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Working Paper
Code-switching:Insights and Strategies for teaching Standard English
in dialectally diverse classrooms
Rebecca S Wheeler
Christopher !ewport "niversity
!ewport !ews# $% &'()(rwheeler*cn+ed+
http:,,wwwncteorg,profdev,onsite,cons+ltants,wheeler
Overview:
When %frican %merican st+dents writeI have two sister and two brother, Dad jeep out of
gas, orMy mom deserve a good man,teachers traditionally diagnose poor English#.finding that the st+dents are having problems#. or making errors. with pl+rality#
possession# or verb agreement# etc In response# the teacher corrects. the child/s writing#
showing them the right. way to convey these grammatical points 0owever# researchand longstanding st+dent performance have demonstrated that the traditional correction
methods fail to teach %frican %merican st+dents the re1+isite Standard English skills
2ing+istic research offers an e3planation and a sol+tion When traditional approaches
assess st+dent lang+age as error-filled#. they misdiagnose st+dent writing performance:
st+dents +sing vernac+lar lang+age 4My goldfish name is Scaley, etc5 are not making
errors in Standard English -- they are following the grammar patterns of the homedialect
2ing+istics offers a two-pronged sol+tion: Contrastive analysis and code-switching# tools
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possessive forms res+lts from classrooms +sing code-switching %n appendi3 of graphicorgani?ers. and lesson plans for code-switching is incl+ded
In short# this paper seeks to answer three 1+estions regarding teaching Standard Englishin %frican %merican classrooms:
95 Why do traditional English techni1+es fail to teach Standard English with %frican%merican st+dents@
&5 What approach works and why@
'5 0ow does English instr+ction in the code-switching classroom differ from English
instr+ction in the traditional classroom@
tests 6or e3ample#
st+dents/ home speech grammar patterns for pl+ral 4It takes 24 hour! "#$ day %or s+bBect-
verb agreement 4&aning mean to get smaller &a'ing mean to get biger5 may transfer into
school writing 46ig+re 95
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Similarly# home speech patterns for pl+rality 4do educational thing%or possessive 4(oni e')
boyfriend, (oni birthday party, Ms* +arker permission%or be)+nderstood 4Since there notelevision5 also transfer into the writing of secondary st+dents as seen in this &))( year-end
!C2> test of writing 46ig+re &5
Ddo+ble neg
Dbe
+nderstood
pl+rality
Ddo+ble neg
Dpossessive
it v there
Dpossessive
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6ig+re '
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many 4b+t not all and not only5 %frican %mericans 4Rickford 7 Rickford &)))5
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>y !ovember of any given year# after Swords has engaged her st+dents in the core steps
of the writing process# she t+rns to code-switching 6irst she introd+ces the basic notionof variation: we allvary o+r self-presentation# sit+ation by sit+ation "sing a tree map
from the school/s
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Fn one occasion# the class tho+ght back on an e3change between two st+dents Fne
st+dent had e3citedly e3claimed# o# A? SwordsT Jat B+nk be tight3% second st+dentchallenged that lang+age choice: Acin?ieT o+ ain/ sposed ta talk t/ Ars Swords dat
way. Fh# ok As Swords Jat st+ff be coolT. Clearly# st+dents had come to school
already having a good grasp of lang+agestyle4the variation lang+age shows in levels offormality5 within their own variety# in this instance %%E In this way# st+dents +sed their
own prior knowledge to define formal and informal lang+age
Swords then applies st+dents/ +nderstanding of change and variation to the grammar of
sentences "sing chart paper# she creates two col+mns of sentences drawn from herst+dents/ own writing# the left in vernac+lar English 4
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5ranscript0 Discovering Informal6ormal +ossessive +atterns in 7achel Swords82ndgrade classroom, spring, 299:*
4Swords and class had previo+sly reviewed the meaning of possessive: possessionmeans someone owns something5
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Children: yesK
4
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her writing workshops
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Fne of Swords/ st+dents leans over# o+/re +sing informal English >+t the book +ses
6ormal English 2ook at the end of the word
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6ig+re =lack students e>ualed or outperformed white students with code)switching*
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Piestr+p# % 49N'5=lack dialect interference and accommodation of reading instruction
in irst Crade* Aonographs of the 2ang+age->ehavior Research 2aboratory#
!+mber 6o+r "niversity of California# >erkeley >erkeley: C%Rickford, J. (1996).The Oakland Ebonics decision: Commendable attack on the problem.Original
text of the Op Ed article printed in theSan Jose Mercury News,December 26, 1996.
Retrieved April 3, 2006, from http://www.stanford.edu/~rickford/ebonics/SJMN-
OpEd.html
Rickford# H 495/frican /merican Bernacular -nglish* Aalden# A%: Ro+tledge
Rickford# H R and R H Rickford Spoken So+l: lack English !ew ork:
Hohn Wiley# &)))Rickford# H# Sweetland# H# 7 Rickford# % 4&));5 %frican %merican English and other
vernac+lars in ed+cation: % topic-coded bibliography (ournal of -nglish
Ainguistics "24'5# &')-'&)Sweetland# H 4S+mmer &))(5 5eaching writing in the multicultural classroom0 /
sociolinguistic approach,% dissertation in the Jepartment of 2ing+istics# Stanford
"niversity# Stanford: California
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Appendi
Tools for the code-switching classroom
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Curriculum Lesson Plan Guide
Course or 0rade !evel: &nd - Oth
1uarter:
2nit 3 and Title: Jiversity in 2ife and
2ang+age 4' pp5
!esson 3 9 of ;Suggested Time: &)-') min+tes
Enduring 2nderstanding(s) and Essential
1uestion(s) focused on in this lesson:
2nderstandings:
$ariation occ+rs in life
$ariation occ+rs in lang+age
1uestions: 0ow can we +se the terms
formaland informalto describe clothing@
Alignment with SO! or other
standards:
,ational English Standards
; St+dents adB+st their +se of spoken#
written# and vis+al lang+age 4eg#conventions# style# vocab+lary5 to
comm+nicate effectively with a variety of
a+diences and for different p+rposes
St+dents develop an +nderstanding ofand respect for diversity in lang+age +se#
Assessing evidence of student learning:
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esources/Technolog":
General classroom s+pplies 4markers# pencils# chart paper5
ScissorsAaga?ines or catalogs
Constr+ction paper
6ntroduction: 78oo5 to prior learning or real life eperiences9
0ave the st+dents gather aro+nd the Informal and 6ormal Clothing chart shown in thesection below %sk the st+dents to think the different types of clothing they wear 0ave
the st+dents describe how they dress at school 0ave st+dents give e3amples of other
times that they have to dress +p
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Closure Activit":Fnce st+dents have finished the independent assignment# call on afew st+dents to add to yo+r Informal and 6ormal Clothing chart o+
can display the clothing collages aro+nd the room for f+t+re
reference
Suggested modifications for differentiation:
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Submitted by: of (school): on (date): for NNPS
Course or Grade Level: 2nd - 5th
Quarter:Unit # and Title: Defining Informal
and Formal Possessive Patterns.(5 pp)
!ote" #his unit presupposes prior wor$and understanding from %nit &'
Diversity in Life and Language. #hat
unit introduces the terms' formalandinformalnglish
Lesson # & of Suggested Time: 2*-+* minutes
Enduring Understanding(s) and
Essential Question(s) focused on intis lesson:
%nderstandings",anguage shows meaning through pattern
Informal nglish uses one pattern to showpossessie
Formal nglish uses another pattern to
show possessie
.uestions" /hat pattern shows possession
0 in informal nglish1 In Formal nglish
!lignment "it standards:
ational Englis Standards
tudents adjust their use of spo$en'
written' and isual language (eg'
conentions' style' ocabulary) tocommunicate effectiely with a arietyof audiences and for different
purposes
!ssessing evidence of student
learning:#eacher 7bseration
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Lesson se0uence tat develo-s te Enduring Understandings andEssential Questions +including activities for student retin%ing1
revising1 refining/:& how students the ;ossessie ;atterns chart #ell your students that
today they are going to define the patterns for possessies in informal and
formal language
Possessive Patterns
*nformal Englis 2ormal Englis
#aylor cat is blac$ #aylor?s cat is blac$
#he boy coat is torn #he boy?s coat is torn
> giraffe nec$ is long > giraffe?s nec$ is long
Did you see the teacher pen1 Did you see the teacher?s pen1
3iscovering informal Englis -ossessive -attern
Eamine sentences2 tart by reading through the informal sentences #hen reread the first
sentence
See% -attern+ ay' @#aylor cat is blac$ ,etAs see how this sentence shows ownership
/ho does the cat belong to1@ 7nce students answer that the cat belongs to#aylor as$ @how do you $now @ tudents will most li$ely answer that it says
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Su&mitted &: of (scool): on (date): for PS
Course or Grade Level: 2nd - 5th
Quarter:Unit # and Title: 3efining *nformal
and 2ormal Past Time Patterns.(5 pp)
!ote" #his unit presupposes prior wor$
and understanding from %nit &'Diversity in Life and Language #hat
unit introduces the terms' formal and
informal nglish
Lesson # & of
Suggested Time: +* minutes
Enduring Understanding(s) and
Essential Question(s) focused on intis lesson:
%nderstandings",anguage shows meaning through pattern
Informal nglish uses one pattern to show
the passage of time
Formal nglish uses another pattern to
show the passage of time
.uestions" /hat pattern shows past time 0
in informal nglish1 In Formal nglish1
!lignment "it standards:
ational Englis Standards
tudents adjust their use of spo$en'written' and isual language (eg'
conentions' style' ocabulary) to
communicate effectiely with a arietyof audiences and for differentpurposes
!ssessing evidence of studentlearning:
#eacher 7bseration
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regions' and social roles
$at students "ill %no" and &e
a&le to do as a result of tis lesson:
& #he students will recogni8e past
time patterns in Formal and Informallanguage
2 #he students will define past time
patterns in Formal and Informallanguage
+ #he student will distinguish between
Formal and Informal past timepatterns
#he student will write 2 sentencesusing the Formal past time pattern and
2 sentences using the Informal pasttime pattern
'esourcesTecnolog:
9eneral classroom supplies (mar$ers' pencils' chart paper)
*ntroduction: +,oo% to -rior learning or real life e-eriences/:ae the students gather around the ;ast #ime ;atterns chart (shown
in the lesson section)
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Showing Past Time
*nformal Englis 2ormal Englis
esterday they play in the par$ esterday they played in the par$
he mail the letter this morning he mailed the letter this morning
,ast aturday we watch that moie ,ast aturday we watched that moie
I call my grandma two days ago I called my grandma two days ago
Bartin ,uther
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ou can call this understanding common $nowledge ay' @oh' so youAre saying
that it is common $nowledge that Bartin ,uther s$ your students to loo$ at how the formal sentences are different from theinformal sentences our students will most li$ely notice that the erbs hae an
edon the end of them
3efine -attern&* >s$ your students' @how can we write this pattern on our chart1@ #hey will
most li$ely determine that the pattern is erb H -edJ past actionsG
Test -attern&& =ead through each sentence to see if this rule holds true in each case o you
will read' @yesterday they played in the park Is there a erb with an -ed on the
end of it in this sentence1 ouAre right'play ends in an -ed' so this sentence fits
our pattern@ Continue to read chec$ each of the sentences in this way
$rite -attern
&2 /rite the rule (verb + -ed) on the formal side of the chart
:ere is what the final chart may loo$ li$e"
Showing Past Time
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Code-switching Shopping !ist 4a tool for secondary school st+dents5
Name: ________________________
Do any of the top 10 or so informal English patterns appear in your paper? If
so, put a check in the corresponding bo and then code!s"itchto formal
English# $ut a smiley face, , to sho" "hen you use formal patterns in your
"riting% &'lip the ("itch#)
Informal *% 'ormal English $atterns
$
aper1
$
aper+
_
_____
$
aper,
_
_____
$
aper-
_
_____
Noun patterns
Possessive
.he dog_tail *% the dog/s tail
Plurality: Showing more than one
.hree cat_ *% .hree cats
A v. an
n rapper *% a rapper
elephant *% an elephant
Verb patterns(ubect! 2erb 0greement
(he "alk_ *% (he "alks
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Code-switching Shopping !ist + &ifferentiated instruction4a tool for teachers5>lass: Day:________________ .ime: ________________
Data!dri*en differentiated instruction% s you read student essays, note "hich students need "ork on "hich E*eryday English patterns%
Aou might use this tool to form peer!editing groups of students "ho ha*e similar grammar needs, or to guide you in calling on students inclass, or tracking class needs and progressB%
Informal *% 'ormal English $atterns (tudents
Noun Patterns
Possessive
.he dog_tail *% the dog/s tail
Plurality: Showing more than one
.hree cat_ *% .hree cats
A v. an n rapper *% a rapper
elephant *% an elephant
Verb Patterns
Subject- Verb Agreement
(he "alk_ *% (he "alks
Showing past time!"
I finish_ *% I finished
Showing past time #"
(he seen the dog *% (he sa"5had seen6
$e un%erstoo% 8e __ cool "ith me *% 8e is cool "ith me
&a'ing Negatives
(he "on/t ne*er *% (he "on/t e*er
ther pattern: ___________________
''
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S8O46,0 PAST T6'E6 finish v. 6 finished
6,;O'A! ;O'A!
I already finishV my paper I already finished my paper !at
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Showing possession
&eric5 team v. &eric5
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'(
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