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RF Antenna(RT-RFA)
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RT-RFA
Copyright 2001 Global Wireless Education Consortium
All rights reserved. This module, comprising presentation slides with notes,exercises, projects and Instructor Guide, may not be duplicated in any waywithout the express written permission of the Global Wireless EducationConsortium. The information contained herein is for the personal use of thereader and may not be incorporated in any commercial training materials orfor-profit education programs, books, databases, or any kind of softwarewithout the written permission of the Global Wireless Education Consortium.Making copies of this module, or any portion, for any purpose other than yourown, is a violation of United States copyright laws.
Trademarked names appear throughout this module. All trademarked nameshave been used with the permission of their owners .
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RT-RFA
Partial support for this curriculum materialwas provided by the National Science Foundation'sCourse, Curriculum, and Laboratory Improvement
Program under grant DUE-9972380 and AdvancedTechnological Education Program under grantDUE-9950039.
GWEC EDUCATION PARTNERS: This material issubject to the legal License Agreement signed by yourinstitution. Please refer to this License Agreement forrestrictions of use.
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Table of Contents
Overview 5Learning Objectives 6
Antennas as Part of All Communications Systems 7Fundamental Antenna Characteristics 12
Antenna Radiation Patterns 19 Antenna Types 27 Antenna Configuration Requirements 49Signal Coverage Problems 56
Advanced System Antennas 63 Antenna Covers and Support Structures 71Contributors 76
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Overview
How antennas transmit and receive signals
Fundamental characteristics of antennas
Types and features of antennas
Signal coverage problems and how to overcome them
How to perform return loss measurement and antennagain measurement
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Learning Objectives
Explain how an antenna transmits and receives signalsExplain fundamental characteristics of antennasincluding radiated power, antenna gain, beam width,and front-back ratioDescribe features of different types of antennas
Describe the different types of radiation patterns
Explain why and how to measure impedanceExplain strategies to address signal coverage problems
Explain antenna diversity and isolation strategiesPerform a return loss measurement on an antennaPerform an antenna gain measurement
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Antennas as Part of AllCommunicationsSystems
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Antenna SystemComponents
Transmit antennaReceive antennaDuplexer
MulticouplerCombinerIsolatorTuning cavitiesCabling
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Antenna Operation
Antenna - a series of metal wires, rods, or other shapesTransmits when an electric current of radio frequency passesthrough it
Current generates electromagnetic field aroundantennaElectromagnetic field moves outward from antenna
At receiver antenna, does same thing in reverse
Tuned to a particular radio wavelength ()Simple fraction or multiple of that length: /2, /4, etc. Most common length is one- half a wavelength, or /2
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Antennas, Frequency,and Wavelength
Resonant length changes with frequency andwavelength of electric signal
The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength, and theshorter the required antennaThe lower the frequency, the longer the wavelength, and thelonger the required antenna
Cellular band antennaWavelength for cellular telephone transmission is about 0.33 m
Length of a cellular antenna should be 0.165 m (/2)
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Assorted Facts
Antenna Radiation PatternSame radiation pattern and gain for transmit and receive antenna
TransceiverTransmitter and receiver electronics housed in a single box
Generally use a single antenna for bothImpedance Match
Coaxial cable must be terminated with characteristic impedance formaximum power to be passed to antennaIf not, reflections will reduce power passed to antenna and causeprotection circuitry in transmitter to reduce its output power
RF Transmission PlanningOptimizes signal strength received by base station and mobile stationregardless of their positions in the networkChoice and configuration of antenna system plays an important role
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FundamentalAntenna
Characteristics
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Radiated Power
Mean power received at any large distance is calculated by theFriis free-space equation:
P t = transmitted powerP r (d) = received power, a function of transmitter-receiver distanceG t = transmitter antenna gainG r = receiver antenna gaind = transmitter-receiver separation in metersL = miscellaneous loss factor for loss not related to propagation
L = 1 means no lossL > 1 means loss
= wavelength in meters
Ld
GG P d P r t t
r 22
2
)4()(
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Antenna Bandwidth
Range of frequencies radiated where lowest andhighest frequencies have radiated power that is 3 dBless than the radiated power at frequency with
maximum power, f(max)Upper frequency, f(up), is frequency above f(max) where poweris 3 dB lower than f(max)Lower frequency, f(low), is frequency below f(max) wherepower is 3 dB lower than f(max)
As a percent, B(p), of center frequency, f(ctr)
%100
ctr
lowup p f
f f B
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Antenna Gain
Ratio of antennas maximum radiation intensity tomaximum radiation intensity from a reference antenna withsame input power
dBi If reference antenna is i sotropic source of 100% efficiencydBd If reference antenna is simple dipole of typical efficiency
Gdip (gain with respect to dipole antenna) is 2.15 dB less than Gi(gain with respect to isotropic antenna)
Antenna gain, G ant , is a function of wavelength
A e = Effective antenna area
2
4
eant
AG
physical ape A A
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Antenna Beam Width
Antenna achieves gain by concentrating its radiationpattern in a certain direction
The greater the gain, the narrower the beam width
Beam width is width of radiated pattern where signalstrength is one-half that of maximum signal strength At this point, signal is 3 dB less than that of the maximum Angle between left and right points that are 3 dB down frommaximum is beam angle or beam width
For unidirectional antennas, resulting major lobe ofradiation pattern has a certain width
Common beam widths for cellular antennas: 60, 90, and 120.
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Antenna Front BackRatio
Measure of antennas ability to focus radiated power inintended direction successfully
And not interfere with other antennas behind it
Referred to as f-b ratio or f/b ratioRatio of radiated power in intended direction to radiatedpower in opposite directionRatio of the two gains is the f/b ratio:
180
0
P P
ratio f/b
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Frequency Re-Use
7
61
23
4
5
7
61
23
4
5
7
61
23
4
5 Same frequencies usedrepeatedly in all
directions Ability to radiate power indesired direction iscritical
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Antenna RadiationPatterns
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Isotropic RadiationPattern
CharacteristicsCompletely non-directional antennaRadiates and receives equally well in all directionsTheoretical point source or receiverRadiation pattern is spherical
Exists only as a mathematical conceptThere is no preferential radiation in one direction
Used as a reference to specify gain of a practicalantenna
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OmnidirectionalRadiation Pattern
Horizontal Pattern Vertical Pattern
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Unidirectional RadiationPattern
Horizontal Pattern Vertical Pattern
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Radiated PowerCompared
2.15dB dBi
dBd
Practical antenna
Theoretical halfwave dipole antennaIdeal isotropic radiator
2.15dB dBi
dBd
Practical antenna
Theoretical halfwave dipole antennaIdeal isotropic radiator
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Properties ofUnidirectional Antennas
Provide increased gain in a limited direction
Multiply use of separate channels by virtue of enabling
sectorization
Do not overcome major disadvantages ofomnidirectional antennas such as co-channel
interference
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Antenna Polarization
Polarization is an important property of a radio waveRadio waves have magnetic field H & electrical field EOrientation of electrical field determines polarization
If electrical field is vertical, radio wave is polarized verticallyIf electrical field is horizontal, radio wave is polarizedhorizontally
Antenna of receiver should be oriented in samedirection as polarization of transmitter antennaMobile antennas should be in the same orientation forbest reception
This is not always possible with hand-held phones
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Voltage Standing WaveRatio (VSWR)
Ratio of maximum voltage to minimum voltage ofstanding wave along transmission lineMeasure of impedance match between antenna and
transmission line or coaxial cableThe closer VSWR is to one, the greaterthe efficiency of electrical power transfer
FormulaPr = Power, reflectedPi = Power, incident
i
r
i
r
PP
1
P
P 1
VSWR
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Antenna Types
R di i P f
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Radiation Pattern ofHalf-wave DipoleAntenna
3-D view Vertical section Horizontal section
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OmnidirectionalAntennas
Omnidirectional antenna Hertz antenna
1
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Marconi Antenna
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OmnidirectionalAntenna Limitations
Radiates and receives equally well in all directions inthe horizontal plane
Signal power spread uniformly and only small percentage ofradiated power reaches receiver
Receiving antenna receives signals equally well from alldirections in horizontal plane
For mobile transmitter to be distinguished, it must be strongerthan other signals and the background noise
Limited bandwidth efficiencyVery limited re-use of frequencies in adjoining areas
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Radiating Coaxial CableAntenna
RF in from transmitter RF out (terminated)
Radiating Coaxial Cable Antenna
Radiating Cable Radiation Pattern
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Multi-antenna SystemExamples
Pair of directional antennas mounted in differentdirections
Radiation patterns point in opposite directions
Series of antennas around a given buildingUsed when omnidirectional antennas would not be effective
Series of antennas located on the side of a buildingMinimizes interference with other receivers
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Panel Antennas
Transmitter
Substrate
Radiatingpanel
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Unidirectional Antennas
Referred to as beam antennasFocus beams in one directionConcentrate radiated power into a beam while
minimizing emission in other directionsClassifications:
LinearLogarithmicParasitic
Broadband antenna
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Unidirectional Antennas
Traveling-wave Wire AntennaFolded Dipole AntennaTurnstile Antenna
Loop AntennaRhombic AntennaYagi-Uda AntennaLog Periodic AntennaMobile AntennaSector Antenna
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Traveling-wave WireAntenna
Reflected wave
Dipole antenna
Incident wave
Resonant wave ofwavelength antenna
Reflected wave
Incident wave
Antenna
Traveling wave fornon-simple antenna
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Folded Dipole Antenna
Beam
Driven element
length =
Reflector length / 2 + 5%
Radiation patternFolded dipole antenna
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Turnstile Antenna
Turnstile antenna Radiation pattern
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Loop Antenna
Loop antenna Radiation pattern in
horizontal plane
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Rhombic Antenna
a
a
a
a
800 W Preferreddirection ofradiation
a
a
a
a
800 W
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Rhombic AntennaRadiation Pattern
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Yagi-Uda Antenna
Yagi-Uda
Antenna
Director
Driven element
Reflector
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Yagi-Uda Antenna
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Log Periodic Antenna
All elements driven by transmitter
All elements driven but not active at same frequency
Has broad frequency response
Operates on more than one frequency
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Mobile Antennas:Collinear Gain Antenna
/
/
Low-gain antenna
Two types
- Through-the-glass- Standard mount
Have upper and lower portion
separated by phase matching coil
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Sector Antennas
1 2 0
120
1 2 0
6 0
6 0
6 0 6 0
6 0
6 0
3-sector cell 6-sector cell
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Sector Antennas
Realistic antenna coveragein 6-sector cell
Antenna overlapin 6-sector cell
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Antenna ConfigurationRequirements
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Antenna ConfigurationRequirements
Antenna separationDiversityIsolation
InterferenceRadiation patterns not distorted by obstacles orreflections
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Space Diversity
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Polarization Diversity
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Isolation
Needed to avoid distortion due to intermodulationNeed to fulfill these isolation values
TX RX isolation > 30 dBTX TX isolation > 30 dB
Horizontal physical separation requirements30 dB isolation: 11.5 800 MHz: 10 feet1900 MHz: 6 feet
Vertical separation requirement for antenna is 0.2 meter
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Antenna Downtilt
Beam of vertically-mounted antenna
Beam of vertically-mounted-antenna with tilted beam
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Antenna Height
Reducing antenna height by 50% will reduce averagereceived signal by 6 dB
Repositioning transmit and/or receive antenna can helpmaintain system balance
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Signal CoverageProblems
Si l C
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Signal CoverageProblems
Design problemsMaintenance problemsSystem maturation
Site location and geometryShadows in patternNulls in patternIntermodulation, co-channel, and adjacent channelinterference problems
R l i Si l
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Resolving SignalCoverage Problems
Reduce antenna height
Downtilt the antenna
Use higher or lower gain antenna
Use antenna with wider or narrower horizontal orvertical beam width
R L f
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Return Loss of anAntenna
Power difference between incident and reflected wavein transmission line feeding the antenna
3 dB return loss means reflected power is half ofincident power
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Interference
Multipath condition
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Interference
time
S i g n a
l A m p l i
t u d e
+
-
Non-fade period
Fading
Rayleigh fading
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Co-Channel Interference
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Advanced SystemAntennas
Ad d A t
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Advanced AntennaSystems
Are expensiveIncrease cell coverage and capacity without buildingadditional sites
ExamplesMulti-beam antenna systemsSmart antenna systems
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Multi-Beam Antennas
Standard cell divided into 18 microsectors
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Smart Antenna Systems
Fixed Beam Strategy Adaptive Beam Strategy
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Smart Antenna Systems
Time division duplex (TDD) communication systemstransmit and receive on same frequencyFrequency division duplex (FDD) transmit and receiveon separate frequenciesCapacity for frequency reuse is greater than a standardcell systemPower needed for radio beam is less than for fixedbeam strategyUse code division multiple access method to balancethe traffic load
Traffic Load Balancing
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Traffic Load BalancingSmart Antenna Systems
Cell with unbalanced load
Cell with balanced load
Handling Capacity of
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Handling Capacity ofSmart Antenna Systems
Adaptive area
Switched beam area
Conventionalsectorization area
Switched Beam versus
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Switched Beam versusAdaptive Array Systems
Factors to considerInterference suppressionRange and coverageSpatial division multiple access (SDMA)
Enables wireless system to efficiently use available frequencieswhere customers are locatedCreates a sector for each receiver while maximizing signalstrength at receiver and minimizing interferenceUses multiple antennas to combine signals in space at location ofreceiver
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Antenna Covers andSupport Structures
Antenna Covers and
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Antenna Covers andSupport Structures
Antenna coversProtect antenna element from weatherMake antenna more aesthetically pleasing
Types of support structuresSelf-supporting towersGuyed towersMonopole
Camouflaged towersExisting structures
Antenna Support
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Antenna SupportStructures
Self-supporting towersLarge 3-D framework of galvanized girders
Antenna may be placed at top or any level of tower based ontransmission requirements
Guyed towersMade of crisscrossing steel girdersHeld in place by guy wires that form a 15 degree vertical angle
Antenna may be placed at top or any level of tower based ontransmission requirements
Antenna Support
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Antenna SupportStructures
Monopole with 3-sector head
Requires less land areaand is more aestheticallypleasing than other structures
Antenna placement dependson transmission requirements
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Industry Contributors
AT&T Wireless ( http://www.attwireless.com )Ericsson ( http://www.ericsson.com )
LCC International, Inc. ( http://www.lcc.com )Motorola ( http://www.motorola.com )Nortel Networks ( http://www.nortel.com )Northeast Center for TelecommunicationsTechnologies( http://nctt.org/index2.htm )RF Globalnet ( http://www.rfglobalnet.com )
The following companies provided materials andresource support for this module:
Industry Contributors
http://www.attwireless.com/http://www.ericsson.com/http://www.lcc.com/http://www.motorola.com/http://www.nortel.com/http://nctt.org/index2.htmhttp://www.rfglobalnet.com/http://www.rfglobalnet.com/http://nctt.org/index2.htmhttp://www.nortel.com/http://www.motorola.com/http://www.lcc.com/http://www.ericsson.com/http://www.attwireless.com/8/12/2019 rtrfa-12643988169303-phpapp02
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Industry Contributors,cont.
Space 2000 ( http://www.cdmaonline.com )Telcordia Technologies, Inc ( http://www.telcordia.com )
Verizon ( http://www.verizon.com )
The following companies provided materials andresource support for this module:
http://www.cdmaonline.com/http://www.telcordia.com/http://www.verizon.com/http://www.verizon.com/http://www.telcordia.com/http://www.cdmaonline.com/8/12/2019 rtrfa-12643988169303-phpapp02
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Individual Contributors
The following individuals and their organization orinstitution provided materials, resources, and developmentinput for this module:
Dr. Chaouki AbdallahUniversity of New Mexicohttp://www.unm.edu
Dr. Jamil AhmedBritish Columbia Institute of Technologyhttp://www. bcit.ca
Dr. John BaldwinSouth Central Technical Collegehttp://[email protected]
Individual Contributors
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Individual Contributors,cont.
Dr. Derrek DunnNorth Carolina A&T State Universityhttp://www. ncat.edu
Mr. Robert Elms ACRE Engineering Serviceshttp://[email protected]
Mr. Stuart D. MacPhersonDurban Institute of Technology
Dr. James MasiSpringfield Technical Community Collegehttp://www.stcc.mass.edu/nsindex.asp
Individual Contributors
mailto:[email protected]://[email protected]/http://www.stcc.mass.edu/nsindex.asphttp://www.stcc.mass.edu/nsindex.asphttp://[email protected]/mailto:[email protected]8/12/2019 rtrfa-12643988169303-phpapp02
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Individual Contributors,cont.
Ms. Annette MugaEricssonhttp://www.ericsson.com
Dr. Dave VoltmerRose-Hulman Institute of Technologyhttp:// www.rose-hulman.edu
http://www.rose-hulman.edu/http://www.rose-hulman.edu/http://www.rose-hulman.edu/http://www.rose-hulman.edu/Top Related