Subsistence SystemsSubsistence Systems

Food Producing SocietiesFood Producing Societies

Food Producing Societies: An OverviewFood Producing Societies: An Overview

Food producersFood producers are those peoples who domesticate plants or are those peoples who domesticate plants or animals or both.animals or both.

They work much harder than simple foragers, though not They work much harder than simple foragers, though not necessarily more so than complex foragersnecessarily more so than complex foragers

Agriculturalists have to prepare the soil, plant their seeds or Agriculturalists have to prepare the soil, plant their seeds or cuttings, weed the field, remove the pests, and finally harvest cuttings, weed the field, remove the pests, and finally harvest and process the crops.and process the crops.

Herders have to control or confine the animals, assist the birth Herders have to control or confine the animals, assist the birth of the young, feed the animals, milk them (and some draw of the young, feed the animals, milk them (and some draw their blood for consumption), shear the coats of some species, their blood for consumption), shear the coats of some species, and slaughter them for meat and hides. and slaughter them for meat and hides.

That means we have to explain what compels the producers to That means we have to explain what compels the producers to do so much more work than the simple foragers.do so much more work than the simple foragers.

Food-Producing Societies: Their Food-Producing Societies: Their Beginnings and ConsequencesBeginnings and Consequences

First indications of domestication came in First indications of domestication came in the Neolithic at about 10,000 BP I n the the Neolithic at about 10,000 BP I n the Fertile Crescent, including Israel, Lebanon, Fertile Crescent, including Israel, Lebanon, Syria, southern Turkey, and western Iran in Syria, southern Turkey, and western Iran in the Near East (map, upper left)the Near East (map, upper left)

Characteristics of the Neolithic included the Characteristics of the Neolithic included the domestication of plants (such as emmer domestication of plants (such as emmer wheat, lower photo) and animals, such as wheat, lower photo) and animals, such as cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats. cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats.

Advantages consisted of human control Advantages consisted of human control over food production, greater quantities of over food production, greater quantities of food compared with simple foragers, and food compared with simple foragers, and settled communitiessettled communities

Food-Producing Societies: Secondary Food-Producing Societies: Secondary ConsequencesConsequences

The greater productivity of agriculture allowed for The greater productivity of agriculture allowed for greater time in various non-agricultural crafts and greater time in various non-agricultural crafts and laborlabor

Economic specialization meant that a system of Economic specialization meant that a system of exchange would arise: administered trade and exchange would arise: administered trade and marketsmarkets

Population increase meant that complex social Population increase meant that complex social control mechanisms would arise.control mechanisms would arise.

This would mean that society would become more This would mean that society would become more complex, more stratified, and more centralized.complex, more stratified, and more centralized.

Typology of Food-Producing SystemsTypology of Food-Producing Systems

However, not all the food producing systems are the same. We However, not all the food producing systems are the same. We look at three different typeslook at three different types

Horticulture:Horticulture: the cultivation of crops using hand tools such as the cultivation of crops using hand tools such as the hoe and digging stick.the hoe and digging stick.

Pastoralism:Pastoralism: The herding of animals, such as goats, sheep, The herding of animals, such as goats, sheep, cattle, horses, even camels. cattle, horses, even camels.

Intensive Cultivation or Agriculture: Intensive Cultivation or Agriculture: Cultivation involving Cultivation involving higher technology, such as irrigation or animal (or tractor) higher technology, such as irrigation or animal (or tractor) driven plows, resulting in higher yields.driven plows, resulting in higher yields.

Some of these systems exist at the exclusion of others, but Some of these systems exist at the exclusion of others, but most combined the main subsistence strategy with others. most combined the main subsistence strategy with others.

Example:Example: The Aztecs used both irrigation and hoe cultivation. The Aztecs used both irrigation and hoe cultivation.

HorticultureHorticulture

Horticulture Horticulture may be defined as the cultivation of may be defined as the cultivation of crops carried out with hand tools, such as digging crops carried out with hand tools, such as digging sticks, hoes, machetes and a specialized tool in sticks, hoes, machetes and a specialized tool in Mesoamerica as the coa. Mesoamerica as the coa.

Neither plows nor irrigation systems are used.Neither plows nor irrigation systems are used. A field usually lies unused for a period of time to A field usually lies unused for a period of time to

enable it to regain its fertilityenable it to regain its fertility The best known type of cultivation involves use of The best known type of cultivation involves use of

slash-and-burn slash-and-burn or or swiddenswidden cultivation, and we will cultivation, and we will focus on this system. focus on this system.

Basics of Slash-and-Burn Basics of Slash-and-Burn CultivationCultivation

In slash and burn, a site is cleared of brush In slash and burn, a site is cleared of brush and trees; trees are felled, and brush is cut and trees; trees are felled, and brush is cut and stackedand stacked

This phase is completed usually at the This phase is completed usually at the beginning of the dry seasonbeginning of the dry season

Once dried, usually at the end of the dry Once dried, usually at the end of the dry season, the brush and trees are set afire (top season, the brush and trees are set afire (top photo).photo).

Planting begins at the beginning of the rainy Planting begins at the beginning of the rainy season and usually different species of crops season and usually different species of crops are planted together, or are planted together, or interplanted.interplanted.

Once soil is exhausted, site is abandoned Once soil is exhausted, site is abandoned (bottom photo) and a new site is cleared(bottom photo) and a new site is cleared

Slash-and-Burn Cultivation: Slash-and-Burn Cultivation: Adaptive SignificanceAdaptive Significance

Most slash-and-burn cultivation is practiced in the Most slash-and-burn cultivation is practiced in the tropics. tropics.

Tropical climate is extremely hard on soils because of Tropical climate is extremely hard on soils because of the intense heat from the sun, the heavy rainfall, and the intense heat from the sun, the heavy rainfall, and the chemical reaction called laterization in soils the chemical reaction called laterization in soils containing minerals caused by the heat and moisture. containing minerals caused by the heat and moisture.

Slash-and-burn is best adapted to this climate--which Slash-and-burn is best adapted to this climate--which the following slides will show.the following slides will show.

Constants of Tropical Rainforest: Constants of Tropical Rainforest: Intense HeatIntense Heat

Plant and animal matter decompose to form Plant and animal matter decompose to form humus humus or or topsoil, topsoil, the organic accumulation of soil in which all the organic accumulation of soil in which all plants grow. plants grow.

Humus formation virtually stops if topsoil reaches 77 Humus formation virtually stops if topsoil reaches 77 degrees Fahrenheit.degrees Fahrenheit.

At that temperature, decomposition of humus exceeds At that temperature, decomposition of humus exceeds formation, while humic materials break down to gases: formation, while humic materials break down to gases: ammonia, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide.ammonia, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide.

These gases escape into the atmosphere, leaving little These gases escape into the atmosphere, leaving little nitrogen left for the topsoil. nitrogen left for the topsoil.

Constants of Tropical Rainforest: Constants of Tropical Rainforest: RainfallRainfall

Rainfall acts on the soil in two Rainfall acts on the soil in two waysways

Erosion, whereby rainfall Erosion, whereby rainfall carries away soil particles. The carries away soil particles. The particles themselves scour the particles themselves scour the surface, and the abrasion carries surface, and the abrasion carries off even more soiloff even more soil

Leaching is the other process: Leaching is the other process: the warm water dissolves water-the warm water dissolves water-soluble nutrients, whereby the soluble nutrients, whereby the nutrients seep into subsoil away nutrients seep into subsoil away from the roots of the plants. from the roots of the plants.

Constants of Tropical Rainforest: Constants of Tropical Rainforest: LaterizationLaterization

Laterite is a compound comprising the Laterite is a compound comprising the oxides of minerals, such as the iron oxides of minerals, such as the iron oxide at the top layer of this soil oxide at the top layer of this soil (photo) (photo)

The combined heat of the sun and The combined heat of the sun and moisture of the rain create these oxidesmoisture of the rain create these oxides

Once started, the process is Once started, the process is irreversible. irreversible.

The process removes phosphorus, an The process removes phosphorus, an essential nutrient, and the laterite essential nutrient, and the laterite cannot absorb other nutrientscannot absorb other nutrients

A Long-Term Constant: Age of A Long-Term Constant: Age of SoilSoil

In the Amazonian region of South America, In the Amazonian region of South America, this process has been going for centuries.this process has been going for centuries.

The soil composition is mostly clay and sand, The soil composition is mostly clay and sand, neither of which is high in content or calciumneither of which is high in content or calcium

Because calcium if limited, plant and animal Because calcium if limited, plant and animal life in Amazonia is limited in protein content life in Amazonia is limited in protein content

Seed reproduction required high levels of Seed reproduction required high levels of protein, so that most plants in Amazonia protein, so that most plants in Amazonia reproduce by daughter shoots sprouting form reproduce by daughter shoots sprouting form parent plant, called vegetative parent plant, called vegetative

Animals that feed on these plants are generally Animals that feed on these plants are generally small, such as this woolly monkey, and live in small, such as this woolly monkey, and live in isolation rather than groups.isolation rather than groups.

Gregarious (herding) animals are rareGregarious (herding) animals are rare

Adaptation of Tropical RainforestsAdaptation of Tropical Rainforests

Natural selection pressures have favored vegetation protective Natural selection pressures have favored vegetation protective of the soil. of the soil.

The first feature is that trees develop a protective canopy of The first feature is that trees develop a protective canopy of thick leaves aided by epiphytic plants, plants that receive their thick leaves aided by epiphytic plants, plants that receive their nutrients from rainfall and the atmosphere.nutrients from rainfall and the atmosphere.

The second feature is the high rate of growth of the trees, The second feature is the high rate of growth of the trees, which involve a rapid utilization of the nutrients in the soil. which involve a rapid utilization of the nutrients in the soil.

The third feature is the juxtaposition of different types of trees, The third feature is the juxtaposition of different types of trees, which have different nutrient requirements, in the same which have different nutrient requirements, in the same location so that all nutrients are utilized. location so that all nutrients are utilized.

Protective CanopyProtective Canopy Mature forests contain trees with thick Mature forests contain trees with thick

foliage at their tops, made up of their foliage at their tops, made up of their leaves and supplemented by epiphytic leaves and supplemented by epiphytic plants. plants.

They have several protective functions:They have several protective functions: First, they provide protective shade from First, they provide protective shade from

the sun, cooling the soil below 77the sun, cooling the soil below 77ooF and so F and so allowing humus to accumulate.allowing humus to accumulate.

Second, they screen the rain so that it Second, they screen the rain so that it falls in a fine spray. falls in a fine spray.

Third, the epiphytic plants absorb some Third, the epiphytic plants absorb some of the rainfall, so the amount reaching the of the rainfall, so the amount reaching the forest floor is 70% of the total rainfallforest floor is 70% of the total rainfall. .

Rate of GrowthRate of Growth

Rate of growth is spectacularRate of growth is spectacular Enables rapid use of nutrients before they disappear Enables rapid use of nutrients before they disappear

through erosion or leachingthrough erosion or leaching Litter fall of animal remains and dead vegetationLitter fall of animal remains and dead vegetation Is four times of woodland in New York stateIs four times of woodland in New York state Rainfall also captures nutrients from airRainfall also captures nutrients from air 75% of potassium in soil, 40% of magnesium, and 75% of potassium in soil, 40% of magnesium, and

25% of phosphorus come from rainwater25% of phosphorus come from rainwater

Species JuxtapositionSpecies Juxtaposition

Different tree species have different nutrient Different tree species have different nutrient requirements, and so grow in the locationrequirements, and so grow in the location

Some trees require more phosphorus than others, Some trees require more phosphorus than others, while other trees other require more potassium.while other trees other require more potassium.

Nutrients left by one tree is taken by othersNutrients left by one tree is taken by others In the meantime, trees of the same species are In the meantime, trees of the same species are

dispersed, so the dispersal inhibits the spread of pests dispersed, so the dispersal inhibits the spread of pests

and diseases that infect that species and diseases that infect that species..

What Would Happened if Trees What Would Happened if Trees in the Tropics Were Cleared?in the Tropics Were Cleared?

In the absence of trees, the soil In the absence of trees, the soil would soon be compacted and would soon be compacted and become infertile.become infertile.

Humus would not form, especially Humus would not form, especially in the absence of litter from tree in the absence of litter from tree leaves and animal droppings. leaves and animal droppings.

Erosion via runoff would increase, Erosion via runoff would increase, and the soil would be leached to and the soil would be leached to infertility.infertility.

All the topsoil would be converted All the topsoil would be converted to lateriteto laterite

Overall, soil fertility would Overall, soil fertility would decrease or disappear entirely. decrease or disappear entirely.

Slash-and-Burn Cultivation Slash-and-Burn Cultivation Techniques: The MundurucTechniques: The Mundurucúú

This section explains how the MundurucThis section explains how the Mundurucú ú practice slash and burn cultivation.practice slash and burn cultivation.

First, they select a sloping, well-drained area, First, they select a sloping, well-drained area, so that excessive water does not destroy the so that excessive water does not destroy the cropscrops

They then start clearing the brush and small They then start clearing the brush and small trees at the beginning of the dry season. trees at the beginning of the dry season.

They fell the trees by cutting through most of They fell the trees by cutting through most of the trees to be clearedthe trees to be cleared

Then fell a tree that knocks over the others and Then fell a tree that knocks over the others and clear the trees left standing.clear the trees left standing.

Slash-and-Burn Cultivation Slash-and-Burn Cultivation Technique: Burning and PlantingTechnique: Burning and Planting

The vegetation is allowed to dry for 2 The vegetation is allowed to dry for 2 monthsmonths

Next, the fire is set when there is a slight Next, the fire is set when there is a slight breeze to fan the flamesbreeze to fan the flames

Planting begins at first rains: a hole is Planting begins at first rains: a hole is made with a digging stick and cuttings or made with a digging stick and cuttings or seeds are inserted and coveredseeds are inserted and covered

Manioc and sweet potatoes are planted in Manioc and sweet potatoes are planted in the center; other crops are planted at the the center; other crops are planted at the edges.edges.

Slash-and-Burn Cultivation: Slash-and-Burn Cultivation: Weeding and HarvestWeeding and Harvest

Weeding is done twice in the growing season.Weeding is done twice in the growing season. There is no set planting or harvesting season; There is no set planting or harvesting season;

planting and harvesting are both staggeredplanting and harvesting are both staggered Individual crops are harvested as the need Individual crops are harvested as the need

arises, so that the entire crop is not removed all arises, so that the entire crop is not removed all at once.at once.

When one manioc root is taken, a manioc When one manioc root is taken, a manioc cutting is planted immediately after harvest to cutting is planted immediately after harvest to ensure permanent supplyensure permanent supply

Therefore, cover crops protect the soil the Therefore, cover crops protect the soil the entire period. entire period.

In this photo, manioc is interplanted with In this photo, manioc is interplanted with banana plants, typical of horticulturebanana plants, typical of horticulture

Slash-and-Burn Cultivation as Slash-and-Burn Cultivation as Imitation of RainforestImitation of Rainforest

Crops are intermixed, each with different Crops are intermixed, each with different nutrient requirements. nutrient requirements.

This reduces competition for the same This reduces competition for the same nutrients.nutrients.

Dispersal of same-species plants retard disease Dispersal of same-species plants retard disease and pests that attack that species.and pests that attack that species.

Staggering planting and harvest minimizes soil Staggering planting and harvest minimizes soil exposure.exposure.

Burning slash returns the nutrients to soil.Burning slash returns the nutrients to soil.

Slash and Burn Cultivation as Slash and Burn Cultivation as ImperfectImperfect Imitation of Rainforest Imitation of Rainforest

Decomposition of stumps and branchesDecomposition of stumps and branches Attract pests away from cropsAttract pests away from crops Supply added nutrientsSupply added nutrients Weeding of mixed valueWeeding of mixed value Minimizes competition for nutrientsMinimizes competition for nutrients Reduces shade and protection from erosionReduces shade and protection from erosion Imitation not the real thingImitation not the real thing Yield declines by 3rd year--time to moveYield declines by 3rd year--time to move

Yanomamo VariationsYanomamo Variations

Yanomamö horticulture is essentially the same as that of the Yanomamö horticulture is essentially the same as that of the mundurucmundurucúú

Plantains augment manioc as the staple crop.Plantains augment manioc as the staple crop. When soil deteriorates, thorny shrubs grow, scratching bare When soil deteriorates, thorny shrubs grow, scratching bare

skin, telling the cultivators it is time to move.skin, telling the cultivators it is time to move. Some plants continue yields, such as the much-valued peach Some plants continue yields, such as the much-valued peach

palm and still-viable plantains.palm and still-viable plantains. New clearing is made adjacent to old site, and is done so over New clearing is made adjacent to old site, and is done so over

the years. the years. Entirely new sites are cleared only if there is a compelling Entirely new sites are cleared only if there is a compelling

reason to do so, such as attacks by neighboring tribes.reason to do so, such as attacks by neighboring tribes.

Slash and Burn Cultivation is Slash and Burn Cultivation is Adaptive Unless. . .Adaptive Unless. . .

Slash and burn cultivation Slash and burn cultivation works only if the population works only if the population is in balance with the is in balance with the environmentenvironment

Today in Brazil, tropical Today in Brazil, tropical horticulture no longer horticulture no longer restores the soil. restores the soil.

The deforestation in photo is The deforestation in photo is the product of slash-and-burn the product of slash-and-burn cultivation.cultivation.

Population increase plus the Population increase plus the loss of land to ranchers is loss of land to ranchers is leading to rapid deforestationleading to rapid deforestation

Intensive CultivationIntensive Cultivation

This form of cultivation is highly productive and involves This form of cultivation is highly productive and involves relatively small areas compared to simple foraging, which is relatively small areas compared to simple foraging, which is an extensive process.an extensive process.

Melvin and Carol Ember define intensive cultivation as food Melvin and Carol Ember define intensive cultivation as food production characterized by the permanent cultivation of fieldsproduction characterized by the permanent cultivation of fields

Primary attributes are advanced technology, such as the use of Primary attributes are advanced technology, such as the use of irrigation, animal-driven plows, use of fertilizer, and others. irrigation, animal-driven plows, use of fertilizer, and others.

Staple crops predominate—rice , corn, wheat, potatoes—Staple crops predominate—rice , corn, wheat, potatoes—making for a monocrop systemmaking for a monocrop system

Risks of famine are high because of diseases and pests that Risks of famine are high because of diseases and pests that have an easier time in attacking the same crop at one place.have an easier time in attacking the same crop at one place.

Intensive Cultivation: Secondary Intensive Cultivation: Secondary AttributesAttributes

As intensive cultivation develops, the following accompany As intensive cultivation develops, the following accompany such intensificationsuch intensification

Permanent settlements of high density—known as citiesPermanent settlements of high density—known as cities Emergence of full-time nonfarm occupations, from common Emergence of full-time nonfarm occupations, from common

labor to specialized crafts and trades. labor to specialized crafts and trades. As occupations become specialize, trade and markets develop.As occupations become specialize, trade and markets develop. Societies become more complex, social stratification develops, Societies become more complex, social stratification develops,

and states with codified law reinforced by the military become and states with codified law reinforced by the military become widespread. widespread.

Intensive Cultivation: MesoamericaIntensive Cultivation: Mesoamerica

Intensive cultivation in Mesoamerica began with squash, Intensive cultivation in Mesoamerica began with squash, cultivated not so much for its flesh as for its seeds.cultivated not so much for its flesh as for its seeds.

At the Tehuacan Valley and elsewhere, a grass known as At the Tehuacan Valley and elsewhere, a grass known as teosinte was cultivatedteosinte was cultivated

Through several generations of hybridization, it developed Through several generations of hybridization, it developed into the maize, or corn, we know todayinto the maize, or corn, we know today

Like many domesticates, corn cannot reproduce without Like many domesticates, corn cannot reproduce without human assistance.human assistance.

As the next diagrams show, corn is encased in a husk and the As the next diagrams show, corn is encased in a husk and the grains are themselves tightly packed. grains are themselves tightly packed.

Teosinte to CornTeosinte to Corn

Left: Teosinte and Corn StalksLeft: Teosinte and Corn Stalks Right: Teosinte Ear (left), Hybrid (center), and Maize Right: Teosinte Ear (left), Hybrid (center), and Maize

ear (right)ear (right) Note the fragile stalks of teosinte and the tightly Note the fragile stalks of teosinte and the tightly

packed grains (i.e. seed) of maize.packed grains (i.e. seed) of maize.

The Aztec and Intensive Cultivation: The Aztec and Intensive Cultivation: BackgroundBackground

Some background is in order: according to combined Some background is in order: according to combined legend and history, the Aztecs migrated from the legend and history, the Aztecs migrated from the north into the Valley of Mexiconorth into the Valley of Mexico

Their belief was that they were to found a city where Their belief was that they were to found a city where they saw an eagle perched on a nopal cactus they saw an eagle perched on a nopal cactus devouring a serpent (see left diagram, next slide)devouring a serpent (see left diagram, next slide)

Based on this legend, the migrants founded a village Based on this legend, the migrants founded a village in a swamp near Lake Texcoco, near the present site in a swamp near Lake Texcoco, near the present site of Mexico City of Mexico City

From there, the Aztecs founded an empire centered From there, the Aztecs founded an empire centered around the capital Tenochtitlaround the capital Tenochtitláán (see right diagram n (see right diagram next slide)next slide)

TenochtitlánTenochtitlán

Left: Founding of Tenochtitlán according to Myth—Left: Founding of Tenochtitlán according to Myth—Artist’s ConceptionArtist’s Conception

Right: Panorama of Tenochtitlán: Note location on Right: Panorama of Tenochtitlán: Note location on Lake Texcoco with causewaysLake Texcoco with causeways

The Agricultural Foundation of the The Agricultural Foundation of the Aztec: ChinampasAztec: Chinampas

Swamps make for poor agricultureSwamps make for poor agriculture The Aztecs worked around it by constructing raised fields The Aztecs worked around it by constructing raised fields

from the swamp, using layers of vegetation and swamp mud.from the swamp, using layers of vegetation and swamp mud. The platforms, called The platforms, called chinampas, chinampas, provided a rich soil for their provided a rich soil for their

staple, corn, and other crops.staple, corn, and other crops. Because of the surplus, the Aztecs were able to marshal its Because of the surplus, the Aztecs were able to marshal its

labor force for luxury crafts, construction, road building, and labor force for luxury crafts, construction, road building, and eventually an army.eventually an army.

Eventually, an imperial market linked all conquered peoples Eventually, an imperial market linked all conquered peoples into a functioning economyinto a functioning economy

Hereditary traders, known as Pochteca, traded in luxury goods Hereditary traders, known as Pochteca, traded in luxury goods and also provided the emperor with news about the colonies.and also provided the emperor with news about the colonies.

Aztec Chinampas and Central Aztec Chinampas and Central MarketMarket

Chinampas (left) produced enough surplus food to sustain the Chinampas (left) produced enough surplus food to sustain the Aztec empireAztec empire

The market in TenochtitlánThe market in Tenochtitlán provided the economic cement to provided the economic cement to maintain the empire at its heightmaintain the empire at its height

Agricultural Foundations of Other Agricultural Foundations of Other EmpiresEmpires

Mesopotamia, lacking basic resources, developed an Mesopotamia, lacking basic resources, developed an irrigation system supporting a grain-based economy irrigation system supporting a grain-based economy and trade with other empiresand trade with other empires

Egypt relied principally on flood plain agriculture for Egypt relied principally on flood plain agriculture for its empire and a labor force for pyramid construction its empire and a labor force for pyramid construction when the fields were floodedwhen the fields were flooded

Central China developed an irrigation system and Central China developed an irrigation system and terraces for which rice was its main stapleterraces for which rice was its main staple

Conclusion: Intensive cultivation is the only Conclusion: Intensive cultivation is the only subsistence system capable of supporting states, a subsistence system capable of supporting states, a matter we look at later in this course.matter we look at later in this course.

PastoralismPastoralism

Cultures from many East Africans to the Cultures from many East Africans to the Mongols relied almost entirely on Mongols relied almost entirely on pastoralism, pastoralism, or herding of large animals or herding of large animals

Animals are principally cattle (East Africa), Animals are principally cattle (East Africa), horses (Mongols of the Asian steppes), sheep horses (Mongols of the Asian steppes), sheep and goats (the Bakhtiari of Iran); camels (parts and goats (the Bakhtiari of Iran); camels (parts of North Africa and Afghanistan) and yak, a of North Africa and Afghanistan) and yak, a cold country ox in Tibetcold country ox in Tibet

Pastoralism: Utilization of the Pastoralism: Utilization of the AnimalsAnimals

All parts of animals is consumed or otherwise usedAll parts of animals is consumed or otherwise used Often, the renewable products of animals are Often, the renewable products of animals are

consumed: milk and its derivatives, such as cheese consumed: milk and its derivatives, such as cheese and yogurt, and in East Africa, blood. and yogurt, and in East Africa, blood.

Meat is not renewable and is usually consumed when Meat is not renewable and is usually consumed when the animal ages or on special occasions such as a the animal ages or on special occasions such as a wedding or rite of passage.wedding or rite of passage.

Hides, bone, and horn may be used as clothing, tools, Hides, bone, and horn may be used as clothing, tools, and containersand containers

Even dung is for fire (as in Tibet and the Asian Even dung is for fire (as in Tibet and the Asian steppes) and as building material (East Africa).steppes) and as building material (East Africa).

Pastoralism: Secondary Pastoralism: Secondary CharacteristicsCharacteristics

Environmental setting is principally grasslands; the sod renders Environmental setting is principally grasslands; the sod renders it unusable for agriculture without plows capable of turning the it unusable for agriculture without plows capable of turning the soil.:soil.:

Because of the changing seasons, pastoralists are typically Because of the changing seasons, pastoralists are typically nomadic, migrating seasonally between different environmental nomadic, migrating seasonally between different environmental zones.zones.

Property and valuables are portableProperty and valuables are portable Because they cannot meet all their needs, they tend to be Because they cannot meet all their needs, they tend to be

dependent on settled communities for agricultural and dependent on settled communities for agricultural and manufactured products.manufactured products.

If the pastoralists also cultivate, they are less dependent on If the pastoralists also cultivate, they are less dependent on settlements.settlements.

Pastoralism: Secondary Pastoralism: Secondary Characteristics (Continued)Characteristics (Continued)

Warfare has been commonly observed among pastoralists, Warfare has been commonly observed among pastoralists, involving raids of villages or of other nomadic pastoralists involving raids of villages or of other nomadic pastoralists

Predatory states have often arisen from pastoralists; the Predatory states have often arisen from pastoralists; the Mongols under Genghis Khan is a historical example.Mongols under Genghis Khan is a historical example.

Warrior age grades, which are distinctive in East Africa, Warrior age grades, which are distinctive in East Africa, include warriors, who may not marry until they reach age 30. include warriors, who may not marry until they reach age 30.

Male dominance is widespread, inasmuch as warfare requires Male dominance is widespread, inasmuch as warfare requires male cooperation. male cooperation.

Not surprisingly, cattle is male property, residence is patrilocal Not surprisingly, cattle is male property, residence is patrilocal (bride joins the groom and his kin), and women have few (bride joins the groom and his kin), and women have few rights.rights.

Pastoralism: ConclusionPastoralism: Conclusion

Because they do not grow domesticated crops, pastoralists are Because they do not grow domesticated crops, pastoralists are often called often called incomplete food producersincomplete food producers

Archaeological evidence suggest that pastoralism might have Archaeological evidence suggest that pastoralism might have come after intensive cultivation. come after intensive cultivation.

In other words, they may have left settled regions by choice or In other words, they may have left settled regions by choice or were banished.were banished.

Contrary to intuitive reasoning, pastoralists probably were not Contrary to intuitive reasoning, pastoralists probably were not a transitional form of subsistence between foraging and a transitional form of subsistence between foraging and

agricultureagriculture..

Subsistence, Adaptation, and Subsistence, Adaptation, and EvolutionEvolution

Cultural materialism Cultural materialism is a research strategy that is is a research strategy that is derived from the study of subsistence systems. derived from the study of subsistence systems.

This model holds that causal explanations for This model holds that causal explanations for similarities and differences among human groups can similarities and differences among human groups can best be addressed by studying the harnessing of best be addressed by studying the harnessing of energy through interaction between existing energy through interaction between existing technology and environmental limitations. technology and environmental limitations.

This reasoning is not surprising, given the This reasoning is not surprising, given the technological capacities and limitations of each of the technological capacities and limitations of each of the five subsistence systems we have covered.five subsistence systems we have covered.

Subsistence Systems and Models of Subsistence Systems and Models of Adaptation and EvolutionAdaptation and Evolution

Simple foragers: Simple foragers: The technology is of low productivity and The technology is of low productivity and the environment tends to be stingy, so groups are small and the environment tends to be stingy, so groups are small and nomadicnomadic

Complex foragers: Complex foragers: The food-getting technology is relatively The food-getting technology is relatively sophisticated and the environment is usually rich: bison, sophisticated and the environment is usually rich: bison, salmon, other game.salmon, other game.

Horticulture: Horticulture: The need to move agricultural plots every two The need to move agricultural plots every two or three years discouraged development into larger villages.or three years discouraged development into larger villages.

Pastoralism: Pastoralism: Grasslands are more suitable for animal herding Grasslands are more suitable for animal herding in the absence of intensive cultivation technology, and in the absence of intensive cultivation technology, and changing seasons require nomadism.changing seasons require nomadism.

Intensive Cultivation: Intensive Cultivation: Productive agricultural technology Productive agricultural technology allow support for non-agricultural craftspersons and laborers, allow support for non-agricultural craftspersons and laborers, and pave the way for more complex societies. and pave the way for more complex societies.

Unilineal and Multilinear EvolutionUnilineal and Multilinear Evolution Models of Cultural EvolutionModels of Cultural Evolution According to the Unilineal According to the Unilineal

Evolution model (Left). all Evolution model (Left). all societies go through set stages societies go through set stages (foraging, square; horticulture, (foraging, square; horticulture, triangle; agriculture, circle).triangle; agriculture, circle).

According to the Multilinear According to the Multilinear Evolution model, societies Evolution model, societies adopt different evolution adopt different evolution strategies according to their strategies according to their environment and techniques of environment and techniques of subsistence. subsistence.

Technology, Environment, and Technology, Environment, and SocietySociety

This model suggests the leading role played by subsistence system This model suggests the leading role played by subsistence system in forming and maintaining societyin forming and maintaining society

Environment:Environment: Limits and Potential to Energy Limits and Potential to Energy Technology:Technology: Known Techniques for Energy Capture and Use Known Techniques for Energy Capture and Use Social Interactions:Social Interactions: Derivative Family/Kinship, Economic, Derivative Family/Kinship, Economic,

Political, and Legal InstitutionsPolitical, and Legal Institutions Ideology:Ideology: Psychological State, Supernatural Beliefs, The Arts Psychological State, Supernatural Beliefs, The Arts

Comparison and EvaluationComparison and Evaluation

We have Examined five broad subsistence systems We have Examined five broad subsistence systems and suggested the implications of each system for a and suggested the implications of each system for a society and culturesociety and culture

We have traced their significance in local and We have traced their significance in local and regional adaptations (cultural ecology) and the regional adaptations (cultural ecology) and the universal and multilinear processes of cultural universal and multilinear processes of cultural evolution.evolution.

Do these hypotheses work? The next topics will Do these hypotheses work? The next topics will suggest the issue to be highly complex in this regard.suggest the issue to be highly complex in this regard.