Western Civ Notes:
The Ancient Mediterranean Foundation of the Medieval Westo The Human Animal
Homo sapiens sapiens Earliest: 2 million years ago Anatomical “moderns”: 200,000 years Behavioral “moderns”: 50,000 years Narrow genetic diversity due to near extinction: 175,000 years ago No meaningful race of humans Use tools/language/cooking Social animals create culture
o Memes versus genes Settled Agriculture: 8,000 BCE
o Begins recorded history Ancient River System Civilizations
o Nile, Tigris, Euphrates, Indus and Yellow Ancient Empires
o Egyptian, Babylonian, Indian and Chinese Mediterranean
o Greece -> Roman Republic -> Roman Empireo Two Ancient Worlds
The Roman World: Populus Romanus Commerce/Trade – Conquest/Slavery Civic government/Law State Religion
The Northern World: Barbarians (Germanic People) Forests Raiding Nomadism Clan based governance/customs
Later Roman Empire Civil religion vs mystery religion
o Pantheon vs monotheismo Rites/heroes/conquest of death/moral life/salvation, martyrs
Emperor Constantine (280-306-337)o Christianity as official religion
Fall of Rome (410-476)o Germanic Tribes:
Vandals, Goths, Huns, Saxons, Visogoths, Frankso Rome Sacked (410)o Last Emperor deposed (476)
Successor Stateso Eastern Roman Empire (476-1453)
Multiethnic/Polygot Constantinople (Istanbul, 1453) (280-306-337) Byzantine Empire
o Islamic World (632 – Muhammad (570-632) Islam
Ethics/behavior conversion Qu’ran Cultural unity/5 pillars of Islam Political fragmentation
o Western Christendom: New Barbarians 800-936-1806 Synthetic Society
Northern Law: Tribal Law, Trial by Battle, Trail by Ordeal
o Politics: Warlordismo Economics: Barter, Raid, Tribute
Southern Religion: Christianity, Monasticismo Language: Latino Government: Roman Empire
Unified under God Christianity and the Church
o Gregory the Great (590-604) First monk to rise to the papacy
o Ruled by the abbots under the Rule of St. Benedict 480-547 Discipline and the dignity of labor
o Latin Binds Germanic tribes Order in the chaos
o The Franks Clovis (466-481-511)
Overthrows syagrius (486) Converts to Christianity (496) Opposed Arian Christianity “heresy”
o Carolingians Frank rulers (751-987) Descendants of Charles Martel (688-714-741) Battle of Tours/Poitiers (732) Pepin the Short (714-741-814)
Donation of Pepin (756) o Reconfirmed (774)
Charlemagne (742-768/771-814) Charles the Great
Louis I (778-814-840)
Charles, Lothair, Louis Conquest of Charlemagne (814)
30 years Lombards, Saxons, Avars Church controls 1/3 to 1/2 of all land in
Christendom Charles the Bald, Lothair, Louis the German (841)
o Feudalism First fiefs given out by Charles Martel in 730 By 800 Charlemagne has 300 top order vassals Oath of Fealty Oath of Homage Oath of Vassalage
o Barbarian Invasion (9th Century) Vikings (Norsemen) Saracens (Muslims) Magyars (Huns)
o Feudal Revolution Feudal localism
o Fiefs/Benefices Land exchanged through ceremony to promote loyalty
o Castellans/Encastlements Medieval castle
o Devolution of Power Two Churches
o Secular Clergy Baptism Confirmation Eurcharist Confession Marriage/Ordination Extreme unction
o Regular Clergy Monks
The “Feudalized” Churcho 3 Orders
Oratores: Speak to God (Priest/Monk) Bellatores: Warriors who protect church Laboratores: Workers/Farmers (95%)
Monastic Reform: Cluny (Benedictine)o Cluny: Benedictine reform monastery
Founded (909) Morality: Resist temptations Rule of Benedict
Abolish Simony: Buying/Selling church offices The Rise of the Saxons: Holy Roman Empire
o Otto I “The Great” (912-936-973) Battle of Lechfeld (955) Holy Roman Emperor (962)
o Pope John XII (955-963) Reconfirms donation of Pepin
o Pope Leo VIII (963-964) Imperial appointee Rebuilds power on lay investiture
The Church and the Holy Roman Empire: Co-operationo Pope Benedict IX (1032-1043)
3 time Popeo Holy Roman Emperor Henry III (1017-1039-1056)
Agnes of Poitou/Cluny Truce of God/Peace of God
o Pope Leo IX (1049-1054) Monastic reform becomes papal reform
Synodso Rome, Pavia, Cologne, Reims, Mainz
Pattern for co-operation William I (1070-1087) Philip I (1199-1216) Louis IX (1243-1254)
Crown and Church: Contest for Leadership The HRE and Church: Patterns of Church/State Conflict
o HRE Henry IV (1050-1056-1106)o Pope Gregory VIII (1073-1085)
The Church: Death of Empires Investiture Controversy
o Pope Gregory VIII Hildebrand/Cluny
o Henry IV Civil war in German tribes Installs antipope Clement III (1084)
Gregory VII flees (1085) Pattern for Church/State conflict
o King Henry I vs Archbishop Anselm Compromise of Bec (1107)
o Henry V vs Pope Callistus II Concordat of Worms (1122)
o King Phillips IV vs Boniface VIII Babylonian Captivity (1305-1378)
o Check on royal power/challenge divine right
o Fragmentation of Germany & Italy Centralized imperial powers
Agricultural and Population Growtho European population
10th C: ca. 35 million 14th C: ca. 70 million
o Productivity Communal effort
Serfdom (Serf vs Lord) Manors: 1000-2000 acres
Technology changeo Three Field Systemo Draught animals
Oxen increasingly replaced by horses Horse technology: Collar and Stirrup
Mould-board plowo Reclamation of land
Cities and the Cash: Market Economyo Latin roots of the cityo Civitas (Citizenship)o Urbis (Walled town or city)
Castellanus (fort/castle) Primogeniture/Patrilineal family: Eldest son
o Commercial revolution Merchants
Traderso Italian citieso Jewso The Three Orders
o Urban society Charter
Security of property No serf labor Live for 366 days in city secures freedom
Communes Guilds
Masters Apprentices Journeyman
Burgers/Bourgeoisie City dwellers
o Medieval monastic educationo Education: Cathedral schools
900 CE: ca. 20
1000 CE: ca. 200o Scholastics (Schoolmen)
Logic (Dialects) Aristotle’s Logic (St.) Anselm (1034-1109)
Proslogrum (1078) First scholastic Move towards logic
Peter Abelard (1079-1153) Application of reason Condemnation at Council of Sens (1140)
o Opposed by abbot and monk Bernard or Clairvaux
o Universities Bologna (1088) Paris (1200) Oxford (1209) Cambridge (1214) Vercellio (1228) Toulouse (1240) Rome (1244)
o Scholastics Order/ Structure
Unify logic and faith Averroes (Ibn Rushd) (1126-1198)
Commentatoro Averroists: Double truth
Separation of religion and state St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
Unities truthso Summa Thologiae (1265-1273)
Warrior Culture and The Crusadeso The First Crusade (1096-1099)
Abbasid Dynasty (749-1258) Baghdad Golden Age of Islamic civilization
Turkish peoples/Seljuq Turks Battle of Manzikert/Fall of Jerusalem (1071) Pope Urban II (1058-1099) Council of Clermont (1095)
Called to advance the Peace of God Preach the 1st crusade Calls on minor nobility of Europe
Motives
Faith, Feudal Obedience, Plunder, Land, Trade Fall of Jerusalem
1st (1071) 2nd (1099)
o 70,000 massacredo Subsequent Crusades
The Second Crusade (1147-1149) Battle of Hattin (1187/Saladin)
The Third Crusade (1182-1192) French, German and English Kings
o Phillip II, Frederick I, Richard Io Irony and Traged: The Later Crusades
The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204) The Children’s Crusade (1212) The Sixth Crusade (1228-1229)
o Chivalric Culture Chevalier (Knight/Horesman) Military prowess
Valor, loyalty, charity, honor (in battle)o Consequences
Papacy Enhanced powers Prevented consolidation of imperial system
Islamic contact Trading Eastern trading luxury
o Porcelain, silks, rugs, metal work, spices Outside World contact
Aggressive Violent Cultural insistent
o Own religion/truths Crucial patterns for later Europe
o Imperialismo Colonialism
Feudal Monarchy Norman Invasion
o Anglo-Saxons (5th Century) Edward (1004-1042-1066) “The Confessor” Harold II (1022-1066)
o William the Conqueror (1028-1066-1087) Shires Feudal monarchy
Fewer, strong vassals
Large territorial core Central royal control over taxation/law Independent leadership in religious reform
English Monarchyo William II (1087-1100) “Rufus”o Henry I (1100-1135)
Circuit judges The Common Law:
Trial by jury, due process, royal writs The Angevin Empire
o Henry II (1133-154-1189) Anjou Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204) King of England, Duke of Normandy, Anjou, Aquitaine Vassal of the King of England Relies heavily on urban taxation and conversion of
feudal dues Rising cash ecnomy Two sons:
Richard I (1189-1199) John (1199-1216)
French Monarchyo Hugh Capet (940-996)
Successor to the Carolingians Co-Kings
o Philip II “Agustus” (1180-1223) English model “Feudal monarchy” Royal governance
Royal council Baillis
Alliance with Papacy Submits to Pope Innocent III (1200)
The HRE: Weakness to Collapseo Frederick I “Barbarossa” (1152-1190)
Burgandy/Riechsfursto Pope Alexander III (1159-1181)
Lombard League (1167) Battle of Legnano (1176)
o Frederick I dies (1190) 3rd Crusade Grandson Frederick ward of Papacy (1198)
Battle for Power: Philip, John, Innocento Philip II (1180-1223)o John (1166-1199-1216)
Lockard/Softsword
Excommunicated (1209) Kidnaps/Marries Isabelle d’Angouleme (1200)
Unpopular Declared “felon” by Philip (1205)
Dispute over archbishop of Canterbury Scutage
o Innocent III (1198-1216) Battle of Bouvines (1214) and the Power of the Medieval Church
o Philip II – Franceo Pope Innocent IIIo Frederick II – HRE
Declared HRE by Innocent (1211)o John (1166-199-1216) – England
Dispute over Archbishopric of Cantebury Innocent excommunicates (1209)
o Otto IV “of Brunswick”o Battle of Bouvines (1214)
Otto defeated John retreats Angevin Empire dismantles
The Church Ascendanto Pope Innocent IIIo Curia – Papal monarchyo Fourth Lateran Church (1215)
No new church orders Mass and Confession once per year Clerical morality
o Albigensian Crusade (1209-1229) The French Monarchy: Royal Power Ascendant
o Louis IX “St. Louis” (1226-1270) Seventh Crusade – Capture by Mamaluks Parton of arts and learning – Sainte Chapelle France as “eldest daughter of church” Massive religious spenind French coinage: Protection of the crown University of Paris (1257)
o French golden century Medieval Representative Institutions
o Common heritage of Feudal societyo Feudal co-operation extended
Nobles/consulation City charters/liberties
o England: Curia regis/Parliamento France: Curia regis/ Estates General
o HRE: Imperial dieto Aragon/Catalonia: Corteso Civic assemblies: Councils
The English Monarchy: Roayal Power Limitedo John (1166-1199-1216)
The Magna Carta (1215)o Henry III
Great Council/Parliament Provisions of Oxford (1258) Simon de Montfort/Parliament of 1265
o Edward I (1239-1272-1307)o Model Parliament
The French Monarchy: Royal Ascendant II o Philip IV (1268-1285-1314)
War and Cash: Jews, Knights Templar (1306-1307)o Edward I (King of England)
War (1294)o Boniface VIII (1294-1303)o Clement V (1305-1314)
Babylonian Captivity (1305-1378) Great Papal Schism (1378-1418)
o Council of Constance (1414-1418) Emerging Critics of the Church
o Conciliarism (Rule by Church Council)o Marsilius of Pacluo John Wycliffe (1328-1384)
Lollardso Jon Huss (1372-1415)
Plague and People: 14th Century Crisis o Malthusian Crisis
Death rate rises as population growth outstrips food production
o Conquest, War, Famine & Pestilence and Death Sings of Last Times (Apocalypse)
o Hundred Years War (1337-1453)o Famines
1272 1277 1283 1292 1311 1332 1345
o Great Famine (1315-1322)o Little Ice Age (1310-1350(1360))o The Black Death (1347-1353+)
Bubonic Plague Psychological Results of the 14th Century Crisis
o Cultural morbidityo Scapegoating
Jews Doctors Witches Anticlericalism
Economic/Social Results of 14th Century Crisiso Faith: Piety and Prayer
Flagellants Devotio Moderna – Thomas a Kempis (1418)
o Riots: Eat, Drink and be Merry English Peasant Rebellion (1381) Jacquerie (1358) Ciompi Revolt (1378)
o Labor: Golden Age of the Working Man Low prices/rents, higher wages Rapid decline of Feudalism Labor mobility Destruction of records Youthful society
Cultural fluidity Labor saving devices
Advanced sailing Moveable type
o Revolts English Peasant Revolt (1381) Statue of Laborers (1351) Poll Tax (1377,1381)
Watt Tyler, John Ball, Richard II (1367-1400) Jaquerie: French Peasant Revolt (1358) Ciompi Revolt: Florentine Worker Rebellion (1378)
Italian Renaissance I: Political Context Background
o Itallian City-States Battle of Legnamo (1176) Peace of Constance (1183) Babylonian Captivity (1305-1378) Avignon Great Papal Schism (1378-1414)
o Communes
Padu, Florentine, Siena, Pisa, Luccao City Councils: Inner and Outer
Nobles Merchant Class Lower classes (workers) Constant struggle between Guelphs (Papal) and
Ghibbelines (Imperial) Despots (Podesta) and Capitano (Tend to) ->
Principalities Verona/Romano & Scala families Milan/Visconit (1277-1447) & Sforza families
(1447-1535) Council governments (in some cases) -> Republics
(Venice, Florence) Florence: Home of the Renaissance
o Free commune (1115)o Podesta (Luca Grimaldi, Guelph) – Party factionalism (1257)o Constitution of 1293 (Ordinances of Justice) – Expels Nobility
3 Principals of Operation Election from within the guilds (arti) of city
councils Short term public service, elected by lot (no
debtors, no recent office holders, no relatives) Division of powers: Signoria
o Council of 9: 6 major guilds, 2 minor, 1 general member
o Council of 12o Council of 16o Council of the People: 500 members, 6
month termso Balia: Ten of War
Civic Humanism: All have a place in government/allegiance for liberties
Florin Leonardo Bruni Medici Banking Family/ Cosimo de’ Medici
(1388-1464) Guelph victory: Flornentines take over papal
banking and tax collection Civic duty/public service: Civitas/polis
Council of Constance (1415-1418)o Pope Nicholas V (1447-1455)
First “Renaissance” Pope The Renaissance and the Church
o Pope Innocent VIII (1484-1492)o Pope Alexander VI “Rodrigo Borgia”
(1492-1503)o Pope Julius II (1503-1513)o Pope Leo X (1513-1521) “Medici”o Pope Clement VII (1521-1534) “Medici”
Italian Renaissance II: Themes Renaissance Themes
o History/Differenceo Rhetoric/Communicationo The Classics/Architecture
Francesco Petrarcho Cupiditaso Livy “Titus Livius”
History of Rome (9 BCE) History nourishes the present
De viris illustibus (1337+) Venetian library (1362) Poetry – ther vernacular
Humanism versus scholasticism Renaissance Views
o View of Humanismo View of Scholarship
Studia humanitas (liberal arts) – Leonardo Bruni Grammar, rhetoric, poetry History of politics, moral philosophy
o Florentine Politics (1375-1434) Milan/Giangaleazzo Visconti (1351-1402)
Duke of Milan (1395) Wars: 1390-1392, 1397-1398,1400-1402 Verona, Padua, Pisa, Siena, Assisi, Bologna
Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406) Chancellor of Signore (1375-1406) Greek studies De tyranno (1400) “The Roman Republic”
Leonardo Bruni (1374-1444) Chancellor of Signore (1410-1411,1427-1444) Roman history: republic and empire History of Florentine People (1415-1442): 12
volumes published by Signore: Ancient, Middle Ages, Modern – Modeled on Livy’s History of Rome
Civic Humanism: The active lifeo Florentine Architecture and Artistry
Fillipo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) Founding Hospital of the Innocenti Santa Maria del Fiore (Duomo)
Leon Battista Albeti (1404-1472) Florence Perpective “Genius”
Renaissance Artistryo Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
“Renaissance man” Inspired
Raphael (1483-1520) Michelangelo (1475-1564)
Employed by Florence Papacy Duke of Milan King of France “Francis I”
o Pope Julius II Machiavelli and the Renaissance Monarchs
The “Early Modern” Periodo Re-emergent market economy
Local trading Long-distance trading
Hanseatic League (1356-1669)o Free Imperial Cities
Lubeck, Hamburg, Bremen, Riga, Danzing, etc. – ca. 40 towns
o Antwerp/London/Lyon, etc International trading
Spices, Silks, Bulliono Growing middle class
Merchants Professionals
o Modern bureaucracies/states Collapse of Feudal Monarchy
o The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) Destroys noble families in France and England “War of the Roses”
Rise of “Renaissance Monarchs”o Louis XI (1423-1461-1483) – France
“Spider King”
Develops cities, fairs, roads while destroying the power of noble families
o Charles VIII (1470-1483-1498)o Louis XII (1462-1498-1515)o Henry VII (1457-1485-1506) – Tudor England
Outlaws private castles and militias, develops cities and builds the royal treasury
Court of the Star Chamber Justice of the Peace
o Ferdinand II (1452-1479-1516) and Isabella (1451-1474-1506) Late 15th century Reconquista of Spain
o Charles I “King of Spain” (1500-1516-1556)o Charles V “Holy Roman Emperor (1519-1556)
Second Generation: “Renaissance Princes”o Francis I (1515-1547) – Franceo Henry VIII (1506-1547) – Englando Charles V *(1519-1558) – Spain/HREo Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527)
The Prince (1513) Discourses on the First Ten Books of Livy (1513-1521)
Renaissance Monarchy: Attributeso Education
Leaders highly educated in Renaissance subjectso Opulence
Patronize opulent courts of scholars, musicians, artistso Centralized/Professionalized governanceo Aggression (Emerging age of gunpowder)
Establish standing mercenary armies/fortified cities Establish strong, wind-driven ocean-going navies with
naval cannon The “Italian Wars” (1494-1556)
o France (1494-1498)o France/Spain (1499-1504)o Spain (1521-1526)o Medici & Pope Julius
Defeat Florentines (using Spanish troops) and are readmitted to Florence (1512)
The Northern Humanistso Desiderius Erasmus (1469-1536)
Translated original New Testament (Greek text) to Latin The Renaissance: South and North
o Italian civic humanism Program for urban life/civic morality
o Northern humanism “Christian humanism” Program for church life/social morality
Birth of Northern Humanismo Gerhardt Groote (1340-1384) – The Netherlandso Brethren of the Common Life
Devotion moderna Schools: piety, literacy, “safe” classics
o Thomas a Kempis Imitation of Christ (1418)
Christian Humanism: Maturityo Desiderius Erasmus (1469-1536)o Thomas More (1478-1535)
Utopia (1516)o Incarnation vs Atonemento Attack on superstitiono Latin exerciseso Protest literature
The German Lands and the HREo Church doctrine: Purgatory/indulgences
Marin Luther’s Worldo Martin Luther (1483-1546)
German monk, scholar, religious reformer, church founder
Renaissance Princes & the HRE Charles V Francis I Henry VIII
Martin Luther: Lawyer, Monk, Scholaro University of Erfurt (1501) – Law
1st Crisis: Thunder Storm (July 1505) Augustinian monk
2nd Crisis: Mass (1507) Obsession with sin – atonement
o University of Wittnberg (1508) Visits Rome (1510)
Martin Luther: Contoversialisto Pope Leo X (1513-1521)o Pope Julius II (1503-1513)o St. Peter’s Basilica (1506+)o Alberech of Brandenburg/Archbishop of Mainz (1515)
Plenary indulgenceo Frederick III “The Wise” of Saxony (1463-1525)
o Leipzig Disputation (1519) Johannes Eck
Martin Luther: Heretico HRE Charles V (1519-1556)o Diet of Worms/Edict of Worms (1521)o Lutheran Church (1522)
German bible (vernacular)/”priesthood of all believers” Two sacraments: baptism and communion Participatory hymnal Rejects celibacy for the clergy…The authority question…
(Eck) The Lutheran Church and its Context
o Imperial Politics European cities, kingdoms, politics…fueled by New
World richeso Charles V – HRE (1519-1556)o Francis I – France (1515-1547)o Charles defeats Francis
Battle of Pavia (1525)o Rome sacked by renegade German mercenaries (1527)o Spain assumes role of protector of papacyo Suleiman I “The Magnificent” (1520-1566)
Conquest of Belgrade (1521) Battle of Mohaes (1526) Siege of Vienna (1529)
o Augsburg Confession (1530) 45% German Princes and cities subscribe
o Sehmakaldic League (1531) Imperial German War
o Peace of Augsburg (1555) German Princes choose religion
Lutheran Motivationso Religious conviction o Princely/political independenceo German independence/nationalismo Economic gaino Philip of Hesse (1504-1567) “Philip the Magnanimous”
Embraces Lutheranism (1524)o Swabian (German) Peasants Revolt (1524-1526)
Thomas Muntzer: All things are commono The Twelve Articles of the Swabian Peasants (1525)
Attacks feudalism/feudal lordso The Reformation as Urban Movement
Reading and new urban elites Zwingli and the Swiss Reformation
o Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531) Inspired by Luther’s Leipzig debate with Eck Christian humanist focus Scriptural tests Theocratic society Supports the Swabian peasants
Anabaptistso Conrad Grebel (1498-1526) – Zurich
Adult baptism, pacifism, refusal of oaths, divine inspiration, free will
o Munster (1534-1535) John of Leiden (1509-1536)
o Menno Simons (1496-1561) / Mennonites – Dutch The Protestant Reformation: German and Swiss
o Political: Provides theological justification for political resistance to extra-religion domination
o Social: Provides theological path for the rise of wealthy, literate, urban populations to replace older feudal elites
o Lutheranism: Theology of conscience – focus (inward) on individual’s understanding of scripture
Politics of hierarchy (princely rule)o Swiss variants: “Worldly” theology – focus (outward) on militant
opposition to “wrong” teachings Politics of opposition (theocracy of the ‘elect’)
From Switzerland to France: Calvinismo John Calvin (1509-1564) – Genevao Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536-1559)
Nature of man – total depravity Nature of man’s relation to God – predestination and
the elect Nature of man’s relationship to his community
Local: the consistory (church/city council of the “elect”) / The Academy
Regional: synods (elected church governance structure)
o for the believer: 2 sacraments, collective worship with other believers in the vernacular, no priests, strong community … actively oppose evil…”prove” ones “elect” status…
Spreads from Geneva to France, England, Scotland, and the Netherlands
o French Huguenots, English and American Colonial Puritans, Scots Presbyterians, Dutch Reformed
The English Reformation :Henry VIIIo Henry VIII (1491-1509-1547)o Catherine of Aragon
Birth of Mary (1516) Henry seeks divorce (1527)
o Anne Boleyn Birth of Elizabeth (1533)
o Jane Seymour Birth of Edward (1537)
o Anne of Cleveso Catherine Howardo Catherine Parr o Act of Supremacy (1534)o Dissolution of the Monasteries (1536-1539)o The Pilgrimage of Grace (1536-1537)o The 6 Articles (1539)o Edward VI (1547-1553)
Duke of Somerset Puritan/Calvinist
o Mary (1553-1558) Catholic Philip II (of Spain) Smithfield Fires
The English Reformation: Elizabetho Elizabeth I (1558-1603)o The 39 Articles (1563) / Anglicans / Episcopalians
An attempted middle ground Maintains episcopacy with no supreme priestly
leadership (no pope) Establishes a national church
Outward conformity required as a political act Toleration…to a point Political not religious loyalty
o The political queen Puritans The Spanish Armada (1588)
Calvinismo Predestination
Activist religiono Psychology
Who is saved (Only God knows)o Local politics
Consistory as God’s governanceo National politics
Church is the anvil that wears out many hammerso French Huguenots
25% French Population (1550)o Support
Urban middle class and southern/central French princes Route and rationale for independence
The Counter Reformationo Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)
Society of Jesus “Jesuits” (1534) Spiritual Exercises
Missions/educationo Leo X (1475-1513-1523) “Giovanni de’ Medici”o Clement VII (1478-1523-1534) “Giulio de’ Medici”o Paul III (1468-1534-1549)o The Council of Trent (1534-1563)
Confirms Catholic doctrine 7 sacraments and transubstantiation Condemning predestination Reforms church practices
o Requires episcopal residencyo Establishes diocesan seminarieso Reforms issuance of indulgenceso New decrees on clerical moralityo Allows new church orders
Authorityo Scripture and tradition
Spain: Champion on the Counter-Reformationo Philip II (1527-1556-1598)
“New World” wealth Marriage to Mary (1554-1558)
o Dutch Revolt (1566) / 80 Years War (1568-1648) Spanish Inquisition William I “of Orange, ‘the Silent’” (1533-1584) Dutch Republic (1579) Spanish Armada
o Portuguese Throne (1580) Becomes Philip I
French Revolutiono Henri II (1547-1559) / Catherine de’ Medici
Chambre ardente (Leo X, Clement VII, Francis II, Charles IX)
Royal instability -> Religious civil war (1562-1598) St. Bartholomew’s Day Masacre (1572)
20,000 dead French Reformation: Civil War
o Henri of Navarre “Henri IV” (1553-1589-1610) Conversion to Catholicism (1593) Edict of Nantes (1598)
o Politiques: Princes who abandon religious purity for civil peace Niccolo Machiavelle
Changing Conflict / Changing Europeo Spain: Decline and marginalizationo The Thirty Years War (1618-1648)
Ferdinand of Hapsburg – Styria Educated by Jesuits = HRE Ferdinand II (1578-
1619-1637) Bohemia/Defenestration at Prague (1618) Albrech von Wallenstein Edict of Restitution (1629)
o Gustavus II Adolphus (1594-1611-1632) – Sweden Lutheran Battle of Breitenfeld (1631 Enter war to support Lutheran churches and to
o Louis XIII (1601-1610-1643) – (Catholic) France Enters war against Spain/Hapsburg (1635)
Supports Lutheran princes to prevent Spanish domination
o Peace of Westphailia (1648) 30% of population dead France and Sweeden vs Spain and the HRE Recognizes sovereignty/independence of each state of
the HRE Fatally weakens Holy Roman Emperor
Independence of Dutch United Providences recognized Each German prince to choose religion
Reconfirms Peace of Augsburg Confirms decline of Spain in European affairs and the
rise of France on the continent, and Sweden in the Baltic
Ends era or religious wars and sets religious boundaries of Europe
War is largely conducted for political/national/secular ends
New World: Europe and Eurasia European Expansion (1500-1900)
o Raceo Cultureo Luck
The Mongol Invasion, Trade and the Luck of the Europeano Mongol “Tartar” Invasionso Chingis “Ghengis” Khan (1162-1206-1227)
Massed Cavalry 6 Archers to 4 Lancers Compound Bows/Strategic Coordination
o Ogedei Kahn (1186-1227-1241) Multi-cultural/Religiously tolerant empire/Intermarriage Silver based tax economy/Open protected trade routes Mongol post-road “Yam” system
o Pax Mongolica (1241) Invasion of Europe
o Sack of Baghdad (1258)o Battle of Ain Jalut (1260)
Mamalukes Pax Mongolica and Early European Trade
o Mongol “Tartar” Invasions Kublai Kahn (1215-1260-1294) Yuan Dynasty
o Marco Polo (1254-1324) Silk Road
o Trade Expansion in Wake of Black Deatho Mongol Empire (1259)
Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) Ethnic Mongol
Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) Ethnic Hun
o Italian Commercial Naval Powers Venice Genoa
Rise of the Ottoman Empire: Trade and European Reactiono Rise of the Ottoman Turks and the Turkish Threat
Fall of Constantinople (1453) European Exploration: Iberia, Crusading, Trading, and the Empire:
Portugalo Reconquista
3 Phases 900-1150 1150-1250
1478-1492o Henry “The Navigator” (1394-1460)
Gold, Slaves and Christians Kingdom of Mali Exploration
o Vasco de Gama (1460-1524), Bartholomew Diaz (1451-1524) Indian Ocean Interlopers
Trading monopolies: pepper, cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg
Early European Contacts: Portugalo India: Christians and Spiceso Indian Ocean Interlopers
Piracy -> Monopoly Strong Ports
Goa, Hormuz, Attempt to take Adeno Portuguese Trading
Spice, Cloth, Bullion Ports along African Coasts, West India Coast, East South
America New Worlds
Spain: Spanish Envyo Christopher Columbus (1451-1506): New World Crusade
Piracy and Predation Gunpowder Empires
o Francis I (1515-1547): Franceo Henry VIII (1506-1547): Englando Charles V (1519-1558): Spain/HRE
Crusadeso Conquistadors o Funded by Itallyo Kingdom of Castileo Conquest
The Caribbean, The Aztecs: Hernando Cortez (1485-1547)
The Inca: Francisco Pizarro (1475-1541)o Taino People/Hispaniola: Economic Stystem
Batolome de Las Casas (1484-1566)o Communicable Diseases
The Columbian Exchangeo Old World Diseases and New World Demographics
Smallpox, mumps, measles, influenza, cholera, malaria 30-100 to 2-8 in 150 Years
o Old World Plants and Animals and New World Ecology
Horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, chickens vs llama, duck, turkey, dogs
Transforms ranch/farming Sugar, coffee, wheat, barley
Transforms agriculture: Sugar cultivationo New World Goods and Old World Economy
Gold and Silver Potatoes, corn, tobacco, chocolate, dyestuff
Spain: Sixteenth Century Super Power The Spanish Empire
o Empire of Religious Uniformityo Bureaucratic Domination o Castilian Domination o Trade of: Tobacco, Chocolate, Cochineal/Sugar, Slaves
Rapid Growtho Populationo Industrial Productiono Internal and External Tradeo Economic Growth Fuels Social/Political/Religious Friction
The Seventeenth Century Thirty Years War (1618-1648)
o Population Stagnationo Population Redistribution to Northwest Europeo Reappearance of Plague (South and East)o Weather Change: 2nd Little Ice Age (1610-1650)o Currency Crisis (1619+)o Revolts/Revolutions: 1640’s and 1650’s
England, France, The Netherlands Catalonia, Portugal, Naples, Ireland Prussia, Poland, Russia
Competing Explanations for the “General Crisis”o Economic/Social Explanations (Christopher Hill)
Transition from feudalism to capitalism Protestant work ethic, Swiss reformed tradition
Social Revolution Friction between old feudal and capitalist elites
New Colonialism British East India/Dutch East India Companies
o Political Explanation (Hugh Trevor Roper) Transition from localism to centralized absolutism
Taxes, war, central controls Religious/Political disputes
The Spanish Case: Castile and the Spanish Empireo Philip II (1598-1621): Duque de Lerma
Inflationo Moriscos Marranos (1609-1614)o Philip IV (1621-1665)
The Scientific Revolution Context
o Heroic Science o Medieval Farming Europe Shifts to Early Modern Urban Trading
and Manufacturing Europeo Growth of Individualism and Rationalism in Urban Context
Reformation: Individualism and textual sources Growth of Capitalism: Rational calculations of cause and
effecto Conflicts Over Old World Views vs New Astronomy Parallel
Conflict Between Southern/Mediterranean Counter-Reformation Areas and Northern/Atlantic Reformation Areas
The Old World Systemo Aristotle’s Physics (160 CE)
Four Elements: Fire, Air, Water, Earth Four Humors: Blood, Phlegm, Choler, Melancholy
o Ptolemy’s Almagest (160 CE) Geocentric Hierarchy The Great Chain of Beign
o Renaissance Science Ad Fontes: Return to the Source Galen (130-200 CE) Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)
Structure of the Human Body (1543)o The Science of the Stars
Claudius Ptolemy (100-170 CE) Uniform circular motion
Nicolous Copernicus (1473-1543) Pythagoreans
Tyco Brahe (1546-1601) Isle of Ven (1576-1597)
o Uraniborg Observations Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
Copernican Laws of Planetary Motion
Galileo Galilei (1565-1642) “How, not why…” Laws of Inertia (1604) Telescope 20x (1610)
o Thinking Science/Doing Science
Francis Bacon (1561-1626) Empiricism/Test of Experience/Induction Idols of the Mind
o Of the Tribe Universal: Accept coincidence
as proof; see order and causation in coincidence)
o Of the Cave Language Based:
Confusing/Inadequate vocabulary
o Of the Theatre Mistaken Philosophy:
Political/Religious ideologies, sensory skepticism
Dignity and Growth of Science: Fields of Knowledge Sketched (1623)
o Fancy/Poesyo Memory/Historyo Reason/Philosophy (Natural)
New Atlantis (1626)o Science as a collaborative
undertaking/methodical and impersonal/provides material benefits
“Knowledge is Power”o Idolso Gunpowdero Philosophy/Reason vs Faith/Revolution
Rene Descartes (1596-1650): Deductiono Radical Skepticism: “I think therefor I
am”o Discourses on Method/Materialism
(1653) Question all truths: Divide
complex problems into simple ones
Conduct thoughts in logical order
Make certain surveys leave nothing out
Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge (1660)
London Charles II
o Inspired by New Atlantis Motto: “Nobody’s word is final” Empire of Learning/Republic of Letters
Academic des Science/Academy of Sciences (1666) Paris Louis XIV
o The Wars of Religion: The Aftermath Henri IV (1589-1610): Le bon Roi Henri
Road/Canal Building Silk Culture/Colonial Growth Debt Renegotiations and Bribes to Catholic
Princeso Secure Peace
Maximilen de Bethone (1560-1641) Due de Sully
o Building Absolutism Marie de Medici
Married to Henri IV in 1600 Louis XIII (1602-1610-1643) Cardinal Richelieu
Foreign Policyo Oppose Spain and Austrian Hapsburgso Allies with Protestant Princes in Thirty
Years War o Encourages Revolts in Catalonia and
Portugal Domestic Policy
o Builds Royal Power thus Assaults Huguenots
o Siege of La Rochelle (1627-1628) Introduces Intendants
o Justiceo Financeo Police
Assaults Privileges of Nobles Raises Taxes on Peasants to Increase Military
o Absolutism Assailed Anne of Austria Louis XIV (1638-1643-1715) Cardinal Mazarin (1643-1648) The Fronde
Of the Parliament (1648-1649) Of the Princes (1650-1653)
o Absolutism Triumphant
Versailles Established (1661) Seat of Government (1682)
John Baptist Colbert (1661-1683) Mercantilism Colonialism
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685)o The Challenge of Absolutism
Richelieu: “Reason of State” Warfare and Problems of Finance
Duque de Olivares Spanish Collapse
o The Dutch “Golden Age” United Provinces: Dutch Merchant Republic (1579)
Confirmed (1648) Dutch East India Co. (1602)
Spices West East India Co. (1621)
Sugar Slaves
Bank of Amsterdam (1609) Resist Spanish Absolutism (to 1648)
French Absolutism after Europe’s Richest Prize
o Absolutism?: The English Case Elizabeth I (1559-1603): Tudor James I (1603-1625): Stuart
Puritans Hampton Court Conference (1604)
o “No Bishop, No King” Court Expenses
Tonnage and Poundage/Monopolies/Subsidies Duke of Buckingham: George Villiers
Impeachment Charles I (1625-1649)
Forced Loan Three Resolutions (1629) The Personal Rule (1629-1640)
o Fineso Ship Moneyo The Popish Plot/Archbishop Laud
o Civil War to Parliamentary Rule Prayer Book (1637): National Covenant Scottish Invasion (1638)
Long Parliament (1640-1653) Pym: Presbyterian
The Civil War (1642-1648) Cavaliers/Roundheads Oliver Cromwell
o Marston Moor (1644)o New Model Army o Battle of Naseby (1645)
o The English Civil War and the British Radical Tradition Generals Thomas Farfax, Henry Ireton, Oliver Cromwell
Levelers and Diggers (1642-1652) The Putney Debates (1647)
General Henry Ireton vs Colonel Thomas Rainborrow
Agreement of the People (1647) Redistricts Parliament Elect Every 2 Years Supreme Over Law, War, Diplomacy Freedom of Religion Freedom From Military Conscription Equality before Law
Rump Parliament (1648+) Execution of Charles I (Jan 30, 1649)
Common Wealth Declared Parliament Lords and Commons Religion, Politics and Society: Puritanism/Quakerism John Lilburne: An Agreement of the People (1649)
o The British Radical Tradition Radicals: Levelers and Diggers (True Levelers) General Winstanley
The True Levelers Standard Advanced (1649) Acts of the Apostles
o The Protectorate and the Return to Royalism Irish Campaign (1649-1650) Scottish Campaign (1650-1651) Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell (1653-1659)
Dutch Warso 1st (1652-1654)o 2nd (1665-1667)o 3rd (1672-1674)
Spanish War (1655-1659) Navigation Acts (1651-1673)
o Mercantilism Death of Cromwell (1659)
Charles II (1660-1685) Secret Catholic
o The English Restoration Charles II (1660-1685)
Cavalier Parliament (1661-1678)o Royalist and Anglican
Test Act (1673) James, Duke of York Whigs: Parliamentary Supremacy and Religious
Toleration Tories: Royal Supremacy and Anglican
Uniformityo Popish Plot (1679-1681)
o The Glorious Revolution James II (1685-1688)
Catholic Prefermentso Military and Civil
7 Bishops’ Case (1688)o Declaration of Indulgence
William of Orange (1650-1702) William and Mary (1689-1694-1702)
Bill of Rights/Constitutional Monarchy Toleration Act (1689)
o World War: France
Absolutism, Constitutional Monarchy, Mercantilism
Britain Uniformity, Toleration, Mercantilism
League of Augsburg (1674) Dutch Republic, Austria, Spain, German
Principalities French Invasion/William of Orange (1672)
Stadholders for Life 9 Years’ War/War of the Grand Alliance (1668-1697) England: Empire, War and Finance
Battle of the Boyne (1690) Publically Funded National Debt (1693) Bank of England (1694) London Stock Exchange (1698)
Supremacy of Parliament Over Revenue/Whig Ascendency
The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713) Charles “Carlos” II (1665-1700)
Louis XIV (1643-1715)/William III Anne (1702-1714) John Churchill “Duke of Marlborough” Battle of Blenheim (1704) Battle of Malpaquet (1709)
o English Election of 1710: Tory Election Victory
Treaty of Utrecht (1714)o Balance of Powero Outlaws Secret Treaties and Diplomatic
Missionso Scientific Revolution
Intellectual Curiosity New Ideas in a Troubled World General Increase in Literacy Integrated with Dynamic, Metropolitan Capitalist
Economy Supported by New Government Subsidized
Organizations The Newtonian Synthesis
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)o Optics, Calculus, Physics, Astronomyo Three Laws of Motion
Inertia Force = M*A Action=Reaction
o Theory of Universal Gravitation F=GM1M2/R2
o The Early Enlightenment Applies Skepticism and Scientific Method to Human
Society Republic of Letters/Philosophies Impact of Newton
Uniformity of Nature and Nature’s Laws Observation and Data
John Locke (1632-1704) Influenced by Newton/Descartes
Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) Reason
Two Treaties on Civil Government (1690) Natural Rights
Letter Concerning Toleration (1651) People are Brutish
o The Enlightenment and Religion
Humanism Deism
Rejects Revealed Religion Emphasizes Reason, Not Faith in Investigation
of Religion Rejects “Priestcraft” and Organized Religion in
Governanceo Voltaire: Bridging the Enlightenment
Francois Marie Arouet “Voltaire” (1694-1778) Letters on the English Nation (1734)
English Virtues, Educated Elites Attack Upon Organized Religion
Candide (1759)o The Enlightenment: Political Man/Woman
Voltaire: Enlightened Despotism Frederick II “The Great” of Prussia
Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) The Spirits of the Law (1748)
o Separation of Powers Jean Jaques Rousseau (1712-1778)
The Social Contract (1762)o Sovereign People/Democracy
Romanticism Mary Wollstroncraft (1759-1797)
Vindication on the Rights of Woman (1792) o The Treaty of Utrect: Power Balanced (1714)
War of the Grand Alliance (1689-1697) War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713) Spanish to Remain Independent of France Britain to get Hudson Bay and Nova Scotia from France Britain to get Asiento from Spain
Key to slavery trade Balance of Power
Political/Diplomatic Calculationso The 17th Century Crisis and the Interdiction of Imperialism
Old Empires: Spain and Portugal Christopher Columbus (1492)
o New World: Spain Vasco de Gama (1498)
o Old World: Portugal New Empires: England, France and The Netherlands
Dutch East India and West India Companieso Malaysia and Africa
British East India Company
o Indiao French Incursion (1620)
Old World Empires: Mongol Empires: India Ottoman Empire: Near East Manchu Empire: China
Mercantilism The Commonwealth (1652-1660)/Jean Colbert
Western “Atlantic” Trade Sugar, Slaves, Timber, Tobacco, Chocolate,
Dyestuffs, Manufactured Goods New World Plantation Economics
Sugarcane, Rice, Tobacco, Open Range Herdingo Cattle, Sheep, Horses: Feed Laboring
Population New World Foodstuffs (In the Old World)
Potatoes Eastern Trade
Spiceso Pepper, Cloves, Cinnamon
Drugso Opium
Fine Clotho Silks, Cottons
Luxury Goodso Chinao Tea
o The Atlantic Community The Atlantic (Triangular) Trade
Britain:o Manufactured and Indian Ocean goods
to Africa and Americas Africa:
o Slaves to Americas Americas:
o Sugar, Tobacco, Timber, Furs, Dyestuffs, Silver and Gold to Britain
A New Pattern of European Imperialism The British Empire: Colonists, Slaves, Goods
Free Labor/ Slave Laboro Colonial western hemisphere o African labor pool
Eastern Luxury Goods/ Indian Ocian The Slave Trade (1550-1850)
10 Million –mostly male- African Slaves
Caribbean Plantation Economies Sugar Britain and the Asiento (1714) Hardening Theories of Race
o “Scientific” knowledge as powero The Emerging British World Empire
Nationalism and the “Freeborn Rights of the Englishmen”
Rule Britannia New Pattern of Imperialism
Colonial knowledge Enlightenment arrogance
o The British North American Colonies North and South: Growing Self-Sufficiency Navigation Acts (1651-1673) The Seven Years War (1754-1763): Debt
George III (1760-1815)o Lord Bute
New Colonial Policy Efficiency Cost Reductions Security
Line of Settlement/Permanent Garrison (1763) Policy
Make colonists pay portion of security costs Sugar Act (1764)
Raise revenue by taxing foreign molasses for defense
Stamp Act (1765) Excise Taxmen Escalation and Conflict
Quartering Act (1765)o Bill of Rights (1688)
Townshend Acts (1767)o Occupation of Boston (1768)
Lord North (1770-1782)o Boston Massacre (1770)o Tea Act (1773)
Colonial Legislature (1774) Continental Congress (1775) Attacks on Lord Bute in Britain
o Parliamentary opposition Whigs and Radicals
Theatre of Liberty Revolutionary Principals (1688)
o No taxation without representation vs virtual representation
o English freedom and freedom rights Enlightenment Government
Declaration of Independenceo The Common Law o Universal Humanismo Which Law to Follow?
Escalation and Conflicto Battle of Saratoga (1777)
French Allianceo British Declare War on Dutch (1780)o Battle of Yorktown (1781)o Constitution of the United States (1787)
Social contract of make, property owning, white citizen
Popular sovereignty Revolutionary Principals
Whig Party: Parliamentary Reform and Support of Colonist
o Freeborn rights of the Englishman Edmund Burke (1729-1797)
o Revolution Principals (1688)o Repeal unconstitutional taxes/Raise
revenue through trade (1775) No body of men will be argued
into slavery Liberty according to English
ideas and on English principalso Impeachment of Warren Hastings
“Governor-General of Bengal” (1786-1795)
o Moral Empire? Radicals: Parliamentary Reform and Supports
American Colonies Thomas Paine (1737-1809)
o Common Sense (1776)o “Monarchical and aristocratic tyranny”
[King and House of Lords] (1776) Independence under a
Continental Chartero Universal Human Rights?
o The French Crisis Royal Bankruptcy
American Revolution Fiscal Indiscipline
Louis XV (1715-1774) Louis XVI (1774-1793)
Marie Antoinette Assembly of Notables (1788)
Second Estate Called to Fix Financial Situationo Refused to remove tax exemption
Estates General (1789) Last Called (1614)
National Assembly/Third Estate Opening of Estates General (May 5, 1789) Declaration of a National Assembly (June 17,
1789) Liberal Revolution (1789)
Royal Troops/Aristocratic Plot National Assembly/Tennis Court Oath (June 20,
1789)o 60% of all Clergyo 45% of all Nobles
Royal Coup d’ Etat (July 13, 1789)o Destruction of the Bastille (July 14,
1789) Death of Feudalism
Great Fearo Enter “the people” to “who are the
people” Feudal Laws Abolished (August 4, 1789) Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen
o Legal Equality and Merit o Equal Political Rights, Economic Rightso “Liberty, Equality, Brotherhood”
Bread Prices: Rise 88% by October/”Bread Riots” Politics...”Enter the People”…Three
Women’s March on Versailles Hubris
o Rationality vs Tradition Outrages Burke after Richard Price praises
French Revolution in speech (July 14, 1790)o Burke write “Reflection on Revolution in
France” Battle Against Jacobins
Bastille Day celebration (1790): The Whig Club Edmond Burke (1790)
Thomas Paine (1791) Burke breaks with Charles James Fox and
“English Jacobins”o Not 1668 but 1649: Anarchy
o The French Royalists: Right and Left Royalists (Émigrés/Constitutionalists)
Political Clubso Feuillants/Marquis de Lafayette
Slowly become Republicanso Jacobins/Maximillian Robespierreo Cordieliers/Georges Danton, Jean Paul
Morat L’ Ami du Peuple (1790-1793)
o Jacques Rene Hebert Pere Duchesne (1790-1794)
Emergence of the Sans Culottes Cultureo The Revolution Radicalizes
Bankruptcy Averted Confiscation of Church Lands Civil Constitution of the Clergy (December 1790) King’s Flight to Varennes/National Convention
(June 20, 1791) o Single Charter Assembly
Paine Publishes “The Rights of Man” (1791)o Paine elected to the Convention (1792)
1 of 2 foreigners Haitian Revolution (1791)
Declaration of War (April 1792)o Prussian/Austrian Invasion
Louis XIV Deposed (August 10, 1792)o Provisional Government
Danton September Massacre
Coordinated by Jean Paul Marrat Battle of Valmy National Convention (January 21, 1793)
Regicide Execution of Louis XIV (Jan 21, 1793)
Paine votes to convict, votes against execution The Terror
Feuderalist Revolt/ Foreign Invasions Levee en Masse (August)
o Mass conscript Army Committee of the Public Safety: War Cabinet
o Maximilian Robespierre “Terror is the order of the day”” (September 5,
1793) The Grand Terror (March-July 1794) Justifications: Dreadful but necessary The Crisis of 1793
o Invasion of Austrians, Prussians, English, Spanish, Sardinians
o Rebellions of the Vendeens, Chouans, Royalists, Federalists
The Constitution of 1793o Universal Manhood Suffrageo Freedom of the Presso Public Educationo Rights of Propertyo Rights of Subsistenceo Accepted (June 24, 1793)
Immediately suspended until peace (October 10, 1793)
The Grand Terror A “Fever” of Executions in Paris (June-July 1794)
o Symbolism of guillotine reversed Impartial, Rational, Equal justice
now transformed into the bloody maw
o 2500 guillotined in 2 months 38% nobles 26% clergy
o French vs British Views Religion, Morality, Loyalty,
Obedience to the Laws, Independence, Personal Security, Justice, Inheritance, Protection of Property, Industry, National Prosperity, Happiness (English)
Atheism, Perjury, Rebellion, Treason, Anarchy, Murder, Equality, Madness, Cruelty, Injustice, Treachery, Ingratitude, Idleness, Famine, National and Private Ruin, Misery (French)
Total War and the “Grand Terror”
Battle of Fleurus (June 26, 1794o Overwhelming defeat of Austrians
Fall of Montagnard Terrorism The Execution of Robespierre and 20 of His
Associated, 10 Thermidor (July 28, 1794)o Thomas Paine escapes execution
through sheer luck From the Directory to Napoleon
The Directory (1795-1799) The White Terror
o 200,000 vigilante executions (1795-1796)
The Consulate (1799-1804)o Napoleon Bonaparte
A “messiah in army boots” The First French Empire (1804-1815)
What Changed with the French Revolution? The Modern World
o The End of Feudalism: equality of citizens before the law
o Representation in governance (the question who is worthy of representation?)
o The superiority of separate, secular government (or, the age of voluntary religion)
o Popular “romantic” nationalism and the modern mass military
o Anti-Colonial Revolution and the claim of Universal Human rights
The Fragmented Revolutionary Legacy The Phases of the Revolution:
o Liberal Revolution Restricted, property-owning
political democracy o Jacobin Revolution
Militant democracy as freedom struggle (social and economic as well as political)
o Reactionary Revolution Unified, militarily successful,
imperial nationalism