t h r e e t im e s th e s i z e o f M ig u e l 's . They were

r e l a t i v e s who l i v e d a c r o s s th e ro a d from each o t h e r . Both were

t e n a n t fa rm e rs . The d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e d i f f e r e n c e betw een h a r v e s t s

o f t h r e e t o one was t h e outcome o f a t e c h n o l o g i c a l im provement.

The su b seq u en t r e d u c t i o n and l e v e l i n g o f t h e two f a r m e r s 1 incomes

was th e r e s u l t o f s o c i a l and economic fa c to rs (D w y e r 1 9 7 0 :8 5 , 9 0 -2 ) .

M iguel r e n t s 2 .3 h e c t a r e s o f l a n d , r a i s e s one c rop o f r i c e

p e r y e a r , t i l l s a s m a l l v e g e t a b l e p a t c h , h i r e s l a b o r a t p l a n t i n g

and h a r v e s t i n g t i m e s , and beca u se he s e l l s n e i t h e r c h ic k e n s nor

p i g s has a r e l a t i v e l y few number o f work h o u rs p e r y e a r and a con

s i d e r a b l e amount o f t im e on h i s h an d s , most o f t h e y e a r . H is t o t

a l r i c e y i e l d f o r t h e y e a r was 2112 kg. He a l s o p ro v id e d l a b o r

t o o t h e r s and th u s e a rn e d 880 kg. o f r i c e . —On.ce h i s h a r v e s t was

i n , he had t o pay o p e r a t i n g ex p en ses . In t h e end he o n ly had 198

kg . o f r i c e l e f t o v e r f o r home consum ption , w hich would be in a d e

q u a te f o r h i s h o u se h o ld f o r t h e whole year(D w yer 1 9 7 0 :9 0 -9 1 ) .

On t h e o th e r h an d , J u a n r e n t s 2 .08 h e c t a r e s o f l a n d , s h a re s

i n t h e u se o f a 3 - h .p . i r r i g a t i o n pump, r a i s e s one c ro p o f r i c e on

h i s u n i r r i g a t e d la n d and two c ro p s p e r y e a r on h i s i r r i g a t e d l a n d ,

t i l l s a sm a l l v e g e t a b l e p a t c h , a l s o h i r e s h e lp and a l s o does n o t

s e l l c h ic k e n s o r p i g s . However, Juan p u t s i n a lm o s t tw ic e a s many


m an/hours a s M iguel due t o t h e a d d i t i o n a l r i c e c ro p s . His t o t a l

r i c e y i e l d f o r t h e y e a r was 6^72 kg . He a l s o p ro v id e d h i s l a b o r

t o o t h e r s , few er h o u rs p e rh a p s th a n M iguel , bu t was s t i l l a b l e t o

e a rn 673 kg. o f r i c e . He a l s o had t o pay o p e r a t i n g ex p en ses . In

t h e end , Juan co u ld o n ly keep 220 kg. and s o ld 13 kg . o f r i c e t o

r a i s e cash(Dwyer (1 9 7 0 :9 1 ) .

While t e c h n o l o g i c a l improvement r e s u l t s in l a r g e r h a r v e s t s

from l a n d , t h e s i t u a t i o n s o f M iguel and Juan s t i l l have s i m i l i a r

ou tcom es . Landowners u s u a l l y r e a l i z e d t h e ad v a n ta g e s o f l a r g e r

h a r v e s t s . Tenant f a r m e r s , l i k e J u a n , who were h ig h ly dependen t

on t h e la n d owner p roduced l a r g e h a r v e s t s bu t had l a r g e overhead

ex p en ses and p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y l e s s p r o f i t f o r h i s e f f o r t s a t t h e

end o f t h e y e a r . M iguel d id l i t t l e b e t t e r . He o p e r a t e d on a

s m a l le r s c a l e , p a id l e s s t o d e b t s o r o v e rh ea d , bu t s t i l l ended

t h e y e a r w i th o u t e s c a p in g h i s un tow ard predicam ent(D w yer 1 9 7 0 :9 0 ) .

The example o f Ju an and M iguel o f f e r s some i n s i g h t in t o t h e

l i f e o f t h e t a o . A nother v iew o f t h e con tem porary r i c e fa rm ing

t a o * s l i f e s t y l e i s u s e f u l h e r e .

L a c h ic a , a F i l i p i n o w r i t e r and j o u r n a l i s t , s t u d i e d t h e a g r a r

i a n l i f e s t y l e in d e p t h ( l 9 7 l ) . F o r s h o r t p e r i o d s , Pampangan r i c e

fa rm in g i s one o f t h e most l a b o r i o u s o f P h i l i p p i n e a g r i c u l t u r a l

a c t i v i t i e s . I t i s h a r d e s t a t p l a n t i n g and a g a in a t h a r v e s t i n g .

I f t h e p a r t i c u l a r a r e a has an i r r i g a t i o n system two o r even t h r e e

c ro p s p e r y e a r a r e p o s s i b l e . Many farms in Pampanga, however,

l a c k i r r i g a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s so o n ly one r i c e c rop i s p o s s i b l e .


31

Between t h e heavy working p e r io d s o f p l a n t i n g and h a r v e s t i n g

th e fa rm e r may have l i t t l e o r n o th in g to do f o r s e v e r a l m onths.

A l i t t l e e x t r a income from f i s h i n g , h a n d i c r a f t s , o r o th e r sm a ll

g a rd en c ro p s i s p o s s i b l e . The main so u rce o f income rem a ins th e

s h a re o f t h e r i c e h a r v e s t . That s h a r e , which i s r e c e iv e d o n ly

once o r tw ic e a y e a r , t h e househo ld must budge t c a r e f u l l y .

Long p e r i o d s o f i d l e n e s s combine w ith lo n g e r income c y c l e s

t o i n f l u e n c e t h e f a r m e r s ' l i f e s t y l e . P e r io d s o f i n a c t i v i t y a r e

o r d i n a r i l y f i l l e d w i th l o c a l forms o f gam bling . On Sunday, t h e

whole f a m i ly may a t t e n d p i n t a k a s i , a c o c k f ig h t h e ld i n honor o f a

p a t ro n s a i n t . The ta o w i l l gamble a t p i n t a k a s i and may even p a r

t i c i p a t e w i th a p r i z e d cock o f h i s / h e r own. Weekdays, v i l l a g e

monte t a b l e s o r b ingo games a r e p r e s e n t i n most b a r r i o s .

To be s u r e , i f someone w in s , someone must be a l o s e r . Some

fa rm e rs a r e a lw ays in need o f c a s h . In h i s / h e r d i s t r e s s , t h e

l o s i n g t a o may f e e l f o r c e d to c h e a t on h i s / h e r landow ner. The

t e n a n t fa rm e r i s e x t re m e ly dependen t on c r e d i u , m a in ly from th e

landow ner and t o a d e g re e from r e l a t i v e s , f o r t h e s u r v i v a l o f

h i s / h e r h o u se h o ld .

A r e c o l l e c t i o n o f a p re -S eco n d World War in fo rm a n t , i d e n t i t y

unknown, p ro v id e s a s t r i k i n g p o r t r a y a l o f t h e t a o ' s p l i g h t :

"From t h e t im e t h e p low ing and p l a n t i n g a r e f i n i s h e d in e a r l y A u g u s t , up t o h a r v e s t t im e , which comes i n F e b ru a ry , t h e fa rm e r has p r a c t i c a l l y n o th in g t o do b u t see t h a t h i s f i e l d s a r e w e l l - s u p p l i e d w i th w a te r . He r e s t s a t home mosto f t h e d a y , g iv i n g h i s f i n g e r s and t o e - n a i l s ----- l o s t i n t h emud d u r in g t h e p low ing and h a r v e s t s e a s o n a chance t oreg ro w , o r t o p a t c h h i s tumble-down h ouse .


32

"Sometimes when t h e fa rm e r has no more r i c e t o e a t , he w i l l h im s e l f t h r e s h a sm a ll p a r t o f t h e s t i l l u n d iv id e d h a r v e s t , b u t t h i s i s p r o h i b i t e d by th e hacendero who sends ou t h i s ' k a t i w a l a ' , p r i v i t e g u a r d s , a t n i t e t o d e t e c t v i o l a t o r s . I f t h e fa rm er i s caugh t he e i t h e r f o r f i t s t h e whole h a r v e s t t o t h e landowner o r i s h a u le d t o c o u r t , whence he goes s t r a i g h t t o j a i l f o r t h e f t th o u g h he may p le a d , h o n e s t l y , t h a t he in te n d e d t o r e p o r t t o t h e hacendero th e e x a c t amount he had th r e s h e d to save h i s f a m i ly from s t a r v a t i o n . "( r e c o rd e d and r e p o r t e d by S t u r t e v a n t , quo ted in L a c h ic a 1971: ^ 7 -^ 8 , s p e l l i n g e r r o r s in L a c h i c a ' s v e r s io n )

The t e n a n t system governs t h e l i f e o f t h e t a o ; and t h e t a o ' s

a n n u a l income i s i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e s u b s i s t e n c e o f h i s househo ld

(Jacoby 1 9 6 1 :2 0 9 ) . R ice r a t i o n s , borrow ed from la n d o w n ers , a r e

lo a n e d w h ile c rops a r e m a tu r in g , a t u s u r io u s r a t e s o f i n t e r e s t

(Jacoby 1961 :2 0 7 ) .

Most s e r io u s o f a l l i s when f a r m e r s , l a c k in g any c ro p ,

c r e d i t , o r c a s h , c o n t r a c t w i th landow ners t o borrow n o t o n ly cash

b u t a l s o r i c e f o r food u n t i l t h e n e x t h a r v e s t . The t a o , v e ry

l i k e l y , w i l l never escap e t h i s c y c l e ( i b i d ) .

Taos s t a y on farm s b ecau se o t h e r employment i s a lm o s t impos

s i b l e t o f i n d . T h is i s th e c a s e d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t s m a l ln e s s

o f i n d i v i d u a l farm s p e rm i ts much f r e e t im e d u r in g th e y e a r . E x t ra

t im e i s eco n o m ica l ly w as ted . M i l l i o n s o f m an-hours a r e l o s t and

th o u s a n d s o f Pampangan t a o a r e f o r c e d t o s u rv iv e on income d e r iv e d

from 600 o r few er hou rs o f l a b o r . The l o c a l economy i s m arked ly

u n d i v e r s i f i e d ; t h e r e a r e s im ply no jo b s a v a i l a b l e to p r o v id e sup

p le m e n ta l incom es(Jacoby 1 9 6 1 :2 1 0 ) .

How d id American r u l e in f l u e n c e t h e te n a n c y s i t u a t i o n ? When

t h e P h i l i p p i n e s were t r a n s f e r r e d t o American hands i t was


33

e s t im a te d t h a t U00,000 t a o had no la n d t i t l e s . Methods were made

o p e r a t i o n a l t o o b t a in c l e a r l a n d t i t l e s . Not by i n t e n t , b u t nev

e r t h e l e s s , t h e system gave t h e ed u ca ted and w e a lth y ad v an tag es

b e c a u se c o u r t p ro c e d u re s c o s t money and were l a r g e l y incom prehen

s i b l e t o t h e ig n o r a n t t a o . Very few ta o managed t o s e c u re t i t l e

t o l a n d , r a t h e r , many l o s t what th e y had . In a d d i t i o n , S p an ish

r o y a l g r a n t s were re c o g n iz e d a s p a r t o f t h e T r e a ty o f F a r i s ( T a y l o r

196^ : 83 ) •

As m en tioned p r e v i o u s l y , ow nersh ip c o n c e n t r a t i o n , begun d u r

in g S p an ish r u l e , p ro ceed ed a t an a c c e l e r a t e d r a t e i n Fampanga

s in c e 1939, and r e c e n t l y i t was su g g e s te d t h a t o n ly two p e r c e n t

o f t h e p eo p le owned n i n e t y p e r c en t o f t h e la n d (H u b e r , quo ted in

Howard 1 9 6 5 :1 2 6 ) .

J a c o b y ( l9 o l :2 2 7 ) b e l i e v e s t h a t "No r e a l chance e x i s t s f o r

fu ndam en ta l ch an g e s , bu t o n ly t h e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r c o r r e c t i o n s o f

m inor im p o r ta n c e ." and t h a t t h e d i s t r e s s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e t a o has

become a c c e p te d a s a f a c t o f l i f e ( l 9 6 l : 2 0 9 - 2 1 0 ) . The P h i l i p p in e

government was a d v is e d t o s e t up a l a n d t e n u r e a u t h o r i t y w i th

power t o a l t e r c o n d i t i o n s ( T a y l o r 1 9 6 ^ :2 0 ^ -2 0 5 ) . In f in d in g s o f a

s tu d y c a l l e d t h e H ard ie R e p o r t (1951:5) t h e recom mendation was t h a t

t h e F i l i p i n o e l i t e , h o ld in g p o l i t i c a l and economic power based

l a r g e l y on l a n d o w n e rsh ip , sh o u ld undermine t h e i r own s o c i a l , eco

nom ic, and p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n . I n s t e a d , t h e l i m i t e d p ro g re s s and

newly c r e a t e d income o f t h e p o s t war p e r io d was ch an n e led t o gov

ernm en t, l a n d l o r d s , and u rb an a r e a s ( T a y lo r 1961+:20^-205). P e rhaps


3U

t h i s i s u n d e r s ta n d a b le . A f te r a l l , t h e congressmen who would

i n i t i a t e re fo rm s were a l l to o o f t e n e i t h e r t h e v e ry landow ners

who h e ld Pampangan l a n d o r owned la n d e lsew h ere i n t h e P h i l i p

p i n e s . They g e n e r a l l y r e t a i n e d t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s o f la n d o w n ers .

P e rh ap s Cam pbell(1 9 7 0 ) , a s p e c i a l i s t i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s

w i th tw e lv e y e a r s e x p e r ie n c e a s an A sian c o r re s p o n d e n t f o r Time

m a g az in e , i s c o r r e c t when he say s :

"The R ep u b lic o f th e P h i l i p p i n e s was lo n g an American c o lo n y ; and i t i s a co lony s t i l l , b u t n o t an American one.I t i s c o lo n iz e d by 50 r i c h F i l i p i n o f a m i l i e s . . .

" . . . t h e u n iq u e , f e u d a l f a m i ly t i e s . . . a r e r e a l l y a l l t h a t p r e v e n t t h e P h i l i p p i n e s b low ing up p o l i t i c a l l y , and w hich a t t h e same t im e h in d e r t h e c o u n t ry from d e v e lo p in g f a s t e r e c o n o m ic a l ly ." (2 1 6 -2 1 7 )

Americans were n o t t h e o n ly o u t s i d e r s t o dom inate th e

P h i l i p p i n e s i n t h i s c e n tu r y . Between t h e y e a r s 19^2 and 19^5

Ja p a n e s e had th e upper hand. B uss , a p r o f e s s o r o f h i s t o r y a t

S ta n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y , summed up t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e F i l i p i n o p e a

s a n t a f t e r t h i s e x p e r i e n c e : " T h e ir o r d e a l co u ld n o t f a i l t o r e

s u l t i n a deep h a t r e d o f J a p a n . " ( I 96U: i+9 5 ) .

JAPANESE INFLUENCES

The J a p a n e se o c c u p a t io n o f Pampanga was c a t a l y t i c i n n a t u r e .

S u sp en s io n o f norm al Pampangan o r American a u t h o r i t y a l lo w e d t h e

Hukbalahap i t s c l a s s war a g a i n s t landow ners under a g u i s e o f r e

s i s t a n c e t o t h e J a p a n e s e , w i th o u t f e a r o f im m ediate r e p r i s a l s

from t h e fo rm er s o u rc e s o f power. C ontinued e x p l o i t a t i o n by l a n d

owners and i n t r u s i v e e x p l o i t a t i o n by J a p a n e se p r e s s e d down upon


35

t h e p e a s a n t ; and t h e p e a s a n t r e a c t e d . The im m ediate r e l e a s e o f

lo n g endu red f r u s t r a t i o n s was r e a l i z e d f o r many i n d i v i d u a l t a o by

j o i n i n g i n t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e H ukbalahap . Once th e y had become

"H uks," s t r o n g f r a t e r n a l t i e s d ev e lo p ed and were r e c o g n iz e d

th ro u g h t h e compadre system . The h a r d s h ip s and c o o p e ra t io n deman

ded in t h e s e y e a r s p roduced an u n a n t i c i p a t e d outcome. R e s i s ta n c e

b e h a v io r was l e g i t i m i z e d a s communally a c c e p te d a c t i v i t y by Fam-

pangan p e a s a n t s . American and o th e r p r e - J a p a n e s e a u t h o r i t i e s r e

tu r n e d b u t f a i l e d t o t a k e i n t o acc o u n t o r f u l l y u n d e r s ta n d what

had happened. E v e n tu a l ly , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s became an ind ep en d en t

n a t i o n .

D uring t h e Second World War, some p o l i t i c i a n s and landow ners

became c o l l a b o r a t o r s . S e v e ra l f a c t i o n s a r o s e t o p r o t e c t p a r t i c u

l a r i n t e r e s t s . C o n s e rv a t iv e p o l i t i c i a n s b a r e l y managed t o ho ld

t h e P h i l i p p i n e i n s t i t u t i o n o f government t o g e t h e r . At t h e t im e ,

t h e s e men were c o n s id e re d t r a i t o r s by many F i l i p i n o s . D uring t h e

o c c u p a t io n , J a p a n e se m a n ip u la te d l o c a l a s s i s t a n c e and p la y e d up

rem oval o f American f o r c e s a s a P h i l i p p i n e l i b e r a t i o n .

In r e t r o s p e c t , i t m ight be a rg u ed t h a t t h e s e c o l l a b o r a t o r s

h e lp e d save P h i l i p p i n e d em o cra tic i n s t i t u t i o n s and red u ce d l a t e r

p o l a r i z a t i o n o f p o l i t i c s . However, i t i s n e e d fu l t o p o in t ou t

t h a t t h e y a l s o s t r o v e t o p r e s e r v e t h e o ld f e u d a l i s t i c and o l i g a r c

h i c a l so c io -eco n o m ic sy s tem , which was o f param ount im p o rtan ce to

t h e i r own way o f l i f e . In any c a s e , t h e c o l l a b o r a t o r s were g e n e r

a l l y a b l e t o cope w i th t h e J a p a n e s e p r e s e n c e , t h e subsequen t


36

American r e t u r n , and P h i l i p p i n e independence t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t

th e y emerged a s s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s i n each s u c c e s s iv e

reg im e .

A n ta g o n i s t i c camps v e r e p r e s e n t i n t h e i s l a n d s , and , t o he

s u r e , were s o u rc e s o f many c o n f l i c t s and o u t b u r s t s o f v io l e n c e in

t h e war y e a r s . The p r o - J a p a n e s e camp was composed o f J a p a n e s e

Armed f o r c e s and p ro - J a p e n e s e F i l i p i n o s . An o p pos ing camp was

r e a l i z e d in t h e g u e r r i l l a f o r c e s , in p a r t i c u l a r t h e H ukbalahap ,

who had s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t s s e rv e d by t h i s o p p o r tu n i ty t o engage in

com bat. Huks b e l i e v e d any engagements th e y co u ld encourage would

h e lp t h e i r c au se :

(1) by t r a i n i n g t h e i r t r o o p s ,(2) by f u r t h e r j u s t i f y i n g t a o ( p e a s a n t ) s u p p o r t ,(3) by g e n e r a l l y l e g i t i m i z i n g t h e i r own p r e s e n c e ,(U) by o f f e r i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o o b t a i n arms ana s u p p l i e s .

In a d d i t i o n , p ro lo n g ed Huk p r e s e n c e in Pampanga s e rv e d t o in c r e a s e

l i n k s w i th l o c a l f a m i l i e s th ro u g h an a c t i v e compadre system .

E i t h e r becoming a Huk o r i n c lu d in g Huks among f i c t i v e k in d re d be

came a h ig h ly d e s i r e d means o f s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n a t t h i s time..

The war may have been an ongo ing ev en t b u t p eo p le s t i l l c o n t in u e d

to p a r t i c i p a t e in m a r r i a g e s , b a p t i s m s , c o n f i r m a t i o n s , and expand

in g t h e i r k in webs when o p p o r t u n i t i e s a r o s e .

A system o f m utual dependency has lo n g been a m a n i f e s t p a r t

o f Pampangan s u r v i v a l . I n b a r r i o s (s m a l l c o m m u n it ie s ) , p e r s o n a l

b a s e s o f c o o p e ra t io n made p o s s i b l e t h e p l a n t i n g o f r i c e s e e d l i n g s ,

h a r v e s t i n g , moving a n ip a h u t t o a new l o c a t i o n , o b t a in in g c r e d i t ,

and a whole way o f l i f e r e v o lv i n g a round h e lp in g k i t h and k in .


The p r i n c i p a l s u p p o r t o f Huks was found among k i n , n e ig h b o rs , and

b a r r io m a te s (L a c h ic a 1 9 7 1 :2 8 -2 9 ) .

Pampangans and c o n c e p ts o f f r a t e r n a l i s m were no s t r a n g e r s .

F r a t e r n a l i s m in t h e compadre system o f e n l a r g in g f a m i l i e s and ex

panding ne tw orks o f k i n - l i k e t i e s t o n o n -k in was e a sy t o i d e n t i f y

and a d a p t t o needs o f Pampangan g u e r r i l l a s . Huks encouraged f r a

t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . They c a l l e d each o th e r k a p a t a d ( b r o t h e r ) ,

k ay ab e( com rade) , c o p a d re , o r comadre; a l l were l a b e l s w ith power

f u l em o tio n a l c h a rg e to t h e Pampangan p e a s a n t ( I b i d ).

C o lone l I d i o n g c o ( l b i d ) , h im s e l f a Pampangan, s t a t e s c o n f id

e n t l y t h a t m u tua l dependency in Huk a r e a s has always been g r e a t e r

th a n e lsew h ere i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . C e r t a i n l y , in C e n t r a l Luzon,

where t h e r e has been much a g r a r i a n s t r i f e s in c e t h e 1 9 2 0 's , t h e s e

bonds o f i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p a r e ex tre m e ly c r u c i a l t o l i f e and s u r

v i v a l . W ith in t h e f a r r e a c h in g lim bs and b ran ch e s o f any Pampan

gan f a m i ly th e t a o f i n d s s u p p o r t . A d eg ree o f em o tio n a l and mat

e r i a l s e c u r i t y i s a v a i l a b l e t o a l l members from t h e most b ad ly

used a g r i c u l t u r a l w orker t o t h e most r a d i c a l K uk(Friend 1965 :20 -

2 1 ) . In t h e p a s t t h i s ne tw ork o f th ; Pampangan p e a s a n t te n d ed t o

f o s t e r an a tm osphere o f a p a th y and f a i t h ; one co u ld alw ays t u r n

t o th e f a m i ly a t t im e s o f extrem e need . Now, i t h a s become a

haven and t o o l f o r t h e p e a s a n t who d a re s t o m o b i l iz e a g a i n s t l a n d

l o r d s , governm ent, P h i l i p p i n e C o n s ta b u la r y ( lo c a l p o l i c e ) , o r any

one e l s e t h a t i s b e l i e v e d t o be a t h r e a t o r an e x p l o i t e r .

L ead ers such a s Sumulong and L u is Taruc a p p e a re d . With each


38

f a i l u r e o f some o th e r movement o r p r o t e s t a few more men were r e

c r u i t e d . From q u i t e humble o r i g i n s men were coming f o r t h t o l e a r n

what th e y would need t o s u rv iv e a s an " a n t i - J a p a n e s e P e o p le 's

Army," t h e H ukbalahap, and l a t e r a s t h e r e b e l Huks o f th e p o s t

Second World War P h i l i p p i n e s ( F r i e n d 1 9 6 5 : l 6 0 , 257).

In many r e s p e c t s , t h e Huks' w artim e a c t i v i t i e s resem bled

th o s e o f t h e i r C hinese c o u n t e r p a r t s ( T a y l o r 1961 :121 -122 ) . D uring

t h e o c c u p a t io n th e y h a r r a s s e d Ja p a n e se and s im u l ta n e o u s ly a t te m p

t e d t o d e p r iv e them o f l o c a l r e s o u r c e s . Whenever p o s s i b l e , Huks

would p r e v e n t J a p a n e se from o b ta in in g food s u p p l i e s in a r e a s th e y

d o m in a ted (H a l l 1 9 6 8 :7 7 9 ) . H a rra ssm en t , how ever, was viewed a s a

way t o t r a i n new Huk t r o o p s . F ig h t in g J a p a n e s e p ro v id ed e x p e r

ie n c e Huk l e a d e r s fo re saw would be needed a f t e r th e war. Any who

opposed Huks were l a b e l e d p u p p e ts . Of 25 ,000 c la im ed k i l l e d by

Huks d u r in g t h e war o n ly 5 ,000 were J a p a n e s e ; o t h e r s were F i l i p i n o

v ic t im s o f t h e c l a s s war. Abandoned h a c ie n d a s were s e i s e d and

F i l i p i n o s b e l i e v e d t o be t r a i t o r s w ere l i q u i d a t e d . A veraging

10 ,000 men w ith a back-up m i l i t i a e s t im a te d a t 100 ,000 th e Hukba

la h a p had d eve loped t h e b i g g e s t , b e s t t r a i n e d , and b e s t equ ipped

F i l i p i n o army in th e P h i l i p p i n e s tow ard t h e end o f t h e war. But

u n l i k e C h inese p e a s a n t g u e r r i l l a s t h e Huks were d i r e c t l y i n t h e

p a t h o f American f o r c e s t h a t were p r o g r e s s in g tow ard an in v a s io n

o f J a p a n (H artendo rp 19 6 7 b :21+2-2^3, 293 , 512; Meyer 1965:56;

T ay lo r 196U:121-122) .

The t a o , e x p l o i t e d and f r u s t r a t e d , b e l i e v e d s u c c e s s was in


39

h i s / h e r r e a c h a t l a s t . Through a c t i o n s o f t h e H ukbalahap i n j u s

t i c e s co u ld be s e t r i g h t . A lthough t h e Huks d id n o t im m ed ia te ly

r e se m b le s u p e r n a tu r a l f o r c e s o r s a i n t s , i t was n o t lo n g b e fo re

rum ors began to s p re a d . The charmed l i v e s o f some Huks became ex

a g g e r a te d and d e a th s o f o t h e r s t r a n s fo rm e d them t e m p o r a r i l y in t o

m a r ty r s . To be a Huk became s p e c i a l . To h e lp r e d r e s s wrongs was

commendable. To f i g h t e v i l - d o e r s and e x p l o i t e r s d id no t make th e

Huk a b a n d i t . R a th e r , th e Huk became a h e ro .

C e r t a i n l y , th e Pampangan te n a n c y s i t u a t i o n may have been an

i n i t i a l r a l l y i n g p o in t f o r a p a r a - m i l i t a r y movement such a s t h e

H ukbalahap . In l a t e r y e a r s i t was p e r p e t u a te d by a co m b in a tio n o f

f a c t o r s . C o n t in u i ty o f t h e id e o lo g y o f f i n d i n g j u s t i c e f o r t h e

t a o , t e r r o r i s m and c o e rc io n t o s u rv iv e a s an o r g a n i z a t i o n , and

c r i m i n a l , m a f i a - l i k e b e h a v io r f o r p e r s o n a l g a i n , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e

A ngeles C i ty - C la r k A ir Base n e ig h b o rh o o d , a l l have c o n t r i b u t e d to

t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h i s f o r c e in Pampanga(Averch 1972 ) .

Remember, t h e H ukbalahap i s an o r g a n i z a t i o n . I t has u n d e r

gone grow ing p a in s a t t i m e s , changes i n mem bership, and o th e r p r o

blems w hich I need n o t d e t a i l . Huk a c t i v i t i e s have n o t a lways

been p r a i s e w o r th y . O p p o s i t io n t o Huks has met w i th mixed r e s u l t s .

Y e t, t h e Huks p e r s i s t .

POST-WAR EVENTS

P o s t-S eco n d World War e v e n ts e m b i t t e r e d many Pampangans. The

U n ite d S t a t e s s e t c o n d i t i o n s on war damage paym ents: American


40

b usinessm en wanted eq u a l r i g h t s w i th F i l i p i n o s t o e x p l o i t P h i l i p

p in e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s . To a l lo w t h i s a change was needed i n t h e

P h i l i p p i n e c o n s t i t u t i o n . Newly e l e c t e d Pampangan congressm en

opposed such a c t i o n . P r e s id e n t Roxas to o k o f f i c e on May 2 8 , 19^6 ,

ig n o re d t h e s e p a r t s o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n :

"The v a l i d i t y o f an e l e c t i o n can be de te rm ined by t h e e l e c t o r a l t r i b u n a l o f each house o f c o n g re s s . . . and o n ly t h e e l e c t o r a l t r i b u n a l c o u ld , a f t e r a p ro p e r h e a r in g , u n s e a t a m e m b e r ." (P h i l ip p in e c o n s t i t u t i o n , q uo ted in Abaya 1967 :32)

And he o u s te d i n d i v i d u a l s who had a l r e a d y been a cc ep ted by t h e

com mission on e l e c t i o n s . Seven o f t h e e i g h t Pampangan c a n i d a t e s

were removed. American b u s in e s s go t e q u a l r i g h t s w ith F i l i p i n o s .

To c o n fu se m a t t e r s m ore, p r e v io u s l y i n c a r c e r a t e d members o f th e

J a p a n e s e puppe t reg im e were g iv e n a g e n e r a l amnesty and many once

a g a in became a c t i v e i n p o l i t i c s ( C a r r o l l 1970 :138-139; Buss 196b:

585).

Landowners r e a l i z e d th e t im e was r i p e and demanded s t r o n g

government s u p p o r t in C e n t r a l Luzon. A r i c h landow ner, Pab lo

A ngeles D avid , became governo r o f Pampanga. David s e t up a rm ie s

o f c i v i l i a n g u a rd s , armed and d e p u t iz e d by government b u t a c t u a l l y

on la n d o w n e rs ' p a y r o l l s , t o c o n t r o l l a w l e s s n e s s and p r o t e c t p e o p le .

Almost s e v e n ty p e r c e n t o f t h e s e g u a rd s had se rv ed in t h e J a p a n e s e

O ccupa tion P h i l i p p i n e C o n s ta b u la ry . One m ight wonder who were t h e

p e o p le t h a t g o v e rn o r David in te n d e d t o p r o t e c t . Many Pampangan

p e a s a n t s w anted and needed p r o t e c t i o n and enforcem ent o f t h e i r

r i g h t s . I t i s l i k e l y t h a t t h e p e o p le D avid w ished t o p r o t e c t were


1+1

n o t t h e p e asan ts (A b ay a 1967:31-31+).

Kuks v e r e s t i l l a c t i v e . A g ra r ia n d i s c o n t e n t and p o s t-S eco n d

World War t u r m o i l p e r m i t t e d a c o n t in u e d c l a s s w ar. They v e re a

v e ry r e a l i r r i t a t i o n t o th e government(M eyer 1 9 6 $ :5 6 ) . On August

21+, 191+6, c i v i l i a n g u a rd s und er m i l i t a r y e s c o r t , k idnapped and be

headed Juan F e le o , t h e second i n command o f t h e Huks. C i v i l war

e r u p te d . Roxas l a b e l l e d an a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i v e armed in d i v id u a l s

an " i n s u r r e c t i o n , " and a m e e t in g o f t h r e e o r more an " i l l e g a l a s

s o c i a t i o n . " T here v e re mass a r r e s t s . O ther o f f i c i a l a t t i t u d e s

cau sed c o n fu s io n . Roxas d id n o t o u t la w Huks u n t i l March 6 , 19^8.

F iv e weeks l a t e r he d ie d . P r e s id e n t Q u ir in o g r a n te d them amnesty

i n J u n e , I 9I+8 . The am nesty program f a i l e d . By O ctober 191+8,

Q u ir in o and American G en era l A lb e r t M. Jo n e s had d e v is e d y e t an

o t h e r p la n t o c o n t a in and e l im i n a t e a l l Huks(Abaya 1 9 6 7 :3 1 -3 5 , 37 ) .

T h is and su b seq u en t a t t e m p t s f a i l e d . T h i r t y y e a r s a f t e r t h e

Second World War Huks a r e s t i l l a c t i v e i n Pampanga(Hunter 1969 :

220- 221 , 2 32 ).

Even a f t e r in d e p en d en ce , Americans rem ained i n t h e P h i l i p

p i n e s . In Pampanga, t h e A ngeles C i ty - C la r k A ir Base complex

c r e a t e d a busy u rb an a r e a . In t h i s n o r th w e s te rn p o r t i o n o f th e

p r o v in c e , ab o u t 35 ,000 American se rv icem en and d ep en d e n ts t r y t o

f o r g e a U . S . - l i k e a tm osphere a t t h e second l a r g e s t m i l i t a r y base

i n t h e w o rld . About 2 0 ,000 F i l i p i n o s a r e employed on th e b a s e .

O ff b a s e , l o c a l F i l i p i n o s e n jo y m i l l i o n s o f p e so s w o rth o f b u s i

n e s s a s a r e s u l t o f American m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e (L a c h ic a 197 1 :5 2 ,


k2

1^0; C la rk n . d . ) . I t would p ro b a b ly be s a f e t o assume t h a t t h e

p re s e n c e o f t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r Americans p ro v id e s a c e r t a i n p o r t i o n

o f t h e f i n a n c i a l su p p o r t f o r t h e Huks.

Pampanga has managed t o rem ain p red o m in a te ly Pampangan in h a b

i t e d . Pampangans f a i l t o l e a v e t h e i r p ro v in c e in g r e a t numbers.

Groups such a s T aga logs o r I lo c a n o s have hom esteaded s o u th e rn i s

la n d s in l a r g e numbers; Pampangans have n o t . Non-Pampangans have

moved to u rban a r e a s l i k e M anila o r Cebu C ity t o c r e a t e s i z a b l e

m i n o r i t i e s in t h e s e c i t i e s . P erhaps because Pampangans have a

busy u rb an a r e a o f t h e i r own, th e A ngeles C i ty -C la rk A ir Base

com plex, few have l e f t Pampanga f o r th e b ig c i t i e s . Pampanga

m a in ta in s a p o p u la t io n h e a v i l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f in d ig en eo u s

kapampango sp eak in g p e o p le w h i le o th e r p ro v in c e s te n d to fo l lo w

p a t t e r n s em phasiz ing g r e a t e r f low s o f p e o p le (L a c h ic a 1 9 7 1 :^ 9 )-

HUKS AflD COMPADRES

L u is Taruc has p o r t r a y e d th e Pampangan: "They r e f u s e t o be

b r u t a l i z e d , i f you g e t on t h e wrong s id e o f them , th e y become im

p l a c a b l e fo e s" (Q u o te d i n L a c h ic a 1 9 7 1 :5 3 ) . L ach ica a l s o im p l ie s

a s i m i l a r q u a l i t y when he speaks o f t h e i r c h a r a c t e r : "Pampango

c h a r a c t e r . . . a q u ix o t i c s e n s e o f m ora l o b l i g a t i o n t h a t t e n d s t o

p r e v a i l o v e r e x t e r n a l c o m p u ls io n s " (1 971 :^ 7 )• With t h e ad v en t o f

t h e Huks he c a r r i e s t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s p r e d i l e c t i o n o r tem

peram ent even f u r t h e r when d e p i c t i n g t h e Huk sen se o f i d e n t i t y ,

b rav ad o , o r s p i r i t .


U3

"The Huk s p i r i t i s b a s i c a l l y an 'u s a g a i n s t them ' id e n t i f i c a t i o n . 'T h ey ' a r e th e PC, th e c i t y - s l i c k e r l a n d r e f o r m i s t s , d o -g o o d e rs t r y i n g t o win p e a sa n t f a v o r , and t h e r e s t o f t h e ' o u t s i d e r s ' who c o n t in u e to 'm i s u n d e r s ta n d ' C e n t r a l L u zo n ." (1 9 7 1 :3 0 )

Who i s th o u g h t t o have t h i s Huk s p i r i t ? In l a t e 1969, a P h i l i p

p in e H era ld e s t i m a t e i n d i c a t e d t h a t in Huk c o n t r o l l e d a r e a s ,

s e v e n ty p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u la t io n had th e Huk s p i r i t ( L a c h i c a

1 9 7 1 :3 1 ) .

Even t h e man/woman who i s a " c i v i l i a n " ( a n i n d i v i d u a l who i s

n e i t h e r a Huk nor an in fo rm e r f o r t h e governm ent) can bf c o n s id

e re d a t r u s t e d p e rso n in a c i r c l e o f Huk f r i e n d s and sh a re i n th e

Huk s p i r i t . L ike Huks, h e / s h e w i l l m a in ta in a f a i t h t h a t p a s t

wrongs w i l l e v e n t u a l l y be s e t r i g h t by th e good p e o p le . The

t r u s t e d Huk sy m p a th iz e r may d e r iv e a sense o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e

e v e n tu a l r e d r e s s o f w rongs, perh ap s f e e l a s en se o f p e r s o n a l power,

and a d e g re e o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l l e v e r a g e may be n i s / h e r s t o u s e over

o th e r t a o s who l a c k a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i th any H uks(L ach ica 19 7 1 :3 1 ) .

F a i t h and c o n s ta n c y t o i d e a l s i s r e f l e c t e d i n T a r u c 's rem arks

when he r e c a l l e d i n i t i a l f r i c t i o n t h a t b e f e l l S o c i a l i s t P a r ty and

Communist P a r t y o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s members when t h e y f i r s t u n i t e d .

"We were n o t accustom ed t o th e i r o n d i s c i p l i n e o f th e Communist P a r ty b u t what we la c k e d i n d i s c i p l i n e and d o c t r i n e we made up in i d e a l i s m and en th u s ia sm . When we were t r o u b l e d by t h e t h i n g s o u r comrades d i d , we c o n s o le d o u r s e lv e s w i th t h e th o u g h t t h a t d e d i c a t i o n t o a good c au se would p roduce good m e n ." (q u o te d in L ac h ica 1971 :1 0 2 ) .

B a n d i t ry i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s can be looked upon a s p a r t o f a "Robin

Hood" t r a d i t i o n . R e v e r t in g t o t h e c a r e e r o f o u t la w as a means o f


uu

e s c a p in g an i n s u f f e r a b l e s i t u a t i o n o f s e m i- fe u d a l t e n a n t r y i s not

an u n f a m i l i a r e x p e r ie n c e to t h e t a o (L ach ica 1 9 7 1 :6 3 ) .

E x p l o i t a t i o n and f r u s t r a t i o n a r e v e ry r e a l e lem en ts in t h e

l i v e s o f th e Pampangan t a o s . E x te r n a l powers c o n t r o l and e x p l o i t

t h e Pampangans. I n t e r n a l i z e d v a lu e s cause f r u s t r a t i o n by c o n s t r a

in i n g a t a o ' s c h o ic e s and l i m i t i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r growth o u t

s id e t h e c o n te x t o f " f a m i ly ." These same v a lu e s have .a l s o been

s o u rc e s o f r e l i e f from th e t a o 1s s i t u a t i o n . F a m i l ia p ro v id e s th e

t a o a sen se o f d i r e c t i o n and a c lo a k o f s e c u r i t y . In p re v io u s

d eca d es t h i s se rv ed to a s s u r e t a o s t h a t no m a t t e r how bad t im e s

migh "C 36c;iu5 Lhere was a p la c e t o t u r n f o r c o n s o l a t i o n . P a r t o f

t h e t a o s * w orld view in c lu d e d a f i r m f a i t h t h a t ( h o p e f u l ly ) i n th e

f u t u r e t h i n g s would be b e t t e r . Now, t h e f a m i l i a p r o t e c t s t h e Huk

sy m p a th iz e r and i n t e r a c t s w i th t h e Pampangan compadre system to

s e rv e a s a t o o l o f l i n k a g e w i th t h e Huks th e m s e lv e s .

In an environm ent o f p o v e r ty one m ight adm it need and cause

f o r d i s s i d e n c e , b u t s im u l ta n e o u s ly a sk : How can t h e s e poor p eo p le

a f f o r d th e day t o day o p e r a t i o n and m a in tenance o f a g u e r r i l l a

movement such a s t h e Huks? In n o r th e r n Pampanga a su g ar b e l t ru n s

above th e s o u th e rn r i c e r e g io n th ro u g h A ngeles C i t y , F lo r id a - B la n c a ,

P o ra c , M a b a la c a t , and M agalang. A ngeles C i ty (a n d B a l ib a g o ) manages

t o e x t r a c t s e v e r a l m i l l i o n p eso s y e a r l y a s a r e s u l t o f t h e p re s e n c e

o f C la rk A ir B ase (L ach ica 1 9 7 1 :5 2 ) . A s s u re d ly , t h e Huk b ase con

s i s t s o f t h e m a f ia wing in A ngeles C i t y , b u t i t a l s o in c lu d e s many

t a o s t h a t a r e exposed t o d i s s i d e n t i n f l u e n c e s , p r o f e s s i o n a l s such


as law yers and doctors g iv in g fr e e s e r v ic e s , and both p e tty and

prominent p o l i t i c ia n s exchanging patronage fo r support.

C ontributions from a s in g le tao may amount to no more than

$2 .50 to $3 .50 per year . A c a le sa d r iv er (a c a le s a i s a P h ilip p in e

version o f a hanson cab) may donate f iv e c e n ta v o s ( le s s than one

cen t) a day. However, many thousands o f such workers and farmers

support the Huk fin a n ce system and i f considered a l l togeth er i t

can be seen th at th e y ea r ly income o f th e Huks must be f a ir ly

large(L ach ica 1 971 :28 -29 ).

Personal correspondence(dela P ina 197L) in d ica te d th a t the

r a t e of exchange in the immediate a re a of the American m i l i t a ry

base was s ix t c one in lo c a l F i l ip in o b u s in esse s . The u n o f f ic i a l

(blackmarket) r a t e f lu c t u a t e s , on good days i t may go as high as

seven and one h a l f pesos to th e d o l l a r . More r e c e n t , and no doubt

more a c c u ra te , in fo rm ation in d ic a te s th a t th e o f f i c i a l r a t e has

held a t seven to one(Wall S t r e e t J o u r n a l ) w ithout much change in

recen t y ea rs . However, th e purchasing power o f th e money, whether

P h i l ip p in e or American has been a f f e c te d by re c e n t problems in th e

world economy. Now, i t may cost 2 pesos fo r a beer , a peso fo r a

lo a f of b read , and perhaps 15 pesos fo r a s teak dinner in a r e s t a

u ran t .

The P h i l ip p in e government p re s se s to e l im in a te Huks and con

firm the o ld o rd e r . S im ultaneously , Huk fa m i l ia in Pampanga seek

o u t l e t s and a l t e r n a t i v e s to th e e x p lo i ta t io n and f r u s t r a t i o n th a t

has plagued them. Perhaps Huks may d e s i r e to p e rp e tu a te t h e i r way


U6

o f l i f e s im p ly b ecause i t s c o n t in u e d e x i s t e n c e i s b e l i e v e d t o be

ad v an tag eo u s even i f t h e o r i g i n a l g o a l s o f th e Hukbalahap f a d e , a r e

r e p l a c e d , o r a re e v e n t u a l l y a c h ie v e d .

The "Huk" e x p e r ie n c e exposed t h e t a o t o a l t e r n a t i v e s beyond

h i s / h e r c o n s t r a i n e d f e u a a l i s t i c w o rld . For some, Huk l i f e i t s e l f

r e p r e s e n t e d a v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e way. For o t h e r s , i t p ro v id e d a

p rom ise o f a means t o e f f e c t needed ch an g e s . Less a l t r u i s t i c

men/women may have s im ply c o n s id e r e d t h e Hukbalahap a s som eth ing

to be e x p l o i t e d . More i d e a l i s t i c Fampangans b e l i e v e l a n d l o r d - t a o

i n e q u i t i e s and c o r r u p t governm ent can be in f lu e n c e d by Huk a c t i v i t y .

The Huk movement made v a r io u s a d a p t a t i o n s i n o rd e r t o cope

w i th d e te rm in ed r e s i s t a n c e . The "d e te rm in e d r e s i s t a n c e , " bo be

s u r e , was an e x p re s s io n o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e g o v e rn m e n t 's and l a n d

ow ners ' d i s p l e a s u r e w i th t h e Huks.

D o c t r in a l f l u c t u a t i o n s , p r a c t i c a l p o l i t i c a l a n d /o r d ip lo m a t ic

c o n c e s s io n s and u se o f f o r c e and t e r r o r i s m were a l l r e s o r t e d t o

f o r t h e p u rp o se o f rem oving o r r e d u c in g c o n f l i c t s . As t h e group

grew and m atu red s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t su b -g ro u p s and an in c r e a s e d v a r

i e t y o f demands r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e l e a d e r s c o n s t a n t l y r e v i s e d and

m o d if ie d d o c t r i n e . E v e n t u a l l y , t h e governm en ta l h o s t i l i t y d e v e lo p

ed t o an i n t e n s i t y t h a t Huks s h i f t e d em phasis from c u l t i v a t i o n o f

o r i g i n a l i d e a l s t o a c r y s t a l i z a t i o n o f c o u n t e r - h o s t i l i t y and com

b a t a g a i n s t non-Huks.

The p r i m a r i l y s e c u l a r Huk group em phasized a n a t i v i s t i c d i

mension i n i t s i n i t i a l e f f o r t s t o l i q u i d a t e l a n d l o r d s . L a t e r in


fc7

i t s developm ent t h e Hukbalahap seemed t o seek e q u i t a b l e la n d re fo rm ;

and assumed a somewhat l e s s d r a s t i c s ta n c e tow ard c e r t a i n l a n d l o r d s .

The h a r d - c o r e Huks m a in ta in e d a s u f f i c i e n t l y r e a l i s t i c u n d e r s ta n d in g

o f government r e s i s t a n c e . As a r e s u l t , Huks succeeded in sc f a r as

th e y s u rv iv e d lo n g enough t o a c h ie v e a d eg ree o f r o u t i n i z a t i o n .

T h is does n o t n e c e s s a r l y b e a r any r e l a t i o n t o s u c c e ss i n te rm s o f

g a in in g g o a l s such a s la n d re fo rm o r b e t t e r l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s f o r

t h e Pampangan t a o s . An i m p l i c i t a s p e c t o f t h e Huk r o u t i n i z a t i o n

has been t h e i r a lm os t sy m b io t ic r e l a t i o n to t h e Pampangans. A c o r

o l l a r y o f t h i s may w e l l be t h e i r p oo r r e c o r d o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n in

non-Pampangan a f f a i r s and w i th non-Pampangans.

Huks a r e s t i l l a c t i v e among Pampangans and new have s t r o n g

h o ld s i n kapapango sp eak in g p o r t i o n s o f T a r l a c , an a d j a c e n t p ro

v in c e n o r th o f Pampanga. The f e u d a l i s t i c w orld o f t h e t a o p e r s i s t s .

The income o f t h e t a o has p e rh ap s doub led in t h e p e r io d from 1968

t o t h e p r e s e n t . In t h e same p e r io d t h e p r i c e o f r i c e a t t h e

A ngeles C i ty m a rk e tp la c e has r i s e n from two pesos p e r s a l o p (abou t

s i x pounds) t o t e n p e so s p e r s a l o p ( d e l a P in a n . d . ) . The Pampangan

t a o c o n t in u e s t o have a h a rd l i f e and improvements rem ain u n r e a l

iz e d .

TODAY'S HUKISM

Today, many o f t h e most a c t i v e Huks a r e ex tre m e ly young, some

in t h e i r t e e n s . F r e q u e n t ly second g e n e r a t io n ( a n d maybe t h i r d ) ,

t h e i r f a m i l i e s o r o ld e r r e l a t i v e s c la im some s o r t o f k i n o r


k i n - l i k e l i n k t o t h e H uks(L achica 1 9 7 1 :2 k ) . A f te r managing t o s u r

v iv e so lo n g Huks a r e f i r m ly e n t re n c h e d among Pampangans Middle

and upper c l a s s b ra n c h e s o f some Pampangan f a m i l i e s have begun to

support Kuks. In d e e d , w i th in t h e c u r r e n t Huk u n d e r s t r u c t u r e i t i s

p o s s i b l e t o f in d b u s in e s s f i r m s , s u b d iv i s io n opera to rs(com pound o r

apa rtm en t o w n ers ) , and n i g h t c l u b , b a r , and je ep n ey d r i v e r s ' a s s o c

i a t i o n s (L ac h ica 1 9 7 1 :2 8 -2 9 ) . As t im e p a s s e d , th e Huk sp h ere o f

c o n ta c t expanded.

The Huk a b i l i t y t o m a in ta in c o n t in u o u s c o n ta c t w i th p e a s a n t s

i s due i n p a r t t o t h e i r a b i l i t y t o b le n d t h e i r i d e n t i t y w i th t h a t

o f th e l o c a l t a o .

" ’Why c a n ’t t h e armed f o r c e s g e t t h i s group o f 300 o r so h a r d - c o r e Huks and s o lv e th e C e n t r a l Luzon problem once and f o r a l l ? ’ p eo p le a s k . That i s im p o s s ib le a Huk sy m p a th ize r e x p la in e d ’b eca u se t h e m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s and t h e i r a g e n ts do n o t even know t h e s e Huks and would n o t be a b l e t o i d e n t i f y t h e m . ’

"Then who knows t h e Huks? Who co u ld i d e n t i f y them? Only t h e members o f t h e mass base s u p p o r t ------ t h e v i l l a g e communi t i e s ----- know t h e wanted Huks. Those who know t h e Huks andt e l l on them u s u a l l y pay w i th t h e i r l i v e s . " ( L a c h i c a 1 971 :28 -9 )

Today, t h e g o v e rn m e n t 's p s y -w a r f a r e u n i t s do no t m a in ta in s u s

t a i n e d program s lo n g enough to be e f f e c t i v e . On t h e o th e r hand,

Huks a r e r e l e n t l e s s i n t h e i r p ropaganda among t h e t a o s . Huks have

succeeded i n c o n v in c in g many b a r r i o r e s i d e n t s t h a t w ith o u t them ,

n o t a s i n g l e b r id g e o r ro a d would e v e r be b u i l t . T h is may o r may

no t be t h e c a s e . P e rh ap s t h e c e n t r a l government o n ly becomes s u f

f i c i e n t l y a ro u s e d t o meet needs o f Pampangan t a o s when s p u r re d t o

a c t i o n by t h e Huks. In any e v e n t , Huks g e t c r e d i t f o r a lm o s t a l l


government sponso red p r o j e c t s in th e b a r r i o s . Many t a o s i n c e r e l y

b e l i e v e t h a t t h e l a n d re fo rm q u e s t was born b ecause o f Huk i n s u r

gency and w ith o u t t h e Huks any o p p o r tu n i ty t o e f f e c t l a n d re fo rm

would be l o s t ( L a c h i c a 1 9 7 1 :3 3 ) .

"Down some v i l l a g e s t r e e t s o f C e n t r a l Luzon, men a r e hudd led by t h e b a r r i o s t o r e s over b o t t l e s o f g in o r j a r s o f t u b a ( n a t i v e w in e ) . They t a l k i n w h is p e rs .

" In t h e g roup i s one man who dom inates t h e d i s c u s s i o n . He u s u a l l y t a l k s o f how h a rd l i f e has been f o r t h o s e poor p e o p le , o f t h e poor h a r v e s t , o f t h e i r r i g a t i o n pump t h a t was p rom ised bu t n e v e r d e l i v e r e d , o f t h e p r e - f a b sc h o o l t h a t was a l s o p rom ised b u t n e v e r b u i l t . That man i s a Huk a g i t a t o r . The m enfo lk g a t h e r a round him a s he n a r r a t e s a l i t a n y o f government f a i l u r e s and e x p la in s why th e poor w i l l rem ain n e g le c te d and abandoned f o r th e r e s t o f t h e i r l i v e s . . . . s o o n th e group w i l l be ad d in g t h e i r own sad s x p e r i e n c e s . " ( L a c h i c a 1971 :31-32)

And so i t g o e s . . .

SUMMARY

In o rd e r t o p ro v id e a g e n e r a l overv iew and a r a p i d r e c a p o f

e v e n ts i n t h i s a r e a , l e t me p r e s e n t some rem a rk s , s l i g h t l y e d i t e d ,

o f A lex Campbell:

"There a r e 36 m i l l i o n F i l i p i n o s , and about t h r e e q u a r t e r s o f them a r e u n d e r t h e age o f 25. . . . r a t e o f human g ro w th , 3 .5 p e r c e n t , one o f t h e h ig h e s t in t h e w orld .

" . . .M a n y p e o p le have t o make do on an income o f l e s s th a n $100 p e r y e a r . Because o f th e bu rgeon ing p o p u l a t i o n , 800,000 new jo b s a r e needed each y e a r . But o n ly 600 ,000 become a v a i l a b l e , and many o f them a r e f o r o n ly a h a l f - d a y ’ s p a y . . . u n d e r employed F i l i p i n o s f e e l t h e i r d e p r i v a t i o n a l l t h e more k een ly b ecau se most o f them a r e w e l l e d u c a t e d . . .More th a n 30 ,000 F i l i p i n o s l e a v e t h e i r own c o u n t ry each y e a r t o go t o t h e U n ite d S t a t e s a l o n e . . . L i f e might be more b e a r a b le w ere i t no t t h a t a v a s t g u l f yawns betw een t h e h a n d fu l o f v e ry r i c h and t h e mass o f v e ry poor F i l i p i n o s , and t h a t t h e w e l l - t o - d o manage t o pay no t a x e s . . .


50

" In 1953, t h e u n i v e r s a l l y p o p u la r Magsaysay v as e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , and by 1955 t h e Huk movement seemed t o be b ro k en . But a f t e r t h e d e a th o f Magsaysay i n an a i r p l a n e c r a s h in 1957 , t h e o ld gap between t h e r i c h and t h e p o o r , t h e government and t h e p e a s a n t , reo p en e d . The Huks c r e p t th ro u g h t h e gap and came b a c k , d e d ic a te d t o a long p e r io d o f ’p r o t r a c t e d c o n f l i c t . ' Today, th e y have i n e f f e c t a shadow government in c e n t r a l Luzon. There th e y d e a l o u t ro u g h j u s t i c e , sh o o t in g o p p r e s s iv e l a n d l o r d s and in o th e r ways a t t e m p t in g t o win t h e p e a s a n t s b ack to t h e i r s i d e . They a l s o r u n b r i s k gam bling and o t h e r p r o f i t a b l e r a c k e t s in A ngeles C i t y , a t t h e g r e a t American b a s e , and a r e s a id t o make $6 m i l l i o n a y e a r from t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s . . . " ( 1 9 7 0 :2 0 6 - 8 )

The Huks have been s e c u la r r a t h e r th a n r e l i g i o u s . M y s t ic a l

o r s u p e r n a t u r a l f o r c e s o r powers were n o t e x p l i c i t l y c la im ed n o r

c a l l e d upon by t h e e a r l y Huks. N e v e r t h e l e s s , many t a o c r e d i t e d

t h e Huks w i th u n u su a l powers i n t h e u n c o n s c io u s hope t h a t such

m ight a c t u a l l y be th e c a s e . So, w h i le t h e Hukbalahap was e s s e n

t i a l l y a s e c u l a r g roup , i t c e r t a i n l y had some r e l i g i o u s o v e r to n e s

imposed upon i t .

E ven ts o f t h e Second World War c a t a p u l t e d t h e Huks to th e

fo re g ro u n d and e s t a b l i s h e d them a s l e g i t i m a t e and r e l e v a n t t o th e

t a o .

The compadre system and t h e s o l i d a r i t y o f t h e Pampangan

k in d re d e n s u re d t h a t once t h e Hukbalahap had a wide enough b ase

e s t a b l i s h e d , i t would p e r s i s t . Now Kukism i s a p a r t o f Phe way o f

l i f e o f t h e Pampangans.

Pampangan compadre system and f a m i l i a le n d th e m se lv e s to

s u p p o r t o f a l l k in and k i n - l i k e members and f u r t h e r m a in ta in a s

e le m e n ta l t o t h e i r way o f l i f e t h e b e l i e f i n c o o p e r a t io n n e c e s s a ry

to t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e t a o . Hukism has become in t e r t w i n e d w i th


51

t h e b ra n c h e s o f Pampangan f a m i l i e s t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t in many i n

s ta n c e s i t may be im p o s s ib le t o d i s t i n g u i s h v in e from b ra n c h , w ild

bush from p r o t e c t i v e t r e e . The Second World War opened th e door

f o r t h e Hukbalahap and th e movement r a p i d l y became a l e g i t i m a t e

way to r e s i s t any p e r c e iv e d i n j u s t i c e s . By t h a t t im e i t was a

v e ry r e a l o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t had a v e s t e d i n t e r e s t in i t s own s u r

v i v a l .

T h is i n v e s t i g a t i o n has d e a l t w i th a complex t o p i c o f in q u i r y .

I t i s no t d i f f i c u l t t o r a i s e o b j e c t i o n s t o s u p e r f i c i a l t r e a tm e n t

o f many a r e a s , o r t o i t s r e l a t i v e l y s i n g u l a r ap p ro ach t o a t o p i c

which m ight c a l l f o r m yriad a p p ro a c h e s . I t sh o u ld be s t r e s s e d t h a t

ap p ro ac h es o th e r th a n t h e a n t h r o p o l o g ic a l one u sed h e r e in c o u ld ,

f o r v a r io u s p u rp o se s and v a l u e s , p rove t o be q u i t e p r o f i t a b l e .

Von L a u e ( l9 5 0 : i ) s t a t e s t h a t " h i s t o r y can be w r i t t e n from q u i t e

d iv e rg e n t v ie w p o in ts b u t s t i l l w i th com ple te ad h e re n ce to th e

t r u t h . " T h is a n a l y s i s i s no t in te n d e d t o p reem pt o th e r v iew

p o i n t s ; one m easure o f i t s su c c e s s m ight be t h e e x t e n t t o which

i t sh a rp e n s o t h e r p e r s p e c t i v e s o r exposes d i f f e r e n c e s in u n d e r

l y i n g v a lu e s and a s s u m p tio n s .

In numerous i n s t a n c e s I have s i m p l i f i e d o r e d i t e d o t h e r s '

a c c o u n ts t o s e rv e my p u rp o s e s . H a r d i n ' s (1966 :637) r a t i o n a l e i s

a p p l i c a b l e :

" H i s to r y i s n o t a c h a in o f d i s c r e t e e v e n ts l a i d o u t l i k e bead s on a c h a in . There i s a trem endous amount o f tem p o ra l o v e r la p o f d i f f e r e n t p ro c e s s e s i n t h e developm ent o f b o th id e a s and i n s t i t u t i o n s . The t o t a l r e a l i t y o f h i s t o r y i s so


r i c h in d e t a i l t h a t we c an n o t g a in a com plete knowledge o f t h e p a s t w ith o u t s a c r i f i c i n g our own l i v e s . T h e r e f o r e , we s im p l i f y . . . r a t h e r th a n e n t i r e l y g iv e up our e f f o r t s t o u n d e r s t a n d . . . "

E a s to n (1965 :33) a l s o s t r e s s e d t h a t " c o n c e p ts a r e n e i t h e r t r u e nor

f a l s e ; th e y a r e more o r l e s s u s e f u l . " I have looked a t Pampangan

communal v a lu e s o r c o o p e ra t io n w i th th e aim o f i l l u s t r a t i n g c e r

t a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t a r e o n ly now becoming p e r c e p t a b l e . In

p a r t i c u l a r , I wanted to b r in g o u t t h a t a r e l a t i o n s h i p d i d , i n f a c t

e x i s t between th e compadre s y s tem , t h e t a o 1s l i f e s t y l e and t h e p e r

s i s t e n c e o f th e Huks.

From t h e c u t s e t , Pampangan t a o s have been viewed as s e e k in g

s u r v i v a l a g a i n s t c o n t r a r y f o r c e s . At d i f f e r e n t t im e s th e y have

had v a r io u s t o o l s t o a id them. C o n s t r a i n t s and l i m i t a t i o n s t h a t

were en c o u n te re d by Pampangans in f lu e n c e d s u r v iv a l i n p a r t i c u l a r

s i t u a t i o n s . The p h y s i c a l env ironm ent p ro v id e d raw r e s o u r c e s .

P r e -S p a n is h Pampangans chose how th e y w ished t o e x p l o i t t h o s e r e

s o u rc e s . L im it in g f e a t u r e s c f t h e i r environm ent in f lu e n c e d how

Pampangans would a c h ie v e t h e i r e n v iro n m e n ta l a d a p t a t i o n s . The

p o s t - S p a n i s h t a o s p r o g r e s s i v e l y s u r r e n d e re d i n i t i a t i v e and la n d

to t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e l a n d lo r d s w h i le p re v io u s c o o p e r a t iv e and a g r i

c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s rem ained s t r o n g . O u ts id e f o r c e s ( C h in e s e ,

S p a n ia rd s , A m ericans , and J a p a n e s e ) in f lu e n c e d Pampangans. At a l l

t im e s c o o p e r a t io n was n e c e s s a r y t o make a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s

s u c c e s s f u l . S tro n g l i n k s grew a s an outcome o f community a c t i v

i t i e s and n eed s . L inks and a c t i v i t i e s r e i n f o r c e d each o t h e r .


53

Fam ily r e l a t i o n s p ro v id ed a p r im a ry s o u rc e o f support a t d i f

f i c u l t t im e s . The compadre system o f expand ing o n e 's k in -v e b r e

l a t e d w e l l t o b o th Roman C a th o l ic is m and f a m i ly g o a l s . Problems

c o n f ro n te d by t h e Pampangan t a o s were found t o be s o lv a b le o r a t

l e a s t e n d u ra b le so lo n g a s t h e c o o p e ra t io n o f k in cou ld be r e l i e d

upon. A b e l i e f i n communal v a lu e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s perm ea tes

Pampangan l i f e s t y l e s . Economic s t r e s s e s prom pted some s o r t o f

communal o r f a m i ly based re sp o n se i n t h i s c e n tu r y . The un ique

compadre system Pampangans have d ev e lo p ed and th e e x p e r ie n c e o f

l e g i t i m i z e d g u e r r i l l a a c t i v i t i e s d u r in g t h e Second World War com

b in e d to c r e a t e a f a v o r a b le environm ent f o r a l a s t i n g f i c t i v e k in

d re d o f Kuks. As I see i t , Kukism became a f a m i ly a f f a i r . Once

t h i s o c c u r r e d , i t was a l r e a d y to o l a t e f o r any k in d o f easy s e p a r

a t i o n t o be e f f e c t e d between Pampangan t a o and Huk.


PAMPANGA b ase d on "Map o f Pampanga", A t l a s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ,

P h i l - A s ia n Pub. M an ila , c o p ie d from draw ing in Lachica(l971:50),I T .........*1

MILES:0 5 10

'M abalacal

/ V Magal2— C la rk :

'A i r J: Eas6.JaBalibas°

H B A ngeles C i tyS an ta Ana ®

/%

%t

\ Pampanga 3an LuisBSAN FERNANDO©

Ana fSa„ *M e x ic o /S ^ Candaba #

II S an ta R ita®

F lo r id a - S l a n c a 0 Bacolo:^Saijg Simon

a-V GaugL

Lubao Sexmoa

aUnshaded i s l a n d i s Luzon

/ LizonPHILIPPINES and LUZON b ased on E spenshade(1970 :157 , 1 6 9 ) .


55

FOOTNOTES

1 . With r e s p e c t t o v h a t a peso was w orth a t t h a t t im e : from

1966 t o 1968 , w h ile I was i n Pampanga, t h e r a t e o f exchange f o r

P h i l i p p i n e t o American c u r re n c y was k . 2 p e so s t o one d o l l a r . The

u n o f f i c i a l ( b l a c k m a r k e t ) r a t e was u s u a l l y f i v e t o one . And a t t h e

end o f t h e m onth, f o u r o r f i v e days p r i o r t o t h e s e rv ic e m e n 's pay

d ay , a r a t e o f s i x to one was p o s s i b l e . The buying power o f a

peso in A ngeles C ity can b e s t be i l l u s t r a t e d by a few exam ples .

The p r i c e o f a San M ig u e l (b e e r ) ranged from one peso t o 30 c e n t a

vos depend ing on p la c e o f p u r c h a s e , th e n ig h t c lu b s t r i p i n B a libago

o r t h e " D i r ty Dozen" d i s t r i c t i n downtown A ngeles C i ty o r a s id e

s t r e e t s a r i - s a r i ( sm a ll ne ighbo rhood g r o c e r y / g e n e r a l s t o r e ) . A l o a f

o f b re a d would c o s t ab o u t U5 c e n ta v o s . A two bedroom tow nhouse

p e rh a p s 200. p e s o s (g iv e o r t a k e 25) p e r month. A t a i l o r made m an 's

s u i t , 75 p e s o s . And, f o r s i x and one h a l f pesos a t o u r i s t co u ld

p u rc h a s e a f i l e t mignon a t t h e E s q u i re Supper Club on MacArthur

Highway, a main t h r o u g h f a r e o f A ngeles C i ty and B a l ib a g o .

2 . The f i c t i v e k in d re d w hich I have in mind d i f f e r s from

t h e k in d re d d e s c r ib e d by Murdock i n t h e fo l lo w in g p a s s a g e s :

"The most d i s t i n c t i v e s t r u c t u r a l f a c t ab o u t k in d re d i s t h a t , save th ro u g h a c c i d e n t , i t can n ev e r be t h e same f o r any two i n d i v i d u a l s w i th t h e e x c e p t io n o f own s i b l i n g s . F or any g iv e n p e r s o n , i t s membership r a m i f i e s o u t th ro u g h d i v e r s e k in s h ip c o n n e c t io n s u n t i l i t i s t e rm in a t e d a t some d e g re e o fr e l a t i o n s h i p f r e q u e n t l y w i th second c o u s in s , a l th o u g h th el i m i t s a r e o f t e n drawn somewhat c l o s e r o r f a r t h e r away th a n


56

t h i s and may he r a t h e r i n d e f i n i t e . The k in d re d s o f d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n s o v e r l a p o r i n t e r s e c t r a t h e r th a n c o i n c i d e . . .

"S in c e k in d r e d s i n t e r l a c e and o v e r l a p , th e y do n o t and ca n n o t form d i s c r e t e o r s e p a r a t e segm ents o f t h e e n t i r e s o c i e t y . N e i th e r a t r i b e no r a community can be su b d iv id e d i n t o c o n s t i t u e n t k i n d r e d s . . .

"One r e s u l t o f t h i s p e c u l a r i t y i s t h a t t h e k in d re d , though i t s e rv e s a d e q u a te ly t o d e f in e t h e j u r a l r i g h t s o f an i n d i v i d u a l , can r a r e l y a c t a s a c o l l e c t i v i t y . One k in d re d c a n n o t , f o r exam ple , t a k e b lo o d vengence a g a i n s t a n o th e r i f t h e two happen t o have mambers in common. M oreover, a k in d re d canno t h o ld la n d o r o th e r p r o p e r t y , n o t o n ly b ecause i t i s n o t a group ex ce p t from th e p o in t o f v iew o f a p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l , b u t a l s o becau se i t has no c o n t i n u i t y o ver t im e . Hence u n d e r c i r c u m s ta n c e s f a v o r a b l e e i t h e r t o t h e communal o w nersh ip o f p r o p e r t y o r t o t h e c o l l e c t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f k insm en , t h e k in d r e d l a b o r s under d e c id e d h an d ic a p s in comp a r i s o n t o t h e L ineage o f s i b . " ( 1 9 6 0 a : 60-61)

"The k in d re d sh o u ld a l s o be r e c o g n iz e d a s a b i l a t e r a l k in g ro u p s . I t i s a lw ays E g o - o r ie n te d , i . e . , composed o f p e rso n s r e l a t e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l (o r group o f s i b l i n g s ) b i l a t e r a l l y ( l i t e r a l l y "on b o th s i d e s " ) . The members o f a k in d r e d , o t h e r th a n t h e c o re i n d i v i d u a l and h i s s i b l i n g s , need n o t b e , and f r e q u e n t l y a r e n e t , r e l a t e d t o one a n o th e r . In any s o c i e t y , k in d r e d s n e c e s s a r i l y o v e r l a p one a n o th e r e n d l e s s l y . They a r e n o t d i s c r e t e u n i t s ; a s o c i e t y can n e v e r be d i v i ded i n t o s e p a r a t e k in d re d s a s i t can be segm ented in t o d i s c r e t e f a m i l i e s , l i n e a g e s , c l a n s , o r com m unit ie s . From th e p o i n t o f v iew o f t h e c o re i n d i v i d u a l o r s i b l i n g s h i p , t h e memb e r s h ip o f t h e k in d re d can be d e f in e d in te rm s t o s e r i a l l i n k s o f f i l i a t i o n p roduced by t h e r a m i fy in g i n t e r s e c t i o n o f fam il i e s o f p r o c r e a t i o n and o r i e n t a t i o n . The membership can n o t be d e f in e d , how ever, i n l i n e a l te rm s by d e s c e n t from a common an c e s t o r . A k in d r e d t h e r e f o r e i s n o t , and can n o t b e , a d e s c e n t g ro u p . . .

"Because o f i t s l a c k o f d i s c r e t n e s s a k in d re d can n o t be a c o r p o r a t e g r o u p . . . " ( I 9 6 0 b : l )

In c o n t r a s t , I s u g g e s t t h a t t h e Pam pangan's f i c t i v e k in d re d co u ld

be b o th d i s c r e t e and c o r p o r a t e .


RESOURCES

ABAYA, H. J .1967 The U n to ld P h i l i p p i n e S to ry . Malaya Books:Quezon C i ty .

AVERCH, H. , e t . a l .1972 E x p la in in g D is s id e n t S uccess :T he Huks i n C e n t r a l Luzon.

The RAND C o rp :S a n ta M onica, C a l i f . (P-*+75*+/Jan)1971 The M a tr ix o f P o l i c y in t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . P r in c e to n U ni

v e r s i t y P re s s :N e v J e r s e y .1970a A C r i s i s o f A m b ig u i ty :P o l i t i c a l and Economic Development

in t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . The RAND C o rp :S a n ta M onica, C a l i f . (H-1+73-AID)

1970b The Huk r e b e l l i o n in t h e P h i l i p p i n e s Q u a n t i t a t i v e Approa c h e s . The RAND C o rp :S an ta M onica, C a l i f . (RM-625*+-ARPA/ Aug)

BENDA, H. J . , and J . A. L a rk in1967 The World o f S o u th e a s t A s i a : S e l e c t e d H i s t o r i c a l R eadings

H arper and Row:New York.

BUSS, C. A.196k A s ia i n t h e Modern World. The M acm illan Co:New York.

CAMPBELL, A.1970 Unbind Your Sons. L iv e r ig h t Pub. Co:New York.

CARROLL, J . J . , e t • a l •1970 P h i l i p p i n e I n s t i t u t i o n s . S o l id a r id a d Pub. H ouse :M anila .

CLARKn .d . C la rk A ir B ase , R epub lic o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s : A i r L o g is

t i c s Hub o f S o u th e a s t A s ia . P r i n t e d by t h e 636t h Combat S upport Group In fo rm a t io n O f f i c e , C la rk A ir Base, Pampanga .

de l a COSTA, H.1967 A s ia and t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . S o l id a r id a d Pub. H ouse :M anila .

d e l a PINA, A.n . d . P e r s o n a l c o r re sp o n d e n c e d u r in g 197*+ w i th r e s i d e n t o f

A ngeles C i t y .

DOW, M. W.1966 N a t io n B u i ld in g i n S o u th e a s t A s ia . P r u e t t P re s s :C o lo ra d o


58

DWYER, D. 1970

EASTON, D. 1965

ESPENSHADE1970

FOX, R. B. 1970

FRIEND, T. 196p

GALANG, R. 19^0

GOODE, W. 1969

GREENFIELD1969

HALL, D. G 1968

HARDIE, R. 1951

HARDIN, G. 1966

" I r r i g a t i o n and Land Problem s in t b e C e n t r a l P l a i n o f Luzon." IN: Economic Geography: S e le c te d R ead ings , ed . by F . E. Dohrs and L. M. Sommers. Thomas Y. Crow ell:N ev York.

A Framework f o r P o l i t i c a l A n a ly s is . P r e n t i c e - H a l l :New J e r s e y .

, JR. , E. B. , ed.Goode' s World A t l a s . Rand McNally and Co: C h icago .

" P r e h i s t o r i c F o u n d a tio n s o f Contemporary F i l i p i n o C u l t u r e and S o c i e t y . " IN: Readings o f P h i l i p p i n e C u l tu r e and S o c ia l L i f e , by Amparo S. L a r d i s a b a l , e t . a l . Rex Book S to re :M a n i la .

Between Two Em pires . Yale U n iv e r s i t y P r e s s .

E.E th n o g rap h ic S tudy o f th e Pampangans. U npub lished M.A. T h e s is f o r t h e U n iv e r s i t y o f Chicago; a l s o f o r t h e N atu r a l H i s to r y Museum D iv i s io n , Departm ent o f A g r i c u l t u r e and Commerce, M an ila .

"Changes i n Fam ily P a t t e r n s . " IN: The F am ily and Change, ed . by John N. E dw ards ., A lf r e d A. Knopf:New York.

, S. M." I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n and t h e Fam ily i n S o c io lo g ic a l Theo r y . " IN: The Fam ily and Change, ed . by John N. Edwards, A l f r e d A. Knopf:New York.

E.A H is to r y o f S o u th -E a s t A s ia . M acm illan /S t M a r t i n 's P ress:N ew York.

S.P h i l i p p i n e Land Tenure R efo rm :A na lys is and Recommendat i o n . M an ila :U .S . S p e c i a l T e c h n ic a l and Economic M issio n t o t h e P h i l i p p in e s ( O c to b e r 23 , 1951)*

B i o l o g y : I t s P r i n c i p l e s and I m p l i c a t io n s . W. H. Freeman and Co:San F r a n c i s c o .


59

HARRISON,1966

HARTENDORP1967a1967b

HENSON, M. 1965

19^ 8a

19^8b

HOEKSEMA,1957

HOWARD, J.1965

HUNTER, G. 1969

JACOBY, E. 1961

JAVILLONAR1969

KAPLAN, P. 1971+

KERKVLIET,1973

S o u th -E a s t A sia :A S hort H is to r y . M acm illan /S t M a r t i n 's P ress:N ew York.

, A. V. H.The O ccu p a t io n o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , Volume One, andThe O ccupa t ion o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , Volume Tvo. Bookmark:M anila .

The P ro v in c e o f Pampanga and I t s Towns, k t h ed . by t h e a u t h o r , A nge les C i t y , Pampanga.The Hensons o f Pampanga. by t h e A u th o r , A ngeles C i ty , Pampanga.A B r i e f H i s to r y o f t h e Town o f A ngeles i n t h e P ro v in ce o f Pampanga. Ing K a tiw a la P re s s :S a n F e rn an d o , Pampanga.

I • L •Communism in t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , a H i s t o r i c a l and A n a ly t i c a l S tudy o f Communism and t h e Communist P a r t y in th e P h i l i p p i n e s and i t s R e la t i o n s t o Communist Movements Abroad. An u n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l t h e s i s s u b m it te d to t h e D epartm ent o f Government, H arvard .

T . , e t . a l .S o c ie ty and C u l tu r e in R ura l P h i l i p p i n e s . C e n t r a l P h i l i p p i n e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

M odern iz ing P e a s a n t S o c i e t i e s . Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s : New York.

H.A g ra r ia n U n re s t in S o u th e a s t A s ia . A sia Pub. House:New York.

, G. V . , and G. R. P e t e r sS o c i o l o g i c a l and S o c ia l -P sy c h o lo g o c a l a s p e c t s o f In d ia n E n t r e p r e n e u r s h ip . Paper p r e s e n te d a t t h e 1969 Annual M eeting o f t h e R u ra l S o c io l o g ic a l S o c i e ty , San F ra n c is c o .

F . , and C. H. Huang"Achievement O r i e n t a t i o n Of Sm all I n d u s t r i a l E n t r e p r e n e u r s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . " IN: Human O r g a n iz a t io n , Vol. 33 , No. 2 , Summer 197^ , pp. 173-182 .

B. J." C r i t i q u e o f t h e RAND Study on t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . " IN : The J o u r n a l o f A s ian S t u d i e s , V ol. 32, No. 3 , May, pp . ^89- 500.


60

LACHICA, E.1971 The K u k s :P h i l ip p in e A g ra r ia n S o c ie ty i n R e v o l t . P ra e g e r :

New York.

LARKIN, J . A.1972 The Pampangans. U n i v e r s i t y c f C a l i f o r n i a : B e r k l e y .

LIAO, S. S. C.196U C hinese P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n P h i l i p p in e C u l tu r e and Economy.

U n i v e r s i t y o f t h e E a s t :M a n i la .

LOVEDAY, D. F.1971 The Role o f U.S. M i l i t a r y Bases in t h e P h i l i p p i n e Eco

nomy. The RAND C o rp :S a n ta Monica, C a l i f . (RM-58CI-ISA/A p r )

MANAHAN, M. P.1967 R ep o r t No. 1123, S e n a te Committee on D efense d e a l in g

w i th t h e s e c u r i t y p rob lem s posed by a r e s u r g e n c e o f t h e Huk movement. R ep u b l ic o f th e P h i l i p p i n e s / A p r , 1 9 6 7 .

MEYER, M. W.1965 A D ip lo m atic H is to r y o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e R e p u b l ic . U n ive r

s i t y o f Hawaii P r e s s .

MILITARY LETTER1966 C o rrespondence o f 16 Aug 1966 from W. F . K ah ley , C o l . ,

USAF to a l l newcomers t o C la rk A ir B ase . (NOTE: S p e c ia l E n c lo s u re : "L ega l A dvice and A s s i s t a n c e . " )

MITCHELL, E. J .1969 The Huk R e b e l l io n in t h e P h i l i p p i n e s :An E conom etric

S tu d y . The RAND C o rp :S an ta Monica, C A l i f . (RM-5757-ARPA/ J a n )

MURDOCK, G. P.1960a S o c i a l S t u r c t u r e . The Macmillan Co:New York.1960b S o c ia l S t r u c t u r e in S o u th e a s t A s ia , ( e d . ) T r a v i s t o c k

P u b ‘.London.

NELSON, R.1968 The P h i l i p p i n e s . Walker and Co:New York.

POETHIG, R. P.1971 "The P h i l i p p i n e Urban F am ily ." IN: A c c u l t u r a t i o n i n th e

P h i l i p p i n e s : E s s a y s on Changing S o c i e t i e s , ed . by P e te rG. Gowing and W ill iam Henry S c o t t . New Day P ub :M an ila .


6l

QUIAMBO, J . S.1970 "The F i l i p i n o Fam ily and S o c i e t y . " IK: H eadings on

P h i l i p p i n e C u l tu r e and S o c i a l L i f e , by Amparo S. L a r d i s a b a l , e t . a l . Rex Book S to re :M a n i la .

STURTEVANT, D. R.1969 A g ra r ia n U n res t i n th e P h i l i p p i n e s . Ohio U n iv e r s i t y

C e n te r .

TAYLOR, G. E.I 96L The P h i l i p p i n e s and t h e U n i te d S ta te s :P r o b le m s o f P a r t

n e r s h ip . F r e d e r i c k A. P raeger:N ew York.

VOK LAUE, M.1950 H is to ry o f P h y s ic s . Academic P ress:N ew York.

VON OPPENFELD, J . , e t . a l .I960 Case S tu d ie s o f Farm F a m i l i e s i n Laguna P ro v in c e ,

P h i l i p p i n e s . U n iv e r s i t y o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s : Laguna.


A Family Affair: Pampangan Hukism

Documents

Transcript of A Family Affair: Pampangan Hukism