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Article 33

The majority of master’s level counseling studentscontinue to be White European American (Arredondo,1998). Research findings have suggested that membersof this majority group are both less knowledgeableabout multicultural issues and less multiculturally awarethan minority group members (Yeh & Arora, 2003).The emergence of multiculturalism as the fourth forcemandates counselor education programs to movebeyond a monocultural view to a multicultural one. Asingle class in multicultural issues, taught by oneprofessor, is simply not adequate (Whitfield, 1994).Since the internship plays such a critical role in assistingstudents to integrate awareness, knowledge, and skillsinto practice, it is the ideal environment to infusecounselor development with a thoughtful andintentional focus on multiculturalism.

Arredondo and Arciniega (2001) argued thatcounseling programs need to reframe themselves intolearning organizations that respond to environmentalchanges by challenging and changing existing norms.A learning organization is characterized as one thatdevelops an ability to question, challenge, and changeoperating norms and assumptions. Given the fact thatthe U.S. population is becoming more diverse culturally,ethnically, and racially, counselor education programsare ethically bound to prepare their students for thepopulations they will serve. The American CounselingAssociation’s (1995) Code of Ethics as follows:

Counselors will actively attempt tounderstand the diverse cultural backgroundsof the clients with whom they work. Thisincludes, but is not limited to, learning howthe counselor’s own cultural/racial/ethnicidentity impacts her/his values and beliefsabout the counseling process. (A.2.b)

The internship year provides counselor educatorswith the opportunity to assist future counselingprofessionals in a pivotal stage of development. A freshperspective is needed that incorporates the recognition

The Need to Infuse Multicultural Competence Into a Master’s LevelCommunity Counseling Internship

Edward P. Cannon

of an increasingly diverse society with the need forcounselor education programs to prepare interns for thechallenges they will face. This article presents arationale for conceptualizing the cognitivedevelopmental growth of students in a communitycounseling internship. It argues that the internshipshould incorporate the elements of a DeliberatePsychological Education model (DPE) (Sprinthall,1994) that has been infused with an intentional focuson multicultural competence. The DPE is designed toallow interns to experience an environment that, whilechallenging, allows for adequate support and reflectionas they navigate new roles.

Constantine and Ladany (2000) suggested theneed for a broader conceptualization of the constructof multicultural competence. In order for trainingprograms to achieve their objective of creatingculturally competent counselors, there needs to be aframework for conceptualizing this goal. The authorsproposed that multicultural counseling competenceconsists of six dimensions or competencies: (a) self-awareness; (b) general multicultural knowledge; (c)multicultural counseling self-efficacy; (d) ability tounderstand unique client variables; (e) effectivecounseling alliance; and (f) multicultural counselingskills. According to the authors, the level of acounselor’s overall multicultural counselingcompetence can be determined by identifying what levelhas been achieved by the counselor in each dimension.In their description of the philosophy underlyingmulticultural competence, Arredondo and Arciniega(2001) stated,

All counseling is multicultural in nature;sociopolitical and historical forces influencethe culture of counseling beliefs, values, andpractices, and the worldview of clients andcounselors; and ethnicity, culture, race,language, and other dimensions of diversityneed to be factored into counselorpreparation and practice. (p. 266)

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Multicultural competence should focus not solelyon race issues but on multiple social identities thatintersect with individuals, organizations, and society.These other identities include, but are not limited to,gender, ethnicity, religious affiliation, sexualorientation, ability status, and socioeconomic status.

Most multicultural courses in counseling aretaught from a traditional perspective of focusing onspecific minority groups. They do not provide a holisticframework that is united throughout the curriculum withan intentional focus on difference, power, andoppression. Choudhuri (2003) found that studentsconsistently stated that “the traditional approach hastaught them how to stereotype minorities as well asmajority culture students; keep the issues of diversityat a superficial, intellectual level; and not have to dealwith or explore their own issues of power anddiscrimination” (p. 25). Clearly, traditional instructionmethods are not adequately helping students resolveissues of unearned privilege, nor are they effectivelyengaging students at both an intellectual and affectivelevel.

Cognitive developmental theory may holdpromise as a framework for both clinical preparationand multicultural competence, while promotingdevelopment in counselor interns. A body of researchhas indicated that effective counselor behaviors areassociated with higher levels of cognitive developmentin several domains (Brendel, Kolbert, & Foster, 2002).Promotion of cognitive development is called for byresearchers and counselor educators because researchhas indicated that successful counselor behaviors andfunctioning is predicted by higher levels of cognitivedevelopment (Brendel et al., 2002; Lovell, 1999;Sprinthall, 1994).

Individuals functioning at higher levels ofcognitive development “increase the availability ofmultiple alternatives in evaluation and behavior,responding more relativistically and lessdichotomously” (Holloway & Wampold, 1986, p. 311).The evolution of effective interventions for nurturingcounselor growth and development during preparationis detailed in the research literature on developmentalsupervision and counselor development. Despite this,there is a paucity of research that specifically addressesthe need for higher levels of cognitive development ininterns who must navigate the complexity of a diversesociety while exhibiting multicultural competence inpractice.

Developmental approaches to supervision focuson how supervisees change as they gain training andsupervised experience (Bernard & Goodyear, 1998).Most of these approaches, however, do not highlightindividual cultural differences as a domain of clinical

training and practice. The model of counselordevelopment proposed by Stoltenberg and Delworth(1987) uses cognitive developmental theory to tracechanges in trainee empathy toward clients of diverseorigins. In this model, the trainee is described asprogressing from stereotypic thinking and a limitedawareness of personal prejudices to increasedawareness, and a view of the client as an individualand person-in-context. One major limitation is that theauthors have not provided specific strategies forincreasing trainees’ multicultural competence.

Preparing master’s level counseling students forpractice is a complex and important task. The internshipyear is especially significant, and is arguably theexperience that lays the foundation for the rest of thestudent’s counseling career. The focus on skillacquisition, the importance of theory, and the use ofsupervision as a form of counseling and psychotherapyhas been documented in the literature. Counseloreducation programs expose the student to a variety ofcounseling theories, and the student must be able tofind the theory that suits him or her. However, traditionaltheories have been criticized for their “perpetuation ofculture-bound value systems that contradict the valuesystems of many clients” (Hill, 2003, p. 45).

The internship year provides counselor educatorswith the opportunity to assist future counselingprofessionals in a pivotal stage of development. Blocher(1983) proposed a cognitive developmental frameworkto assist the intern as he or she navigates early clinicalpractice. According to Sprinthall (1994), “at thegraduate level there is an urgent need for programs tofocus on a developmental model” (p. 97). Barber (1963,cited in Rest & Narvaez, 1994) described a professionalas one who is in a line of work having a high degree ofgeneralized, systematic knowledge, who is oriented tocommunity interest rather than self-interest, and whohas a high degree of self-control and self-monitoringof their behavior with that behavior being regulated bya professional code of ethics. Rest and Narvaez (1994)used the term professional to refer to those with specialexpertise in the work setting “in which there is somediscretion for action involving moral judgment” (p. xi).Professional counselors must exhibit impulse control,self-discipline, ego strength, and the ability to regulatetheir emotions and behavior.

Review of the Literature

Hill (2003) challenged counselor educators whotrain master’s level students to be at the forefront ofdeveloping multicultural counseling competencies.Competencies are defined as a framework for guidingcounselor education programs and a framework for

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articulating the rationale for counselor educators toinvest in promoting multicultural competence. Theliterature has described three characteristics ofmulticultural competence: counselor awareness of owncultural values and biases, counselor awareness of clientworldview, and culturally appropriate interventions(Holcomb-McCoy & Myers, 1999).

Results of a national survey indicated thatcounselor trainees had low levels of multiculturalcompetence (Holcomb-McCoy & Myers, 1999).Steward, Boatwright, Sauer, Baden, and Jackson (1998)reported that 33% of counselor trainees they surveyedhad negative reactions to discussions and guest speakersthat focused on multicultural issues. A variety of factorshinder the integration of multicultural counseling intocounselor education programs. These include negativeattitudes of counselor trainees, lack of knowledge andtraining by supervisors, and the general perception thatrather than being a philosophical shift to culturalempathy as part of the counseling process,multiculturalism is just an afterthought (Hill, 2003).

Thoma and Rest (1986) asserted that there is acorrelation between level of moral development andmoral action. Given the climate that today’s counselingstudents will soon be entering, counselor educationprograms have a responsibility to prepare interns forthe challenges they will face. Predominately Whitecounseling interns will serve predominately non-Whiteclients as they begin practice (Arredondo, 1998). Thiscultural mismatch, with all its overt and covert powerdifferentials, is clear and has profound implications forpractice. Blum (2002) found that Whites at higher levelsof moral development are better able to recognize andtake responsibility for White privilege and respond tothe disadvantaged with empathy. Promoting moraldevelopment enhances the ability of counselors toadvocate for social and community change, as well asto promote change and development in their clients(Hayes, 1991).

Evans and Foster (2000) investigated the degreeto which multicultural training impacts moral reasoningand racial identity development in White counselingstudents. The authors cited the internal confrontationof attitudes, behaviors, and values regarding race ascentral to the moral dilemmas that students face. Theirstudy investigated whether the level of moraldevelopment is related to a student’s racial identitystatus level. Respondents were 68 White students inmaster’s and educational specialist programs incounselor education. To measure moral reasoning,the Defining Issues Test (DIT; Rest, 1986) short versionwas administered to each participant, and to measureracial identity development, the White Racial IdentityAttitude Scale (WRIAS) was used. Results showed that

there was no significant relationship between Whiteracial identity and moral development scores of theparticipants. The study did find that students with moremulticultural training tended to score higher on the mostpositive status level of racial identity.

Although multicultural training seems to behelpful in changing attitudes toward racial groups, itdoes not seem to promote the cognitive complexityneeded for moral development. The authors assertedthat a missing component of this training is the use ofthe dilemma discussion method, which provides“concentrated practice in moral problem solving,stimulated by peer give and take” (Evans & Foster,2000, p. 79). The authors asserted the need forconcentrated practice in dilemma discussions and activeproblem solving during multicultural training,components lacking in traditional programs.

Brendel, Kolbert, and Foster (2002) conducted alongitudinal study of 30 graduate counseling studentsto examine developmental change that occurred duringtheir counselor preparation program. The programunder study incorporated elements of the DeliberatePsychological Education (DPE) model, and theresearchers measured moral reasoning and cognitivecomplexity at three different points over 2 years. Levelof moral reasoning was assessed by the DIT shortversion, and level of cognitive complexity was assessedby the Paragraph Completion Method (PCM), asemiprojective method designed to assess conceptuallevel (Hunt, Butler, Noy, & Rosser, 1978). Test-retestreliability for the DIT ranges from .70 to .80, andinternal consistency reliability is between .70 and .80.For the PCM, concurrent validity was reported in the.20-.30 range when correlated with intelligence tests,and at .40 when correlated with the Kohlberg MoralMaturity Scale. With trained raters, the interraterreliability from 26 studies was reported as median r of.86 (Hunt et al., 1978). There is sufficient evidence ofboth reliability and validity for the PCM to be used forresearch purposes.

The study’s results showed that cognitivecomplexity in counselor trainees did not increase untilafter internship had been completed. The DIT meansincreased, but these changes were not significant.Brendel et al. (2002) asserted that the lack of significantincreases in principled reasoning among the studentswas contrary to expectations from the empiricalliterature on DPE interventions. The authors describedas troubling the failure of the academic program toproduce significant increases in moral development.These findings suggested that counselor educationstudents would have trouble grasping the ethicalprinciples of the dilemmas often confronted inprofessional practice.

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One major limitation to this study was smallsample size. Other limitations included lack of a controlgroup and the fact that the study participants were fromone small university counseling program in thesoutheastern U.S. Strengths of this study included itslongitudinal design, and the relatively large effect sizefound (0.13) for gains in cognitive complexity. Theresearchers called for future studies to identify theessential educational components for promotingcognitive growth: “Studies are needed that combinevarious activities related to problem solving, social roletaking, and ethics... in the process of counseloreducation and then evaluate the various developmentaloutcomes” (Brendel et al., 2002, p. 21).

In a review of the development of multiculturalcounseling training, Abreu, Chung, and Atkinson (2000)described a growing consensus that an integrated modelis needed. The authors encouraged infusingmulticulturalism into a program’s entire curriculum, andasserted that approaches that balance experiential anddidactic components and that extend training intopracticum and fieldwork settings are needed. Torres,Ottens, and Johnson (1997) found empirical supportfor a variety of experiential activities that can infusemulticultural content into a curriculum. The researchersinterviewed multicultural counseling experts and ledfocus group discussions at three universities. Studyrespondents reported that experiential activities suchas conducting values clarification work throughdiscussion, writing cultural autobiographies, andjournaling were effective in promoting multiculturalcompetence. Pedersen (2000) recommended using casestudies during internship to facilitate trainees’consideration of how culturally relevant a particularintervention is for a specific client.

In an exploratory study of 118 counseling graduatestudents, Carlson, Brack, Laygo, Cohen, and Kirkscey(1998) considered the relationship betweenmulticultural awareness, knowledge, and skills to theamount of training they had completed, whether or notthey had practicum experience, self-reported exposureto various multicultural activities, and overallconfidence in being a competent counselor.Multicultural competency was assessed using theMulticultural Awareness-Knowledge-Skills Survey(MAKSS) developed by D’Andrea, Daniels, and Heck(1990). Cronbach’s alpha for the subscales were .75for the awareness subscale, .90 for the knowledgesubscale, and .91 for the skills subscale. The authorsreported that they established content validity bycomparing the training model objectives outlined byD’Andrea et al. (1990) to another instrument designedto measure the same construct of awareness.Unfortunately, the authors of this study did not cite thename of this instrument.

To test the relationship of students’ perceivedmulticultural awareness, knowledge, and skills toprogression through a graduate program, students weredivided into three groups, based on the number ofgraduate hours completed. The researchers conducteda MANOVA on the group means of the MAKSSsubscales, and Wilk’s lambda revealed no significantdifferences between the groups’ means on the threesubscales. The results of this study showed that therewas a general positive trend in the awareness,knowledge, and skills of the students as they progressedthrough their program. Further, the results showed thatstudents who had client contact, as well as students whoexperienced a multicultural activity, perceivedthemselves to be more multiculturally competent.

This exploratory study argued for counseloreducators to consider the importance of not only thedevelopment of multicultural awareness, knowledge,and skills in students but also the need for a curriculumthat directly addresses issues of diversity in anexperiential fashion. Information regarding specificclient populations, and specific strategies for workingwith them, are necessary, but not sufficient componentsof exemplary counselor training programs. Limitationsto this study included its small sample size from oneuniversity, as well as its cross-sectional nature, thuslimiting generalizability. As a self-report measure, theMAKSS is prone to social desirability confounds, andas a general assessment tool it does not address students’awareness, knowledge, and skills in working withspecific client populations.

From the literature it is evident that trainingprograms are heeding the call to increase theirunderstanding of multicultural competence, but clearlythey are not doing enough to adequately prepareprofessionals. Allison, Echemendia, Crawford, andRobinson (1996) mailed 600 surveys to recent PhDs incounseling and clinical psychology to examine trainingand work experience with clients from diverse groups.A 48-item questionnaire was mailed to participantsselected from APA members in current practice, andthe survey instrument asked respondents to provideinformation about their demographic backgrounds,training experiences, current employment, clientpopulations, and treatment strategies. Respondents,90% of whom were White, were asked to rate theircompetence to provide counseling services to variousgroups, defined by ethnicity, race, gender, sexualorientation, economic disadvantage, and ability status.

The authors used regression analysis to predictrespondents’ self-ratings of competence to providecounseling services to the various cultural groups.Findings indicated that there is a considerable range ofself-reported competence in providing counseling todifferent client groups. Not surprisingly, respondents

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overwhelmingly reported competence when workingwith White clients, followed by women and individualswho face economic disadvantage. Respondents reportedthe least competence in working with Native Americans,African Americans, and gay men and lesbians. Thenumber of cases during training (i.e., practicum orinternship) with members of specific cultural groupswas a significant predictor of competence for work laterwith those same groups. The authors presented awarning to training programs that the discrepanciesamong ratings of self-perceived competence mean thatprograms have not been effective in adequately raisingcounselors’ sense of multicultural competence.

Limitations to this study included its cross-sectional nature, which may limit respondents’ recallof training experiences and may diminish causallinkages between training experiences and currentmulticultural competence. Also, the researchersdescribed their instrument as relatively new, but basedon sound literature review and review by professionalsfrom the America Psychological Association’s Officeof Demography, Education, and Employment Research.Neither validity nor reliability statistics were providedby the researchers. Because the instrument does nothave the benefit of ample investigation, results shouldbe interpreted with caution. The authors concluded bycalling for training programs to expose students todifferent types of educational experiences as well asdifferent means of evaluating multicultural competence.

Theoretical Framework

Cognitive developmental theory provides aframework for conceptualizing how master’s levelcommunity counseling interns make sense of theirexperience by utilizing varying levels of problemsolving, thinking, and moral reasoning. As part of theintricate process called counseling, the intern mustassume multiple perspectives in order to empathize withindividuals having different worldviews. Therelationship between cognitive developmental stage andthe complex behaviors required of individuals in thehelping professions has been well documented in theliterature (Brendel et al., 2002; Foster & McAdams,1998). Higher levels of cognitive development areassociated with successful counseling behaviors andfunctioning, including more flexibility, more autonomyand independence, and higher levels of empathy. Higherlevels of cognitive development have also been linkedto reductions in prejudice and stereotypical thinking(Evans & Foster, 2000).

Cognitive developmental theory is concerned withthe psychological and cognitive processes that occurwith the changes in mental structure that evolve over

the life span (Sprinthall, 1994). The human cognitivestructure and the various ways in which its growth andmental structures can be enhanced have beendocumented by such theorists as Dewey, Piaget,Kohlberg, and Loevinger. Dewey (1963) believed thatthe goal of education should be development. Adequatestimulation is the hallmark of psychological growth anddevelopment. In other words, development will notoccur unless an individual is confronted with the realitythat their way of making meaning is no longer sufficient.During this process, individuals require support as theynavigate their new understanding of the world.

The need for adequate challenge, along withsupport, comprises the core of the proposed changes inthe traditional community counseling internshipand reflects elements of the DPE model infusedwith multicultural knowledge and awareness. Fiveconditions necessary for an effective DPE have beenidentified by Sprinthall (1994) and include a significantrole-taking experience, guided reflection concerning therole-taking experience, a balance of action andreflection during the experience, support and challengeduring the process, and continuity with a continuousinterplay between role taking, action, and reflection.

Conclusion

This article proposes a new approach to internshipsupervision, guided by the literature as well as by ACAand CACREP standards. This new approach employsan integrative framework using the DPE model, is basedon cognitive developmental theory, and utilizesmulticultural competence as its overarching rationale.A major difference between the proposed internship andthe traditional internship can be found in the groundingprinciples for the systemic use of the multiculturalcounseling competencies (Arredondo & Arciniega,2001). These principles lead to strategies and techniquesfor counselor training based on cultural competencyfound in the literature. Specifically, within the threedomains of cultural competence (counselor awarenessof own bias, counselor awareness of client worldview,and culturally appropriate intervention strategies) areexpectations about general competence regardingcounselor attitudes, beliefs, and skills, along withstrategies for their implementation.

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