Nota Bab 2 Locomotion and Support Part 1

8/7/2019 Nota Bab 2 Locomotion and Support Part 1

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SEKOLAH MENENGAH KEBANGSAAN PERMAS JAYA

PREPARED BY :PREPARED BY :--

AZAM SENSEIAZAM SENSEI


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CONCEPT MAP OF CHAPTER 2CONCEPT MAP OF CHAPTER 2

LOCOMOTION & SUPPORT

LOCOMOTION & SUPPORT IN

HUMANS & ANIMALSSUPPORT IN PLANTS

TYPES OF

SKELETON

Muscles, ligaments

& tendon LOCOMOTION AQUATIC PLANTSTERRESTRIAL

PLANTS

Birds

Hydrostatic skeleton

Exoskeleton

Endoskeleton

Fish

Axial skeletonAppendicular

skeleton

Grasshopper

Earthworms


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The Necessity for Support &The Necessity for Support &

Locomotion in Humans & AnimalsLocomotion in Humans & Animals

WHY DO HUMANS & ANIMALSWHY DO HUMANS & ANIMALSNEED SUPPORT?NEED SUPPORT?

1.1. To find the foodTo find the food2.2. To find partner for matingTo find partner for mating

3.3. To protect/escape from theirTo protect/escape from theirpredatorpredator

4.4. To shelter from bad environmentTo shelter from bad environment


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Locomotion in Humans & AnimalsLocomotion in Humans & Animals Without support, animals & humansWithout support, animals & humanswould not be able tomaintain their bodywould not be able tomaintain their bodyshapeshape their body collapse under thetheir body collapse under the

weight of theirown tissues.weight of theirown tissues.

Support are provided by some formofSupport are provided by some formof

skeletonskeleton..Hydrostatic skeletonHydrostatic skeleton

ExoskeletonExoskeleton

endoskeletonendoskeleton


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HYDROSTATIC SKELETONHYDROSTATIC SKELETON

AAfluidfluid--filled internal body cavityfilled internal body cavity ininwhich the fluid is held under pressurewhich the fluid is held under pressure maintaining the body shape & providingmaintaining the body shape & providing

support for internal organsupport for internal organ

The cavity is surrounded by musclesThe cavity is surrounded by muscles

arr

anged in layer

s.arr

anged in layer

s.

TheThe body shapebody shape of the animalof the animal changeschanges asasthese muscles contract & relax.these muscles contract & relax.


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The animals areThe animals are soft&flexiblesoft&flexible, the, the hydrostaticfluidhydrostaticfluid

does protect body parts bydoes protect body parts byactingasashockactingasashock

absorber.absorber.

Examples :Examples : earthworm, jellyfish,leech&caterpillar.earthworm, jellyfish,leech&caterpillar.


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EXOSKELETONEXOSKELETON Arigid outer covering usually made upArigid outer covering usually made upof protein,of protein, chitinschitins &/@ calcium salt.&/@ calcium salt.

InsectsInsects thethe cuticlecuticle (covered with wax(covered with waxto prevent water loss from the body),to prevent water loss from the body),cover the bodys surface.cover the bodys surface.

The exoskeleton isThe exoskeleton is jointed / hingedjointed / hinged ==certain points of the skeleton are flexiblecertain points of the skeleton are flexible& can bend& can bend enabling the movement.enabling the movement.


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Exoskeleton restrict the growth of animalsExoskeleton restrict the growth of animals thetheexoskeleton must be shed from time to time inexoskeleton must be shed from time to time in

order for the animal to grow. (order for the animal to grow. (ecdysisecdysis))

Also found in the shells ofAlso found in the shells ofmolluscsmolluscs & the bony& the bonyplates of tortoises.plates of tortoises.

Examples :Examples : insects, crabs, lobsters, tortoiseinsects, crabs, lobsters, tortoise


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ENDOSKELETONENDOSKELETON Found in the bodies of all vertebrates includingFound in the bodies of all vertebrates including

fish, amphibians & birds.fish, amphibians & birds.

Consist of hard skeleton ofConsist of hard skeleton ofbones & cartilagebones & cartilagefound insidefound inside the bodythe body made up of calcium &made up of calcium &phosphate.phosphate.

Works with the muscular system to performWorks with the muscular system to performmovement & locomotion. It support the body &movement & locomotion. It support the body &protects the organs.protects the organs.


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Locomotion in Humans & AnimalsLocomotion in Humans & Animals The functions of skeleton :The functions of skeleton :

Provide shape & supportProvide shape & supportEnables movement (locomotion)Enables movement (locomotion)

Protects internal organsProtects internal organs

Stor

es calcium

& phosphate i

onsSt

ores calciu

m& ph

osphate i

ons

Produces blood cellsProduces blood cells

A firm base for the attachment ofA firm base for the attachment ofmusclesmuscles


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Locomotion in Humans & AnimalsLocomotion in Humans & AnimalsProblems that could be faced by humans

and animals in support and locomotion, gravitationalforce,friction&resistancegravitationalforce,friction&resistancewhen movingwhen moving

aroundaround Aspect need to be considered when describing theAspect need to be considered when describing the

locomotion of an animal :locomotion of an animal :-- StabilityStability when it moves, it is temporarily unstable, butwhen it moves, it is temporarily unstable, but

its stability will be restored when it stops.its stability will be restored when it stops. SupportSupport must have enough support from its bodysmust have enough support from its bodys

skeletonskeleton

PropulsionPropulsion must be propelled in order to movemust be propelled in order to move


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HOW TO OVERCOME THEHOW TO OVERCOME THE

PROBLEMS?PROBLEMS?

RESISTANCE & FRICTIONRESISTANCE & FRICTION by streamliningby streamlining

their bodies.their bodies.

GRAVITATIONAL FORCEGRAVITATIONAL FORCE most animalsmost animals

have their own supporting structures (finshave their own supporting structures (fins

fishes, wingsfishes, wings birds & strong limbsbirds & strong limbs tetrapodstetrapods

& humans)& humans) provide the propulsive force toprovide the propulsive force toovercome the problemovercome the problem


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The skeletal system together with itsThe skeletal system together with itsmuscles are designed specially to overcomemuscles are designed specially to overcomethe problems associated with support &the problems associated with support &locomotion of humans & animals.locomotion of humans & animals.

To initiate locomotion, the force requiredTo initiate locomotion, the force required

is generated by contraction of muscles,is generated by contraction of muscles,whereas the movement is transmitted bywhereas the movement is transmitted bythe skeleton.the skeleton.


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FUNCTION OF THE SKELETONFUNCTION OF THE SKELETON

MOVEMENTMOVEMENT bones interact with thebones interact with the

skeletal muscle.skeletal muscle.

BLOOD CELL FORMATIONBLOOD CELL FORMATION most of themost of theblood cells are formed in the bone marrow ofblood cells are formed in the bone marrow of

the long bones.the long bones.

MINERAL STORAGEMINERAL STORAGE bones act as abones act as areservoir for calcium & phosphorus.reservoir for calcium & phosphorus.


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SKELETAL SYSTEMSKELETAL SYSTEM

HUMAN SKELETON

AXIAL SKELETON

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

SKULL VERTEBRAL COLUMN RIB CAGE PECTORAL GIRDLE

PELVIC GIRDLE

FORELIMB BONES

HINDLIMB BONES

CERVICAL

THORACIC

LUMBAR

SACRUM

COCCYX


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THE SKULLTHE SKULL

Made up ofMade up of8cranialbones8cranialbones&& 14facialbones14facialbonesincluding the upper jaw & the lower jaw.including the upper jaw & the lower jaw.

The facial bones also provide support &The facial bones also provide support &protect the entrances to the respiratoryprotect the entrances to the respiratory

system.system.


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SKULLSKULL

PARTSPARTS FUNCTIONSFUNCTIONS

8 Cranial bones8 Cranial bones Are fused to form immovable joints calledAre fused to form immovable joints called suturessutures..

Protect the brain & the sensory organs.Protect the brain & the sensory organs.

Eye socketsEye sockets to protect the eye ball.to protect the eye ball.

Nasal bonesNasal bones to support nose tissuesto support nose tissuesEar holesEar holes to protect inner part of earsto protect inner part of ears

Maxilla (upper jaw)Maxilla (upper jaw) to support upper teethto support upper teeth

Mandible (lower jaw)Mandible (lower jaw) to support lower teeth, to enable eating & talking.to support lower teeth, to enable eating & talking.


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VERTEBRAL COLUMNVERTEBRAL COLUMN Known as the spine/ backbone.Known as the spine/ backbone.

Extends from the base of the skull to the pelvicExtends from the base of the skull to the pelvicgirdle.girdle.

Made up ofMade up of33 vertebrae33 vertebrae separated from each otherseparated from each otherbyby discs of cartilage (intervertebral discs)discs of cartilage (intervertebral discs) whichwhichabsorb shocks & serve as flex point.absorb shocks & serve as flex point.

This SThis S--shaped column supports & balances the bodyshaped column supports & balances the bodyin a vertical plane & protects the spinal cord,in a vertical plane & protects the spinal cord,supports the skull & provides a base for thesupports the skull & provides a base for theattachment ofmuscles to the back.attachment ofmuscles to the back.


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VERTEBRAL COLUMNVERTEBRAL COLUMN

The vertebrae differ in structure & function inThe vertebrae differ in structure & function in

different regions of the vertebral column.different regions of the vertebral column.

A vertebra typically consists of a main body (theA vertebra typically consists of a main body (the

centrum), a neural arch & transverse processes.centrum), a neural arch & transverse processes.


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VERTEBRAL COLUMNVERTEBRAL COLUMN


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TYPES OF VERTEBRAETYPES OF VERTEBRAE

TYPE OFTYPE OF

VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE

POSITIONPOSITION NUMBER OFNUMBER OF

VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE

MAIN CHARACTERMAIN CHARACTER

CervicalCervical

VertebraVertebra

Below theBelow the

skullskull

77 11stst oneone atlasatlas

vertebravertebra

22ndnd axisaxis

vertebraevertebrae

Large neuralLarge neural

canal/vertebralcanal/vertebral

foramenforamen

Short neural spineShort neural spine

Flat centrumFlat centrum

Short transverseShort transverse

processesprocesses

Has a pair ofHas a pair of

vertebrarterialvertebrarterial

canalscanals


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CERVICAL VERTEBRACERVICAL VERTEBRA


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TYPE OFTYPE OF

VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE


VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE


ThoracicThoracic

VertebraVertebra

ThoraxThorax 1212 Neural canal/Neural canal/

vertebral foramenvertebral foramen

is smaller thanis smaller than

cervical vertebrascervical vertebras

Long neural spine/Long neural spine/

spinous processesspinous processes

(for attachment of(for attachment of

back muscle)back muscle)

Thick & big centrumThick & big centrum

Short transverseShort transverse

processesprocesses

THORACIC VERTEBRATHORACIC VERTEBRA


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THORACIC VERTEBRA (12)THORACIC VERTEBRA (12)


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LUMBAR VERTEBRALUMBAR VERTEBRA

TYPE OFTYPE OF

VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE


VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE


LumbarLumbar

VertebraVertebra

WaistWaist 55 small neural canal/small neural canal/

vertebral foramenvertebral foramen

short neural spineshort neural spine

thick & big centrumthick & big centrum

long transverselong transverseprocesses forprocesses for

muscle attachmentmuscle attachment


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LUMBAR VERTEBRALUMBAR VERTEBRA


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SACRUM & COCCYXSACRUM & COCCYXTYPE OFTYPE OF

VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE


VERTEBRAEVERTEBRAE


SacrumSacrum PelvicPelvic

regionregion

5 fused5 fused Vertebrae fused toVertebrae fused to

each othereach other

Has four pairs ofHas four pairs ofopeningsopenings

Triangular shapeTriangular shape

CoccyxCoccyx CaudalCaudal

regionregion

4 fused4 fused Bones fused to eachBones fused to each

other forming aother forming a

triangular shapetriangular shape

which tapers at onewhich tapers at one

endend


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SACRUM & COCCYXSACRUM & COCCYX


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The rib cage consistsThe rib cage consists

ofof 12 pairs12 pairs of ribsof ribswith thewith the thoracicthoracic

vertebraevertebrae at the backat the back

portion of the body &portion of the body &

join tojoin to the sternumthe sternumin the front portion.in the front portion.

Movement of the ribMovement of the rib

cage are broughtcage are brought

about by intercostalabout by intercostal

muscles between themuscles between the

ribs.ribs.

THE STERNUM & RIBSTHE STERNUM & RIBS


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Consist ofConsist of scapula &scapula &

clavicle.clavicle.

Links the upper limbsLinks the upper limbsbones to the axialbones to the axialskeleton.skeleton.

The scapula :The scapula : bound bybound bymuscles to the back of themuscles to the back of thethorax. It is a flat,thorax. It is a flat,

triangular bone whichtriangular bone whichprovides a surface for theprovides a surface for theattachment of muscles.attachment of muscles.

PECTORAL GIRDLEPECTORAL GIRDLE


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Consists of 6 fusedConsists of 6 fused

bonesbones support thesupport the

weight of the body fromweight of the body from

the vertebral column.the vertebral column.

Also protect theAlso protect the

internal organsinternal organs

urinary bladder &urinary bladder &

reproductive organs.reproductive organs.

Made up of two halves,Made up of two halves,

each consists of 3 boneseach consists of 3 bones

(ilium, pubis & ischium)(ilium, pubis & ischium)

PELVIC GIRDLEPELVIC GIRDLE


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TheThe tibia & fibulatibia & fibula ::

The bones of the lowerThe bones of the lower

leg.leg.

Support the shank.Support the shank.

TibiaTibia larger than fibulalarger than fibula

& is the weight& is the weight--bearingbearing

bone of the leg.bone of the leg.

FibulaFibula is a long & thinis a long & thin

bonebone not bear any loadnot bear any load

more importantmore important forfor

attachment of musclesattachment of muscles

than for support.than for support. Articulate with theArticulate with the

tarsalstarsals of the ankle.of the ankle.


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TheThe tarsalstarsals :: The 7 bones that form theThe 7 bones that form theankle.ankle.

TheThe metatarsalsmetatarsals :: The 5 rodThe 5 rod--shaped bonesshaped bonesthat form the foot.that form the foot.

TheThe phalangesphalanges :: The bones that form theThe bones that form thetoes.toes.

TheThe patella/kneecappatella/kneecap ::

A small rounded, movableA small rounded, movablebone.bone.

Protect the knee joint.Protect the knee joint.

Nota Bab 2 Locomotion and Support Part 1

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