Sustaining Biodiversity: Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species ApproachThe Species Approach
Chapter 8Chapter 8
The Passenger Pigeon: Gone The Passenger Pigeon: Gone ForeverForever
Once most common bird in N. Once most common bird in N. AmericaAmerica--
Extinct in 1914Extinct in 1914
Humans were responsibleHumans were responsible(huge flocks, narrow colonies = easy to (huge flocks, narrow colonies = easy to kill- stool pigeons)kill- stool pigeons)
Why they were huntedWhy they were hunted(food, feathers, fertilizer)(food, feathers, fertilizer)
ExtinctionExtinction
Types of Species ExtinctionTypes of Species Extinction
Local extinction- Local extinction- like it soundslike it sounds
Ecological extinction - Ecological extinction - too few to play ecological roletoo few to play ecological role
Biological extinction - Biological extinction - all gone everywhereall gone everywhere
Fig. 8-2, p. 154
Passenger pigeon
Great auk Dodo Dusky seaside sparrow
Aepyornis(Madagascar)
Some Prematurely Extinct SpeciesSome Prematurely Extinct Species
Endangered and Endangered and Threatened Threatened
SpeciesSpecies
Endangered speciesEndangered species could soon become extinct could soon become extinct over some or all of its rangeover some or all of its range
Threatened speciesThreatened species still abundant, but likely to still abundant, but likely to become endangeredbecome endangered
Fig. 8-3, p. 156
Florida manatee
Northern spotted owl (threatened)
Gray wolf Florida panther Bannerman's turaco (Africa)
Devil's hole pupfish
Snow leopard(Central Asia)
Black-footed ferret
Symphonia(Madagascar)
Utah prairie dog(threatened)
Ghost bat (Australia)
California condor Black lace cactus Black rhinoceros(Africa)
Oahu tree snail
More Endangered and Threatened SpeciesMore Endangered and Threatened Species
Characteristic Examples
Low reproductive rate(K-strategist)
Specialized niche
Narrow distribution
Feeds at high trophic level
Fixed migratory patterns
Rare
Commercially valuable
Large territories
Blue whale, giant panda,rhinoceros
Blue whale, giant panda,Everglades kite
Many island species,elephant seal, desert pupfish
Bengal tiger, bald eagle,grizzly bear
Blue whale, whooping crane,sea turtles
Many island species,African violet, some orchids
Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, rare plants and birds
California condor, grizzly bear, Florida panther
Characteristics of Extinction-Prone SpeciesCharacteristics of Extinction-Prone Species
“The first animal species to go are the big, the slow, the tasty and those with valuable parts such as tusks and skins.”
E.O.Wilson
Fig. 8-4, p. 157
Fig. 8-5, p. 157
Fish
Mammals
Reptiles
Plants
Birds
34% (51% offreshwater species)
24%
20%
14%
12%
Percentages of Various Types of Organisms Percentages of Various Types of Organisms Threatened with Extinction by Human ActivitiesThreatened with Extinction by Human Activities
Problems Estimating Problems Estimating Extinction RatesExtinction Rates
Extinction not easily documented over timeExtinction not easily documented over time
Many species remain unidentifiedMany species remain unidentified
Little is known about most identified speciesLittle is known about most identified species
Estimating Extinction RatesEstimating Extinction Rates Estimates from records and fossilsEstimates from records and fossils
Species-area relationshipSpecies-area relationship: on average, a 90% habitat loss : on average, a 90% habitat loss causes the extinction of 50% of the species living in that causes the extinction of 50% of the species living in that habitathabitat
Models to estimate risks of extinction for a particular Models to estimate risks of extinction for a particular speciesspecies
Estimates of extinction rates can vary depending on Estimates of extinction rates can vary depending on available data and what assumptions are usedavailable data and what assumptions are used
Human Impacts on Extinction Human Impacts on Extinction RatesRates
Humans have greatly accelerated extinction rates Humans have greatly accelerated extinction rates (1,000 - (1,000 - 10,000x)10,000x)
Conservative estimates of 0.1% to 1% per year. Conservative estimates of 0.1% to 1% per year.
Due to human population increasesDue to human population increases
Extinction rates higher in biodiversity “hot spots”Extinction rates higher in biodiversity “hot spots”
Speciation crisis Speciation crisis (humans limiting long-term recovery of biodiversity via (humans limiting long-term recovery of biodiversity via impacts on ecosystems, colonization sites for emergence of new species)impacts on ecosystems, colonization sites for emergence of new species)
Inadequate estimations of extinction ratesInadequate estimations of extinction rates
Precautionary strategyPrecautionary strategy
Importance of Wild SpeciesImportance of Wild Species May take nature 5 million years to replace the species May take nature 5 million years to replace the species
that may be lost in the 21st centurythat may be lost in the 21st century
Instrumental valueInstrumental value- ecological services, food, fuel, lumber, paper, medicine- ecological services, food, fuel, lumber, paper, medicine
Genetic information- Genetic information- better ability to adapt to changing enviro. conditionsbetter ability to adapt to changing enviro. conditions
Recreational pleasure and ecotourismRecreational pleasure and ecotourism- - lion living in Kenya generates > $.5 million over 7 years lion living in Kenya generates > $.5 million over 7 years elephant worth about $1 million over 60 yrselephant worth about $1 million over 60 yrs
Intrinsic or existence valueIntrinsic or existence value - Do species have an inherent right to - Do species have an inherent right to exist?exist?
Even small organisms can be importantEven small organisms can be important
Fig. 8-7, p. 158
Nature’s PharmacyNature’s Pharmacy
9 of 10 leading Rx drugs originated from wild species< 1% of flowering plants in tropical forests studied for medicinal properties
Causes of Premature ExtinctionCauses of Premature Extinction ““HIPPCOHIPPCO””
HHabitat destruction and fragmentationabitat destruction and fragmentation
IInvasive (alien) speciesnvasive (alien) species
PPopulation growth (humans)opulation growth (humans)
PPollutionollution
CClimate Changelimate Change
OOverharvestingverharvesting
Extinction Threats from Habitat Extinction Threats from Habitat Loss and DegradationLoss and Degradation
Importance of habitatsImportance of habitats
Deforestation- Deforestation- particularly tropical forestsparticularly tropical forests
Destruction of wetlands and coral reefsDestruction of wetlands and coral reefs
Endemic speciesEndemic species- found nowhere else on earth- found nowhere else on earth
““Habitat islands”- Habitat islands”- surrounded by different habitatsurrounded by different habitat
Habitat fragmentationHabitat fragmentation - - continuous area divided into small, scattered patchescontinuous area divided into small, scattered patches
““Message” from the birdsMessage” from the birds - - 70% are declining, 1/6 threatened with extinction 70% are declining, 1/6 threatened with extinction Birds are indicator speciesBirds are indicator species
Florida scrub jay
Sprague’s pipit Bichnell’s thrush Blacked-capped vireo Golden-cheekedwarbler
Cerulean warbler
California gnatcatcher Kirtland’s warbler Henslow’s sparrow Bachman’s warbler
Threatened Species of U.S. SongbirdsThreatened Species of U.S. Songbirds
See Fig. 8-9, p. 161
Asian or Indian ElephantReduced RangesReduced Ranges
Former range
Range today(34,000–54,000 left)
Indian Tiger
Range 100 years ago
Range today(about 2,300 left)
Purple looselife European starling African honeybee(“Killer bee”)
Nutria Salt cedar(Tamarisk)
Marine toad Water hyacinth Japanese beetle Hydrilla European wild boar(Feral pig)
Fig. 8-10, p. 163
Deliberately Introduced SpeciesDeliberately Introduced Species
Sea lamprey(attached to lake trout)
Argentina fire ant Eurasian muffleBrown tree snake Common pigeon(Rock dove)
Formosan termite Zebra mussel Asian long-hornedbeetle
Asian tiger mosquito Gypsy moth larvae
Fig. 8-10, p. 163
Accidentally Introduced SpeciesAccidentally Introduced Species
KudzuKudzu
Fig. 8-11, p. 164
1918
2000
Fire Ant InvasionFire Ant InvasionCurrently as far north as CA and the Bay Area
Reducing Threats from Nonnative SpeciesReducing Threats from Nonnative Species Cost U.S. Taxpayers $137 billion /yrCost U.S. Taxpayers $137 billion /yr
Threaten 1/2 critical species in US (95% in Hawaii)Threaten 1/2 critical species in US (95% in Hawaii)
Prevention is bestPrevention is best
Identify the characteristics of nonnative speciesIdentify the characteristics of nonnative species
Identify vulnerable ecosystemsIdentify vulnerable ecosystems
Thoroughly inspect importsThoroughly inspect imports
Establish appropriate international lawsEstablish appropriate international laws
Discharge of ballast waters from ships Discharge of ballast waters from ships
Fig. 8-13, p. 165
Characteristics ofSuccessful
Invader Species
• High reproductive rate, short generation time (r-selected species)
• Pioneer species
• Long lived
• High dispersal rate
• Release growth- inhibiting chemicals into soil
• Generalists
• High genetic variability
Characteristics ofEcosystems Vulnerable
to Invader Species
• Similar climate to habitat of invader
• Absence of predators on invading species
• Early successional systems
• Low diversity of native species
• Absence of fire
• Disturbed by human activities
Characteristics of Successful Invader Characteristics of Successful Invader Species and Vulnerable EcosystemsSpecies and Vulnerable Ecosystems
Extinction Threats from PoachingExtinction Threats from Poaching
Profits of poachingProfits of poachingMt. gorilla = $150K; panda pelt = $100K; chimp = $50K; rhino horn = $28k /KgMt. gorilla = $150K; panda pelt = $100K; chimp = $50K; rhino horn = $28k /Kg(most live animals die in transit)(most live animals die in transit)
Causes of poaching: food, fur, pets, traditional medicines, Causes of poaching: food, fur, pets, traditional medicines, trophies, eliminating pests, etc.trophies, eliminating pests, etc.
BushmeatBushmeat
Illegal pets and decorative plantsIllegal pets and decorative plantsorchids can fetch up to $5K; saguaro cactus $15Korchids can fetch up to $5K; saguaro cactus $15K> 60 bird species are endangered or threatened due to wild bird trade> 60 bird species are endangered or threatened due to wild bird tradekeeping a bird indoors for more than 10 yrs doubles chances of getting lung cancerkeeping a bird indoors for more than 10 yrs doubles chances of getting lung cancerIrony of collecting exoticsIrony of collecting exotics
Attempts to control poachingAttempts to control poaching
BushmeatBushmeat
Fig. 8-17, p. 169
Extinction Threats from Climate Extinction Threats from Climate Change and PollutionChange and Pollution
Greenhouse effectGreenhouse effect
Pesticide threats- Pesticide threats- decline in honeybees, birds & fishdecline in honeybees, birds & fish
DDT biomagnification (bioaccumulation)DDT biomagnification (bioaccumulation)
Fig. 8-15, p. 166
DDT in fish-eatingbirds (ospreys)
25 ppm
DDT in largefish (needle fish)2 ppm
DDT in smallfish (minnows)0.5 ppm
DDT in water0.000003 ppm,or 3 ppt
DDT inzooplankton0.04 ppm
Biomagnification of DDTBiomagnification of DDT
Fat soluble chemicals increase in concentration at higher levels of food web
Protecting Wild Species Protecting Wild Species International TreatiesInternational Treaties
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)Species (CITES)• • signed by 166 countries- lists 900 endangered species that signed by 166 countries- lists 900 endangered species that cannot be commercially tradedcannot be commercially traded• restricts international trade of 29,000 threatened species• restricts international trade of 29,000 threatened species• limited impact due to spotty enforcement, ability for countries to • limited impact due to spotty enforcement, ability for countries to except themselvesexcept themselves
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)• legally binds governments to reverse decline of biodiversity• legally binds governments to reverse decline of biodiversity• ratified by 190 countries (not USA)- No severe penalties• ratified by 190 countries (not USA)- No severe penalties
Protecting Wild Species - U.S. Federal LawsProtecting Wild Species - U.S. Federal LawsImportant on APES ExamImportant on APES Exam
Lacey Act (1900)Lacey Act (1900) - - prohibits transporting live or dead wild animals or parts across prohibits transporting live or dead wild animals or parts across state borders w/out federal permit.state borders w/out federal permit.
Endangered Species Act (ESA- 1973)- Endangered Species Act (ESA- 1973)- one of world’s toughest & controversial enviro lawsone of world’s toughest & controversial enviro laws
• goal is to identify & protect endangered species in USA & abroad• goal is to identify & protect endangered species in USA & abroad• NMFS / USFWS responsible for identifying and listing endangered & threatened species• NMFS / USFWS responsible for identifying and listing endangered & threatened species• illegal for Americans to buy any product made from protected species - • illegal for Americans to buy any product made from protected species - • species cannot be killed, collected or injured in US• species cannot be killed, collected or injured in US• $100k fines and 1 year prison terms for offenses• $100k fines and 1 year prison terms for offenses• protection extended to threatened & endangered foreign species• protection extended to threatened & endangered foreign species• In 2005 there were1,260 protected species (many critical species not yet listed)• In 2005 there were1,260 protected species (many critical species not yet listed)
Establishing critical habitats- Establishing critical habitats- ESA requries protection of critical habitat for recovery of listed species. ESA requries protection of critical habitat for recovery of listed species. Due to lack of funds, only 33% of listed species have critical habitat establishedDue to lack of funds, only 33% of listed species have critical habitat establishedSince 2001, gov has stopped listing new species & designating critical habitats unless mandated by court orderSince 2001, gov has stopped listing new species & designating critical habitats unless mandated by court order
Endangered Species Act Endangered Species Act (continued)(continued)
Habitat conservation plans- Habitat conservation plans- • • 1982 amendment to ESA allows landowners, developers or loggers to destroy 1982 amendment to ESA allows landowners, developers or loggers to destroy critical habitat if they take steps to protect members of species (set asides, paying critical habitat if they take steps to protect members of species (set asides, paying to relocate, or buying suitable habitat elsewhereto relocate, or buying suitable habitat elsewhere• criticized as loophole - many plans approved without scientific evaluation• criticized as loophole - many plans approved without scientific evaluation
ESA and commercial shippingESA and commercial shipping- all commercial wildlife shipments must - all commercial wildlife shipments must leave or enter US via one of nine designated portsleave or enter US via one of nine designated ports• 60 USFWS inspectors examine only 25% of 90,000 yearly shipments• 60 USFWS inspectors examine only 25% of 90,000 yearly shipments• violators often not prosecuted and pay only small fine• violators often not prosecuted and pay only small fine
Confiscated Products From Confiscated Products From Endangered SpeciesEndangered Species
Due to sparse $$ and inspectors, < 10% of illegal wildlife trade in US is discovered
Concentration of rare species
Low Moderate High
Top Six Hot Spots1 Hawaii2 San Francisco Bay area3 Southern Appalachians4 Death Valley5 Southern California6 Florida Panhandle
4
5
2
6
3
1
Biodiversity Hot Spots in the USBiodiversity Hot Spots in the US
Protecting Marine SpeciesProtecting Marine Species Role of the Endangered Species ActRole of the Endangered Species Act
Threats from litterThreats from litter- plastic threatens millions of marine species- plastic threatens millions of marine species“Pacific Garbage Dump” - Nightline Video - click here Threatened sea mammals-Threatened sea mammals- whales, seals, sea lions whales, seals, sea lions
Threatened sea turtlesThreatened sea turtles- - • World’s 8 major sea turtle species are endangered or threatened-• World’s 8 major sea turtle species are endangered or threatened-•• Poaching and threats from fishing netsPoaching and threats from fishing nets
Need more knowledge of marine biodiversityNeed more knowledge of marine biodiversity
Difficulty enforcing international treatiesDifficulty enforcing international treaties
Endangered Sea TurtlesEndangered Sea Turtles
World’s 8 major sea World’s 8 major sea turtle species are turtle species are endangered or endangered or threatened-threatened-
What Can You Do?
Protecting Species
• Do not buy furs, ivory products, and other materials made from endangered or threatened animal species.
• Do not buy wood and paper products produced by cutting remaining old-growth forests in the tropics.
• Do not buy birds, snakes, turtles, tropical fish, and other animals that are taken from the wild.
• Do not buy orchids, cacti, and other plants that are taken from the wild.
Fig. 8-20, p. 174
What Can We Do to Protect Species?What Can We Do to Protect Species?
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