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INTRODUCTIONThe maintenance of lift and control of an airplane inflight requires a certain minimum airspeed. Thiscritical airspeed depends on certain factors, such asgross weight, load factors, and existing density altitude.The minimum speed below which further controlledflight is impossible is called the stalling speed. Animportant feature of pilot training is the developmentof the ability to estimate the margin of safety above thestalling speed. Also, the ability to determine thecharacteristic responses of any airplane at differentairspeeds is of great importance to the pilot. Thestudent pilot, therefore, must develop this awareness inorder to safely avoid stalls and to operate an airplanecorrectly and safely at slow airspeeds.

SLOW FLIGHTSlow flight could be thought of, by some, as a speedthat is less than cruise. In pilot training and testing,however, slow flight is broken down into two distinctelements: (1) the establishment, maintenance of, andmaneuvering of the airplane at airspeeds and inconfigurations appropriate to takeoffs, climbs,descents, landing approaches and go-arounds, and, (2)maneuvering at the slowest airspeed at which theairplane is capable of maintaining controlled flightwithout indications of a stall—usually 3 to 5 knotsabove stalling speed.

FLIGHT AT LESS THAN CRUISE AIRSPEEDSManeuvering during slow flight demonstrates the flightcharacteristics and degree of controllability of anairplane at less than cruise speeds. The ability todetermine the characteristic control responses at thelower airspeeds appropriate to takeoffs, departures,and landing approaches is a critical factor install awareness.

As airspeed decreases, control effectiveness decreasesdisproportionately. For instance, there may be a certainloss of effectiveness when the airspeed is reduced from30 to 20 m.p.h. above the stalling speed, but there willnormally be a much greater loss as the airspeed isfurther reduced to 10 m.p.h. above stalling. Theobjective of maneuvering during slow flight is todevelop the pilot’s sense of feel and ability to use thecontrols correctly, and to improve proficiency inperforming maneuvers that require slow airspeeds.

Maneuvering during slow flight should be performedusing both instrument indications and outside visualreference. Slow flight should be practiced from straightglides, straight-and-level flight, and from mediumbanked gliding and level flight turns. Slow flight atapproach speeds should include slowing the airplanesmoothly and promptly from cruising to approachspeeds without changes in altitude or heading, anddetermining and using appropriate power and trimsettings. Slow flight at approach speed should alsoinclude configuration changes, such as landing gearand flaps, while maintaining heading and altitude.

FLIGHT AT MINIMUM CONTROLLABLEAIRSPEEDThis maneuver demonstrates the flight characteristicsand degree of controllability of the airplane at itsminimum flying speed. By definition, the term “flightat minimum controllable airspeed” means a speed atwhich any further increase in angle of attack or loadfactor, or reduction in power will cause an immediatestall. Instruction in flight at minimum controllableairspeed should be introduced at reduced powersettings, with the airspeed sufficiently above the stall topermit maneuvering, but close enough to the stall tosense the characteristics of flight at very lowairspeed—which are sloppy controls, ragged responseto control inputs, and difficulty maintaining altitude.Maneuvering at minimum controllable airspeed shouldbe performed using both instrument indications andoutside visual reference. It is important that pilots formthe habit of frequent reference to the flight instruments,especially the airspeed indicator, while flying at verylow airspeeds. However, a “feel” for the airplane atvery low airspeeds must be developed to avoidinadvertent stalls and to operate the airplanewith precision.

To begin the maneuver, the throttle is graduallyreduced from cruising position. While the airspeed isdecreasing, the position of the nose in relation to thehorizon should be noted and should be raised asnecessary to maintain altitude.

When the airspeed reaches the maximum allowable forlanding gear operation, the landing gear (if equippedwith retractable gear) should be extended and all geardown checks performed. As the airspeed reaches themaximum allowable for flap operation, full flaps

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should be lowered and the pitch attitude adjusted tomaintain altitude. [Figure 4-1] Additional power willbe required as the speed further decreases to maintainthe airspeed just above a stall. As the speed decreasesfurther, the pilot should note the feel of the flightcontrols, especially the elevator. The pilot should alsonote the sound of the airflow as it falls off in tone level.

As airspeed is reduced, the flight controls become lesseffective and the normal nosedown tendency isreduced. The elevators become less responsive andcoarse control movements become necessary to retaincontrol of the airplane. The slipstream effect producesa strong yaw so the application of rudder is required tomaintain coordinated flight. The secondary effect ofapplied rudder is to induce a roll, so aileron is requiredto keep the wings level. This can result in flying withcrossed controls.

During these changing flight conditions, it is importantto retrim the airplane as often as necessary tocompensate for changes in control pressures. If theairplane has been trimmed for cruising speed, heavyaft control pressure will be needed on the elevators,making precise control impossible. If too much speedis lost, or too little power is used, further back pressureon the elevator control may result in a loss of altitudeor a stall. When the desired pitch attitude andminimum control airspeed have been established, it isimportant to continually cross-check the attitudeindicator, altimeter, and airspeed indicator, as well asoutside references to ensure that accurate control isbeing maintained.

The pilot should understand that when flying moreslowly than minimum drag speed (LD/MAX) theairplane will exhibit a characteristic known as “speedinstability.” If the airplane is disturbed by even theslightest turbulence, the airspeed will decrease. Asairspeed decreases, the total drag also increasesresulting in a further loss in airspeed. The total dragcontinues to rise and the speed continues to fall. Unlessmore power is applied and/or the nose is lowered,the speed will continue to decay right down to thestall. This is an extremely important factor in the

performance of slow flight. The pilot must understandthat, at speed less than minimum drag speed, theairspeed is unstable and will continue to decay ifallowed to do so.

When the attitude, airspeed, and power have beenstabilized in straight flight, turns should be practicedto determine the airplane’s controllability characteris-tics at this minimum speed. During the turns, powerand pitch attitude may need to be increased tomaintain the airspeed and altitude. The objective is toacquaint the pilot with the lack of maneuverability atminimum speeds, the danger of incipient stalls, andthe tendency of the airplane to stall as the bank isincreased. A stall may also occur as a result of abruptor rough control movements when flying at thiscritical airspeed.

Abruptly raising the flaps while at minimumcontrollable airspeed will result in lift suddenlybeing lost, causing the airplane to lose altitude orperhaps stall.

Once flight at minimum controllable airspeed is set upproperly for level flight, a descent or climb atminimum controllable airspeed can be established byadjusting the power as necessary to establish thedesired rate of descent or climb. The beginning pilotshould note the increased yawing tendency at mini-mum control airspeed at high power settings with flapsfully extended. In some airplanes, an attempt to climbat such a slow airspeed may result in a loss of altitude,even with maximum power applied.

Common errors in the performance of slow flight are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Inadequate back-elevator pressure as power isreduced, resulting in altitude loss.

• Excessive back-elevator pressure as power isreduced, resulting in a climb, followed by a rapidreduction in airspeed and “mushing.”

• Inadequate compensation for adverse yaw duringturns.

• Fixation on the airspeed indicator.

• Failure to anticipate changes in lift as flaps areextended or retracted.

• Inadequate power management.

• Inability to adequately divide attention betweenairplane control and orientation.

SLOW FLIGHT

Low airspeedHigh angle of attackHigh power settingMaintain altitude

Figure 4-1. Slow flight—Low airspeed, high angle of attack,high power, and constant altitude.

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STALLSA stall occurs when the smooth airflow over theairplane’s wing is disrupted, and the lift degeneratesrapidly. This is caused when the wing exceeds itscritical angle of attack. This can occur at any airspeed,in any attitude, with any power setting. [Figure 4-2]

The practice of stall recovery and the development ofawareness of stalls are of primary importance in pilottraining. The objectives in performing intentional stallsare to familiarize the pilot with the conditions thatproduce stalls, to assist in recognizing an approachingstall, and to develop the habit of taking promptpreventive or corrective action.

Intentional stalls should be performed at an altitudethat will provide adequate height above the ground forrecovery and return to normal level flight. Though itdepends on the degree to which a stall has progressed,most stalls require some loss of altitude duringrecovery. The longer it takes to recognize theapproaching stall, the more complete the stall is likelyto become, and the greater the loss of altitude tobe expected.

RECOGNITION OF STALLSPilots must recognize the flight conditions that areconducive to stalls and know how to apply thenecessary corrective action. They should learn torecognize an approaching stall by sight, sound, andfeel. The following cues may be useful in recognizingthe approaching stall.

• Vision is useful in detecting a stall condition bynoting the attitude of the airplane. This sense canonly be relied on when the stall is the result of anunusual attitude of the airplane. Since the airplanecan also be stalled from a normal attitude, visionin this instance would be of little help in detectingthe approaching stall.

• Hearing is also helpful in sensing a stall condition.In the case of fixed-pitch propeller airplanes in apower-on condition, a change in sound due to lossof revolutions per minute (r.p.m.) is particularlynoticeable. The lessening of the noise made by theair flowing along the airplane structure as airspeeddecreases is also quite noticeable, and when thestall is almost complete, vibration and incidentnoises often increase greatly.

• Kinesthesia, or the sensing of changes in directionor speed of motion, is probably the most importantand the best indicator to the trained andexperienced pilot. If this sensitivity is properlydeveloped, it will warn of a decrease in speedor the beginning of a settling or mushing ofthe airplane.

• Feel is an important sense in recognizing the onsetof a stall. The feeling of control pressures is veryimportant. As speed is reduced, the resistance topressures on the controls becomes progressivelyless. Pressures exerted on the controls tend tobecome movements of the control surfaces. The

-4 0 5 10 15 20Angle of Attack in Degrees

Coe

ffici

ent o

f Lift

(C

L)

2.0

1.5

1.0

.5

Figure 4-2. Critical angle of attack and stall.

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lag between these movements and the response ofthe airplane becomes greater, until in a completestall all controls can be moved with almost noresistance, and with little immediate effect on theairplane. Just before the stall occurs, buffeting,uncontrollable pitching, or vibrations may begin.

Several types of stall warning indicators have beendeveloped to warn pilots of an approaching stall. Theuse of such indicators is valuable and desirable, but thereason for practicing stalls is to learn to recognize stallswithout the benefit of warning devices.

FUNDAMENTALS OF STALL RECOVERYDuring the practice of intentional stalls, the realobjective is not to learn how to stall an airplane, but tolearn how to recognize an approaching stall and takeprompt corrective action. [Figure 4-3] Though therecovery actions must be taken in a coordinatedmanner, they are broken down into three actions herefor explanation purposes.

First, at the indication of a stall, the pitch attitude andangle of attack must be decreased positively and

immediately. Since the basic cause of a stall is alwaysan excessive angle of attack, the cause must first beeliminated by releasing the back-elevator pressure thatwas necessary to attain that angle of attack or bymoving the elevator control forward. This lowers thenose and returns the wing to an effective angle ofattack. The amount of elevator control pressure ormovement used depends on the design of the airplane,the severity of the stall, and the proximity of theground. In some airplanes, a moderate movement ofthe elevator control—perhaps slightly forward ofneutral—is enough, while in others a forcible push tothe full forward position may be required. Anexcessive negative load on the wings caused byexcessive forward movement of the elevator mayimpede, rather than hasten, the stall recovery. Theobject is to reduce the angle of attack but only enoughto allow the wing to regain lift.

Second, the maximum allowable power should beapplied to increase the airplane’s airspeed and assist inreducing the wing’s angle of attack. The throttleshould be promptly, but smoothly, advanced to themaximum allowable power. The flight instructor

Stall Recognition

• High angle of attack• Airframe buffeting or shaking• Warning horn or light• Loss of lift

Stall Recovery• Reduce angle of attack• Add power

Figure 4-3. Stall recognition and recovery.

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should emphasize, however, that power is not essentialfor a safe stall recovery if sufficient altitude isavailable. Reducing the angle of attack is the only wayof recovering from a stall regardless of the amount ofpower used.

Although stall recoveries should be practiced without,as well as with the use of power, in most actual stallsthe application of more power, if available, is anintegral part of the stall recovery. Usually, the greaterthe power applied, the less the loss of altitude.

Maximum allowable power applied at the instant of astall will usually not cause overspeeding of an engineequipped with a fixed-pitch propeller, due to the heavyair load imposed on the propeller at slow airspeeds.However, it will be necessary to reduce the power asairspeed is gained after the stall recovery so theairspeed will not become excessive. When performingintentional stalls, the tachometer indication shouldnever be allowed to exceed the red line (maximumallowable r.p.m.) marked on the instrument.

Third, straight-and-level flight should be regained withcoordinated use of all controls.

Practice in both power-on and power-off stalls isimportant because it simulates stall conditions thatcould occur during normal flight maneuvers. Forexample, the power-on stalls are practiced to showwhat could happen if the airplane were climbing at anexcessively nose-high attitude immediately aftertakeoff or during a climbing turn. The power-offturning stalls are practiced to show what could happenif the controls are improperly used during a turn fromthe base leg to the final approach. The power-offstraight-ahead stall simulates the attitude and flightcharacteristics of a particular airplane during the finalapproach and landing.

Usually, the first few practices should include onlyapproaches to stalls, with recovery initiated as soon asthe first buffeting or partial loss of control is noted. In

this way, the pilot can become familiar with theindications of an approaching stall without actuallystalling the airplane. Once the pilot becomescomfortable with this procedure, the airplane shouldbe slowed in such a manner that it stalls in as near alevel pitch attitude as is possible. The student pilotmust not be allowed to form the impression that in allcircumstances, a high pitch attitude is necessary toexceed the critical angle of attack, or that in allcircumstances, a level or near level pitch attitude isindicative of a low angle of attack. Recovery should bepracticed first without the addition of power, by merelyrelieving enough back-elevator pressure that the stallis broken and the airplane assumes a normal glideattitude. The instructor should also introduce thestudent to a secondary stall at this point. Stallrecoveries should then be practiced with the additionof power to determine how effective power will be inexecuting a safe recovery and minimizing altitude loss.

Stall accidents usually result from an inadvertent stallat a low altitude in which a recovery was notaccomplished prior to contact with the surface. As apreventive measure, stalls should be practiced at analtitude which will allow recovery no lower than 1,500feet AGL. To recover with a minimum loss of altituderequires a reduction in the angle of attack (loweringthe airplane’s pitch attitude), application of power, andtermination of the descent without entering another(secondary) stall.

USE OF AILERONS/RUDDER IN STALLRECOVERYDifferent types of airplanes have different stallcharacteristics. Most airplanes are designed so that thewings will stall progressively outward from the wingroots (where the wing attaches to the fuselage) to thewingtips. This is the result of designing the wings in amanner that the wingtips have less angle of incidencethan the wing roots. [Figure 4-4] Such a design featurecauses the wingtips to have a smaller angle of attackthan the wing roots during flight.

Figure 4-4. Wingtip washout.

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Exceeding the critical angle of attack causes a stall; thewing roots of an airplane will exceed the critical anglebefore the wingtips, and the wing roots will stall first.The wings are designed in this manner so that aileroncontrol will be available at high angles of attack (slowairspeed) and give the airplane more stable stallingcharacteristics.

When the airplane is in a stalled condition, thewingtips continue to provide some degree of lift, andthe ailerons still have some control effect. Duringrecovery from a stall, the return of lift begins at the tipsand progresses toward the roots. Thus, the ailerons canbe used to level the wings.

Using the ailerons requires finesse to avoid anaggravated stall condition. For example, if the rightwing dropped during the stall and excessive aileroncontrol were applied to the left to raise the wing, theaileron deflected downward (right wing) wouldproduce a greater angle of attack (and drag), andpossibly a more complete stall at the tip as the criticalangle of attack is exceeded. The increase in dragcreated by the high angle of attack on that wing mightcause the airplane to yaw in that direction. This adverseyaw could result in a spin unless directional controlwas maintained by rudder, and/or the aileron controlsufficiently reduced.

Even though excessive aileron pressure may have beenapplied, a spin will not occur if directional (yaw)control is maintained by timely application ofcoordinated rudder pressure. Therefore, it is importantthat the rudder be used properly during both the entryand the recovery from a stall. The primary use of therudder in stall recoveries is to counteract any tendencyof the airplane to yaw or slip. The correct recoverytechnique would be to decrease the pitch attitude byapplying forward-elevator pressure to break the stall,advancing the throttle to increase airspeed, andsimultaneously maintaining directional control withcoordinated use of the aileron and rudder.

STALL CHARACTERISTICSBecause of engineering design variations, the stallcharacteristics for all airplanes cannot be specificallydescribed; however, the similarities found in smallgeneral aviation training-type airplanes are noteworthyenough to be considered. It will be noted that thepower-on and power-off stall warning indications willbe different. The power-off stall will have lessnoticeable clues (buffeting, shaking) than thepower-on stall. In the power-off stall, the predominantclue can be the elevator control position (full up-elevator against the stops) and a high descent rate.When performing the power-on stall, the buffeting willlikely be the predominant clue that provides a positiveindication of the stall. For the purpose of airplane

certification, the stall warning may be furnished eitherthrough the inherent aerodynamic qualities of theairplane, or by a stall warning device that will give aclear distinguishable indication of the stall. Mostairplanes are equipped with a stall warning device.

The factors that affect the stalling characteristics of theairplane are balance, bank, pitch attitude, coordination,drag, and power. The pilot should learn the effect of thestall characteristics of the airplane being flown and theproper correction. It should be reemphasized that a stallcan occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, or at anypower setting, depending on the total number of factorsaffecting the particular airplane.

A number of factors may be induced as the result ofother factors. For example, when the airplane is in anose-high turning attitude, the angle of bank has atendency to increase. This occurs because with theairspeed decreasing, the airplane begins flying in asmaller and smaller arc. Since the outer wing ismoving in a larger radius and traveling faster than theinner wing, it has more lift and causes an overbankingtendency. At the same time, because of the decreasingairspeed and lift on both wings, the pitch attitude tendsto lower. In addition, since the airspeed is decreasingwhile the power setting remains constant, the effect oftorque becomes more prominent, causing the airplaneto yaw.

During the practice of power-on turning stalls, tocompensate for these factors and to maintain aconstant flight attitude until the stall occurs, aileronpressure must be continually adjusted to keep the bankattitude constant. At the same time, back-elevatorpressure must be continually increased to maintain thepitch attitude, as well as right rudder pressureincreased to keep the ball centered and to preventadverse yaw from changing the turn rate. If the bank isallowed to become too steep, the vertical componentof lift decreases and makes it even more difficult tomaintain a constant pitch attitude.

Whenever practicing turning stalls, a constant pitchand bank attitude should be maintained until the stalloccurs. Whatever control pressures are necessaryshould be applied even though the controls appear tobe crossed (aileron pressure in one direction, rudderpressure in the opposite direction). During the entry toa power-on turning stall to the right, in particular, thecontrols will be crossed to some extent. This is due toright rudder pressure being used to overcome torqueand left aileron pressure being used to prevent thebank from increasing.

APPROACHES TO STALLS (IMMINENTSTALLS)—POWER-ON OR POWER-OFFAn imminent stall is one in which the airplane isapproaching a stall but is not allowed to completely

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stall. This stall maneuver is primarily for practice inretaining (or regaining) full control of the airplaneimmediately upon recognizing that it is almost in a stallor that a stall is likely to occur if timely preventiveaction is not taken.

The practice of these stalls is of particular value indeveloping the pilot’s sense of feel for executingmaneuvers in which maximum airplane performanceis required. These maneuvers require flight with theairplane approaching a stall, and recovery initiatedbefore a stall occurs. As in all maneuvers that involvesignificant changes in altitude or direction, the pilotmust ensure that the area is clear of other air trafficbefore executing the maneuver.

These stalls may be entered and performed in theattitudes and with the same configuration of the basicfull stalls or other maneuvers described in this chapter.However, instead of allowing a complete stall, whenthe first buffeting or decay of control effectiveness isnoted, the angle of attack must be reduced immediatelyby releasing the back-elevator pressure and applyingwhatever additional power is necessary. Since theairplane will not be completely stalled, the pitchattitude needs to be decreased only to a point whereminimum controllable airspeed is attained or untiladequate control effectiveness is regained.

The pilot must promptly recognize the indication of astall and take timely, positive control action to preventa full stall. Performance is unsatisfactory if a full stalloccurs, if an excessively low pitch attitude is attained,or if the pilot fails to take timely action to avoidexcessive airspeed, excessive loss of altitude, or a spin.

FULL STALLS POWER-OFFThe practice of power-off stalls is usually performedwith normal landing approach conditions in simulation

of an accidental stall occurring during landingapproaches. Airplanes equipped with flaps and/orretractable landing gear should be in the landingconfiguration. Airspeed in excess of the normalapproach speed should not be carried into a stall entrysince it could result in an abnormally nose-highattitude. Before executing these practice stalls, thepilot must be sure the area is clear of other air traffic.

After extending the landing gear, applying carburetorheat (if applicable), and retarding the throttle to idle(or normal approach power), the airplane should beheld at a constant altitude in level flight until theairspeed decelerates to that of a normal approach. Theairplane should then be smoothly nosed down into thenormal approach attitude to maintain that airspeed.Wing flaps should be extended and pitch attitudeadjusted to maintain the airspeed.

When the approach attitude and airspeed havestabilized, the airplane’s nose should be smoothlyraised to an attitude that will induce a stall. Directionalcontrol should be maintained with the rudder, thewings held level by use of the ailerons, and a constant-pitch attitude maintained with the elevator until thestall occurs. The stall will be recognized by clues, suchas full up-elevator, high descent rate, uncontrollablenosedown pitching, and possible buffeting.

Recovering from the stall should be accomplished byreducing the angle of attack, releasing back-elevatorpressure, and advancing the throttle to maximumallowable power. Right rudder pressure is necessary toovercome the engine torque effects as power isadvanced and the nose is being lowered. [Figure 4-5]

The nose should be lowered as necessary to regainflying speed and returned to straight-and-level flight

Establish normal approach

Raise nose, maintain heading

When stall occurs, reduce angle of attack

and add full power.Raise flaps as recommended

As flying speed returns, stop descent and establish a climb

Climb at V , raise landing gear and

remaining flaps, trim

Y

Level off at desired altitude,set power and trim

Figure 4-5. Power-off stall and recovery.

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attitude. After establishing a positive rate of climb, theflaps and landing gear are retracted, as necessary, andwhen in level flight, the throttle should be returned tocruise power setting. After recovery is complete, a climbor go-around procedure should be initiated, as the situa-tion dictates, to assure a minimum loss of altitude.

Recovery from power-off stalls should also bepracticed from shallow banked turns to simulate aninadvertent stall during a turn from base leg to finalapproach. During the practice of these stalls, careshould be taken that the turn continues at a uniformrate until the complete stall occurs. If the power-offturn is not properly coordinated while approaching thestall, wallowing may result when the stall occurs. If theairplane is in a slip, the outer wing may stall first andwhip downward abruptly. This does not affect therecovery procedure in any way; the angle of attackmust be reduced, the heading maintained, and thewings leveled by coordinated use of the controls. Inthe practice of turning stalls, no attempt should bemade to stall the airplane on a predetermined heading.However, to simulate a turn from base to finalapproach, the stall normally should be made to occurwithin a heading change of approximately 90°.

After the stall occurs, the recovery should be madestraight ahead with minimum loss of altitude, andaccomplished in accordance with the recoveryprocedure discussed earlier.

Recoveries from power-off stalls should beaccomplished both with, and without, the addition ofpower, and may be initiated either just after the stalloccurs, or after the nose has pitched down through thelevel flight attitude.

FULL STALLS POWER-ONPower-on stall recoveries are practiced from straightclimbs, and climbing turns with 15 to 20° banks, tosimulate an accidental stall occurring during takeoffsand climbs. Airplanes equipped with flaps and/orretractable landing gear should normally be in thetakeoff configuration; however, power-on stalls shouldalso be practiced with the airplane in a cleanconfiguration (flaps and/or gear retracted) as indeparture and normal climbs.

After establishing the takeoff or climb configuration,the airplane should be slowed to the normal lift-offspeed while clearing the area for other air traffic.When the desired speed is attained, the power shouldbe set at takeoff power for the takeoff stall or therecommended climb power for the departure stallwhile establishing a climb attitude. The purpose ofreducing the airspeed to lift-off airspeed before thethrottle is advanced to the recommended setting is toavoid an excessively steep nose-up attitude for a longperiod before the airplane stalls.

After the climb attitude is established, the nose is thenbrought smoothly upward to an attitude obviouslyimpossible for the airplane to maintain and is held atthat attitude until the full stall occurs. In mostairplanes, after attaining the stalling attitude, theelevator control must be moved progressively furtherback as the airspeed decreases until, at the full stall, itwill have reached its limit and cannot be moved backany farther.

Recovery from the stall should be accomplished byimmediately reducing the angle of attack by positively

As flying speedreturns, stopdescent and

establish a climb

Climb at V , raise landing gear and

remaining flaps, trim

YLevel off at desiredaltitude, set power

and trim

Slow tolift-off speed,

maintain altitude

Set takeoff power,raise nose

When stall occurs,reduce angle ofattack and add

full power

Figure 4-6. Power-on stall.

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releasing back-elevator pressure and, in the case of adeparture stall, smoothly advancing the throttle tomaximum allowable power. In this case, since thethrottle is already at the climb power setting, the addi-tion of power will be relatively slight. [Figure 4-6]

The nose should be lowered as necessary to regainflying speed with the minimum loss of altitude andthen raised to climb attitude. Then, the airplane shouldbe returned to the normal straight-and-level flight atti-tude, and when in normal level flight, the throttleshould be returned to cruise power setting. The pilotmust recognize instantly when the stall has occurredand take prompt action to prevent a prolonged stalledcondition.

SECONDARY STALLThis stall is called a secondary stall since it may occurafter a recovery from a preceding stall. It is caused byattempting to hasten the completion of a stall recoverybefore the airplane has regained sufficient flyingspeed. [Figure 4-7] When this stall occurs, theback-elevator pressure should again be released just asin a normal stall recovery. When sufficient airspeedhas been regained, the airplane can then be returned tostraight-and-level flight.

This stall usually occurs when the pilot uses abruptcontrol input to return to straight-and-level flight aftera stall or spin recovery. It also occurs when the pilotfails to reduce the angle of attack sufficiently duringstall recovery by not lowering pitch attitudesufficiently, or by attempting to break the stall by usingpower only.

ACCELERATED STALLSThough the stalls just discussed normally occur at aspecific airspeed, the pilot must thoroughly understand

that all stalls result solely from attempts to fly atexcessively high angles of attack. During flight, theangle of attack of an airplane wing is determined by anumber of factors, the most important of which are theairspeed, the gross weight of the airplane, and the loadfactors imposed by maneuvering.

At the same gross weight, airplane configuration, andpower setting, a given airplane will consistently stall atthe same indicated airspeed if no acceleration isinvolved. The airplane will, however, stall at a higherindicated airspeed when excessive maneuvering loadsare imposed by steep turns, pull-ups, or other abruptchanges in its flightpath. Stalls entered from such flightsituations are called “accelerated maneuver stalls,” aterm, which has no reference to the airspeeds involved.

Stalls which result from abrupt maneuvers tend to bemore rapid, or severe, than the unaccelerated stalls, andbecause they occur at higher-than-normal airspeeds,and/or may occur at lower than anticipated pitchattitudes, they may be unexpected by an inexperiencedpilot. Failure to take immediate steps toward recoverywhen an accelerated stall occurs may resultin a complete loss of flight control, notably,power-on spins.

This stall should never be practiced with wing flaps inthe extended position due to the lower “G” loadlimitations in that configuration.

Accelerated maneuver stalls should not be performedin any airplane, which is prohibited from suchmaneuvers by its type certification restrictions orAirplane Flight Manual (AFM) and/or Pilot’sOperating Handbook (POH). If they are permitted,they should be performed with a bank ofapproximately 45°, and in no case at a speed greater

Initial stall

Incomplete or improperrecovery

Secondary stall

Figure 4-7. Secondary stall.

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than the airplane manufacturer’s recommendedairspeeds or the design maneuvering speed specifiedfor the airplane. The design maneuvering speed is themaximum speed at which the airplane can be stalled orfull available aerodynamic control will not exceed theairplane’s limit load factor. At or below this speed, theairplane will usually stall before the limit load factorcan be exceeded. Those speeds must not be exceededbecause of the extremely high structural loads that areimposed on the airplane, especially if there isturbulence. In most cases, these stalls should beperformed at no more than 1.2 times the normalstall speed.

The objective of demonstrating accelerated stalls is notto develop competency in setting up the stall, but ratherto learn how they may occur and to develop the abilityto recognize such stalls immediately, and to takeprompt, effective recovery action. It is important thatrecoveries are made at the first indication of a stall, orimmediately after the stall has fully developed; aprolonged stall condition should never be allowed.

An airplane will stall during a coordinated steep turnexactly as it does from straight flight, except that thepitching and rolling actions tend to be more sudden. Ifthe airplane is slipping toward the inside of the turn atthe time the stall occurs, it tends to roll rapidly towardthe outside of the turn as the nose pitches downbecause the outside wing stalls before the inside wing.If the airplane is skidding toward the outside of theturn, it will have a tendency to roll to the inside of theturn because the inside wing stalls first. If thecoordination of the turn at the time of the stall isaccurate, the airplane’s nose will pitch away from thepilot just as it does in a straight flight stall, since bothwings stall simultaneously.

An accelerated stall demonstration is entered byestablishing the desired flight attitude, then smoothly,firmly, and progressively increasing the angle of attackuntil a stall occurs. Because of the rapidly changingflight attitude, sudden stall entry, and possible loss ofaltitude, it is extremely vital that the area be clear ofother aircraft and the entry altitude be adequate for saferecovery.

This demonstration stall, as in all stalls, isaccomplished by exerting excessive back-elevatorpressure. Most frequently it would occur duringimproperly executed steep turns, stall and spinrecoveries, and pullouts from steep dives. Theobjectives are to determine the stall characteristics ofthe airplane and develop the ability to instinctivelyrecover at the onset of a stall at other-than-normal stallspeed or flight attitudes. An accelerated stall, althoughusually demonstrated in steep turns, may actually beencountered any time excessive back-elevator pressure

is applied and/or the angle of attack is increasedtoo rapidly.

From straight-and-level flight at maneuvering speedor less, the airplane should be rolled into a steep levelflight turn and back-elevator pressure graduallyapplied. After the turn and bank are established,back-elevator pressure should be smoothly andsteadily increased. The resulting apparent centrifugalforce will push the pilot’s body down in the seat,increase the wing loading, and decrease the airspeed.After the airspeed reaches the design maneuveringspeed or within 20 knots above the unaccelerated stallspeed, back-elevator pressure should be firmlyincreased until a definite stall occurs. These speedrestrictions must be observed to prevent exceeding theload limit of the airplane.

When the airplane stalls, recovery should be madepromptly, by releasing sufficient back-elevatorpressure and increasing power to reduce the angle ofattack. If an uncoordinated turn is made, one wing maytend to drop suddenly, causing the airplane to roll inthat direction. If this occurs, the excessive back-elevator pressure must be released, power added, andthe airplane returned to straight-and-level flight withcoordinated control pressure.

The pilot should recognize when the stall is imminentand take prompt action to prevent a completely stalledcondition. It is imperative that a prolonged stall,excessive airspeed, excessive loss of altitude, or spinbe avoided.

CROSS-CONTROL STALLThe objective of a cross-control stall demonstrationmaneuver is to show the effect of improper controltechnique and to emphasize the importance of usingcoordinated control pressures whenever making turns.This type of stall occurs with the controls crossed—aileron pressure applied in one direction and rudderpressure in the opposite direction.

In addition, when excessive back-elevator pressure isapplied, a cross-control stall may result. This is a stallthat is most apt to occur during a poorly planned andexecuted base-to-final approach turn, and often is theresult of overshooting the centerline of the runwayduring that turn. Normally, the proper action to correctfor overshooting the runway is to increase the rate ofturn by using coordinated aileron and rudder. At therelatively low altitude of a base-to-final approach turn,improperly trained pilots may be apprehensive ofsteepening the bank to increase the rate of turn, andrather than steepening the bank, they hold the bankconstant and attempt to increase the rate of turn byadding more rudder pressure in an effort to align itwith the runway.

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The addition of inside rudder pressure will cause thespeed of the outer wing to increase, therefore, creatinggreater lift on that wing. To keep that wing from risingand to maintain a constant angle of bank, oppositeaileron pressure needs to be applied. The added insiderudder pressure will also cause the nose to lower inrelation to the horizon. Consequently, additionalback-elevator pressure would be required to maintain aconstant-pitch attitude. The resulting condition is aturn with rudder applied in one direction, aileron in theopposite direction, and excessive back-elevatorpressure—a pronounced cross-control condition.

Since the airplane is in a skidding turn during thecross-control condition, the wing on the outside of theturn speeds up and produces more lift than the insidewing; thus, the airplane starts to increase its bank. Thedown aileron on the inside of the turn helps drag thatwing back, slowing it up and decreasing its lift, whichrequires more aileron application. This further causesthe airplane to roll. The roll may be so fast that it ispossible the bank will be vertical or past vertical beforeit can be stopped.

For the demonstration of the maneuver, it is importantthat it be entered at a safe altitude because of thepossible extreme nosedown attitude and loss ofaltitude that may result.

Before demonstrating this stall, the pilot should clearthe area for other air traffic while slowly retarding thethrottle. Then the landing gear (if retractable gear)should be lowered, the throttle closed, and the altitudemaintained until the airspeed approaches the normalglide speed. Because of the possibility of exceedingthe airplane’s limitations, flaps should not be extended.While the gliding attitude and airspeed are beingestablished, the airplane should be retrimmed. Whenthe glide is stabilized, the airplane should be rolled intoa medium-banked turn to simulate a final approachturn that would overshoot the centerline of the runway.

During the turn, excessive rudder pressure should beapplied in the direction of the turn but the bank heldconstant by applying opposite aileron pressure. At thesame time, increased back-elevator pressure isrequired to keep the nose from lowering.

All of these control pressures should be increased untilthe airplane stalls. When the stall occurs, recovery ismade by releasing the control pressures and increasingpower as necessary to recover.

In a cross-control stall, the airplane often stalls withlittle warning. The nose may pitch down, the insidewing may suddenly drop, and the airplane maycontinue to roll to an inverted position. This is usuallythe beginning of a spin. It is obvious that close to theground is no place to allow this to happen.

Recovery must be made before the airplane enters anabnormal attitude (vertical spiral or spin); it is a simplematter to return to straight-and-level flight bycoordinated use of the controls. The pilot must be ableto recognize when this stall is imminent and must takeimmediate action to prevent a completely stalledcondition. It is imperative that this type of stall notoccur during an actual approach to a landing, sincerecovery may be impossible prior to ground contactdue to the low altitude.

The flight instructor should be aware that during trafficpattern operations, any conditions that result inovershooting the turn from base leg to final approach,dramatically increases the possibility of anunintentional accelerated stall while the airplane is in across-control condition.

ELEVATOR TRIM STALLThe elevator trim stall maneuver shows what can hap-pen when full power is applied for a go-around andpositive control of the airplane is not maintained.[Figure 4-8] Such a situation may occur during ago-around procedure from a normal landing approach

Set up and trim forfinal approach glide Apply full power to

simulate go-around.Allow nose to rise

As stall approaches,apply forward pressureand establish normal

climb speed.

Trim to maintainnormal climb

Figure 4-8. Elevator trim stall.

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or a simulated forced landing approach, orimmediately after a takeoff. The objective of thedemonstration is to show the importance of makingsmooth power applications, overcoming strong trimforces and maintaining positive control of the airplaneto hold safe flight attitudes, and using proper andtimely trim techniques.

At a safe altitude and after ensuring that the area isclear of other air traffic, the pilot should slowly retardthe throttle and extend the landing gear (if retractablegear). One-half to full flaps should be lowered, thethrottle closed, and altitude maintained until theairspeed approaches the normal glide speed. When thenormal glide is established, the airplane should betrimmed for the glide just as would be done during alanding approach (nose-up trim).

During this simulated final approach glide, the throttleis then advanced smoothly to maximum allowablepower as would be done in a go-around procedure. Thecombined forces of thrust, torque, and back-elevatortrim will tend to make the nose rise sharply and turn tothe left.

When the throttle is fully advanced and the pitchattitude increases above the normal climbing attitudeand it is apparent that a stall is approaching, adequateforward pressure must be applied to return the airplaneto the normal climbing attitude. While holding theairplane in this attitude, the trim should then beadjusted to relieve the heavy control pressures and thenormal go-around and level-off procedures completed.

The pilot should recognize when a stall is approaching,and take prompt action to prevent a completely stalledcondition. It is imperative that a stall not occur duringan actual go-around from a landing approach.

Common errors in the performance of intentional stallsare:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Inability to recognize an approaching stallcondition through feel for the airplane.

• Premature recovery.

• Over-reliance on the airspeed indicator whileexcluding other cues.

• Inadequate scanning resulting in an unintentionalwing-low condition during entry.

• Excessive back-elevator pressure resulting in anexaggerated nose-up attitude during entry.

• Inadequate rudder control.

• Inadvertent secondary stall during recovery.

• Failure to maintain a constant bank angle duringturning stalls.

• Excessive forward-elevator pressure duringrecovery resulting in negative load on the wings.

• Excessive airspeed buildup during recovery.

• Failure to take timely action to prevent a full stallduring the conduct of imminent stalls.

SPINSA spin may be defined as an aggravated stall thatresults in what is termed “autorotation” wherein theairplane follows a downward corkscrew path. As theairplane rotates around a vertical axis, the rising wingis less stalled than the descending wing creating arolling, yawing, and pitching motion. The airplane isbasically being forced downward by gravity, rolling,yawing, and pitching in a spiral path. [Figure 4-9]

The autorotation results from an unequal angle ofattack on the airplane’s wings. The rising wing has adecreasing angle of attack, where the relative liftincreases and the drag decreases. In effect, this wing isless stalled. Meanwhile, the descending wing has an

Figure 4-9. Spin—an aggravated stall and autorotation.

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increasing angle of attack, past the wing’s critical angleof attack (stall) where the relative lift decreases anddrag increases.

A spin is caused when the airplane’s wing exceeds itscritical angle of attack (stall) with a sideslip or yawacting on the airplane at, or beyond, the actual stall.During this uncoordinated maneuver, a pilot may notbe aware that a critical angle of attack has beenexceeded until the airplane yaws out of control towardthe lowering wing. If stall recovery is not initiatedimmediately, the airplane may enter a spin.

If this stall occurs while the airplane is in a slipping orskidding turn, this can result in a spin entry androtation in the direction that the rudder is beingapplied, regardless of which wingtip is raised.

Many airplanes have to be forced to spin and requireconsiderable judgment and technique to get the spinstarted. These same airplanes that have to be forced tospin, may be accidentally put into a spin bymishandling the controls in turns, stalls, and flight atminimum controllable airspeeds. This fact is additionalevidence of the necessity for the practice of stalls untilthe ability to recognize and recover from themis developed.

Often a wing will drop at the beginning of a stall.When this happens, the nose will attempt to move(yaw) in the direction of the low wing. This is whereuse of the rudder is important during a stall. Thecorrect amount of opposite rudder must be applied tokeep the nose from yawing toward the low wing. Bymaintaining directional control and not allowing thenose to yaw toward the low wing, before stall recoveryis initiated, a spin will be averted. If the nose is allowedto yaw during the stall, the airplane will begin to slip inthe direction of the lowered wing, and will enter a spin.An airplane must be stalled in order to enter a spin;therefore, continued practice in stalls will help the pilotdevelop a more instinctive and prompt reaction inrecognizing an approaching spin. It is essential to learnto apply immediate corrective action any time it isapparent that the airplane is nearing spin conditions. Ifit is impossible to avoid a spin, the pilot shouldimmediately execute spin recovery procedures.

SPIN PROCEDURESThe flight instructor should demonstrate spins in thoseairplanes that are approved for spins. Special spinprocedures or techniques required for a particularairplane are not presented here. Before beginning anyspin operations, the following items should bereviewed.

• The airplane’s AFM/POH limitations section,placards, or type certification data, to determine ifthe airplane is approved for spins.

• Weight and balance limitations.

• Recommended entry and recovery procedures.

• The requirements for parachutes. It would beappropriate to review a current Title 14 of theCode of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 forthe latest parachute requirements.

A thorough airplane preflight should be accomplishedwith special emphasis on excess or loose items thatmay affect the weight, center of gravity, and controlla-bility of the airplane. Slack or loose control cables(particularly rudder and elevator) could prevent fullanti-spin control deflections and delay or precluderecovery in some airplanes.

Prior to beginning spin training, the flight area, aboveand below the airplane, must be clear of other airtraffic. This may be accomplished while slowing theairplane for the spin entry. All spin training should beinitiated at an altitude high enough for a completedrecovery at or above 1,500 feet AGL.

It may be appropriate to introduce spin training by firstpracticing both power-on and power-off stalls, in aclean configuration. This practice would be used tofamiliarize the student with the airplane’s specific stalland recovery characteristics. Care should be taken withthe handling of the power (throttle) in entries andduring spins. Carburetor heat should be appliedaccording to the manufacturer’s recommendations.

There are four phases of a spin: entry, incipient,developed, and recovery. [Figure 4-10 on next page]

ENTRY PHASEThe entry phase is where the pilot provides thenecessary elements for the spin, either accidentally orintentionally. The entry procedure for demonstrating aspin is similar to a power-off stall. During the entry,the power should be reduced slowly to idle, whilesimultaneously raising the nose to a pitch attitude thatwill ensure a stall. As the airplane approaches a stall,smoothly apply full rudder in the direction of thedesired spin rotation while applying full back (up)elevator to the limit of travel. Always maintain theailerons in the neutral position during the spinprocedure unless AFM/POH specifies otherwise.

INCIPIENT PHASEThe incipient phase is from the time the airplane stallsand rotation starts until the spin has fully developed.This change may take up to two turns for most airplanes.Incipient spins that are not allowed to develop into asteady-state spin are the most commonly used in theintroduction to spin training and recovery techniques. In

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this phase, the aerodynamic and inertial forces have notachieved a balance. As the incipient spin develops, theindicated airspeed should be near or below stall air-speed, and the turn-and-slip indicator should indicatethe direction of the spin.

The incipient spin recovery procedure should becommenced prior to the completion of 360° ofrotation. The pilot should apply full rudder oppositethe direction of rotation. If the pilot is not sure of thedirection of the spin, check the turn-and-slip indicator;it will show a deflection in the direction of rotation.

DEVELOPED PHASEThe developed phase occurs when the airplane’sangular rotation rate, airspeed, and vertical speed are

stabilized while in a flightpath that is nearly vertical.This is where airplane aerodynamic forces and inertialforces are in balance, and the attitude, angles, and self-sustaining motions about the vertical axis are constantor repetitive. The spin is in equilibrium.

RECOVERY PHASEThe recovery phase occurs when the angle of attack ofthe wings decreases below the critical angle of attackand autorotation slows. Then the nose steepens androtation stops. This phase may last for a quarter turn toseveral turns.

To recover, control inputs are initiated to disrupt thespin equilibrium by stopping the rotation and stall. Toaccomplish spin recovery, the manufacturer’s

Less Stalled

Stall

More Drag

Relative WindGreaterAngle ofAttack

Chord Line

Relative Wind

LessAngle ofAttack

Chord Line

INCIPIENT SPIN

• Lasts about 4 to 6 seconds in light aircraft.

• Approximately 2 turns.

FULLY DEVELOPED SPIN

• Airspeed, vertical speed, and rate of rotation are stabilized.

• Small, training aircraft lose approximately 500 feet per each 3 second turn.

RECOVERY

• Wings regain lift.• Training aircraft

usually recover in about 1/4 to 1/2 of a turn after anti-spin inputs are applied.

More Stalled

Figure 4-10. Spin entry and recovery.

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recommended procedures should be followed. In theabsence of the manufacturer’s recommended spinrecovery procedures and techniques, the followingspin recovery procedures are recommended.

Step 1—REDUCE THE POWER (THROTTLE)TO IDLE. Power aggravates the spincharacteristics. It usually results in a flatter spinattitude and increased rotation rates.

Step 2—POSITION THE AILERONS TONEUTRAL. Ailerons may have an adverse effecton spin recovery. Aileron control in the directionof the spin may speed up the rate of rotation anddelay the recovery. Aileron control opposite thedirection of the spin may cause the down aileronto move the wing deeper into the stall andaggravate the situation. The best procedure is toensure that the ailerons are neutral.

Step 3—APPLY FULL OPPOSITE RUDDERAGAINST THE ROTATION. Make sure that full(against the stop) opposite rudder has beenapplied.

Step 4—APPLY A POSITIVE AND BRISK,STRAIGHT FORWARD MOVEMENT OF THEELEVATOR CONTROL FORWARD OF THENEUTRAL TO BREAK THE STALL. Thisshould be done immediately after full rudderapplication. The forceful movement of theelevator will decrease the excessive angle of attackand break the stall. The controls should be heldfirmly in this position. When the stall is “broken,”the spinning will stop.

Step 5—AFTER SPIN ROTATION STOPS,NEUTRALIZE THE RUDDER. If the rudder isnot neutralized at this time, the ensuing increasedairspeed acting upon a deflected rudder will causea yawing or skidding effect.

Slow and overly cautious control movementsduring spin recovery must be avoided. In certaincases it has been found that such movements resultin the airplane continuing to spin indefinitely, evenwith anti-spin inputs. A brisk and positivetechnique, on the other hand, results in a morepositive spin recovery.

Step 6—BEGIN APPLYING BACK-ELEVATORPRESSURE TO RAISE THE NOSE TO LEVELFLIGHT. Caution must be used not to applyexcessive back-elevator pressure after the rotationstops. Excessive back-elevator pressure can causea secondary stall and result in another spin. Careshould be taken not to exceed the “G” load limitsand airspeed limitations during recovery. If the

flaps and/or retractable landing gear are extendedprior to the spin, they should be retracted as soonas possible after spin entry.

It is important to remember that the above spinrecovery procedures and techniques are recommendedfor use only in the absence of the manufacturer’sprocedures. Before any pilot attempts to begin spintraining, that pilot must be familiar with the proceduresprovided by the manufacturer for spin recovery.

The most common problems in spin recovery includepilot confusion as to the direction of spin rotation andwhether the maneuver is a spin versus spiral. If theairspeed is increasing, the airplane is no longer in aspin but in a spiral. In a spin, the airplane is stalled.The indicated airspeed, therefore, should reflectstall speed.

INTENTIONAL SPINSThe intentional spinning of an airplane, for which thespin maneuver is not specifically approved, is NOTauthorized by this handbook or by the Code of FederalRegulations. The official sources for determining if thespin maneuver IS APPROVED or NOT APPROVEDfor a specific airplane are:

• Type Certificate Data Sheets or the AircraftSpecifications.

• The limitation section of the FAA-approvedAFM/POH. The limitation sections may provideadditional specific requirements for spinauthorization, such as limiting gross weight, CGrange, and amount of fuel.

• On a placard located in clear view of the pilot inthe airplane, NO ACROBATIC MANEUVERSINCLUDING SPINS APPROVED. In airplanesplacarded against spins, there is no assurance thatrecovery from a fully developed spin is possible.

There are occurrences involving airplanes whereinspin restrictions are intentionally ignored by somepilots. Despite the installation of placards prohibitingintentional spins in these airplanes, a number of pilots,and some flight instructors, attempt to justify themaneuver, rationalizing that the spin restriction resultsmerely because of a “technicality” in the airworthinessstandards.

Some pilots reason that the airplane was spin testedduring its certification process and, therefore, noproblem should result from demonstrating orpracticing spins. However, those pilots overlook thefact that a normal category airplane certification onlyrequires the airplane recover from a one-turn spin innot more than one additional turn or 3 seconds,

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whichever takes longer. This same test of controllabil-ity can also be used in certificating an airplane in theUtility category (14 CFR section 23.221 (b)).

The point is that 360° of rotation (one-turn spin) doesnot provide a stabilized spin. If the airplane’scontrollability has not been explored by theengineering test pilot beyond the certificationrequirements, prolonged spins (inadvertent orintentional) in that airplane place an operating pilot inan unexplored flight situation. Recovery may bedifficult or impossible.

In 14 CFR part 23, “Airworthiness Standards: Normal,Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter CategoryAirplanes,” there are no requirements for investigationof controllability in a true spinning condition for theNormal category airplanes. The one-turn “margin ofsafety” is essentially a check of the airplane’s control-lability in a delayed recovery from a stall. Therefore,in airplanes placarded against spins there is absolutelyno assurance whatever that recovery from a fullydeveloped spin is possible under any circumstances.The pilot of an airplane placarded against intentionalspins should assume that the airplane may well becomeuncontrollable in a spin.

WEIGHT AND BALANCE REQUIREMENTSWith each airplane that is approved for spinning, theweight and balance requirements are important forsafe performance and recovery from the spin maneu-ver. Pilots must be aware that just minor weight orbalance changes can affect the airplane’s spinrecovery characteristics. Such changes can eitheralter or enhance the spin maneuver and/or recoverycharacteristics. For example, the addition of weightin the aft baggage compartment, or additional fuel,may still permit the airplane to be operated withinCG, but could seriously affect the spin and recoverycharacteristics.

An airplane that may be difficult to spin intentionallyin the Utility Category (restricted aft CG and reducedweight) could have less resistance to spin entry in theNormal Category (less restricted aft CG and increasedweight). This situation is due to the airplane being ableto generate a higher angle of attack and load factor.Furthermore, an airplane that is approved for spins inthe Utility Category, but loaded in the NormalCategory, may not recover from a spin that is allowedto progress beyond the incipient phase.

Common errors in the performance of intentionalspins are:

• Failure to apply full rudder pressure in the desiredspin direction during spin entry.

• Failure to apply and maintain full up-elevatorpressure during spin entry, resulting in a spiral.

• Failure to achieve a fully stalled condition prior tospin entry.

• Failure to apply full rudder against the spin duringrecovery.

• Failure to apply sufficient forward-elevatorpressure during recovery.

• Failure to neutralize the rudder during recoveryafter rotation stops, resulting in a possiblesecondary spin.

• Slow and overly cautious control movementsduring recovery.

• Excessive back-elevator pressure after rotationstops, resulting in possible secondary stall.

• Insufficient back-elevator pressure duringrecovery resulting in excessive airspeed.

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GENERALThis chapter discusses takeoffs and departure climbs intricycle landing gear (nosewheel-type) airplanes undernormal conditions, and under conditions which requiremaximum performance. A thorough knowledge oftakeoff principles, both in theory and practice, willoften prove of extreme value throughout a pilot’scareer. It will often prevent an attempted takeoff thatwould result in an accident, or during an emergency,make possible a takeoff under critical conditions whena pilot with a less well rounded knowledge and tech-nique would fail.

The takeoff, though relatively simple, often presentsthe most hazards of any part of a flight. The importanceof thorough knowledge and faultless technique andjudgment cannot be overemphasized.

It must be remembered that the manufacturer’s recom-mended procedures, including airplane configuration andairspeeds, and other information relevant to takeoffs anddeparture climbs in a specific make and model airplane arecontained in the FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manualand/or Pilot’s Operating Handbook (AFM/POH) for thatairplane. If any of the information in this chapter differs

from the airplane manufacturer’s recommendations ascontained in the AFM/POH, the airplane manufacturer’srecommendations take precedence.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONSAlthough the takeoff and climb is one continuousmaneuver, it will be divided into three separate stepsfor purposes of explanation: (1) the takeoff roll, (2) thelift-off, and (3) the initial climb after becoming air-borne. [Figure 5-1]

• Takeoff Roll (ground roll)—the portion of thetakeoff procedure during which the airplane isaccelerated from a standstill to an airspeed thatprovides sufficient lift for it to become airborne.

• Lift-off (rotation)—the act of becoming air-borne as a result of the wings lifting the airplaneoff the ground or the pilot rotating the nose up,increasing the angle of attack to start a climb.

• Initial Climb—begins when the airplane leavesthe ground and a pitch attitude has been estab-lished to climb away from the takeoff area.Normally, it is considered complete when theairplane has reached a safe maneuvering altitude,or an en route climb has been established.

5-1Figure 5-1.Takeoff and climb.

Takeoffpower

Takeoff pitchattitude

Best climb speed

Safe maneuvering altitudeclimb power

En Routeclimb

Climb(3)

Lift-off(2)

Takeoffroll(1)

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PRIOR TO TAKEOFFBefore taxiing onto the runway or takeoff area, thepilot should ensure that the engine is operating prop-erly and that all controls, including flaps and trim tabs,are set in accordance with the before takeoff checklist.In addition, the pilot must make certain that theapproach and takeoff paths are clear of other aircraft.At uncontrolled airports, pilots should announce theirintentions on the common traffic advisory frequency(CTAF) assigned to that airport. When operating froman airport with an operating control tower, pilots mustcontact the tower operator and receive a takeoff clear-ance before taxiing onto the active runway.

It is not recommended to take off immediately behindanother aircraft, particularly large, heavily loadedtransport airplanes, because of the wake turbulencethat is generated.

While taxiing onto the runway, the pilot can selectground reference points that are aligned with therunway direction as aids to maintaining directionalcontrol during the takeoff. These may be runwaycenterline markings, runway lighting, distant trees,towers, buildings, or mountain peaks.

NORMAL TAKEOFFA normal takeoff is one in which the airplane is headedinto the wind, or the wind is very light. Also, the take-off surface is firm and of sufficient length to permit theairplane to gradually accelerate to normal lift-off andclimb-out speed, and there are no obstructions alongthe takeoff path.

There are two reasons for making a takeoff as nearlyinto the wind as possible. First, the airplane’s speedwhile on the ground is much less than if the takeoffwere made downwind, thus reducing wear and stresson the landing gear. Second, a shorter ground roll andtherefore much less runway length is required todevelop the minimum lift necessary for takeoff andclimb. Since the airplane depends on airspeed in orderto fly, a headwind provides some of that airspeed, evenwith the airplane motionless, from the wind flowingover the wings.

TAKEOFF ROLLAfter taxiing onto the runway, the airplane should becarefully aligned with the intended takeoff direction,and the nosewheel positioned straight, or centered.After releasing the brakes, the throttle should beadvanced smoothly and continuously to takeoff power.An abrupt application of power may cause the airplaneto yaw sharply to the left because of the torque effectsof the engine and propeller. This will be most apparentin high horsepower engines. As the airplane starts toroll forward, the pilot should assure both feet are on

the rudder pedals so that the toes or balls of the feet areon the rudder portions, not on the brake portions.Engine instruments should be monitored during thetakeoff roll for any malfunctions.

In nosewheel-type airplanes, pressures on the elevatorcontrol are not necessary beyond those needed tosteady it. Applying unnecessary pressure will onlyaggravate the takeoff and prevent the pilot from recog-nizing when elevator control pressure is actuallyneeded to establish the takeoff attitude.

As speed is gained, the elevator control will tend toassume a neutral position if the airplane is correctlytrimmed. At the same time, directional control shouldbe maintained with smooth, prompt, positive ruddercorrections throughout the takeoff roll. The effects ofengine torque and P-factor at the initial speeds tend topull the nose to the left. The pilot must use whateverrudder pressure and aileron needed to correct for theseeffects or for existing wind conditions to keep the noseof the airplane headed straight down the runway. Theuse of brakes for steering purposes should be avoided,since this will cause slower acceleration of the air-plane’s speed, lengthen the takeoff distance, andpossibly result in severe swerving.

While the speed of the takeoff roll increases, moreand more pressure will be felt on the flight controls,particularly the elevators and rudder. If the tail sur-faces are affected by the propeller slipstream, theybecome effective first. As the speed continues toincrease, all of the flight controls will graduallybecome effective enough to maneuver the airplaneabout its three axes. It is at this point, in the taxi toflight transition, that the airplane is being flown morethan taxied. As this occurs, progressively smallerrudder deflections are needed to maintain direction.

The feel of resistance to the movement of the con-trols and the airplane’s reaction to such movementsare the only real indicators of the degree of controlattained. This feel of resistance is not a measure ofthe airplane’s speed, but rather of its controllability.To determine the degree of controllability, the pilotmust be conscious of the reaction of the airplane tothe control pressures and immediately adjust thepressures as needed to control the airplane. The pilotmust wait for the reaction of the airplane to theapplied control pressures and attempt to sense thecontrol resistance to pressure rather than attempt tocontrol the airplane by movement of the controls.Balanced control surfaces increase the importanceof this point, because they materially reduce theintensity of the resistance offered to pressuresexerted by the pilot.

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At this stage of training, beginning takeoff practice, astudent pilot will normally not have a full appreciationof the variations of control pressures with the speed ofthe airplane. The student, therefore, may tend to movethe controls through wide ranges seeking the pressuresthat are familiar and expected, and as a consequenceover-control the airplane. The situation may be aggra-vated by the sluggish reaction of the airplane to thesemovements. The flight instructor should take measuresto check these tendencies and stress the importance ofthe development of feel. The student pilot should berequired to feel lightly for resistance and accomplishthe desired results by applying pressure against it. Thispractice will enable the student pilot, as experience isgained, to achieve a sense of the point when sufficientspeed has been acquired for the takeoff, instead ofmerely guessing, fixating on the airspeed indicator, ortrying to force performance from the airplane.

LIFT-OFFSince a good takeoff depends on the proper takeoffattitude, it is important to know how this attitudeappears and how it is attained. The ideal takeoff atti-tude requires only minimum pitch adjustmentsshortly after the airplane lifts off to attain the speedfor the best rate of climb (VY). [Figure 5-2] The pitchattitude necessary for the airplane to accelerate to VYspeed should be demonstrated by the instructor andmemorized by the student. Initially, the student pilotmay have a tendency to hold excessive back-elevatorpressure just after lift-off, resulting in an abrupt pitch-up. The flight instructor should be prepared for this.

Each type of airplane has a best pitch attitude fornormal lift-off; however, varying conditions maymake a difference in the required takeoff technique.A rough field, a smooth field, a hard surface runway,or a short or soft, muddy field, all call for a slightly

different technique, as will smooth air in contrast toa strong, gusty wind. The different techniques forthose other-than-normal conditions are discussedlater in this chapter.

When all the flight controls become effective duringthe takeoff roll in a nosewheel-type airplane, back-elevator pressure should be gradually applied toraise the nosewheel slightly off the runway, thusestablishing the takeoff or lift-off attitude. This isoften referred to as “rotating.” At this point, theposition of the nose in relation to the horizon shouldbe noted, then back-elevator pressure applied asnecessary to hold this attitude. The wings must bekept level by applying aileron pressure as necessary.

The airplane is allowed to fly off the ground while inthe normal takeoff attitude. Forcing it into the air byapplying excessive back-elevator pressure would onlyresult in an excessively high pitch attitude and maydelay the takeoff. As discussed earlier, excessive andrapid changes in pitch attitude result in proportionatechanges in the effects of torque, thus making the air-plane more difficult to control.

Although the airplane can be forced into the air, this isconsidered an unsafe practice and should be avoidedunder normal circumstances. If the airplane is forcedto leave the ground by using too much back-elevatorpressure before adequate flying speed is attained, thewing’s angle of attack may be excessive, causing theairplane to settle back to the runway or even to stall.On the other hand, if sufficient back-elevator pressureis not held to maintain the correct takeoff attitude afterbecoming airborne, or the nose is allowed to lowerexcessively, the airplane may also settle back to therunway. This would occur because the angle of attackis decreased and lift diminished to the degree where itwill not support the airplane. It is important, then, tohold the correct attitude constant after rotation or lift-off.

As the airplane leaves the ground, the pilot mustcontinue to be concerned with maintaining thewings in a level attitude, as well as holding theproper pitch attitude. Outside visual scan toattain/maintain proper airplane pitch and bank atti-tude must be intensified at this critical point. Theflight controls have not yet become fully effective,and the beginning pilot will often have a tendencyto fixate on the airplane’s pitch attitude and/or theairspeed indicator and neglect the natural tendencyof the airplane to roll just after breaking ground.

During takeoffs in a strong, gusty wind, it is advisablethat an extra margin of speed be obtained before theairplane is allowed to leave the ground. A takeoff at thenormal takeoff speed may result in a lack of positiveFigure 5-2. Initial roll and takeoff attitude.

A. Initial roll

B. Takeoff attitude

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control, or a stall, when the airplane encounters asudden lull in strong, gusty wind, or other turbulentair currents. In this case, the pilot should allow theairplane to stay on the ground longer to attain morespeed; then make a smooth, positive rotation to leavethe ground.

INITIAL CLIMBUpon lift-off, the airplane should be flying at approxi-mately the pitch attitude that will allow it to accelerateto VY. This is the speed at which the airplane will gainthe most altitude in the shortest period of time.

If the airplane has been properly trimmed, some back-elevator pressure may be required to hold this attitudeuntil the proper climb speed is established. On theother hand, relaxation of any back-elevator pressurebefore this time may result in the airplane settling,even to the extent that it contacts the runway.

The airplane will pick up speed rapidly after itbecomes airborne. Once a positive rate of climb isestablished, the flaps and landing gear can be retracted(if equipped).

It is recommended that takeoff power be maintaineduntil reaching an altitude of at least 500 feet above thesurrounding terrain or obstacles. The combination ofVY and takeoff power assures the maximum altitudegained in a minimum amount of time. This gives thepilot more altitude from which the airplane can besafely maneuvered in case of an engine failure or otheremergency.

Since the power on the initial climb is fixed at the takeoffpower setting, the airspeed must be controlled by makingslight pitch adjustments using the elevators. However,the pilot should not fixate on the airspeed indicator whenmaking these pitch changes, but should, instead, continueto scan outside to adjust the airplane’s attitude in relationto the horizon. In accordance with the principles of atti-tude flying, the pilot should first make the necessarypitch change with reference to the natural horizon andhold the new attitude momentarily, and then glance at theairspeed indicator as a check to see if the new attitude iscorrect. Due to inertia, the airplane will not accelerate ordecelerate immediately as the pitch is changed. It takes alittle time for the airspeed to change. If the pitch attitudehas been over or under corrected, the airspeed indicatorwill show a speed that is more or less than that desired.When this occurs, the cross-checking and appropriatepitch-changing process must be repeated until the desiredclimbing attitude is established.

When the correct pitch attitude has been attained, itshould be held constant while cross-checking it againstthe horizon and other outside visual references. The

airspeed indicator should be used only as a check todetermine if the attitude is correct.

After the recommended climb airspeed has been estab-lished, and a safe maneuvering altitude has beenreached, the power should be adjusted to the recom-mended climb setting and the airplane trimmed torelieve the control pressures. This will make it easierto hold a constant attitude and airspeed.

During initial climb, it is important that the takeoffpath remain aligned with the runway to avoid driftinginto obstructions, or the path of another aircraft thatmay be taking off from a parallel runway. Proper scan-ning techniques are essential to a safe takeoff andclimb, not only for maintaining attitude and direction,but also for collision avoidance in the airport area.

When the student pilot nears the solo stage of flighttraining, it should be explained that the airplane’stakeoff performance will be much different when theinstructor is out of the airplane. Due to decreasedload, the airplane will become airborne sooner andwill climb more rapidly. The pitch attitude that thestudent has learned to associate with initial climbmay also differ due to decreased weight, and theflight controls may seem more sensitive. If the situa-tion is unexpected, it may result in increased tensionthat may remain until after the landing. Frequently,the existence of this tension and the uncertainty thatdevelops due to the perception of an “abnormal”takeoff results in poor performance on the subse-quent landing.

Common errors in the performance of normal takeoffsand departure climbs are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area prior to taxi-ing into position on the active runway.

• Abrupt use of the throttle.

• Failure to check engine instruments for signs ofmalfunction after applying takeoff power.

• Failure to anticipate the airplane’s left turningtendency on initial acceleration.

• Overcorrecting for left turning tendency.

• Relying solely on the airspeed indicator ratherthan developed feel for indications of speed andairplane controllability during acceleration andlift-off.

• Failure to attain proper lift-off attitude.

• Inadequate compensation for torque/P-factorduring initial climb resulting in a sideslip.

• Over-control of elevators during initial climb-out.

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• Limiting scan to areas directly ahead of the air-plane (pitch attitude and direction), resulting inallowing a wing (usually the left) to dropimmediately after lift-off.

• Failure to attain/maintain best rate-of-climb air-speed (VY).

• Failure to employ the principles of attitude flyingduring climb-out, resulting in “chasing” the air-speed indicator.

CROSSWIND TAKEOFFWhile it is usually preferable to take off directly intothe wind whenever possible or practical, there willbe many instances when circumstances or judgmentwill indicate otherwise. Therefore, the pilot must befamiliar with the principles and techniques involvedin crosswind takeoffs, as well as those for normaltakeoffs. A crosswind will affect the airplane duringtakeoff much as it does in taxiing. With this in mind,it can be seen that the technique for crosswindcorrection during takeoffs closely parallels thecrosswind correction techniques used in taxiing.

TAKEOFF ROLLThe technique used during the initial takeoff roll in acrosswind is generally the same as used in a normal

takeoff, except that aileron control must be held INTOthe crosswind. This raises the aileron on the upwindwing to impose a downward force on the wing to coun-teract the lifting force of the crosswind and preventsthe wing from rising.

As the airplane is taxied into takeoff position, it is essen-tial that the windsock and other wind direction indicatorsbe checked so that the presence of a crosswind may berecognized and anticipated. If a crosswind is indicated,FULL aileron should be held into the wind as the takeoffroll is started. This control position should be maintainedwhile the airplane is accelerating and until the aileronsstart becoming sufficiently effective for maneuvering theairplane about its longitudinal axis.

With the aileron held into the wind, the takeoff pathmust be held straight with the rudder. [Figure 5-3]

Normally, this will require applying downwind rudderpressure, since on the ground the airplane will tend toweathervane into the wind. When takeoff power isapplied, torque or P-factor that yaws the airplane to theleft may be sufficient to counteract the weathervaningtendency caused by a crosswind from the right. On theother hand, it may also aggravate the tendency to

Figure 5-3. Crosswind takeoff roll and initial climb.

WIND

Apply full aileron into windRudder as needed for direction

Hold aileron into windRoll on upwind wheel

Rudder as needed

Hold aileron into windBank into wind

Rudder as needed

Start roll

Takeoff roll

Lift-off

Initial climb

Wings level with a wind correction

angle

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swerve left when the wind is from the left. In any case,whatever rudder pressure is required to keep the air-plane rolling straight down the runway should beapplied.

As the forward speed of the airplane increases and thecrosswind becomes more of a relative headwind, themechanical holding of full aileron into the wind shouldbe reduced. It is when increasing pressure is being felton the aileron control that the ailerons are becomingmore effective. As the aileron’s effectiveness increasesand the crosswind component of the relative windbecomes less effective, it will be necessary to graduallyreduce the aileron pressure. The crosswind componenteffect does not completely vanish, so some aileron pres-sure will have to be maintained throughout the takeoffroll to keep the crosswind from raising the upwind wing.If the upwind wing rises, thus exposing more surface tothe crosswind, a “skipping” action may result. [Figure5-4]

This is usually indicated by a series of very smallbounces, caused by the airplane attempting to flyand then settling back onto the runway. During thesebounces, the crosswind also tends to move the air-plane sideways, and these bounces will develop intoside-skipping. This side-skipping imposes severeside stresses on the landing gear and could result instructural failure.

It is important, during a crosswind takeoff roll, to holdsufficient aileron into the wind not only to keep theupwind wing from rising but to hold that wing down sothat the airplane will, immediately after lift-off, besideslipping into the wind enough to counteract drift.

LIFT-OFFAs the nosewheel is being raised off the runway, theholding of aileron control into the wind may result in

the downwind wing rising and the downwind mainwheel lifting off the runway first, with the remainderof the takeoff roll being made on that one main wheel.This is acceptable and is preferable to side-skipping.

If a significant crosswind exists, the main wheelsshould be held on the ground slightly longer than in anormal takeoff so that a smooth but very definite lift-off can be made. This procedure will allow the air-plane to leave the ground under more positive controlso that it will definitely remain airborne while theproper amount of wind correction is being established.More importantly, this procedure will avoid imposingexcessive side-loads on the landing gear and preventpossible damage that would result from the airplanesettling back to the runway while drifting.

As both main wheels leave the runway and groundfriction no longer resists drifting, the airplane will beslowly carried sideways with the wind unless adequatedrift correction is maintained by the pilot. Therefore, itis important to establish and maintain the properamount of crosswind correction prior to lift-off byapplying aileron pressure toward the wind to keep theupwind wing from rising and applying rudder pressureas needed to prevent weathervaning.

INITIAL CLIMBIf proper crosswind correction is being applied, as soonas the airplane is airborne, it will be sideslipping into thewind sufficiently to counteract the drifting effect of thewind. [Figure 5-5] This sideslipping should be continueduntil the airplane has a positive rate of climb. At that time,the airplane should be turned into the wind to establishjust enough wind correction angle to counteract the windand then the wings rolled level. Firm and aggressive useof the rudders will be required to keep the airplane headedstraight down the runway. The climb with a wind correc-tion angle should be continued to follow a ground trackaligned with the runway direction. However, because theforce of a crosswind may vary markedly within a fewhundred feet of the ground, frequent checks of actualground track should be made, and the wind correctionadjusted as necessary. The remainder of the climb tech-nique is the same used for normal takeoffs and climbs.

Common errors in the performance of crosswind take-offs are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area prior to taxi-ing onto the active runway.

• Using less than full aileron pressure into thewind initially on the takeoff roll.

• Mechanical use of aileron control rather thansensing the need for varying aileron controlinput through feel for the airplane.

No correction

WIND

WIND

Proper correction

Figure 5-4. Crosswind effect.

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• Premature lift-off resulting in side-skipping.

• Excessive aileron input in the latter stage of thetakeoff roll resulting in a steep bank into the windat lift-off.

• Inadequate drift correction after lift-off.

GROUND EFFECT ON TAKEOFFGround effect is a condition of improved perform-ance encountered when the airplane is operatingvery close to the ground. Ground effect can bedetected and measured up to an altitude equal to onewingspan above the surface. [Figure 5-6] However,ground effect is most significant when the airplane(especially a low-wing airplane) is maintaining aconstant attitude at low airspeed at low altitude (forexample, during takeoff when the airplane lifts offand accelerates to climb speed, and during the land-ing flare before touchdown).

When the wing is under the influence of ground effect,there is a reduction in upwash, downwash, and wingtipvortices. As a result of the reduced wingtip vortices,induced drag is reduced. When the wing is at a heightequal to one-fourth the span, the reduction in induceddrag is about 25 percent, and when the wing is at aheight equal to one-tenth the span, the reduction ininduced drag is about 50 percent. At high speeds whereparasite drag dominates, induced drag is a small part ofthe total drag. Consequently, the effects of ground effectare of greater concern during takeoff and landing.

On takeoff, the takeoff roll, lift-off, and the beginningof the initial climb are accomplished in the groundeffect area. The ground effect causes local increases instatic pressure, which cause the airspeed indicator andaltimeter to indicate slightly less than they should, andusually results in the vertical speed indicator indicat-ing a descent. As the airplane lifts off and climbs out ofthe ground effect area, however, the following willoccur.

• The airplane will require an increase in angle ofattack to maintain the same lift coefficient.

• The airplane will experience an increase ininduced drag and thrust required.

• The airplane will experience a pitch-up tendencyand will require less elevator travel because of anincrease in downwash at the horizontal tail.

WIND

Figure 5-5. Crosswind climb flightpath.

Ground effectdecreasesinduced drag

Airplane mayfly at lower indicated airspeed

Accelerate inground effectto V or VX Y

Ground effectdecreases quicklywith height

Ground effect isnegligible whenheight is equalto wingspan

GroundEffectArea

Figure 5-6.Takeoff in ground effect area.

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• The airplane will experience a reduction in staticsource pressure as it leaves the ground effect areaand a corresponding increase in indicated air-speed.

Due to the reduced drag in ground effect, the airplanemay seem to be able to take off below the recom-mended airspeed. However, as the airplane rises out ofground effect with an insufficient airspeed, initialclimb performance may prove to be marginal becauseof the increased drag. Under conditions of high-den-sity altitude, high temperature, and/or maximum grossweight, the airplane may be able to become airborne atan insufficient airspeed, but unable to climb out ofground effect. Consequently, the airplane may not beable to clear obstructions, or may settle back on therunway. The point to remember is that additionalpower is required to compensate for increases in dragthat occur as an airplane leaves ground effect. But dur-ing an initial climb, the engine is already developingmaximum power. The only alternative is to lower pitchattitude to gain additional airspeed, which will result ininevitable altitude loss. Therefore, under marginal con-ditions, it is important that the airplane takes off at therecommended speed that will provide adequate initialclimb performance.

Ground effect is important to normal flight operations.If the runway is long enough, or if no obstacles exist,ground effect can be used to an advantage by using thereduced drag to improve initial acceleration.Additionally, the procedure for takeoff from unsatis-factory surfaces is to take as much weight on the wingsas possible during the ground run, and to lift off withthe aid of ground effect before true flying speed isattained. It is then necessary to reduce the angle ofattack to attain normal airspeed before attempting tofly away from the ground effect area.

SHORT-FIELD TAKEOFF AND MAXIMUM PERFORMANCE CLIMBTakeoffs and climbs from fields where the takeoff areais short or the available takeoff area is restricted byobstructions require that the pilot operate the airplaneat the limit of its takeoff performance capabilities. Todepart from such an area safely, the pilot must exercisepositive and precise control of airplane attitude andairspeed so that takeoff and climb performance resultsin the shortest ground roll and the steepest angle ofclimb. [Figure 5-7]

The achieved result should be consistent with theperformance section of the FAA-approved AirplaneFlight Manual and/or Pilot’s Operating Handbook(AFM/POH). In all cases, the power setting, flapsetting, airspeed, and procedures prescribed by theairplane’s manufacturer should be followed.

In order to accomplish a maximum performance take-off safely, the pilot must have adequate knowledge inthe use and effectiveness of the best angle-of-climbspeed (VX) and the best rate-of-climb speed (VY) forthe specific make and model of airplane being flown.

The speed for VX is that which will result in thegreatest gain in altitude for a given distance over theground. It is usually slightly less than VY which pro-vides the greatest gain in altitude per unit of time.The specific speeds to be used for a given airplaneare stated in the FAA-approved AFM/POH. It shouldbe emphasized that in some airplanes, a deviation of5 knots from the recommended speed will result in asignificant reduction in climb performance.Therefore, precise control of airspeed has an impor-tant bearing on the successful execution as well asthe safety of the maneuver.

Climbat VY

Retract gearand flaps

Climbat VX

Rotate atapproximately VX

Figure 5-7. Short-field takeoff.

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TAKEOFF ROLLTaking off from a short field requires the takeoff to bestarted from the very beginning of the takeoff area. Atthis point, the airplane is aligned with the intendedtakeoff path. If the airplane manufacturer recommendsthe use of flaps, they should be extended the properamount before starting the takeoff roll. This permitsthe pilot to give full attention to the proper techniqueand the airplane’s performance throughout the takeoff.

Some authorities prefer to hold the brakes until themaximum obtainable engine r.p.m. is achieved beforeallowing the airplane to begin its takeoff run. However,it has not been established that this procedure willresult in a shorter takeoff run in all light single-engineairplanes. Takeoff power should be applied smoothlyand continuously—without hesitation—to acceleratethe airplane as rapidly as possible. The airplane shouldbe allowed to roll with its full weight on the mainwheels and accelerated to the lift-off speed. As thetakeoff roll progresses, the airplane’s pitch attitude andangle of attack should be adjusted to that which resultsin the minimum amount of drag and the quickest accel-eration. In nosewheel-type airplanes, this will involvelittle use of the elevator control, since the airplane isalready in a low drag attitude.

LIFT-OFFApproaching best angle-of-climb speed (VX), the airplaneshould be smoothly and firmly lifted off, or rotated, byapplying back-elevator pressure to an attitude that willresult in the best angle-of-climb airspeed (VX). Since theairplane will accelerate more rapidly after lift-off, addi-tional back-elevator pressure becomes necessary to hold aconstant airspeed. After becoming airborne, a wings levelclimb should be maintained at VX until obstacles havebeen cleared or, if no obstacles are involved, until an alti-tude of at least 50 feet above the takeoff surface is attained.Thereafter, the pitch attitude may be lowered slightly, andthe climb continued at best rate-of-climb speed (VY) untilreaching a safe maneuvering altitude. Remember that anattempt to pull the airplane off the ground prematurely, orto climb too steeply, may cause the airplane to settle backto the runway or into the obstacles. Even if the airplaneremains airborne, the initial climb will remain flat andclimb performance/obstacle clearance ability seriouslydegraded until best angle-of-climb airspeed (VX) isachieved. [Figure 5-8]

The objective is to rotate to the appropriate pitch atti-tude at (or near) best angle-of-climb airspeed. It shouldbe remembered, however, that some airplanes willhave a natural tendency to lift off well before reachingVX. In these airplanes, it may be necessary to allow theairplane to lift off in ground effect and then reducepitch attitude to level until the airplane accelerates tobest angle-of-climb airspeed with the wheels just clearof the runway surface. This method is preferable toforcing the airplane to remain on the ground with for-ward-elevator pressure until best angle-of-climb speedis attained. Holding the airplane on the ground unnec-essarily puts excessive pressure on the nosewheel, mayresult in “wheelbarrowing,” and will hinder bothacceleration and overall airplane performance.

INITIAL CLIMBOn short-field takeoffs, the landing gear and flapsshould remain in takeoff position until clear of obsta-cles (or as recommended by the manufacturer) and VYhas been established. It is generally unwise for the pilotto be looking in the cockpit or reaching for landinggear and flap controls until obstacle clearance isassured. When the airplane is stabilized at VY, the gear(if equipped) and then the flaps should be retracted. Itis usually advisable to raise the flaps in increments toavoid sudden loss of lift and settling of the airplane.Next, reduce the power to the normal climb setting oras recommended by the airplane manufacturer.

Common errors in the performance of short-field take-offs and maximum performance climbs are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Failure to utilize all available runway/takeoffarea.

• Failure to have the airplane properly trimmedprior to takeoff.

• Premature lift-off resulting in high drag.

• Holding the airplane on the ground unnecessarilywith excessive forward-elevator pressure.

• Inadequate rotation resulting in excessive speedafter lift-off.

• Inability to attain/maintain best angle-of-climbairspeed.

Premature rotation Airplane may lift offat low airspeed

Airplane may settleback to the ground

Flight below Vresults in shallowclimb

X

Figure 5-8. Effect of premature lift-off.

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• Fixation on the airspeed indicator during initialclimb.

• Premature retraction of landing gear and/or wingflaps.

SOFT/ROUGH-FIELD TAKEOFF AND CLIMBTakeoffs and climbs from soft fields require the use ofoperational techniques for getting the airplane airborneas quickly as possible to eliminate the drag caused bytall grass, soft sand, mud, and snow, and may or maynot require climbing over an obstacle. The techniquemakes judicious use of ground effect and requires afeel for the airplane and fine control touch. These sametechniques are also useful on a rough field where it isadvisable to get the airplane off the ground as soon aspossible to avoid damaging the landing gear.

Soft surfaces or long, wet grass usually reduces the air-plane’s acceleration during the takeoff roll so muchthat adequate takeoff speed might not be attained ifnormal takeoff techniques were employed.

It should be emphasized that the correct takeoffprocedure for soft fields is quite different fromthat appropriate for short fields with firm, smoothsurfaces. To minimize the hazards associated withtakeoffs from soft or rough fields, support of theairplane’s weight must be transferred as rapidlyas possible from the wheels to the wings as thetakeoff roll proceeds. Establishing and maintain-ing a relatively high angle of attack or nose-highpitch attitude as early as possible does this. Wingflaps may be lowered prior to starting the takeoff(if recommended by the manufacturer) to provideadditional lift and to transfer the airplane’s weightfrom the wheels to the wings as early as possible.

Stopping on a soft surface, such as mud or snow, mightbog the airplane down; therefore, it should be kept incontinuous motion with sufficient power while liningup for the takeoff roll.

TAKEOFF ROLLAs the airplane is aligned with the takeoff path, takeoffpower is applied smoothly and as rapidly as the power-plant will accept it without faltering. As the airplane

accelerates, enough back-elevator pressure should beapplied to establish a positive angle of attack and toreduce the weight supported by the nosewheel.

When the airplane is held at a nose-high attitudethroughout the takeoff run, the wings will, as speedincreases and lift develops, progressively relieve thewheels of more and more of the airplane’s weight,thereby minimizing the drag caused by surface irregular-ities or adhesion. If this attitude is accurately maintained,the airplane will virtually fly itself off the ground,becoming airborne at airspeed slower than a safe climbspeed because of ground effect. [Figure 5-9]

LIFT-OFFAfter becoming airborne, the nose should be loweredvery gently with the wheels clear of the surface toallow the airplane to accelerate to VY, or VX if obsta-cles must be cleared. Extreme care must be exercisedimmediately after the airplane becomes airborne andwhile it accelerates, to avoid settling back onto the sur-face. An attempt to climb prematurely or too steeplymay cause the airplane to settle back to the surface asa result of losing the benefit of ground effect. Anattempt to climb out of ground effect before sufficientclimb airspeed is attained may result in the airplanebeing unable to climb further as the ground effect areais transited, even with full power. Therefore, it isessential that the airplane remain in ground effect untilat least VX is reached. This requires feel for the air-plane, and a very fine control touch, in order to avoidover-controlling the elevator as required control pres-sures change with airplane acceleration.

INITIAL CLIMBAfter a positive rate of climb is established, and the air-plane has accelerated to VY, retract the landing gear andflaps, if equipped. If departing from an airstrip with wetsnow or slush on the takeoff surface, the gear should notbe retracted immediately. This allows for any wet snowor slush to be air-dried. In the event an obstacle must becleared after a soft-field takeoff, the climb-out is per-formed at VX until the obstacle has been cleared. Afterreaching this point, the pitch attitude is adjusted to VYand the gear and flaps are retracted. The power maythen be reduced to the normal climb setting.

Accelerate Raise nosewheel Lift offLevel off inground effect

Acceleratein ground effectto VX or VY

Figure 5-9. Soft-field takeoff.

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Common errors in the performance of soft/rough fieldtakeoff and climbs are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Insufficient back-elevator pressure during initialtakeoff roll resulting in inadequate angle ofattack.

• Failure to cross-check engine instruments forindications of proper operation after applyingpower.

• Poor directional control.

• Climbing too steeply after lift-off.

• Abrupt and/or excessive elevator control whileattempting to level off and accelerate after lift-off.

• Allowing the airplane to “mush” or settle result-ing in an inadvertent touchdown after lift-off.

• Attempting to climb out of ground effect areabefore attaining sufficient climb speed.

• Failure to anticipate an increase in pitch attitudeas the airplane climbs out of ground effect.

REJECTED TAKEOFF/ENGINE FAILUREEmergency or abnormal situations can occur during atakeoff that will require a pilot to reject the takeoffwhile still on the runway. Circumstances such as amalfunctioning powerplant, inadequate acceleration,runway incursion, or air traffic conflict may be rea-sons for a rejected takeoff.

Prior to takeoff, the pilot should have in mind apoint along the runway at which the airplaneshould be airborne. If that point is reached and theairplane is not airborne, immediate action shouldbe taken to discontinue the takeoff. Properlyplanned and executed, chances are excellent theairplane can be stopped on the remaining runwaywithout using extraordinary measures, such asexcessive braking that may result in loss of direc-tional control, airplane damage, and/or personalinjury.

In the event a takeoff is rejected, the power should bereduced to idle and maximum braking applied whilemaintaining directional control. If it is necessary toshut down the engine due to a fire, the mixture controlshould be brought to the idle cutoff position and themagnetos turned off. In all cases, the manufacturer’semergency procedure should be followed.

What characterizes all power loss or engine failureoccurrences after lift-off is urgency. In most instances,the pilot has only a few seconds after an engine failureto decide what course of action to take and to executeit. Unless prepared in advance to make the proper deci-sion, there is an excellent chance the pilot will make apoor decision, or make no decision at all and allowevents to rule.

In the event of an engine failure on initial climb-out,the pilot’s first responsibility is to maintain aircraftcontrol. At a climb pitch attitude without power, theairplane will be at or near a stalling angle of attack.At the same time, the pilot may still be holding rightrudder. It is essential the pilot immediately lower thepitch attitude to prevent a stall and possible spin.The pilot should establish a controlled glide towarda plausible landing area (preferably straight aheadon the remaining runway).

NOISE ABATEMENTAircraft noise problems have become a major concern atmany airports throughout the country. Many local com-munities have pressured airports into developing specificoperational procedures that will help limit aircraft noisewhile operating over nearby areas. For years now, theFAA, airport managers, aircraft operators, pilots, and spe-cial interest groups have been working together to mini-mize aircraft noise for nearby sensitive areas. As a result,noise abatement procedures have been developed formany of these airports that include standardized profilesand procedures to achieve these lower noise goals.

Airports that have noise abatement procedures provideinformation to pilots, operators, air carriers, air trafficfacilities, and other special groups that are applicableto their airport. These procedures are available to theaviation community by various means. Most of thisinformation comes from the Airport/Facility Directory,local and regional publications, printed handouts, oper-ator bulletin boards, safety briefings, and local air traf-fic facilities.

At airports that use noise abatement procedures,reminder signs may be installed at the taxiway holdpositions for applicable runways. These are to remindpilots to use and comply with noise abatement proce-dures on departure. Pilots who are not familiar withthese procedures should ask the tower or air trafficfacility for the recommended procedures. In any case,pilots should be considerate of the surrounding com-munity while operating their airplane to and from suchan airport. This includes operating as quietly, yet safelyas possible.

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PURPOSE AND SCOPEGround reference maneuvers and their related factorsare used in developing a high degree of pilot skill.Although most of these maneuvers are not performedas such in normal everyday flying, the elements andprinciples involved in each are applicable to perform-ance of the customary pilot operations. They aid thepilot in analyzing the effect of wind and other forcesacting on the airplane and in developing a fine con-trol touch, coordination, and the division of attentionnecessary for accurate and safe maneuvering of theairplane.

All of the early part of the pilot’s training has been con-ducted at relatively high altitudes, and for the purposeof developing technique, knowledge of maneuvers,coordination, feel, and the handling of the airplane ingeneral. This training will have required that most ofthe pilot’s attention be given to the actual handling ofthe airplane, and the results of control pressures on theaction and attitude of the airplane.

If permitted to continue beyond the appropriate trainingstage, however, the student pilot’s concentration ofattention will become a fixed habit, one that will seri-ously detract from the student’s ease and safety as apilot, and will be very difficult to eliminate. Therefore,it is necessary, as soon as the pilot shows proficiency inthe fundamental maneuvers, that the pilot be introducedto maneuvers requiring outside attention on a practicalapplication of these maneuvers and the knowledgegained.

It should be stressed that, during ground referencemaneuvers, it is equally important that basic flyingtechnique previously learned be maintained. Theflight instructor should not allow any relaxation of thestudent’s previous standard of technique simplybecause a new factor is added. This requirementshould be maintained throughout the student’sprogress from maneuver to maneuver. Each newmaneuver should embody some advance and includethe principles of the preceding one in order that conti-nuity be maintained. Each new factor introducedshould be merely a step-up of one already learned sothat orderly, consistent progress can be made.

MANEUVERING BY REFERENCETO GROUND OBJECTSGround track or ground reference maneuvers are per-formed at a relatively low altitude while applying winddrift correction as needed to follow a predeterminedtrack or path over the ground. They are designed todevelop the ability to control the airplane, and to recog-nize and correct for the effect of wind while dividingattention among other matters. This requires planningahead of the airplane, maintaining orientation in relationto ground objects, flying appropriate headings to followa desired ground track, and being cognizant of other airtraffic in the immediate vicinity.

Ground reference maneuvers should be flown at an alti-tude of approximately 600 to 1,000 feet AGL. Theactual altitude will depend on the speed and type of air-plane to a large extent, and the following factors shouldbe considered.

• The speed with relation to the ground should notbe so apparent that events happen too rapidly.

• The radius of the turn and the path of the airplaneover the ground should be easily noted andchanges planned and effected as circumstancesrequire.

• Drift should be easily discernable, but not tax thestudent too much in making corrections.

• Objects on the ground should appear in their pro-portion and size.

• The altitude should be low enough to render anygain or loss apparent to the student, but in no caselower than 500 feet above the highest obstruction.

During these maneuvers, both the instructor and thestudent should be alert for available forced-landingfields. The area chosen should be away from communi-ties, livestock, or groups of people to prevent possibleannoyance or hazards to others. Due to the altitudes atwhich these maneuvers are performed, there is littletime available to search for a suitable field for landingin the event the need arises.

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DRIFT AND GROUND TRACK CONTROLWhenever any object is free from the ground, it isaffected by the medium with which it is surrounded.This means that a free object will move in whateverdirection and speed that the medium moves.

For example, if a powerboat is crossing a river andthe river is still, the boat could head directly to a pointon the opposite shore and travel on a straight courseto that point without drifting. However, if the riverwere flowing swiftly, the water current would have tobe considered. That is, as the boat progresses forwardwith its own power, it must also move upstream at thesame rate the river is moving it downstream. This isaccomplished by angling the boat upstream suffi-ciently to counteract the downstream flow. If this isdone, the boat will follow the desired track acrossthe river from the departure point directly to theintended destination point. Should the boat not beheaded sufficiently upstream, it would drift with thecurrent and run aground at some point downstreamon the opposite bank. [Figure 6-1]

As soon as an airplane becomes airborne, it is free ofground friction. Its path is then affected by the air massin which it is flying; therefore, the airplane (like theboat) will not always track along the ground in theexact direction that it is headed. When flying with thelongitudinal axis of the airplane aligned with a road, itmay be noted that the airplane gets closer to or fartherfrom the road without any turn having been made. This

would indicate that the air mass is moving sideward inrelation to the airplane. Since the airplane is flyingwithin this moving body of air (wind), it moves ordrifts with the air in the same direction and speed, justlike the boat moved with the river current. [Figure 6-1]

When flying straight and level and following aselected ground track, the preferred method of cor-recting for wind drift is to head the airplane (windcorrection angle) sufficiently into the wind to causethe airplane to move forward into the wind at thesame rate the wind is moving it sideways.Depending on the wind velocity, this may require alarge wind correction angle or one of only a fewdegrees. When the drift has been neutralized, theairplane will follow the desired ground track.

To understand the need for drift correction duringflight, consider a flight with a wind velocity of 30knots from the left and 90° to the direction the airplaneis headed. After 1 hour, the body of air in which theairplane is flying will have moved 30 nautical miles(NM) to the right. Since the airplane is moving withthis body of air, it too will have drifted 30 NM to theright. In relation to the air, the airplane moved for-ward, but in relation to the ground, it moved forwardas well as 30 NM to the right.

There are times when the pilot needs to correct for driftwhile in a turn. [Figure 6-2] Throughout the turn thewind will be acting on the airplane from constantlychanging angles. The relative wind angle and speed

CURRENT CURRENT

No Current - No Drift With a current the boat driftsdownstream unless corrected.

With proper correction, boatstays on intended course.

No Wind - No Drift With any wind, the airplane driftsdownwind unless corrected.

With proper correction, airplanestays on intended course.

WIND WIND

Figure 6-1. Wind drift.

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govern the time it takes for the airplane to progressthrough any part of a turn. This is due to the constantlychanging groundspeed. When the airplane is headedinto the wind, the groundspeed is decreased; whenheaded downwind, the groundspeed is increased.Through the crosswind portion of a turn, the airplanemust be turned sufficiently into the wind to counteractdrift.

To follow a desired circular ground track, the wind cor-rection angle must be varied in a timely mannerbecause of the varying groundspeed as the turn pro-gresses. The faster the groundspeed, the faster the windcorrection angle must be established; the slower thegroundspeed, the slower the wind correction angle maybe established. It can be seen then that the steepestbank and fastest rate of turn should be made on thedownwind portion of the turn and the shallowest bankand slowest rate of turn on the upwind portion.

The principles and techniques of varying the angle ofbank to change the rate of turn and wind correctionangle for controlling wind drift during a turn are thesame for all ground track maneuvers involvingchanges in direction of flight.

When there is no wind, it should be simple to fly alonga ground track with an arc of exactly 180° and a con-stant radius because the flightpath and ground trackwould be identical. This can be demonstrated byapproaching a road at a 90° angle and, when directlyover the road, rolling into a medium-banked turn, thenmaintaining the same angle of bank throughout the180° of turn. [Figure 6-2]

To complete the turn, the rollout should be started at apoint where the wings will become level as the airplaneagain reaches the road at a 90° angle and will bedirectly over the road just as the turn is completed. Thiswould be possible only if there were absolutely nowind and if the angle of bank and the rate of turnremained constant throughout the entire maneuver.

If the turn were made with a constant angle of bankand a wind blowing directly across the road, it wouldresult in a constant radius turn through the air.However, the wind effects would cause the groundtrack to be distorted from a constant radius turn orsemicircular path. The greater the wind velocity, thegreater would be the difference between the desiredground track and the flightpath. To counteract thisdrift, the flightpath can be controlled by the pilot insuch a manner as to neutralize the effect of the wind,and cause the ground track to be a constant radiussemicircle.

The effects of wind during turns can be demonstratedafter selecting a road, railroad, or other ground refer-ence that forms a straight line parallel to the wind. Flyinto the wind directly over and along the line and thenmake a turn with a constant medium angle of bank for360° of turn. [Figure 6-3] The airplane will return to apoint directly over the line but slightly downwind fromthe starting point, the amount depending on the windvelocity and the time required to complete the turn.The path over the ground will be an elongated circle,although in reference to the air it is a perfect circle.Straight flight during the upwind segment after com-pletion of the turn is necessary to bring the airplaneback to the starting position.

20 Knot Wind

Intended ground path

Actual ground path

No Wind

Figure 6-2. Effect of wind during a turn.

Figure 6-3. Effect of wind during turns.

No Wind

Start & Finish

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A similar 360° turn may be started at a specific pointover the reference line, with the airplane headeddirectly downwind. In this demonstration, the effect ofwind during the constant banked turn will drift the air-plane to a point where the line is reintercepted, but the360° turn will be completed at a point downwind fromthe starting point.

Another reference line which lies directly crosswindmay be selected and the same procedure repeated,showing that if wind drift is not corrected the airplanewill, at the completion of the 360° turn, be headed inthe original direction but will have drifted away fromthe line a distance dependent on the amount of wind.

From these demonstrations, it can be seen where andwhy it is necessary to increase or decrease the angle ofbank and the rate of turn to achieve a desired track overthe ground. The principles and techniques involved canbe practiced and evaluated by the performance of theground track maneuvers discussed in this chapter.

RECTANGULAR COURSENormally, the first ground reference maneuver the pilotis introduced to is the rectangular course. [Figure 6-4]

The rectangular course is a training maneuver in whichthe ground track of the airplane is equidistant from allsides of a selected rectangular area on the ground. Themaneuver simulates the conditions encountered in anairport traffic pattern. While performing the maneu-ver, the altitude and airspeed should be held constant.The maneuver assists the student pilot in perfecting:

• Practical application of the turn.

• The division of attention between the flightpath,ground objects, and the handling of the airplane.

• The timing of the start of a turn so that the turnwill be fully established at a definite point overthe ground.

• The timing of the recovery from a turn so that adefinite ground track will be maintained.

• The establishing of a ground track and the deter-mination of the appropriate “crab” angle.

Like those of other ground track maneuvers, one of theobjectives is to develop division of attention betweenthe flightpath and ground references, while controllingthe airplane and watching for other aircraft in the

Turn More Than90° Rolloutwith Wind Correction Established

Complete Turnat Boundary

Turn IntoWind

Start Turn atBoundary

Start Turnat Boundary

Complete Turnat Boundary

TurnLess Than 90°

Complete Turnat Boundary

Start Turnat Boundary

No Wind Correction

Enter45° to Downwind

Exit

No Wind Correction

Turn IntoWind

Turn Less Than90° RolloutWith WIind Correction Established

Turn MoreThan 90°

Start Turn atBoundary

Complete Turnat Boundary

Tra

ck W

ith N

o W

ind

Cor

rect

ion T

rackW

ithN

oW

indC

orrection

DOWNWIND

UPWIND

CROSSWIND

BASE

Figure 6-4. Rectangular course.

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vicinity. Another objective is to develop recognition ofdrift toward or away from a line parallel to the intendedground track. This will be helpful in recognizing drifttoward or from an airport runway during the variouslegs of the airport traffic pattern.

For this maneuver, a square or rectangular field, or anarea bounded on four sides by section lines or roads(the sides of which are approximately a mile in length),should be selected well away from other air traffic. Theairplane should be flown parallel to and at a uniformdistance about one-fourth to one-half mile away fromthe field boundaries, not above the boundaries. Forbest results, the flightpath should be positioned outsidethe field boundaries just far enough that they may beeasily observed from either pilot seat by looking outthe side of the airplane. If an attempt is made to flydirectly above the edges of the field, the pilot will haveno usable reference points to start and complete theturns. The closer the track of the airplane is to the fieldboundaries, the steeper the bank necessary at the turn-ing points. Also, the pilot should be able to see theedges of the selected field while seated in a normalposition and looking out the side of the airplane duringeither a left-hand or right-hand course. The distance ofthe ground track from the edges of the field should bethe same regardless of whether the course is flown tothe left or right. All turns should be started when theairplane is abeam the corner of the field boundaries,and the bank normally should not exceed 45°. Theseshould be the determining factors in establishing thedistance from the boundaries for performing themaneuver.

Although the rectangular course may be entered fromany direction, this discussion assumes entry on adownwind.

On the downwind leg, the wind is a tailwind and resultsin an increased groundspeed. Consequently, the turnonto the next leg is entered with a fairly fast rate ofroll-in with relatively steep bank. As the turn pro-gresses, the bank angle is reduced gradually becausethe tailwind component is diminishing, resulting in adecreasing groundspeed.

During and after the turn onto this leg (the equivalentof the base leg in a traffic pattern), the wind will tendto drift the airplane away from the field boundary. Tocompensate for the drift, the amount of turn will bemore than 90°.

The rollout from this turn must be such that as thewings become level, the airplane is turned slightlytoward the field and into the wind to correct for drift.The airplane should again be the same distance fromthe field boundary and at the same altitude, as on otherlegs. The base leg should be continued until the upwind

leg boundary is being approached. Once more the pilotshould anticipate drift and turning radius. Since driftcorrection was held on the base leg, it is necessary toturn less than 90° to align the airplane parallel to theupwind leg boundary. This turn should be started witha medium bank angle with a gradual reduction to ashallow bank as the turn progresses. The rollout shouldbe timed to assure paralleling the boundary of the fieldas the wings become level.

While the airplane is on the upwind leg, the next fieldboundary should be observed as it is being approached,to plan the turn onto the crosswind leg. Since the windis a headwind on this leg, it is reducing the airplane’sgroundspeed and during the turn onto the crosswindleg will try to drift the airplane toward the field. Forthis reason, the roll-in to the turn must be slow and thebank relatively shallow to counteract this effect. As theturn progresses, the headwind component decreases,allowing the groundspeed to increase. Consequently,the bank angle and rate of turn are increased graduallyto assure that upon completion of the turn the cross-wind ground track will continue the same distancefrom the edge of the field. Completion of the turn withthe wings level should be accomplished at a pointaligned with the upwind corner of the field.

Simultaneously, as the wings are rolled level, theproper drift correction is established with the airplaneturned into the wind. This requires that the turn be lessthan a 90° change in heading. If the turn has been madeproperly, the field boundary will again appear to beone-fourth to one-half mile away. While on the cross-wind leg, the wind correction angle should be adjustedas necessary to maintain a uniform distance from thefield boundary.

As the next field boundary is being approached, thepilot should plan the turn onto the downwind leg. Sincea wind correction angle is being held into the wind andaway from the field while on the crosswind leg, thisnext turn will require a turn of more than 90°. Sincethe crosswind will become a tailwind, causing thegroundspeed to increase during this turn, the bank ini-tially should be medium and progressively increasedas the turn proceeds. To complete the turn, the rolloutmust be timed so that the wings become level at a pointaligned with the crosswind corner of the field just asthe longitudinal axis of the airplane again becomesparallel to the field boundary. The distance from thefield boundary should be the same as from the othersides of the field.

Usually, drift should not be encountered on the upwindor the downwind leg, but it may be difficult to find asituation where the wind is blowing exactly parallel tothe field boundaries. This would make it necessary touse a slight wind correction angle on all the legs. It is

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important to anticipate the turns to correct for ground-speed, drift, and turning radius. When the wind isbehind the airplane, the turn must be faster and steeper;when it is ahead of the airplane, the turn must beslower and shallower. These same techniques applywhile flying in airport traffic patterns.

Common errors in the performance of rectangularcourses are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Failure to establish proper altitude prior toentry. (Typically entering the maneuver whiledescending.)

• Failure to establish appropriate wind correctionangle resulting in drift.

• Gaining or losing altitude.

• Poor coordination. (Typically skidding in turnsfrom a downwind heading and slipping in turnsfrom an upwind heading.)

• Abrupt control usage.

• Inability to adequately divide attention betweenairplane control and maintaining ground track.

• Improper timing in beginning and recoveringfrom turns.

• Inadequate visual lookout for other aircraft.

S-TURNS ACROSS A ROADAn S-turn across a road is a practice maneuver inwhich the airplane’s ground track describes semicir-cles of equal radii on each side of a selected straightline on the ground. [Figure 6-5] The straight line maybe a road, fence, railroad, or section line that lies per-pendicular to the wind, and should be of sufficientlength for making a series of turns. A constant altitudeshould be maintained throughout the maneuver.

S-turns across a road present one of the most elemen-tary problems in the practical application of the turnand in the correction for wind drift in turns. While theapplication of this maneuver is considerably lessadvanced in some respects than the rectangular course,it is taught after the student has been introduced to thatmaneuver in order that the student may have a knowl-edge of the correction for wind drift in straight flightalong a reference line before the student attempt tocorrect for drift by playing a turn.

The objectives of S-turns across a road are to developthe ability to compensate for drift during turns, orientthe flightpath with ground references, follow anassigned ground track, arrive at specified points onassigned headings, and divide the pilot’s attention. The

SteepBank

Shallow Bank

Shallow Bank

SteepBank

Moderate Bank

Moderate Bank

Wings Level

Entry

Figure 6-5. S-Turns.

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maneuver consists of crossing the road at a 90° angleand immediately beginning a series of 180° turns ofuniform radius in opposite directions, re-crossing theroad at a 90° angle just as each 180° turn is completed.

To accomplish a constant radius ground track requiresa changing roll rate and angle of bank to establish thewind correction angle. Both will increase or decreaseas groundspeed increases or decreases.

The bank must be steepest when beginning the turn onthe downwind side of the road and must be shallowedgradually as the turn progresses from a downwindheading to an upwind heading. On the upwind side, theturn should be started with a relatively shallow bankand then gradually steepened as the airplane turns froman upwind heading to a downwind heading.

In this maneuver, the airplane should be rolled fromone bank directly into the opposite just as the referenceline on the ground is crossed.

Before starting the maneuver, a straight ground refer-ence line or road that lies 90° to the direction of thewind should be selected, then the area checked toensure that no obstructions or other aircraft are in theimmediate vicinity. The road should be approachedfrom the upwind side, at the selected altitude on adownwind heading. When directly over the road, thefirst turn should be started immediately. With the air-plane headed downwind, the groundspeed is greatestand the rate of departure from the road will be rapid;so the roll into the steep bank must be fairly rapid toattain the proper wind correction angle. This preventsthe airplane from flying too far from the road andfrom establishing a ground track of excessive radius.

During the latter portion of the first 90° of turn whenthe airplane’s heading is changing from a downwindheading to a crosswind heading, the groundspeedbecomes less and the rate of departure from the roaddecreases. The wind correction angle will be at themaximum when the airplane is headed directly cross-wind.

After turning 90°, the airplane’s heading becomesmore and more an upwind heading, the groundspeedwill decrease, and the rate of closure with the roadwill become slower. If a constant steep bank weremaintained, the airplane would turn too quickly forthe slower rate of closure, and would be headed per-pendicular to the road prematurely. Because of thedecreasing groundspeed and rate of closure whileapproaching the upwind heading, it will be necessaryto gradually shallow the bank during the remaining90° of the semicircle, so that the wind correctionangle is removed completely and the wings becomelevel as the 180° turn is completed at the moment theroad is reached.

At the instant the road is being crossed again, a turn inthe opposite direction should be started. Since the air-plane is still flying into the headwind, the groundspeedis relatively slow. Therefore, the turn will have to bestarted with a shallow bank so as to avoid an excessiverate of turn that would establish the maximum windcorrection angle too soon. The degree of bank shouldbe that which is necessary to attain the proper windcorrection angle so the ground track describes an arcthe same size as the one established on the downwindside.

Since the airplane is turning from an upwind to adownwind heading, the groundspeed will increaseand after turning 90°, the rate of closure with the roadwill increase rapidly. Consequently, the angle of bankand rate of turn must be progressively increased sothat the airplane will have turned 180° at the time itreaches the road. Again, the rollout must be timed sothe airplane is in straight-and-level flight directlyover and perpendicular to the road.

Throughout the maneuver a constant altitude shouldbe maintained, and the bank should be changingconstantly to effect a true semicircular ground track.

Often there is a tendency to increase the bank toorapidly during the initial part of the turn on theupwind side, which will prevent the completion ofthe 180° turn before re-crossing the road. This isapparent when the turn is not completed in time forthe airplane to cross the road at a perpendicularangle. To avoid this error, the pilot must visualize thedesired half circle ground track, and increase thebank during the early part of this turn. During the lat-ter part of the turn, when approaching the road, thepilot must judge the closure rate properly andincrease the bank accordingly, so as to cross the roadperpendicular to it just as the rollout is completed.

Common errors in the performance of S-turns across aroad are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Poor coordination.

• Gaining or losing altitude.

• Inability to visualize the half circle ground track.

• Poor timing in beginning and recovering fromturns.

• Faulty correction for drift.

• Inadequate visual lookout for other aircraft.

TURNS AROUND A POINTTurns around a point, as a training maneuver, is alogical extension of the principles involved in the

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performance of S-turns across a road. Its purposes asa training maneuver are:

• To further perfect turning technique.

• To perfect the ability to subconsciously controlthe airplane while dividing attention between theflightpath and ground references.

• To teach the student that the radius of a turn is adistance which is affected by the degree of bankused when turning with relation to a definiteobject.

• To develop a keen perception of altitude.

• To perfect the ability to correct for wind driftwhile in turns.

In turns around a point, the airplane is flown in two ormore complete circles of uniform radii or distancefrom a prominent ground reference point using a max-imum bank of approximately 45° while maintaining aconstant altitude.

The factors and principles of drift correction that areinvolved in S-turns are also applicable in this maneu-ver. As in other ground track maneuvers, a constantradius around a point will, if any wind exists, require aconstantly changing angle of bank and angles of wind

correction. The closer the airplane is to a direct down-wind heading where the groundspeed is greatest, thesteeper the bank and the faster the rate of turn requiredto establish the proper wind correction angle. Themore nearly it is to a direct upwind heading where thegroundspeed is least, the shallower the bank and theslower the rate of turn required to establish the properwind correction angle. It follows, then, that through-out the maneuver the bank and rate of turn must begradually varied in proportion to the groundspeed.

The point selected for turns around a point shouldbe prominent, easily distinguished by the pilot, andyet small enough to present precise reference.[Figure 6-6] Isolated trees, crossroads, or other sim-ilar small landmarks are usually suitable.

To enter turns around a point, the airplane should beflown on a downwind heading to one side of theselected point at a distance equal to the desired radiusof turn. In a high-wing airplane, the distance from thepoint must permit the pilot to see the point throughoutthe maneuver even with the wing lowered in a bank. Ifthe radius is too large, the lowered wing will block thepilot’s view of the point.

When any significant wind exists, it will be necessary toroll into the initial bank at a rapid rate so that the steep-

Steepest

Bank

Shallowest

Bank

SteeperBank

ShallowerBank

Upwind Half of Circle

Downwind Half of Circle

Figure 6-6.Turns around a point.

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est bank is attained abeam of the point when the airplaneis headed directly downwind. By entering the maneuverwhile heading directly downwind, the steepest bank canbe attained immediately. Thus, if a maximum bank of45° is desired, the initial bank will be 45° if the airplaneis at the correct distance from the point. Thereafter, thebank is shallowed gradually until the point is reachedwhere the airplane is headed directly upwind. At thispoint, the bank should be gradually steepened until thesteepest bank is again attained when heading downwindat the initial point of entry.

Just as S-turns require that the airplane be turned intothe wind in addition to varying the bank, so do turnsaround a point. During the downwind half of the circle,the airplane’s nose is progressively turned toward theinside of the circle; during the upwind half, the nose isprogressively turned toward the outside. The downwindhalf of the turn around the point may be compared to thedownwind side of the S-turn across a road; the upwindhalf of the turn around a point may be compared to theupwind side of the S-turn across a road.

As the pilot becomes experienced in performing turnsaround a point and has a good understanding of theeffects of wind drift and varying of the bank angle andwind correction angle as required, entry into themaneuver may be from any point. When entering themaneuver at a point other than downwind, however,the radius of the turn should be carefully selected, tak-ing into account the wind velocity and groundspeed sothat an excessive bank is not required later on to main-tain the proper ground track. The flight instructorshould place particular emphasis on the effect of anincorrect initial bank. This emphasis should continuein the performance of elementary eights.

Common errors in the performance of turns around apoint are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Failure to establish appropriate bank on entry.

• Failure to recognize wind drift.

• Excessive bank and/or inadequate wind correc-tion angle on the downwind side of the circleresulting in drift towards the reference point.

• Inadequate bank angle and/or excessive windcorrection angle on the upwind side of the circleresulting in drift away from the reference point.

• Skidding turns when turning from downwind tocrosswind.

• Slipping turns when turning from upwind tocrosswind.

• Gaining or losing altitude.

• Inadequate visual lookout for other aircraft.

• Inability to direct attention outside the airplanewhile maintaining precise airplane control.

ELEMENTARY EIGHTSAn “eight” is a maneuver in which the airplanedescribes a path over the ground more or less in theshape of a figure “8”. In all eights except “lazy eights”the path is horizontal as though following a markedpath over the ground. There are various types of eights,progressing from the elementary types to very difficulttypes in the advanced maneuvers. Each has its specialuse in teaching the student to solve a particularproblem of turning with relation to the Earth, or anobject on the Earth’s surface. Each type, as theyadvance in difficulty of accomplishment, furtherperfects the student’s coordination technique andrequires a higher degree of subconscious flying abil-ity. Of all the training maneuvers available to theinstructor, only eights require the progressivelyhigher degree of conscious attention to outsideobjects. However, the real importance of eights is inthe requirement for the perfection and display ofsubconscious flying.

Elementary eights, specifically eights along a road,eights across a road, and eights around pylons, arevariations of turns around a point, which use twopoints about which the airplane circles in eitherdirection. Elementary eights are designed for the fol-lowing purposes.

• To perfect turning technique.

• To develop the ability to divide attention betweenthe actual handling of controls and an outsideobjective.

• To perfect the knowledge of the effect of angle ofbank on radius of turn.

• To demonstrate how wind affects the path of theairplane over the ground.

• To gain experience in the visualization of theresults of planning before the execution of themaneuver.

• To train the student to think and plan ahead of theairplane.

EIGHTS ALONG A ROADAn eight along a road is a maneuver in which theground track consists of two complete adjacent circlesof equal radii on each side of a straight road or otherreference line on the ground. The ground track resem-bles a figure 8. [Figure 6-7 on next page]

Like the other ground reference maneuvers, itsobjective is to develop division of attention while

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compensating for drift, maintaining orientation withground references, and maintaining a constantaltitude.

Although eights along a road may be performed withthe wind blowing parallel to the road or directly acrossthe road, for simplification purposes, only the latter sit-uation is explained since the principles involved ineither case are common.

A reference line or road which is perpendicular to thewind should be selected and the airplane flown parallelto and directly above the road. Since the wind is blow-ing across the flightpath, the airplane will require somewind correction angle to stay directly above the roadduring the initial straight and level portion. Beforestarting the maneuver, the area should be checked toensure clearance of obstructions and avoidance ofother aircraft.

Usually, the first turn should be made toward a down-wind heading starting with a medium bank. Since theairplane will be turning more and more directly down-wind, the groundspeed will be gradually increasing andthe rate of departing the road will tend to becomefaster. Thus, the bank and rate of turn is increased toestablish a wind correction angle to keep the airplanefrom exceeding the desired distance from the roadwhen 180° of change in direction is completed. Thesteepest bank is attained when the airplane is headeddirectly downwind.

As the airplane completes 180° of change in direction,it will be flying parallel to and using a wind correctionangle toward the road with the wind acting directlyperpendicular to the ground track. At this point, thepilot should visualize the remaining 180° of groundtrack required to return to the same place over the roadfrom which the maneuver started.

While the turn is continued toward an upwind heading,the wind will tend to keep the airplane from reaching

the road, with a decrease in groundspeed and rate ofclosure. The rate of turn and wind correction angle aredecreased proportionately so that the road will bereached just as the 360° turn is completed. To accom-plish this, the bank is decreased so that when headeddirectly upwind, it will be at the shallowest angle. Inthe last 90° of the turn, the bank may be varied to cor-rect any previous errors in judging the returning rateand closure rate. The rollout should be timed so thatthe airplane will be straight and level over the startingpoint, with enough drift correction to hold it over theroad.

After momentarily flying straight and level along theroad, the airplane is then rolled into a medium bankturn in the opposite direction to begin the circle on theupwind side of the road. The wind will still be decreas-ing the groundspeed and trying to drift the airplaneback toward the road; therefore, the bank must bedecreased slowly during the first 90° change in direc-tion in order to reach the desired distance from theroad and attain the proper wind correction angle when180° change in direction has been completed.

As the remaining 180° of turn continues, the windbecomes more of a tailwind and increases the air-plane’s groundspeed. This causes the rate of closureto become faster; consequently, the angle of bankand rate of turn must be increased further to attainsufficient wind correction angle to keep the airplanefrom approaching the road too rapidly. The bank willbe at its steepest angle when the airplane is headeddirectly downwind.

In the last 90° of the turn, the rate of turn should bereduced to bring the airplane over the starting point onthe road. The rollout must be timed so the airplane willbe straight and level, turned into the wind, and flyingparallel to and over the road.

The measure of a student’s progress in the performanceof eights along a road is the smoothness and accuracy ofthe change in bank used to counteract drift. The soonerthe drift is detected and correction applied, the smallerwill be the required changes. The more quickly thestudent can anticipate the corrections needed, theless obvious the changes will be and the more attentioncan be diverted to the maintenance of altitude and opera-tion of the airplane.

Errors in coordination must be eliminated and a con-stant altitude maintained. Flying technique must notbe allowed to suffer from the fact that the student’sattention is diverted. This technique should improve asthe student becomes able to divide attention betweenthe operation of the airplane controls and following adesignated flightpath.

ShallowerBank

ShallowestBank Steep

Bank

ShallowestBank

SteeperBank

SteepestBank

Figure 6-7. Eights along a road.

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EIGHTS ACROSS A ROADThis maneuver is a variation of eights along a road andinvolves the same principles and techniques. The pri-mary difference is that at the completion of each loopof the figure eight, the airplane should cross an inter-section of roads or a specific point on a straight road.[Figure 6-8]

The loops should be across the road and the windshould be perpendicular to the road. Each time the roadis crossed, the crossing angle should be the same andthe wings of the airplane should be level. The eights

also may be performed by rolling from one bankimmediately to the other, directly over the road.

EIGHTS AROUND PYLONSThis training maneuver is an application of the sameprinciples and techniques of correcting for wind driftas used in turns around a point and the same objectivesas other ground track maneuvers. In this case, twopoints or pylons on the ground are used as references,and turns around each pylon are made in oppositedirections to follow a ground track in the form of afigure 8. [Figure 6-9]

SteeperBank

ShallowerBank

ShallowestBank

SteeperBank

ShallowestBank

ShallowerBank

SteepestBank

SteepestBank

Figure 6-8. Eights across a road.

SteeperBank

ShallowerBank

ShallowestBank

SteeperBank

ShallowestBank

ShallowerBank

SteepestBank

SteepestBank

Figure 6-9. Eights around pylons.

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The pattern involves flying downwind between thepylons and upwind outside of the pylons. It mayinclude a short period of straight-and-level flight whileproceeding diagonally from one pylon to the other.

The pylons selected should be on a line 90° to thedirection of the wind and should be in an area awayfrom communities, livestock, or groups of people, toavoid possible annoyance or hazards to others. Thearea selected should be clear of hazardous obstructionsand other air traffic. Throughout the maneuver a con-stant altitude of at least 500 feet above the groundshould be maintained.

The eight should be started with the airplane on adownwind heading when passing between the pylons.The distance between the pylons and the wind velocitywill determine the initial angle of bank required tomaintain a constant radius from the pylons during eachturn. The steepest banks will be necessary just aftereach turn entry and just before the rollout from eachturn where the airplane is headed downwind and thegroundspeed is greatest; the shallowest banks will bewhen the airplane is headed directly upwind and thegroundspeed is least.

The rate of bank change will depend on the windvelocity, the same as it does in S-turns and turnsaround a point, and the bank will be changing contin-uously during the turns. The adjustment of the bankangle should be gradual from the steepest bank to theshallowest bank as the airplane progressively headsinto the wind, followed by a gradual increase until thesteepest bank is again reached just prior to rollout. Ifthe airplane is to proceed diagonally from one turn tothe other, the rollout from each turn must be completedon the proper heading with sufficient wind correctionangle to ensure that after brief straight-and-level flight,the airplane will arrive at the point where a turn of thesame radius can be made around the other pylon. Thestraight-and-level flight segments must be tangent toboth circular patterns.

Common errors in the performance of elementaryeights are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Poor choice of ground reference points.

• Improper maneuver entry considering winddirection and ground reference points.

• Incorrect initial bank.

• Poor coordination during turns.

• Gaining or losing altitude.

• Loss of orientation.

• Abrupt rather than smooth changes in bank angleto counteract wind drift in turns.

• Failure to anticipate needed drift correction.

• Failure to apply needed drift correction in atimely manner.

• Failure to roll out of turns on proper heading.

• Inability to divide attention between referencepoints on the ground, airplane control, and scan-ning for other aircraft.

EIGHTS-ON-PYLONS (PYLON EIGHTS)The pylon eight is the most advanced and most diffi-cult of the low altitude flight training maneuvers.Because of the various techniques involved, the pyloneight is unsurpassed for teaching, developing, and test-ing subconscious control of the airplane.

As the pylon eight is essentially an advancedmaneuver in which the pilot’s attention is directedat maintaining a pivotal position on a selected pylon,with a minimum of attention within the cockpit, itshould not be introduced until the instructor is assuredthat the student has a complete grasp of the fundamentals.Thus, the prerequisites are the ability to make a coordi-nated turn without gain or loss of altitude, excellent feel ofthe airplane, stall recognition, relaxation with low altitudemaneuvering, and an absence of the error of overconcentration.

Like eights around pylons, this training maneuver alsoinvolves flying the airplane in circular paths, alter-nately left and right, in the form of a figure 8 aroundtwo selected points or pylons on the ground. Unlikeeights around pylons, however, no attempt is made tomaintain a uniform distance from the pylon. In eights-on-pylons, the distance from the pylons varies if thereis any wind. Instead, the airplane is flown at such aprecise altitude and airspeed that a line parallel to theairplane’s lateral axis, and extending from the pilot’seye, appears to pivot on each of the pylons. [Figure 6-10] Also, unlike eights around pylons, in the perform-ance of eights-on-pylons the degree of bank increasesas the distance from the pylon decreases.

The altitude that is appropriate for the airplane beingflown is called the pivotal altitude and is governed bythe groundspeed. While not truly a ground trackmaneuver as were the preceding maneuvers, the objec-tive is similar—to develop the ability to maneuver theairplane accurately while dividing one’s attentionbetween the flightpath and the selected points on theground.

In explaining the performance of eights-on-pylons, theterm “wingtip” is frequently considered as being syn-onymous with the proper reference line, or pivotpoint on the airplane. This interpretation is not

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always correct. High-wing, low-wing, sweptwing, andtapered wing airplanes, as well as those with tandem orside-by-side seating, will all present different angles fromthe pilot’s eye to the wingtip. [Figure 6-11] Therefore, in

the correct performance of eights-on-pylons, as in othermaneuvers requiring a lateral reference, the pilot shoulduse a sighting reference line that, from eye level, parallelsthe lateral axis of the airplane.

Closest tothe Pylon

LowestGroundspeedLowest PivotalAltitude

High GroundspeedHigh Pivotal Altitude

Entry

Figure 6-10. Eights-on-pylons.

Figure 6-11. Line of sight.

Lateral Axis

Line of Sight

Lateral Axis

Line of Sight

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The sighting point or line, while not necessarily on thewingtip itself, may be positioned in relation to thewingtip (ahead, behind, above, or below), but eventhen it will differ for each pilot, and from each seat inthe airplane. This is especially true in tandem (fore andaft) seat airplanes. In side-by-side type airplanes, therewill be very little variation in the sighting lines for dif-ferent persons if those persons are seated so that theeyes of each are at approximately the same level.

An explanation of the pivotal altitude is also essential.There is a specific altitude at which, when the airplaneturns at a given groundspeed, a projection of the sight-ing reference line to the selected point on the groundwill appear to pivot on that point. Since different air-planes fly at different airspeeds, the groundspeed willbe different. Therefore, each airplane will have its ownpivotal altitude. [Figure 6-12] The pivotal altitude doesnot vary with the angle of bank being used unless thebank is steep enough to affect the groundspeed. A ruleof thumb for estimating pivotal altitude in calm wind isto square the true airspeed and divide by 15 for milesper hour (m.p.h.) or 11.3 for knots.

Distance from the pylon affects the angle of bank.At any altitude above that pivotal altitude, the pro-jected reference line will appear to move rearwardin a circular path in relation to the pylon.Conversely, when the airplane is below the pivotalaltitude, the projected reference line will appear tomove forward in a circular path. [Figure 6-13]

To demonstrate this, the airplane is flown at normalcruising speed, and at an altitude estimated to be belowthe proper pivotal altitude, and then placed in amedium-banked turn. It will be seen that the projectedreference line of sight appears to move forward alongthe ground (pylon moves back) as the airplane turns.

A climb is then made to an altitude well above the piv-otal altitude, and when the airplane is again at normal

cruising speed, it is placed in a medium-banked turn.At this higher altitude, the projected reference line ofsight now appears to move backward across theground (pylon moves forward) in a direction oppositethat of flight.

After the high altitude extreme has been demonstrated,the power is reduced, and a descent at cruising speedbegun in a continuing medium bank around the pylon.The apparent backward travel of the projected refer-ence line with respect to the pylon will slow down asaltitude is lost, stop for an instant, then start to reverseitself, and would move forward if the descent wereallowed to continue below the pivotal altitude.

The altitude at which the line of sight apparentlyceased to move across the ground was the pivotalaltitude. If the airplane descended below the pivotalaltitude, power should be added to maintain airspeedwhile altitude is regained to the point at which theprojected reference line moves neither backward norforward but actually pivots on the pylon. In this waythe pilot can determine the pivotal altitude of the air-plane.

The pivotal altitude is critical and will change withvariations in groundspeed. Since the headingsthroughout the turns continually vary from directlydownwind to directly upwind, the groundspeed willconstantly change. This will result in the proper piv-otal altitude varying slightly throughout the eight.Therefore, adjustment is made for this by climbing ordescending, as necessary, to hold the reference line orpoint on the pylons. This change in altitude will bedependent on how much the wind affects the ground-speed.

The instructor should emphasize that the elevators arethe primary control for holding the pylons. Even a veryslight variation in altitude effects a double correction,since in losing altitude, speed is gained, and even aslight climb reduces the airspeed. This variation in alti-tude, although important in holding the pylon, in mostcases will be so slight as to be barely perceptible on asensitive altimeter.

Before beginning the maneuver, the pilot should selecttwo points on the ground along a line which lies 90° tothe direction of the wind. The area in which themaneuver is to be performed should be checked forobstructions and any other air traffic, and it should belocated where a disturbance to groups of people, live-stock, or communities will not result.

The selection of proper pylons is of importance togood eights-on-pylons. They should be sufficientlyprominent to be readily seen by the pilot when com-pleting the turn around one pylon and heading for thenext, and should be adequately spaced to provide time

AIRSPEED

KNOTS MPH

APPROXIMATEPIVOTAL ALTITUDE

87

91

96

100

104

109

113

100

105

110

115

120

125

130

670

735

810

885

960

1050

1130

Figure 6-12. Speed vs. pivotal altitude.

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for planning the turns and yet not cause unnecessarystraight-and-level flight between the pylons. Theselected pylons should also be at the same elevation,since differences of over a very few feet will necessi-tate climbing or descending between each turn.

For uniformity, the eight is usually begun by flyingdiagonally crosswind between the pylons to a pointdownwind from the first pylon so that the first turncan be made into the wind. As the airplaneapproaches a position where the pylon appears to bejust ahead of the wingtip, the turn should be startedby lowering the upwind wing to place the pilot’s lineof sight reference on the pylon. As the turn is contin-ued, the line of sight reference can be held on thepylon by gradually increasing the bank. The referenceline should appear to pivot on the pylon. As the air-plane heads into the wind, the groundspeeddecreases; consequently, the pivotal altitude is lowerand the airplane must descend to hold the referenceline on the pylon. As the turn progresses on theupwind side of the pylon, the wind becomes more ofa crosswind. Since a constant distance from the pylon

is not required on this maneuver, no correction tocounteract drifting should be applied during the turns.

If the reference line appears to move ahead of thepylon, the pilot should increase altitude. If the refer-ence line appears to move behind the pylon, the pilotshould decrease altitude. Varying rudder pressure toyaw the airplane and force the wing and referenceline forward or backward to the pylon is a dangeroustechnique and must not be attempted.

As the airplane turns toward a downwind heading,the rollout from the turn should be started to allowthe airplane to proceed diagonally to a point on thedownwind side of the second pylon. The rolloutmust be completed in the proper wind correctionangle to correct for wind drift, so that the airplanewill arrive at a point downwind from the secondpylon the same distance it was from the first pylonat the beginning of the maneuver.

Upon reaching that point, a turn is started in the oppositedirection by lowering the upwind wing to again placethe pilot’s line of sight reference on the pylon. The turn

Too High

Pivotal Altitude

Too Low

Figure 6-13. Effect of different altitudes on pivotal altitude.

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is then continued just as in the turn around the firstpylon but in the opposite direction.

With prompt correction, and a very fine controltouch, it should be possible to hold the projection ofthe reference line directly on the pylon even in a stiffwind. Corrections for temporary variations, such asthose caused by gusts or inattention, may be made byshallowing the bank to fly relatively straight to bringforward a lagging wing, or by steepening the banktemporarily to turn back a wing which has creptahead. With practice, these corrections will becomeso slight as to be barely noticeable. These variationsare apparent from the movement of the wingtips longbefore they are discernable on the altimeter.

Pylon eights are performed at bank angles rangingfrom shallow to steep. [Figure 6-14] The studentshould understand that the bank chosen will not alterthe pivotal altitude. As proficiency is gained, theinstructor should increase the complexity of themaneuver by directing the student to enter at a distancefrom the pylon that will result in a specific bank angleat the steepest point in the pylon turn.

The most common error in attempting to hold a pylonis incorrect use of the rudder. When the projection ofthe reference line moves forward with respect to the

pylon, many pilots will tend to press the inside rudderto yaw the wing backward. When the reference linemoves behind the pylon, they will press the outsiderudder to yaw the wing forward. The rudder is to beused only as a coordination control.

Other common errors in the performance of eights-on-pylons (pylon eights) are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Skidding or slipping in turns (whether trying tohold the pylon with rudder or not).

• Excessive gain or loss of altitude.

• Over concentration on the pylon and failure toobserve traffic.

• Poor choice of pylons.

• Not entering the pylon turns into the wind.

• Failure to assume a heading when flyingbetween pylons that will compensate sufficientlyfor drift.

• Failure to time the bank so that the turn entry iscompleted with the pylon in position.

• Abrupt control usage.

• Inability to select pivotal altitude.

Pylon

PivotalAltitude

60˚ ˚ ˚

Figure 6-14. Bank angle vs. pivotal altitude.

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