Mesoamerican Civilization Pre

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Mesoamericancivilizationpre-Columbianepigraphy,Spanishconquistadores, Mayan Calendar

Yucatn Peninsulacity-states-The most notable monuments are thestepped pyramidsthey built

in their religious centers and the accompanying palaces of their rulers. The palace atCancunisthe largest in the Maya area, though the site, interestingly, lacks pyramids. Other important

archaeological remains include the carved stone slabs usually calledstelae(the Maya called

them tetun, or "tree-stones"), which depict rulers along with hieroglyphic texts describing theirgenealogy, military victories, and other accomplishments.[12]

The Maya civilization participated in long distancetradewith many of the other Mesoamericancultures, includingTeotihuacan, theZapotec, and other groups in central and gulf-coast Mexico,

as well as with more distant, non-Mesoamerican groups, for example theTanosin the

Caribbean. Archeologists have also found gold fromPanamain theSacred CenoteofChichen

Itza.[13]

Important trade goods includedcacao,salt,seashells,jade, andobsidian.

In terrestrial zoology, megafauna(Ancient Greekmegas "large" +New Latinfauna "animal") are large or

giant animals. The most common thresholds used are 45 kilograms (100 lb)[1][2]

or 100 kilograms

(220 lb).[2][3]

This thus includes many species not popularly thought of as overly large, such aswhite-tailed deerandred kangaroo, and evenhumans. allhierarchicalstatetemples

Notable constructions

Ceremonial platforms were commonly limestone platforms of typically less than fourmeters in height where public ceremonies and religious rites were performed.

Constructed in the fashion of a typical foundation platform, these were often accented by

carved figures, altars and perhapstzompantli, a stake used to display the heads of victimsor defeatedMesoamerican ballgameopponents.

Palaces were large and often highly decorated, and usually sat close to the center of acity and housed the population's elite. Any exceedingly large royal palace, or oneconsisting of many chambers on different levels might be referred to as an acropolis.

However, often these were one-story and consisted of many small chambers and typically

at least one interior courtyard; these structures appear to take into account the needed

functionality required of a residence, as well as the decoration required for theirinhabitants stature.

Detail of carving on right-hand (facing temple) wall of Mask Temple atLamanai
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"El Castillo" atXunantunich. It stand's at 132 ft. high

Frieze of "El Castillo" at Xunantunich

Main palace of Palenque, 7th Century AD

Governor's Palace rear view and details,10th Century ADUxmal

Codz Poop, 7th-10th Centuries ADKabah

E-Groupsare specific structural configurations present at a number of centers in theMaya area. These complexes are oriented and aligned according to specific astronomical

events (primarily the sun'ssolsticesandequinoxes) and are thought to have been

observatories. These structures are usually accompanied byiconographicreliefsthat tieastronomical observation into generalMaya mythology. The structural complex is named

for Group E atUaxactun, the first documented in Mesoamerica.
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Temple of the Cross atPalenque; there is an intricate roof comb andcorbeled arch

Pyramids and temples. Often the most important religious temples sat atop the toweringMaya pyramids, presumably as the closest place to the heavens. While recent discoveriespoint toward the extensive use of pyramids as tombs, the temples themselves seem to

rarely, if ever, contain burials. Residing atop the pyramids, some of over two-hundred

feet, such as that atEl Mirador, the temples were impressive and decorated structuresthemselves. Commonly topped with aroof comb, or superficial grandiose wall, these

temples might have served as a type of propaganda. As they were often the only structure

in a Maya city to exceed the height of the surrounding jungle, the roof combs atop thetemples were often carved with representations of rulers that could be seen from vast

distances.

Observatories. The Maya were keen astronomers and had mapped out the phases ofcelestial objects, especially the Moon andVenus. Many temples have doorways and otherfeatures aligning to celestial events. Round temples, often dedicated toKukulcan, are

perhaps those most often described as "observatories" by modern ruin tour-guides, but

there is no evidence that they were so used exclusively, and temple pyramids of othershapes may well have been used for observation as well.

Ballcourts. As an integral aspect of the Mesoamerican lifestyle, the courts for their ritualball-game were constructed throughout the Maya realm and often on a grand scale.

Enclosed on two sides by stepped ramps that led to ceremonial platforms or smalltemples, the ballcourt itself was of a capital "I" shape and could be found in all but the

smallest of Maya cities.

The Mayawriting system(often calledhieroglyphsfrom a superficial resemblance to theAncientEgyptianwriting) was a combination ofphoneticsymbols andlogograms. It is most often classified as a

logographic or (more properly) a logosyllabicwriting system, in whichsyllabicsigns play a significant

role. It is the only writing system of the Pre-Columbian New World which is known to represent the

spoken language of its community. In total, the script has more than a thousand differentglyphs,

although a few are variations of the same sign or meaning, and many appear only rarely or are confined
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to particular localities. At any one time, no more than around 500 glyphs were in use, some 200 of which

(including variations) had a phonetic or syllabic interpretation.Olmecs.

See also:Agriculture in Mesoamerica

The ancient Maya had diverse and sophisticated methods of food production. It was formerlybelieved thatshifting cultivation(swidden) agriculture provided most of their food but it is now

thought that permanentraised fields,terracing,forest gardens, managed fallows, and wildharvesting were also crucial to supporting the large populations of the Classic period in some

areas. Indeed, evidence of these different agricultural systems persist today: raised fields

connected by canals can be seen on aerial photographs, contemporary rainforest speciescomposition has significantly higher abundance of species of economic value to ancient Maya,

and pollen records in lakesedimentssuggest that corn, manioc,sunflower seeds, cotton, and

other crops have been cultivated in association with thedeforestationin Mesoamerica since at

least 2500 BC.

False-colorIKONOSimage of a bajo (lowland area) in Guatemala. The forest covering sites ofMaya ruins appears yellowish, as opposed to the red color of surrounding forest. The more

sparsely vegetated bajos appear blue-green.

ContemporaryMaya peoplesstill practice many of these traditional forms of agriculture,although they are dynamic systems and change with changing population pressures, cultures,

economic systems, climate change, and the availability of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.

At the time ofColumbus' arrival in 1492, there were five Tano chiefdoms and territories on

Hispaniola(modern dayHaitiandDominican Republic), each led by a principalCacique(chieftain), to whom tribute was paid.Puerto Ricoalso was divided into chiefdoms. As the

hereditary head chief of Tano tribes, the cacique was paid significant tribute. Caciques enjoyed

the privilege of wearing golden pendants calledguanin, living in square bohos instead of theround ones that the villagers inhabited, and sitting on wooden stools when receiving guests. At

the time of theSpanish conquest, the largest Tano population centers may have contained over

3,000 people each.[citation needed]
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The Tanos were historically enemies of the neighboringCaribtribes, another group with origins

in South America who lived principally in the Lesser Antilles.[2]

The relationship between the

two groups has been the subject of much study. For much of the 15th century, the Tano tribewas being driven to the northeast in the Caribbean (out of what is now South America) because

of raids by Caribs. Many Carib women spoke Tano because of the large number of female Tano

captives among them.

[3]

By the 18th century, Tano society had been devastated by introduceddiseasessuch assmallpox,

as well as other factors such asintermarriagesandforced assimilationinto the plantationeconomy thatSpainimposed in its Caribbean colonies, with its subsequent importation of

Africanslaveworkers. The first recorded smallpox outbreak inHispaniolaoccurred in December

1518 or January 1519.[4]

It is argued that there was substantialmestizaje(racial and cultural

mixing) as well as several Indian pueblos that survived into the 19th century inCuba.

TheSpaniardswho first arrived in the Bahamas, Cuba, and Hispaniola in 1492, and later in

Puerto Rico, did not bring women. They took Tano women for their wives, which resulted in

mestizochildren.

[5]

The Tano people, or Tano culture, has been classified by some authorities as belonging to theArawaks. Indeed, ethnohistorianDaniel Garrison Brintoncalled the same group of people

"Island Arawak" from the Arawakan word forcassavaflour, a staple of the people. From this, the

language and the people were eventually called "Arawak". However, modern scholars considerthis a mistake. The people who called themselves Arawak lived only inGuyanaandTrinidadand

their language and culture differ from those of the Tano.

Throughout time these terms have been used interchangeably by writers, travelers, historians,

linguists, and anthropologists. Tano has been used to mean the Greater Antillean tribes only,

those plus the Bahamian tribes, those and the Leeward Islands tribes, or all those excluding thePuerto Rican and Leeward tribes. Island Tano has been used to refer to those living in theWindward Islands only, those in the northern Caribbean only, or those living in any of the

islands. Modern historians, linguists and anthropologists now hold that the term Tano should

refer to all the Tano/Arawak tribes except for theCaribs. The Caribs are not seen byanthropologists or historians as being the same people, although linguists are still debating

whether the Carib language is an Arawakandialectorcreole languageor perhaps an individual

language, with an Arawakanpidginoften used to communicate.

Rouse classifies all inhabitants of the Greater Antilles (except the western tip of Cuba), the

Bahamian archipelago, and the northern Lesser Antilles as Tanos. He subdivides Tanos intothree main groups: Classic Tano, mostly from Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic;

Western Tano or sub-Tano, from Jamaica, Cuba (except for the western tip) and the Bahamian

archipelago; and Eastern Tano, from theVirgin IslandstoMontserrat.

Tanos lived in amatrilinealsociety. ome Tano practicedpolygamyTano society was divided

into two classes: naborias (commoners) and nitanos (nobles). These were governed by chiefsknown as caciques (who were either male or female), who were advised by priests/healers
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known as bohiques.[8]

Bohiques were extolled for their healing powers and ability to speak with

gods and as a result, they granted Tanos permission to engage in important tasks.

Tanos lived in amatrilinealsociety. When a male heir was not present the inheritance or

succession would go to the oldest child (son or daughter) of the deceased's sister. The Tanos had

avunculocalpost-marital residence meaning a newly married couple lived in the household of thematernal uncle.

The Tanos were very experienced in agriculture and lived a mainly agrarian lifestyle but alsofished and hunted.Cottonandpalmwere used extensively for fishing nets and ropes. Their

dugoutcanoes(kanoa) were made in various sizes, which could hold from 2 to 150 people. An

average sized canoe would hold about 1520 people. For hunting they used bows and arrows,and sometimes put various poisons on their arrowheads. A frequently worn hair style featured

bangs in front and longer hair in back. They sometimes wore gold jewelry, paint, and/or shells.

Tano men sometimes wore short skirts. Tano women wore a similargarment(nagua) after

marriage. Some Tano practicedpolygamy. Men, and sometimes women, might have two or

three spouses, and it was noted that some caciques would even marry as many as 30 wives.

Tanos lived in metropolises calledyucayeques, which varied in size depending on the location;those in Puerto Rico and Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti) being the largest and those

in the Bahamas being the smallest. In the center of a typical village was a plaza used for various

social activities such as games, festivals, religiousrituals, and public ceremonies. These plazashad many shapes including oval, rectangular, or narrow and elongated. Ceremonies where the

deeds of the ancestors were celebrated, called areitos, were performed here.[9]

Often, the general

population lived in large circular buildings (bohios), constructed with wooden poles, woven

straw, andpalmleaves. These houses would surround the central plaza and could hold 10-15families. The cacique and his family would live in rectangular buildings (caney) of similar

construction, with wooden porches. Tano home furnishings included cotton hammocks(hamaca), mats made of palms, wooden chairs (dujo) with woven seats, platforms, and cradlesfor children.

Caguana Ceremonial ball court (batey), outlined with stones.

The Tanos played a ceremonial ball game calledbatey. The game was played between opposingteams consisting of 10 to 30 players per team using a solidrubberball. Normally, the teams were

composed of only men, but occasionally women played the game as well.[10]

The Classic Tanos
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played in the village's center plaza or on especially designed rectangular ball courts called batey.

Batey is believed to have been used for conflict resolution between communities; the most

elaborate ball courts are found at chiefdoms' boundaries.[11]

Often, chiefs made wagers on thepossible outcome of a game.

[10]

Tanos spoke aMaipurean language(tnq) but lacked a written language. Some of the words usedby them such as barbacoa ("barbecue"), hamaca ("hammock"), kanoa ("canoe"), tabaco

("tobacco"),yuca,batata ("sweet potato"), andJuracn("hurricane") have been incorporated

into the Spanish and English languages.

For warfare, they employed the use of a wooden war club, which they called amacana, that was

about one inch thick and was similar to thecoco macaque.

Food and agriculture

Cassava (yuca) roots, the Tanos' main crop

Tano staples included vegetables, fruit, meat, and fish. Large animals were absent from thefauna of the West Indies, but small animals such ashutias, earthworms, lizards, turtles, birds, and

other mammals were eaten. Manatees were speared and fish were caught in nets, speared,

poisoned, trapped inweirs, or caught with hook and line. Wild parrots were decoyed withdomesticated birds and iguanas were extracted from trees and other vegetation. Tanos stored

live animals until they were ready to be consumed, fish and turtles were stored in weirs, and

hutias and dogs were stored in corrals.[12]

Tano groups in the more developed islands, such as Puerto Rico, Hispaniola, and Jamaica, relied

more on agriculture. Fields for important root crops, such as the stapleyuca, were prepared by

heaping up mounds of soil, called conucos, which improved soil drainage and fertility as well asdelaying erosion, and allowing for longer storage of crops in the ground. Less important crops

such as corn were raised in simple clearings created byslash and burntechnique. Typically,

conucos were three feet high and nine feet in circumference and were arranged in rows.[13]

Theprimary root crop was yuca/cassava, a woodyshrubcultivated for its edible andstarchytuberous

root. It was planted using a coa, a kind ofhoemade completely out of wood. Women squeezed

the poisonous variety of "cassava" to extract the toxic juices preparatory to grinding the rootsinto flour for baking bread.Batata(sweet potato) was the next most important root crop.

[13]
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Contrary to mainland practices, corn was not ground into flour and baked into bread. Instead, it

was eaten off the cob. A possible explanation for this is that corn bread becomes moldy faster

than cassava bread in the high humidity of the West Indies. Tanos grewsquash,beans,peppers,peanuts, andpineapples. Tobacco,calabashes(West Indian pumpkins) and cotton were grown

around the houses. Other fruits and vegetables, such as palm nuts,guavas, andZamiaroots, were

collected from the wild.

[13]

Religion

Cem

Lombards Museum

TainoZemimask fromWalters Art Museum.
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Tano religion centered on the worship ofzemsorcems. Cems are gods, spirits, or ancestors.The major Tano gods areYcahuand Atabey. Ycahu,

[14]which means spirit of cassava, was

the god of cassava (the Tanos main crop) and the sea. Atabey,[15]

mother of Ycahu, was thegoddess of fresh waters and fertility.

[12]

The minor Tano gods related to growing of cassava, the process of life, creation and death.Baibrama was a minor god worshiped for his assistance in growing cassava and curing people

from its poisonous juice. Boinayel and his twin brother Mrohu were the gods of rain and fair

weather respectively.[16]

Guabancex was the goddess of storms (hurricanes). Juracn is oftenidentified as the god of storms butjuracn only means hurricane in the Tano language.

Guabancex had two assistants: Guataub, a messenger who created hurricane winds, and

Coatrisquie, who created floodwaters.[17]

Maquetaurie Guayaba or Maketaori Guayaba was the

god of Coaybay, the land of the dead. Opiyelguabirn', a dog-shaped god, watched over the dead.Deminn Caracaracol, a male cultural hero from which the Tano believed to descend, was

worshipped as a cem.[16]

Macocael was a cultural hero worshipped as a god who had failed to

guard the mountain from which human beings arose and was punished by being turned into stone

or a bird or reptile depending on how one interprets the myth.

Rockpetroglyphoverlaid with chalk in the Caguana Indigenous Ceremonial Center in Utuado, Puerto

Rico.

Cemwas also the name of the physical representations of the gods. These representations camein many forms and materials and could be found in a variety of settings. The majority ofcems

were crafted from wood but stone, bone, shell, pottery, and cotton were also used.[18]

Cem

petroglyphswere carved on rocks in streams, ball courts, and onstalagmitesin caves. Cem

pictographswere found on secular objects such as pottery, and on tattoos. Yucah, the god ofcassava, was represented with a three-pointed cemwhich could be found in conucos to increase

the yield of cassava. Wood and stone cems have been found in caves in Hispaniola and

Jamaica.[19]

Cems are sometimes represented by toads, turtles, snakes, and various abstract and
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human-like faces. Some of the carved cems include a small table or tray which is believed to be

a receptacle forhallucinogenicsnuffcalledcohobaprepared from the beans of a species of

Piptadeniatree. These trays have been found with ornately carved snuff tubes. Before certainceremonies Tanos would purify themselves, either by inducing vomiting with a swallowing

stick or byfasting.[20]

After serving communal bread, first to the cemi, then to the cacique, and

then to the common people, the village epic would be sung to the accompanyment ofmaracaandother instruments.

Tanos also employed body modification as an expression of their faith. The higher thepiercingortattooon the body, the closer to their gods. Men usually wore decorative tattoos and the

women usually had piercings.

One Tanooral traditionexplains that the sun and moon come out of caves. Another story tells of

people who once lived in caves and only came out at night, because it was believed that the sun

would transform them. The Tano believed themselves descended from the union of Deminan

Caracaracol and a female turtle. The origin of the oceans is described in the story of a huge flood

which occurred when a father murdered his son (who was about to murder the father), and thenput his bones into a gourd orcalabash. These bones then turned to fish and the gourd broke and

all the water of the world came pouring out.

Tanos believed that the souls of the dead go to Coaybay, the underworld, and there they rest by

day, and when night comes they assume the form of bats and eat the fruit "guayaba".

Spaniards and Tanos

Chief Ageybana greeting Juan Ponce de Len in Puerto Rico

Columbus and his crew, landing on an island in the Bahamas on October 12, 1492, were the firstEuropeansto encounter the Tano people. Columbus wrote:

They traded with us and gave us everything they had, with good will..they took great delight in pleasing

us..They are very gentle and without knowledge of what is evil; nor do they murder or steal..Your

highness may believe that in all the world there can be no better people ..They love their neighbours as

themselves, and they have the sweetest talk in the world, and are gentle and always laughing.
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[21]

At this time, the neighbors of the Tanos were theGuanahatabeysin the western tip of Cuba, theIsland-Caribs in the Lesser Antilles fromGuadaloupetoGrenada, and theTimacuaandAistribes of Florida. The Tanos called the island Guanahan which Columbus renamed as San

Salvador(Spanish for "Holy Savior"). It was Columbus who called the Tano "Indians", anidentification that has grown to encompass all the indigenous peoples of the Western

Hemisphere. A group of Tano people accompanied Columbus on his return voyage back toSpain.

[22]

On Columbus' second voyage, he began to require tribute from the Tanos in Hispaniola.

According toKirkpatrick Sale, each adult over 14 years of age was expected to deliver a hawks

bell full of gold every three months, or when this was lacking, twenty five pounds of spun cotton.

If this tribute was not observed, the Tanos had their hands cut off and were left to bleed todeath.

[23]These cruel practices gave way for many revolts and campaignssome being

successful, some not.

In 1511, several caciques in Puerto Rico, such asAgeyban II,Arasibo,Hayuya,Jumacao,

Urayon,Guarionex, andOrocobix, allied with the Caribs and tried to oust the Spaniards. The

revolt was pacified by the Indio-Spanish forces of GovernorJuan Ponce de Len.[24]

Hatuey, aTano chieftain who had fled from Hispaniola to Cuba with 400 natives to unite the Cuban

natives, was burned at the stake on February 2, 1512. In Hispaniola, a Tano chieftain named

Enriquillomobilized over 3,000 Tano in a successful rebellion in the 1520s. These Tano wereaccorded land and a charter from the royal administration. Despite the small Spanish militarypresence found in the region they were, in fact, able to utilize the diplomatic divisions and, with

help from powerful native allies,[25][26]

they were able to control most of the region. In exchange

for a seasonal salary, religious and language education, the Tanos were required to work for

Spanish and Indian land owners; these services were part of a system called theencomienda.

Population decline

Early population estimates of Hispaniola, probably the most populous island inhabited by

Tanos, range from 100,000 to 1,000,000 people. The maximum estimates for Jamaica and

Puerto Rico are 600,000 people.[27]

The Spanish priestBartolom de Las Casas(who was livingin the Dominican Republic at the time) wrote in his 1561 multivolume History of the Indies:

[28]

There were 60,000 people living on this island [when I arrived in 1508], including the Indians; so that

from 1494 to 1508, over three million people had perished from war, slavery and the mines. Who in

future generations will believe this?

Researchers today doubt Las Casas's figures for the pre-contact levels of the Tano population,considering them an exaggeration. For example, Anderson Crdova estimates a maximum of

500,000 people inhabiting the island.[29]

The Tano population estimates range all over, from a

few hundred thousand up to 8,000,000.[30]

They had no resistance toOld Worlddiseases, notablysmallpox.

[31]The encomienda system brought many Tanos to work in the fields and mines in

exchange for Spanishprotection,[32]

education, and a seasonal salary.[33]

Under the pretense of
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Urayo%C3%A1nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jumacaohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayuyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arasibohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ag%C3%BCeyban%C3%A1_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainos#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirkpatrick_Salehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainos#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ais_%28tribe%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timacuahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadaloupehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanahatabeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainos#cite_note-21


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searching for gold and other materials,[34]

many Spaniards took advantage of the regions now

under control of theanaboriosand Spanish encomienderos to exploit the native population by

stealing their land and wealth. It would take some time before the Tanos were to revolt againsttheir oppressorsboth Indian and Spanish alikeand many military campaigns to finally induce

Emperor Charles Vto eradicate the encomienda system as a form of slavery.[35][36]

In thirty years, between 80% and 90% of the population died.[37]

Because of the increased

number of people (Spanish) on the island, there was a higher demand for food from the Tano

method of plantation which was being converted to Spanish methods. In hopes of gaining apyrrhic victoryover the Spanish, some Tanos refused to plant or even harvest their crops and in

doing so, the supply of food became so low in 1495 and 1496 that some 50,000 died from the

severity of the famine.[38]

Despite this massive decline in population, it is safe to say that there

simply wasn't enough of a Spanish military presence to be attributed to the large reduction ofnative manpower.

[39][40]By 1507 their numbers had shrunk to 60,000. Scholars now believe that,

among the various contributing factors, such as purposeful destruction of the people by the

colonists and enslavement,newly importedepidemicdisease (smallpox, influenza, measles, and

typhus) was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the indigenous people.

[41][42][43]

The Viking Age was a period inEuropean history, especiallyNorthern

EuropeanandScandinavian history, spanning the late 8th to 11th

centuries.[1][2][3]Scandinavian (Norse)Vikingsexplored Europe by its oceans

and rivers through trade and warfare. The Vikings also reachedIceland,

Greenland,Newfoundland, andAnatolia.[4]Additionally, there is evidence to

support theVinlandlegend that Vikings reached farther west to theNorth

Americancontinent. Probable causes of Norse expansion

Main article:Viking expansion

Norse society was based on agriculture and trade with other peoples and placed great emphasison the concept of honour, both in combat and in the criminal justice system. It was, for example,

unfair and wrong to attack an enemy already in a fight with another.

It is unknown what triggered the Norse expansion and conquests. This era coincided with theMedieval Warm Period(8001300) and stopped with the start of theLittle Ice Age(about 12501850). The start of the Viking Age, with the sack of Lindisfarne, also coincided with

Charlemagne'sSaxon Wars, or Christian wars with pagans inSaxony. Historians Rudolf Simek

and Bruno Dumzil theorise that the Viking attacks may have been in response to the spread ofChristianity among pagan peoples.

[8][9][10][11][12]Professor Rudolf Simek believes that it is not a

coincidence if the early Viking activity occurred during the reign of Charlemagne.[8][13]Becauseof the penetration of Christianity in Scandinavia, serious conflict divided Norway for almost a

century.[14]

With the means of travel (longships and open water), their desire for goods led Scandinavian

traders to explore and develop extensive trading partnerships in new territories. It has beensuggested that the Scandinavians suffered from unequal trade practices imposed byChristian
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_24-25-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#cite_note-Rudolf_Simek_2005.2C_p._24-25-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#cite_note-annals_R.20-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#cite_note-annals_R.20-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#cite_note-Rudolf_Simek_2005.2C_p._24-25-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#cite_note-Rudolf_Simek_2005.2C_p._24-25-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxon_Warshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Ice_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_expansionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoliahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norse_colonization_of_the_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norse_Greenlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Settlement_of_Icelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norsemenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#cite_note-VN-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#cite_note-VN-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavian_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Europeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Europeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainos#cite_note-Raudzens-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainos#cite_note-Watts-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainos#cite_note-Watts-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_soil_epidemichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainos#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainos#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainos#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrrhic_victoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainos#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainos#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainos#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_auxiliarieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainos#cite_note-34


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advocates and that this eventually led to the breakdown in trade relations and raiding. British

merchants who declared openly that they were Christian and would not trade with heathens and

infidels (Muslims and the Norse) would get preferred status for availability and pricing of goodsthrough a Christian network of traders. A two-tiered system of pricing existed with both declared

and undeclared merchants trading secretly with banned parties. Viking raiding expeditions were

separate from and coexisted with regular trading expeditions. A people with the tradition ofraiding their neighbours when their honour had been impugned might easily fall to raidingforeign peoples who impugned their honour.

Historians also suggest that theScandinavianpopulation was too large for the peninsula and

there was not enough good farmland for everyone. This led to a hunt for more land. Particularly

for the settlement and conquest period that followed the early raids, internal strife in Scandinavia

resulted in the progressive centralisation of power into fewer hands. Formerly empowered locallords who did not want to be oppressed by greedy kings emigrated overseas.Icelandbecame

Europe's first modernrepublic, with an annual assembly of elected officials called theAlthing,

though onlygoi(wealthy landowners) had the right to vote there

Historic overview

Viking era towns of Scandinavia

The earliest date given for a Viking raid is 787 AD when, according to theAnglo-Saxon

Chronicle, a group of men from Norway sailed to theIsle of PortlandinDorset. There, they were

mistaken for merchants by a royal official. They murdered him when he tried to get them to

accompany him to the king's manor to pay a trading tax on their goods.[15]The beginning of theViking Age in theBritish Islesis, however, often given as 793. It was recorded in theAnglo-

Saxon Chroniclethat the Northmen raided the important island monastery ofLindisfarne(notethat the generally accepted date is actually 8 June, not January

[5]):

AD. 793. This year came dreadful fore-warnings over the land of the Northumbrians, terrifying the

people most woefully: these were immense sheets of light rushing through the air, and whirlwinds, and
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinaviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinaviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinaviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Althinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Althinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Althinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chroniclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chroniclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chroniclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chroniclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Portlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Portlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Portlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Isleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Isleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Isleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chroniclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chroniclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chroniclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chroniclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindisfarnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindisfarnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindisfarnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#cite_note-Swanton-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#cite_note-Swanton-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Viking_towns_of_Scandinavia_2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Viking_towns_of_Scandinavia_2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Viking_towns_of_Scandinavia_2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Viking_towns_of_Scandinavia_2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#cite_note-Swanton-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindisfarnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chroniclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chroniclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Isleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Portlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chroniclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chroniclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Althinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavia


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fiery dragons flying across the firmament. These tremendous tokens were soon followed by a great

famine: and not long after, on the sixth day before the ides of January in the same year, the harrowing

inroads of heathen men made lamentable havoc in the church of God in Holy-island (Lindisfarne), by

rapine and slaughter.

Anglo Saxon Chronicle.

[16]

In 794, according to theAnnals of Ulster, there was a serious attack on Lindisfarne's mother-house ofIona, which was followed in 795 by raids upon the northern coast ofIreland. Frombases there, the Norsemen attacked Iona again in 802, causing great slaughter amongst theCli

DBrethren, and burning the abbey to the ground.

The end of the Viking Age is traditionally marked inEnglandby the failed invasion attempted by

the Norwegian king Harald III (Haraldr Harri), who was defeated by Saxon KingHarold

Godwinsonin 1066 at theBattle of Stamford Bridge; in Ireland, the capture ofDublinbyStrongbowand hisHiberno-Normanforces in 1171; and 1263 in Scotland by the defeat of King

Hkon Hkonarsonat theBattle of Largsby troops loyal toAlexander III. Godwinson wassubsequently defeated within a month by another Viking descendant,William, Duke of

Normandy(Normandy had been conquered by Vikings (Normans) in 911). Scotland took itspresent form when it regained territory from theNorsebetween the 13th and the 15th centuries;

theWestern Islesand theIsle of Manremained under Scandinavian authority until 1266.Orkney

andShetlandbelonged to the king of Norway as late as 1469.

In Scandinavia the Viking age is considered to have ended with the establishment of royalauthority in the Scandinavian countries and the establishment of Christianity as the dominant

religion. The date is usually put somewhere in the early 11th century in all three Scandinavian

countries. The end of the Viking-era in Norway is marked by theBattle of Stiklestadin 1030.

Although Olafr Haraldsson's (later known as Olav the Holy) army lost the battle, Christianityspread, partly on the strength of rumours of miraculous signs after his death. Norwegians would

no longer be called Vikings.

Theclinker-builtlongshipsused by the Scandinavians were uniquely suited to both deep and

shallow waters. They extended the reach of Norse raiders, traders and settlers along coastlines

and along the major river valleys of north-western Europe.Rurikalso expanded to the east and in859 became ruler either by conquest or invitation by local people of the city ofNovgorod(which

means "new city") on theVolkhov River.His successorsmoved further, founding the state of

Kievan Ruswith the capital inKiev. This persisted until 1240, the time ofMongol invasion.

Other Norse people, particularly those from the area that is now modern-day Sweden andNorway, continued south to theBlack Seaand then on toConstantinople. Whenever these

Viking ships ran aground in shallow waters, the Vikings would reportedly turn them on theirsides and drag them across the shallows into deeper waters. The Eastern connections of these

"Varangians" broughtByzantine silk, coins fromSamarkand, even acowrie shellfrom the Red

Sea, toViking York.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Age#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_of_Ulsterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_of_Ulsterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_of_Ulsterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culdeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culdeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culdeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culdeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harald_Hardradahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harald_Hardradahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harald_Hardradahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Godwinsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Godwinsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Godwinsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Godwinsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Stamford_Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Stamford_Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Stamford_Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_de_Clare,_2nd_Earl_of_Pembrokehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_de_Clare,_2nd_Earl_of_Pembrokehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiberno-Normanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiberno-Normanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiberno-Normanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haakon_IV_of_Norwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haakon_IV_of_Norwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Largshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Largshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Largshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Scotlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Scotlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Scotlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_I_of_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_I_of_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_I_of_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norsemenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norsemenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norsemenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Isleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Isleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Isleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Manhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Manhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Manhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orkneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orkneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orkneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shetlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shetlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shetlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Stiklestadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Stiklestadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Stiklestadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinker_%28boat_building%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinker_%28boat_building%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinker_%28boat_building%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rurikhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rurikhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rurikhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novgorodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novgorodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novgorodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkhov_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkhov_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkhov_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rurik_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rurik_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rurik_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kievan_Rushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kievan_Rushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kievhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kievhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kievhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_invasionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_invasionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_invasionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varangianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varangianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varangianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_silkhttp://en.wiki

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