Reni RosariFEB UGM
INFLUENCE, POWERAND POLITICS IN ORGANIZATION
INFLUENCE, POWERAND POLITICS IN ORGANIZATION
• mendefinisikan konsep tentang pengaruh sosial, kekuasaan, dan politik dalam organisasi
• mendeskripsikan berbagai macam tipe utama dari pengaruh sosial yang ada• mengidentifikasi tipe-tipe utama dari kekuasaan individual di dalam organisasi• menjelaskan dua pendekatan utama untuk pengembangan kekuasaan subunit di
dalam organisasi (the resource-dependency model dan the strategic contigencies model)
• menggambarkan kapan dan dimana politik organisasional terjadi dan berbagai macam bentuk perilaku politik yang dilakukan
• mengidentifikasi isu-isu utama yang berkaitan dengan penggunaan perilaku politik di dalam organisasi
Reni RosariFEB UGM
SOCIAL INFLUENCE: A BASIC ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESS
SOCIAL INFLUENCE, POWER, AND POLITICS: THEIR BASIC NATURE
Comparing Social Influence with Power and Politics
SOCIAL INFLUENCE: attempts to affect another in a desired fashion, whether or not these are successful
POWER: the potential to successfully influence another the capacity to change the behavior or attitudes of others in a desired manner
ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS: unauthorized uses of power that enhanced or protect your own (or your group’s) personal interests
Reni RosariFEB UGM
Social Influence, Power & Politics: How They Are Related
When we do something that has an effect on someone else, whether or not it is successful, we exert social influence over that person. Our capacity to exert influence over another is known as power. Unofficial uses of power to enhance or protect our self-interest, which usually are at the expense of organizational goals, are known as organizational politics.
Reni RosariFEB UGM
Social Influence, Power & Politics: How They Are Related
Personal Characteristics
Organizational Position
POWER
Motive: to satisfy personal interests
Organizational politics
Legitimate behavior
Motive: to satisfy organizational goals
Successful influence (had desired
effect)
Unsuccessful influence (did not have
desired effect)
Reni RosariFEB UGM
THE CONCEPT OF POWER
POWER the capability to get
someone to do something
the potential to influence
INFLUENCE the exercise of that
capability power in action
Power is not an attribute of a particular person it is an aspect of relationship that exists between two (or more) people.
No individual or group can have power in isolation; power must exist in relation to some other person or group
Reni RosariFEB UGM
TACTICS OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE:GETTING TO “YES” RATIONAL PERSUASION: using logical arguments and facts to persuade
another that a desired result will occur INSPIRATIONAL APPEAL: arousing enthusiasm by appealing to another’s
values and ideals CONSULTATION: asking for participation in decision making or planning a
change INGRATIATION: the process of getting someone to do what you want by
putting that person in a good mood or getting her/him to like you EXCHANGE: promising some benefits in exchange for compliance with a
request PERSONAL APPEAL: appealing to another’s feelings of loyalty and
friendship before making a request COALITION-BUILDING: seeking the assistance of others, or noting the
support of others LEGITIMATING: pointing out one’s authority to make a request, or verifying it
is consistent with prevailing organizational policies and practices PRESSURE: seeking compliance by using demands, threats, or intimidation
Reni RosariFEB UGM
WHEN ARE THESE TACTICS USED? Social influence depends on organizational levele.g.
Leaders ~ use inspirational appeals or may also use pressure, when necessary to influence their subordinates
Subordinates ~ use consultation or ingratiation to influence their bosses
Peers ~ use both exchange and personal appeal to influence peersGeneral rule open, consultative techniques are believed to be more
appropriate than coercive technology
The most popular techniques used at all levels are: consultation, inspirational appeal and rational persuasion.
The less socially desirable forms of influence: pressure and legitimating – are used much less frequently
Some techniques, such as ingratiation, coalition, personal appeal, and exchange, are more likely to be used in combination with others than to be used alone
Reni RosariFEB UGM
OTHER TACTICS OF INFLUENCE
Compliance: getting other to say “yes” to specific request Friendship/Liking
~ ingratiation and impression management
Commitment/Consistency1) The foot in the door – starting with a small request and, once this is
accepted, escalating to a larger one
2) The lowball – attempting to change a deal or agreement by making it less attractive to the target person after it is negotiated
Scarcity
~ playing hard to get and the fast approaching deadline technique
Reciprocity
~ door in the face tactic
Reni RosariFEB UGM
Protecting yourself from unwanted influence
1. Recognize influence tactics
2. Always question motives
3. Question influence from illegitimate sources
4. View attempts at persuasion as assaults on your personal freedom
Reni RosariFEB UGM
WHERE DOES POWER COME FROM?
INTERPERSONAL • Legitimate power• Reward power• Coercive power• Expert power• Referent power
STRUCTURAL• Resources• Decision making
power• Information power
Reni RosariFEB UGM
INDIVIDUAL POWER: A BASIS FOR INFLUENCE
POWER the potential to influence others successfully – both the things they do and the ways they feel about something
People may influence others because of the jobs they have and their individual characteristics
POSITION POWER: INFLUENCE THAT COMES WITH THE OFFICE power yang mengikuti posisi– Legitimate, Reward, Coercive, Information Power
PERSONAL POWER: INFLUENCE THAT COMES FROM THE INDIVIDUAL power yang mengikuti orangnya– Rational persuasion, Expert, Referent, Charisma
Reni RosariFEB UGM
TYPES OF INDIVIDUAL POWER: A SUMMARY
INDIVIDUAL POWER
POSITION POWER
• LEGITIMATE POWER
• REWARD POWER
• COERCIVE POWER
• INFORMATION POWER
PERSONAL POWER
• RATIONAL PERSUASION
• REFERENT POWER
• EXPERT POWER
• CHARISMA
Reni RosariFEB UGM
TIPE-TIPE POWER• Legitimate power: power yang diperoleh karena diberikan
• Coercive power: kemampuan atau wewenang untuk menghukum baik secara fisik maupun secara psikologis
• Reward power: kemampuan atau wewenang untuk memberikan dan mengontrol reward
• Expert power: kemampuan atau wewenang untuk memberikan atau mengontrol informasi bagi orang lain
• Referent power: mirip karisma karena melibatkan rasa percaya, penerimaan, kasih sayang, kesediaan untuk menjadi pengikut dan keterlibatan emosi
Reni RosariFEB UGM
LEGITIMATE POWER
KOMITMEN KEPATUHAN PENOLAKAN
Mungkin, jika perintah
dilakukan dengan sikap
sopan dan baik hati
Mungkin, jika perintah
dirasakan legitimate
Mungkin, jika bersikap arogan dan isi perintah
tidak pada tempatnya
Reni RosariFEB UGM
Bagaimana sebaiknya menggunakan legitimate power?
• Bersikap ramah dan baik hati• Percaya diri• Membangun understanding• Yakini bahwa perintah yang diberikan cukup pantas• Jelaskan alasan diberikannya perintah• Sensitif terhadap perasaan dan keinginan bawahan
Reni RosariFEB UGM
COERCIVE POWER
KOMITMEN KEPATUHAN PENOLAKAN
Tidak mungkin Mungkin, jika digunakan secara tepat dan dengan sikap penyesalan
Sangat mungkin, jika bersikap
kejam dan manipulatif
Reni RosariFEB UGM
Bagaimana sebaiknya menggunakan coercive power?
• Menginformasikan pada bawahan mengenai peraturan dan hukuman
• Memberi peringatan sebelum menghukum
• Melaksanakan hukuman secara konsisten dan tidak pandang bulu
• Memahami situasi sebelum bertindak
• Menjaga kredibilitas
• Hukuman sesuai dengan pelanggaran
• Menghukum secara tertutup, tidak di depan orang lain
Reni RosariFEB UGM
REWARD POWER
KOMITMEN KEPATUHAN PENOLAKAN
Mungkin, jika digunakan secara pribadi dan tidak
jelas
Sangat mungkin, jika dilakukan secara mekanis dan impersonal
Mungkin, jika bersikap arogan dan manipulatif
Reni RosariFEB UGM
Bagaimana sebaiknya menggunakan reward power?
• Berikan perintah yang masuk akal• Hanya memberikan perintah yang pantas dan etis• Memberikan reward sesuai harapan bawahan• Hanya memberikan reward yang kredibel
Reni RosariFEB UGM
EXPERT POWER
KOMITMEN KEPATUHAN PENOLAKAN
Sangat mungkin, jikapersuasif dan bawahan terlibat
dalam pengambilan
keputusan
Mungkin, jika persuasuif tapi
bawahan kurang cocok dengan
tujuan pimpinan
Mungkin, jika pemimpin
bersikap arogan dan menghina, atau bawahan
menentang tujuan pimpinan
Reni RosariFEB UGM
Bagaimana sebaiknya menggunakan expert power?
• Memperlihatkan kesan kepakaran (expertise)• Mempertahankan kredibilitas• Bertindak dengan percaya diri dan tegas• Selalu menambah informasi (meningkatkan
kepakaran)• Hindari sikap yang merendahkan harga diri
bawahan
Reni RosariFEB UGM
REFERENT POWER
KOMITMEN KEPATUHAN PENOLAKAN
Sangat mungkin, jika perintah
diyakini sebagai sesuatu yang penting bagi
sang pemimpin
Mungkin, jika perintahdiyakini sebagai sesuatu
yang kurang penting bagi
sang pemimpin
Mungkin, jikaperintah atau
kejadian akan berakibat buruk
pada sang pemimpin
Reni RosariFEB UGM
Bagaimana sebaiknya menggunakan referent power?
• Memperlakukan bawahan secara adil• Membela kepentingan bawahan• Sensitif terhadap kebutuhan dan perasaan
bawahan menjadi model peran (contoh teladan)
Reni RosariFEB UGM
POWER: HOW IT IS USED?
• The various bases of power are completely separate and distinct. They often are used together in varying combinations.
• WHAT BASES OF POWER DO PEOPLE PREFER TO USE? – People generally prefer using expert power the most and
coercive power the least– Many forms of power tend to be used to influence
subordinates, but expert power is preferred to influence peers and superiors
Reni RosariFEB UGM
American CEOs: What are their power bases?
• Source of power– Personality and leadership skills (83%)– Support of the board of directors (70%)– Support of senior colleagues (64%)– Expertise & knowledge (43%)– Management decision control (28%)– Support of the financial community (9%)
a survey of more than 200 American CEOs revealed that they obtain their power primarily by cultivating the support of others at different levels of the organization (source: based on data appearing in Stewart, 1999)
Reni RosariFEB UGM
EMPOWERMENT:THE SHIFTING BASES POWER IN TODAY’S ORGANIZATION
Empowerment the passing of responsibility and authority from managers to
employees
(Conger and Kanungo) a process of enhancing feelings of self efficacy among
organizational members through the identification of conditions that foster powerless and through their removal by both formal organizational practices and informal techniques of providing efficacy information
Reni RosariFEB UGM
The Empowerment Continuum: Relinquishing Control is a matter of degree
No Empowerment
(workers are not free to make any decisions about how to do their
jobs)
Total Empowerment
(workers are free to do their jobs as
they wish)
POWER GIVEN TO WORKERS
None A great deal
Reni RosariFEB UGM
Empowerment:• The key to empowering people successfully is the sharing of
expert information ( as opposed to the boarding of information that has been popular in the past)
• When employees are empowered, their supervisors are less likely to be “bosses” who push people around (i.e. coercive power) and more likely to serve as teacher or “facilitators” who guide their teams using knowledge and experience (i.e. expert power)
• Most managers are afraid of relinquishing control, so empowered employees remain in the minority of most organization. Experts predict a change in that direction is coming, however, and coming fast
Reni RosariFEB UGM
Empowerment: (Conger and Kanungo)
5 stages: identifying the conditions existing in the organization that lead to feelings
of powerlessness on the part of organizational members the implementation of of empowerment strategies and techniques ~
participative management, establishing goal setting programs, implementing merit based pay systems, job enrichment, etc.
accomplish two objectives: (1) remove the conditions identified in the first stage as contributing to powerlessness, (2) provide self efficacy information to subordinates
enhance empowerment feelings ~ increasing self efficacy strengthens effort performance expectancies
Behavioral consequences of empowerment include increased activity directed toward task accomplishment
Reni RosariFEB UGM
EMPLOYEES’ REACTION TO EMPOWERMENT: ALWAYS POSITIVE?
Empowerment does indeed often confer important benefits both on employees and their organizations. And these beneficial effects have occurred in companies where tall hierarchies of power tend to prevail. If empowerment can be implemented successfully in such organizations, they should be even easier to introduce in “flatter” ones, where people have less formally defined power.
Do employees all over the world react in the same way to empowerment? The answer is “No” Empowerment in low power distance and high power distance
cultures
Reni RosariFEB UGM
GROUP OR SUB UNIT POWER: STRUCTURAL DETERMINANTS
THE RESOURCE-DEPENDENCY MODEL: CONTROLLING CRITICAL RESOURCES
the view that power resides within subunits able to control the greatest share of valued organizational resource
All subunits may contribute to an organization, but the most powerful are those that contribute the most important resources. Controlling the resources other departments need puts a subunit in a better position to bargain for the resources that it requires
Reni RosariFEB UGM
The Resource – Dependency Model: An Example
Important Resources
Unimportant Resources
Production Accounting Marketing
Resources needed
Resources control
The accounting department would be more powerful than the production department or marketing department
Reni RosariFEB UGM
THE STRATEGIC CONTINGENCIES MODEL: POWER THROUGH DEPENDENCE
the view that explains power in terms of a subunit’s capacity to control the activities of other subunits.
A subunit’s power is enhanced when it can reduce the uncertainty experienced by other subunits, it occupies a central position in the organization, and its activities are highly indispensable
Reni RosariFEB UGM
The Strategic Contingencies Model: Power Through Dependence
Capacity to reduce uncertainty
Contingency Examples• Preventing market share decline by product
development
• Providing future based predictions that are accurate
• Absorbing problems from other units
High organizational centrality
Nonsubstitutable and Indispensable
activities
Power acquired by subunit and
power differentials
• Being in an urgent or immediacy position
• Located at center of work flow
• Possessing needed skills or expertise
• Possessing only talents that are available to complete job
Reni RosariFEB UGM
THE ILLUSION OF POWERMilgram’s experiments illusion of power~ indicate that possessing power in a legitimate way is
no the only way power can be exerted. Individuals who are perceived to have power may also be able to significantly influence others
Power is often exerted by individuals who have only minimum or no actual power.
The “eye of the beholder” plays an important role in the exercise of power
Reni RosariFEB UGM
ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS: POWER IN ACTION
Organizational Politics Actions by individuals that are directed toward the goal of
furthering their own self-interest without regard for the well-being of others or their organizations
all about actions not officially approved by an organization that are taken to influence others to meet one’s personal goals
Political Behavior behavior outside the normal power system, designed to benefit an individual or a sub unit
Reni RosariFEB UGM
THE ANTECEDENTS OF POLITICS: WHY AND WHEN IT OCCURS
Personal and Organizational variablesPersonal Characteristics: high Machiavellianism, high self-
monitoring, ambition, extraversion, popularity
Organizational Factors: ambiguous roles, goals, scare resources, history of political behavior, high centralization, conflicting goals across units or subunits, organizational maturity or complexity
Politics in Human Resource Management such as performance appraisal, personnel selection, and compensation
decisions
Politics and the Organizational Life Span the use of political practices in organizations is likely to be affected by its
degree of maturity
Reni RosariFEB UGM
Gaining control over and selective use of information
Cultivating a favorable impression image building ~ (1) dressing for success, (2) associating oneself with the successful accomplishments of others, (3) simply calling attention to one’s own successes and positive characteristics
Building powerful coalitions Blaming and Attacking other: finding a scapegoat Associating with powerful others Creating obligations and using reciprocity
POLITICAL TACTICS: WHAT FORMS DO THEY TAKE?
Reni RosariFEB UGM
ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS: ITS EFFECTS
Adverse Effects of Organizational Politics
when the level of political behavior is high in organization, job satisfaction and organizational commitment may suffer – with the result that good people decide to leave and seek employment elsewhere. Clearly this is a very negative effect of organizational politics.
Reni RosariFEB UGM
THE ETHICS OF ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS
Political Antics Top the “Most Unethical List” • Hiring, training, or promoting based on favouritism• Allowing differences in pay due to friendships• Sexual harassment• Gender discrimination in promotion• Using discipline in consistently• Not maintaining confidentiality• Gender discrimination in compensation• Non-performance factors used in appraisals• Arrangement with vendors leading to personal gain• Gender discrimination in recruitment or hiring
potentially political behaviour
WHAT, IF ANYTHING, IS UNETHICAL ABOUT ORGANIZATIONAL POLITIS?
Reni RosariFEB UGM
ASSESSING THE ETHICS OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOR
The more power an individual has, the more tempted s/he is to use that power toward immoral or unethical purpose
The ethics of organizational politics must satisfy three moral principles
1. Utilitarian outcomes ~ are only selfish interests promoted?
2. Individual rights ~ are privacy rights respected?3. Distributive justice ~ is it fair?
Reni RosariFEB UGM
Guidelines for Determining Ethical Action
Unethical
Ethical
Question 1
Will the political tactics promote purely selfish interests (as opposed to also promoting organizational goals?)
Question 2
Does the political activity respect the rights of the individual affected?
Question 2
Does the activity conform to standards of equity and justice; is it fair?
Yes No No Yes
Reni RosariFEB UGM
How to combat Organizational PoliticsAbolishing organizational politics completely may be impossible but managers can limit
its effect. Some of the most successful tactics are summarized here
SUGESSTION DESCRIPTION
• Clarify job expectation
• Open the communication process
• Be a good role model
• Do not turn a blind eye to game players
• Political behavior is nurtured by highly ambiguous conditions. To the extent managers help reduce uncertainty (e.g. by giving precise work assignments), they can minimize the likelihood of political behavior
• People have difficulty fostering their own goals at the expense of organizational goals when the communication process is open to scrutiny. It is hard to “get away with anything” when the system is open for all to examine
• Employees model the behavior of higher ranking officials. Accordingly, an openly political manager may encourage subordinates to behave in the same way
• Immediately confront an employee who attempts to take credit for another’s work. Managers who do not do so send a message that kind of behavior is acceptable
Reni RosariFEB UGM
CONTROLLING POLITICAL BEHAVIOR
Several strategies that should keep dysfunctional politics in check:1. Ensure that there is a sufficient supply of critical resources2. When resources are scare, introduce clear rules and regulations to
specify the use of these resources3. Establish a free flow information so that the organization is less
dependent on a few people at the center of a communication wheel4. Use effective organizational change management practices5. Restructure team and organizational norms to reject political tactics
that appear to interfere with the organization’s goals6. Select people who have a moderately strong socialized need for power
and a relatively low level of Machiavellianism7. Provide opportunities for open and candid dialogue to resolve
conflicts between employees and work units8. Get employees to monitor the workplace and actively discourage
coworkers who engage in political tactics
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