Chapter III
REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE
3.1 Studies Related to Effect of Modern
instructional Strategies
3.2 Studies on Experiential Learning
3.3 Studies on Learning Style
3.4 Studies related to Achievement with
respect to learning styles
3.5 Studies on Experiential Learning and
Learning Styles on Achievement’
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REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Review of related literature is an important pre-requisite to
actual planning and execution of any research work. “The
identification of a problem, development of a research design and
determination of the size and scope of the problem, depend to a
great extent on the care and intensity with which a researcher has
examined the literature or other research studies and authoritative
writings related to the problem under investigation” (Mouly,1964).1
The survey of related studies implies locating, studying,
and evaluating reports of relevant researches, study of published
articles, going through related portions of encyclopaedias and
research abstracts, study of pertinent pages out of
comprehensive books on the subject and going through related
manuscripts if any (Borg & Gall, 1989).2 The research worker
needs adequate familiarity with the work, which has already been
done in the area of his choice. “In the field of education, as in
other fields too the research worker needs to acquire up-to-date
information about what has been thought and done in the
particular area from which he intends to take up a problem for
research” (Sukhia & Melhotra, 1981).3
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The purpose of the literature review was to comprehensively
investigate ideas, issues, and themes related to the Effectiveness of
Kolb’s Experiential Learning on Achievement in Mathematics of
Students at Secondary Level. For that the investigator collected as
many studies as possible related to different aspects of the
problem under investigation. The studies collected are given under
the following heads.
3.1 Studies Related to Effect of Modern instructional
Strategies
3.2 Studies on Experiential Learning
3.3 Studies on Learning Style
3.4 Studies related to Achievement with respect to Learning
Styles
3.5 Studies on Experiential Learning and Learning Styles
on Achievement
3.1 Studies Related to Effect of Modern Instructional Strategies
This section includes recent studies related to the
application of different strategies regarding teaching in general and
teaching of mathematics in particular. The studies on how
mathematical interest and attitude towards mathematics are
affected by the application of different strategies are also given in
this section.
Erdogan & Baren (2009)4 studied the effect of mathematics
teaching provided through drama on the mathematics ability of
six-year-old children. The study revealed that teaching of the
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mathematical concepts through entertaining activities, in which
children want to participate and can be active, will be more
appropriate since these concepts are abstract and relatively hard
to learn in the pre-school period. Therefore, drama method should
be used in teaching mathematical concepts in pre-school
education institution.
In meta-analysis of eleven studies, Abraham(2008)5 provides
evidence of effective ICT supported language learning, particularly
related to vocabulary development and the promotion of
conversational fluency. Several observers describe the efficacy of
wireless SMS text and technologies to support vocabulary
development (Chen & Chung, 20086; Lu, 20087; Aderinoye, 20088).
De Almeida - Soares (2008)9 describes the constructive use of
blogs to promote English as a Foreign Language instruction for
secondary students.
Hardy(2008)10 discusses a middle school project called
Technology in Math Education(TIME) in advancing the integration
of ICT into the school mathematics curriculum. Franklin & Peng
(2008)11 offer a case study evaluating the use of iPod Touch device
to advance middle school math teaching. Teasdale(2008)12
describes a British project that applies ICT to the promotion
authentic, outcome-led, problem-based, learner – centered
mathematics education. Sindhu (2008)13 found that website
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learning is more effective than the activity oriented method of
teaching Biology at the Higher Secondary level.
Crisen et al.(2008)14 found that effective instructional
practice developed is a combination of pedagogical skills and ICT
knowledge for conceptualizing secondary school mathematics
teachers’ classroom practices.
From a review of 99 studies of cooperative group training
method, Slavin (1990)15 found that cooperative methods were
effective in improving students’ achievement. The most effective
methods emphasised both group goals and individuals
accountability.
Sungur & Tekkaya (2006)16 investigated the effectiveness of
Problem Based Learning and traditional instructional approaches
on various facets of students’ self regulated learning, including
motivation and learning strategies. Instruction to the control group
with teacher centred, text book oriented traditional instruction
and experimental group with Problem Based Learning, in which
students worked with ill structured problems. Results revealed
that Problem Based Learning students had higher levels of
intrinsic goal orientation, task value, use of elaboration learning
strategies, critical thinking, meta-cognitive self regulation, effort
regulation and peer learning compared with control group
students.
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84
Rodrguez (2006)17 conducted a study on E- learning in
Project Management Using Simulation Models: A Case Study. In
this study, the possibility of enhancing E-learning systems to
achieve deep learning has been studied by replicating an
experiment in which students had to learn basic software
engineering principles. The result shows that, quantitatively, the
latter group achieved a better understanding of the principles;
furthermore, qualitatively, they enjoyed the learning experience.
When an experimental group was taught geometry concepts
using drama and the control group using the traditional
instruction, Kariuki & Humphrey (2006)18 found significant
difference between the academic achievement of experimental and
control groups. No difference was found in the interest and
attitude toward math between experimental and control groups.
Finally, no significant relationship was found between academic
achievement and interest and attitude towards math.
The study done by Chung & Tam (2005)19 examined the
effects of different approaches to teaching learners with mild
intellectual disabilities to solve mathematical word problems.
Students presented with worked example and cognitive strategy
instruction solved more problems correctly and generally
outperformed students presented with conventional instruction in
both immediate and delayed tests.
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The purposes of the study by Fuchs et al. (2004)20 were to
assess the effects of Schema-Based Instruction (SBI) in promoting
mathematical problem solving and to investigate schema induction
as a mechanism in the development of mathematical problem
solving. Students receiving SBI, improved more than the control
group on problem-solving measures. SBI group’s schema
development exceeded that of the control group.
Kumar (2004)21 conducted a study of the impact of
Inductive Thinking Model on the learning of Physical Science at
secondary level. The investigator concluded that Inductive
Thinking Model of teaching is superior to ordinary classroom
practices like verbal illustration and demonstration in the learning
of Physical Science.
Jayaraman (2003)22 found that high achievement is possible
in learning fractions in mathematics at upper primary level due to
the application of the activity-centered as experimental approach
when compared with the conventional approach.
The study by Cass et al. (2003)23 evaluated effects of
manipulative instruction on perimeter and area problem-solving
performance of high school students with learning disabilities in
mathematics. Students rapidly acquired the problem solving skills,
maintained these skills over a two-month period, and transferred
the skills to a paper-and-pencil problem solving format.
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Autry (2002)24 conducted a study to examine first-grade
student’s achievement in mathematics and attitudes towards
mathematics using different instructional approaches. Results
indicate that there is no significant difference on achievement tests
between the constructivist approach and the direct instruction
approach.
Kariuki & Wilson (2002)25 examined the effects of
motivational teaching strategies and traditional teaching strategies
on academic achievement and student attitudes toward
mathematics. The results showed a significant difference in
teaching strategies on academic achievement and in student
attitudes toward mathematics.
Vaughan (2002)26 investigated the effects of cooperative
learning on achievement in and attitudes towards mathematics
among fifth graders of color in a culture different from that of the
United States. Result indicated that participants made positive gains
in mathematics attitudes and achievement.
The report by Blume et al. (2001)27 describes the effect of
integrating math and science and employing technology to bridge
the gap. Post intervention data indicated strengthened
mathematical computation skills, increased problem solving skills,
and increased student interest.
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Mevarech (1999)28 compared the effects of three cooperative-
learning environments on Israeli seventh grader’s mathematical
problem solving (meta-cognitive training, direct strategy
instruction and neither). Pencil-and-paper testing assessed
student’s problem-solving abilities. Results indicated that students
exposed to meta-cognitive training significantly outperformed their
counterparts who received strategy instruction, who in turn
significantly outperformed students who received no training.
Shyu (1999)29 found that computer-assisted video-based
anchored instruction was more important than media attributes in
the teaching of problem solving among the Taiwanese elementary
students.
An experimental study conducted by Oladunni (1998)30
focuses on the effects of the application of two problem-solving
techniques– meta-cognitive and heuristic-on the achievement of
students in the computation of creative mathematics problems.
Results indicate that there was a significant difference in the
achievement of experimental and control groups.
Woodward & Baxter (1997)31 conducted a year-long study of
an innovative approach to mathematics, which emphasized in-
depth problem solving and achievement of automaticity through
math games, found such methods to be viable for students with
average and above average academic abilities, but students with
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learning disabilities or at-risk students need much greater
assistance if they are to be included in general education
classrooms.
Marsh & Cooke (1996)32 conducted a study on third graders
with a history of low achievement in math. They were first given
verbal (abstract) instruction in solving word problems. Students were
then introduced to manipulative instruction using Cuisenaire rods to
set up word problems. Students exhibited immediate and sustained
improvement on subsequent probes administered without
manipulative available.
3.2 Studies on Experiential Learning
Since its first statement in 1971 (Kolb, 1971;33 Kolb, Rubin,
& McIntyre, 1971)34, there have been many studies using
Experiential Learning Theory to advance the theory and practice of
experiential learning. The July 2005 update of the Experiential
Learning Theory bibliography by Kolb (2005)35 included 1876
entries. It was 1004 entries in the 1999 bibliography (Kolb,
Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001).36
Kolb & Kolb (2010)37 proposed an experiential learning
framework for understanding how play can potentially create a
unique ludic learning space conducive to deep learning. The case
study suggests that play in a ludic learning space can promote
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89
deep learning in the intellectual, physical, spiritual, and moral
realms.
Learners can chart their path on the learning way by
developing their meta-cognitive learning capacities, and educators
can pave the way by placing learning about learning on the agenda
of their educational programs (Kolb & Kolb, 2009).38 The meta-
cognitive model is used to describe how fundamental concepts of
experiential learning theory-a learning self-identity, the learning
spiral, learning style, and learning spaces-can guide meta-
cognitive monitoring and control of learning. Meta-cognitive
strategies to help individuals improve their learning effectiveness
are outlined.
Dhilwayo (2008)39 present a prospective entrepreneurship
training model based on experiential learning which will enable the
"Production'' of small business owners or entrepreneurs which is
not being achieved by the current methods, design /approach. It
provides a model that integrates experiential learning into
entrepreneurship education. It shows that appropriate experiential
training can truly be integrated in to entrepreneurship education
in Africa as in disciplines such as Engineering or Nursing.
Thomas (2008)40 considered a facilitator is to act
intentionally when they are deliberate about what they are doing
and can provide rationales for their action. A review of facilitation
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90
literature and the experiential education literature demonstrates
the importance of both intentionality and intuitive process when
facilitating. The study confirmed the importance of an emphasis
on both intentionality and intuition in the preparation of
facilitators for experiential education.
Rone (2008)41 felt instructional pedagogies in learning
contexts from classrooms to board rooms are couched within
experiential learning paradigms. The field trip is a teaching
pedagogy that dress on experiential learning. The effectiveness of
field trip as an instructional pedagogy is assured and best
practices for incorporating field trips into instruction are
presented.
Ives-Devey (2008)42 studied the advantages and challenges
of experiential learning in Geography. Geography increasingly
relies on training of professional who can apply geographies
concepts to solve real -world problems. The planning profession for
years has been training professionals to work in the area of
community planning. Planning programs typically include
experiential learning modules throughout the curriculum.
Domesk (2007)43 provides a concrete example of how
experiential learning approaches can be implemented in order to
most effectively meet specific educational goals in international
sustainability studies. The study presents a multidimensional
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international experiential program. It illustrates how experiential
learning offers an educational experience that most effectively;
connects the academic with the practice, fosters an effective
interdisciplinary curriculum, links students to work experience
and job opportunities. The literature on experiential learning urges
that experiential learning approaches deserve greater attention in
theory and practice.
Steel et al. (2007)44 explored a reuse of themes and issues
stemming from the application of an experiential learning
approach to postgraduate journalism education of the University
of Sheffield. The development of experiential learning programmes
within journalism education provides valuable experiences that
stimulate the real world of journalism practice.
Ives & Obenchain (2006)45 conducted a pre-test- post-test
study using measures of Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) and
Lower Order Thinking Skills (LOTS) in six 12th grade American
Government classrooms taught by three experienced teachers over
one semester. One of the three teachers implemented a curriculum
in two classes based on Experiential Education (EE) Principles
with guidance from investigations. Students in the EE emphasised
classes demonstrated greater gains in HOTS than the students in
other four classes. There was no difference in the two groups of
LOTS. The result suggest that EE instruction in High School
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classes can promote HOTS more than traditional instruction does
with no sacrifice in LOTS.
Stavenga de Jong, Wieystra, & Hermenussen (2006)46 were
investigating the relationship between school-based (academic) and
work-based (experiential) learning approaches of students in
vocational education programs. The study identified two academic
learning dimensions (Constructive learning and Reproductive
learning) and three experiential learning dimensions (analysis,
initiative, immersion).
Breunig (2005)47 is of the opinion that the educational
theories of experiential learning and critical pedagogy intersect in
a number of ways. One of the intended aims of both of these
pedagogies is that the purpose of education should be to develop a
main society just world. The investigator explores some of the
ways for experiential educators and critical pedagogues to begin
engaging a more purposeful classroom praxis that acts on the
theoretical underpinnings of share pedagogies as one means to
work toward their shared vision of a more society just world.
Research involving different methodologies and different
educational and workplace populations, has shown that
Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) is useful for understanding
team learning and performance (Adams, Kayes, & Kolb; 2005).48
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Pauleen, Marshall, & Ergort (2004)49 used ELT to construct
and implement web-based team learning assignments in
knowledge management. Students worked on projects in virtual
teams evaluated that 75% agreed or strongly agreed that
experiential learning was a valuable way of experiencing and
learning about a variety of communication channels in a team
environment and 99% found that experiential learning to be more
valuable than simply reading about something.
Lingham (2004)50 found that the more the team supported
the experiential learning cycle through norms that focused their
conversation on interpersonal diverging and task oriented
converging, the better they performed, the more satisfied they were
with their membership on the team, and the more they felt
psychologically safe to take risks on the team.
McGlinn (2003)51 used experiential learning cycle in a
teacher education program, emphasizing the reflective component
of the cycle to overcome students’ lack of reflection on their
teaching. The investigator claims that the experiential learning
model is effective in promoting change and development in
students’ self-knowledge about their teaching practices by
providing time for reflection.
Cleave-Hogg & Morgan (2002)52 designed an anesthesia
simulation based on experiential learning for undergraduate
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medical students. The study supports the value of integrating the
experiential simulation exercise in the anesthesia undergraduate
curriculum.
Hweng & Henson(2002)53 conducted a study on a critical
review of the literature on Kolb's learning style inventory is a
commonly used measure of learning styles on Kolb's experiential
learning model. The psychometric soundness of learning style
inventory scores has been critiqued historically. This study
reviewed the literature learning style inventory and evaluated the
psychometric propositions of Kolb's original and received versions
of the learning style inventory.
Powell & Wells (2002)54 conducted a study on the
effectiveness of three experiential teaching approaches on student
science learning in fifth grade public school classrooms. In this
study the investigator compares the effect of three experiential
science lessons in meeting the objectives of the Colorado model
contents science standards. It uses Kolb's Experiential learning
model as a frame work for understanding the process by which
students engage in learning when participating in Experiential
learning activities. The study concluded that the model is very
effective in environmental Education.
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Harrelson & Leaver-Dunn (2002)55 suggest that experiential
learning requires that teachers assume a facilitator mind set,
which might be a difficult mind set for some.
Park & Bang (2002)56 studied the performance of 52 Korean
industrial work teams using the Belbin team role model, which is
conceptually linked to ELT (Jackson, 2002).57 They found that
teams with roles that matched the particular stage of a team’s
work / learning process performed best.
Sprau & Keig (2001)58 introduce films in the history survey
course based on experiential learning model. They recommend
that the experiential learning model can best serve the students’
interests, so that students are guided to acquire higher-order
thinking skills to deal with subsequent learning experiences.
Terry (2001)59 published an article about experiential
learning. The investigator explains the importance of Kolb's
experiential learning model. Translate learning style theory into
the university teaching practice, namely Classroom learning,
assignment, essay research writing and examinations. The
recommendations for practice can be adopted to accommodate the
style delineations of other theorist models. It focuses on university
classroom group, essay research writing and examination
experiences.
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Healey & Jenkins (2000)60 applied the Svinicki and Dixon
model to the teaching of geography course. In their view, two
central practical applications of the experiential learning theory
are relevant to different types of learning environment be it a
lecture course or a seminar-based course.
Mc Goldrick, Battle; & Gallagher (2000)61 developed a
managerial economic course based on experiential methods
applied to one form of service learning, student-based instruction.
Krista (2000)62 stated in his report that experiential learning
style inventory is widely used to understand the stages of learning
and the ways people prefer to receive and process new
information. The model and self assessment are both based on
Kolb's experiential learning theory, emphasis the need for learner
involvement in educational activities.
Miettinen (2000)63 conducted a study about the concept of
experiential learning and John Dewey's theory of Reflective
thought and activities. He studied Kolb's electric method of
constructing model of experiential learning. He concludes that
Kolb's notion of immediate concrete experience is epistemologically
problematic.
Gopinah & Sawyer (1999)64 developed a computer-based
enterprise simulation based on experiential learning in business
course to bridge the gap between knowledge and its application
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and found that the recursive nature of experiential learning
promotes strategic decision making and group behavior consistent
with long-term strategy.
In Political Science Brock & Cameron (1999)65 developed
instructional sequences for a course based on experiential learning
cycle and concluded that there is great merit in following the four-
stage learning cycle. They highlighted that David Kolb's experiential
learning model and examines learning preference within the icon of
the model. Discusses implications and provides illustrations for each
of the model’s 4 stages. 1. Concrete Experience 2. Reflective
Observation 3. Abstract Conceptualisation. 4. Active Experimentation.
Travers (1998)66 investigated the impact of experiential
learning methods on students’ self-regulation of their own learning
process in mathematics. The purpose of the study was to examine
whether the treatment group taught mathematics through an
experiential learning method demonstrated a higher level of self-
regulation than the control group, which was taught mathematics
through a traditional lecture format. The results indicate that the
experiential learning group demonstrated a higher level of self-
regulation. Students taught experientially were exposed to a
variety of situations from which to compare a new experience with
previous ones, thus developing the ability to critically evaluate
what worked and didn’t work in a given learning situation.
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Vince (1998)67 explains that experiential learning is
important in management education. He considered the
propositions of Kolb's learning style model by adding
psychodynamic and political as illustrates the complexity of
experiential learning when unconscious forces and power aspects.
Luckner & Nadler (1997)68 described 12 reasons why
experiential learning is effective. The reasons are
i) Equality
ii) Developing relationship quickly
iii) Disequilibrium
iv) Projective technique
v) Decreased time cycle
vi) Meta Learning
vii) Chaos and Crisis in a Safe Environment
viii) Kinaesthetic Imprint
ix) Common language/ company mythology
x) Encourage Risk Taking
xi) Diversity of Strengths
xii) Fun
Berry & Woolfe (1997)69 found Kolb's model of experiential
learning is effective in examining the issues relating to teaching
method and assessment procedure.
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Saundess (1997)70 argues that a basic understanding of
experiential learning process and the nature of cases and
simulations on experiential activities will help instructors of
business communication.
Siegel, Khursheed, & Agarwal (1997)71 conducted a
controlled field experiment to test the effectiveness of video
simulation as a way to integrate experiential learning theory in the
teaching of auditing in their accounting course. The videotape
used in the experiment followed the principles of experiential
learning in teaching the fundamental steps in auditing. The
results of the experiment indicated significantly higher
examination scores for the experimental groups, supporting the
value of experiential learning for improving effectiveness in
teaching auditing
Hatcher & Bringle (1997)72 reported the effectiveness of the
learning cycle in designing reflection activities in in-service
learning settings.
Gardner & Korth (1997)73 used ELT to design a course in
group dynamics, group development, and group effectiveness.
They used the experiential learning cycle to improve transfer of
learning. They found experiential learning model enhances the
learning process, reinforces the link between theory and practice,
and facilitates the transfer of learning to the workplace.
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Rasanen (1997)74 developed a model of experiential art
interpretation in which students reflect and construct aesthetic
meaning through an integration of art history, criticism, and
aesthetics guided by the experiential learning model. She suggests
that experiential art interpretation increases students’ expressive
skills and results in products that are meaningful both to their
makers and others.
Joining Together: group theory and group skills by Johnson
& Johnson (1996)75 was one of the first texts to pick up on Kolb
and to link experiential learning with the work around groups by
Lewin and others.
Stiernborg, Zaldivar, & Santiago (1996)76 conducted a pre-
test post-test quasi-experimental design study to assess the
comparative effectiveness of didactic teaching and experiential
learning in a HIV / AIDS training program for nursing students in
the Philippines. The study concluded that the experiential learning
approach was more effective than the didactic approach for
knowledge acquisition.
Munton (1996)77 a study on the theories of education and
learning argues that continuous training is important for
improving the quality of day-care provision. Social learning theory
is used to examine Kolb's experiential learning model is an
approach to training day-care providers. The study concluded with
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the creation of conditions under which experiential learning can be
implemented effectively.
Piette(1995)78 analyses paradoxes of management
development -trends and tensions. He concluded that the
experiential learning model: (1. abstract conceptualisation 2.
traditional management education) is influenced in management
education.
Fraser (1995)79 examined what is lost and gained in the
translation of private experience into public sphere.
In order to revitalize the engineering education, in 1989 the
College of Engineering and Technology at Brigham Young
University initiated a faculty training program based on the
experiential learning model (Harb et al., 1995).80 Several faculty
members redesigned their courses to reach the full spectrum of
the experiential learning cycle, using a variety of teaching
strategies. Also Rogers & Frieberg (1994)81 discuss applications of
the experiential learning framework to the classroom.
Dyer & Schumann (1993)82 developed an experiential
learning laboratory classroom in their marketing course and
developed the Knowledge / Experience Integration Learning Model
in a senior level marketing class. At the completion of the course,
students reported an increased level of critical thinking ability and
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capacity to apply and connect theoretical knowledge with real- life
business application.
Ronald (1993)83 conducted a study on the enhancement of
learning on public sector in training programmes using Kolb's
experiential learning model. The study suggests that people differ
in the way they perceive and process information.
Specht (1991)84 examined the effect of an experiential
learning method in student learning in an undergraduate
accounting course compared with another class conducted using a
traditional lecture method. The results revealed that the
experiential class demonstrated retention of knowledge over a six-
week period, whereas a significant decrease in the scores of the
lecture class was observed. The study also concluded that
students in the experiential learning classroom may have formed a
better understanding of the concepts, thus successfully retaining
knowledge better than students in the lecture class.
Mezirow (1991)85 develops a comprehensive theory of how
adults learn by making meanings of their experiences. He focuses
on perspective transformation.
Hartshorn, & Sue (1990)86 examine research about the use
of manipulatives to teach Mathematics. ‘Manipulatives’ refers to
objects that can be touched and moved by students to introduce
and reinforce a Mathematical concept. Research suggests that
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manipulatives are particularly useful in helping children move
from concrete to the abstract level. Building the Bridge between
these levels requires careful structuring of manipulatives by the
teacher, issues relating to the implementation and success of
manipulatives, the period of students exposure and training.
Von Eschenbach, & Raqsdale (1989)87 investigated the effect
of an experiential classroom environment on children's learning
through the integration of Mathematics and Social studies. The
findings support the contention that children leave better by
doing. Children are more attentive to their learning, achieve a
deeper insight or meaning of the concepts and are able to apply
the information.
Atkinson & Murrel (1988)88 reports that Kolb's experiential
learning theory offers the career counsellor a meta-model with
which to structure and ensure a thorough investigation of self and
the world of work in a manner provides the client with an optional
amount of learning and personal development. Fitzhibbon (1987)89
stated that Kolb's experiential learning can be adopted and applied
to student -teacher supervision.
Svinicki & Dixon (1987)90 described a comprehensive
instructional model to deal with the constraints and challenges
that instructors and students encounter in adopting experiential
learning as an instructional framework. The instructional design
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model incorporates a broad range of classroom activities that lead
students through the full cycle of learning. The model has been
successfully applied in various academic fields such as geography
(Healey and Jenkins, 2000),60 theatre (Gressler, 2002),91 and
political science (Brock and Cameron, 1999).65
Baker, Simon, & Bazeli (1987)92 contended that teaching is
an art requiring the instructor to select from among a wide variety
of instructional strategies to teach students with a diversity of
learning preferences.
Wilkerson (1986)93 studied the relationship between
preferred learning and clinical achievement of Baccalaureate
nursing students. The theoretical frame work was based on Kolb's
model of experiential learning with four phases from concrete
experience to active experimentation. The study found Kolb's
learning style inventory was effective to assess preference for
learning.
Sugarman (1985)94 promotes the usefulness of the Kolb’s
experiential learning model for curriculum planning,
implementation, and evaluation in the counseling field. The
experiential learning framework helps students expand their
repertoire of learning skills through the conceptualization of the total
learning process. He stated that experiential learning is helpful for
trainees, student counsellors and clients.
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Sims & Sauser (1985)95 proposed the experiential learning
model as a theoretical basis to design management curricula
intended to develop managerial competencies in business
students. They offer seven core principles that need to be in place,
if such curricula are to be successfully implemented.
Experiential exercise has proven to be effective in generating
considerable student involvement and participation in the learning
process, with increased student capacity to retain knowledge for a
longer period of time (Umapathy, 1985).96
Lipshitz (1983)97 underscores the complexity of the role of
an experiential teacher who needs to have a firm grasp of the
relevant conceptual material and also develop sensitivity and skill
in managing students’ emotional reactions to the learning process.
He designed and implemented an experiential behavior science
course in the Israeli Military Academy focused on the development
of problem-solving, decision-making, and crisis-management skills
in their officers. The aim was to use the experiential learning
model to counter the organizational environment of the Israeli
Defense Force.
Brookfield (1983)98 described experiential learning a direct
encounter with the phenomena being studied. He used the term in
contrasting sense. On the one hand it is used to describe the sort
of learning undertaken by students who are given a chance to
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acquire and apply knowledge, skills and feelings in an immediate
and relevant setting. The record is education that occurs as a
direct participation in the events of life.
Certo (1976)99 articulated the value of experiential learning
as a methodology of education that focuses on the whole person
and emphasizes the critical role of the facilitator as an active
experiential instructor who blends, with a proper balance,
experience, reflection, conceptualization, and action in the
classroom activities.
Pace (1977)100 emphasised the relevance of experiential
pedagogy that gives primary to learners’ experience, action, and
opportunity for students to test out newly learned concepts and
theories.
Carlsson, Keane, & Martin (1976)101 used ELT learning cycle
framework to analyse the biweekly reports of research and
development project teams in a large consumer product
corporation. McMullan & Cahoon (1979)102 applied Kolb’s (1971)33
experience-based learning evaluation instrument in their
organizational behavior course.
3.3 Studies on Learning Styles
The Learning Style Inventory (LSI) has been used widely in
computer and information science, particularly to study end user
software use and end user training (Bostrom, Olfman, & Sein,
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1990;103 Davis & Bostrom, 1993).104 It has been used to examine the
relationship between learning style and problem solving and decision
making, on-line search behavior, and performance in computer
training and computer assisted instruction.
Many of the studies in psychology were on LSI psychometrics.
The first version of the LSI was released in 1976 and received wide
support for its strong face validity and independence of the two
dimensions of the learning process (Marshall & Meritt, 1985;105 Katz,
1986).106
Yenilmer (2007)107 studied the relationship among the learning
styles, Math anxieties and math attitudes of the secondary school
teacher training students. The results show that math anxiety and
math attitude are efficient in predicting preferred learning styles of
secondary school students in learning Mathematics.
Kayes (2005)108 in his study explores the internal validity and
reliability of Kolb’s revised Learning Style Inventory (LSI-2A and LSI-
3). This study largely supports prior research supporting the internal
reliability of scales. Principal Component Analysis provides evidence
for a 2 factor structure as hypothesized by Kolb.
Sandmire & Boyce (2004)109 investigated the performance of
two-person collaborative problem-solving teams in an allied health
education-anatomy, physiology, and pathology course. They
compared a group of higher abstract/high concrete student pairs
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with a group of abstract pairs and a group, of concrete pairs. The
abstract/concrete pairs performed significantly better on a simulated
clinical case than the abstract pairs, indicating the value of
integrating the abstract and concrete dialectics of the learning cycle.
Sloan et al. (2004)110 conducted a study on learning styles of
elementary pre-service teachers. This study was investigated the
learning style preference of 72 elementary pre-service teachers who
were near the end of their third year of collegiate study. A learning
style inventory, the style Analysis survey, was administered to
determine learning style preferences. The categories assessed were
(a) using physical senses, (b) dealing with people, (c) handling
possibilities, (d) approaching tasks, and (e) dealing with ideas. Over,
all the subjects possessed some common characteristics. They
showed an inclination toward being usual learners who were
extroverted, closing-oriented, and global learners
Ishiyama & Hartlaub (2003)111 conducted a comparative study
of student learning styles in two different political science curricular
models at two universities. The result indicated that while there
was no statistically significant relationship between student
learning styles in underclass students, there was a significant
difference in mean scores among upper-class students between the
two universities.
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Berry (2003)112 suggests that if African American student
receive Mathematics instruction recommended by certain standards,
such instruction will complement their cultural styles and learning
preferences.
Halstead & Martin (2002)113 found that engineering student
teams that were formed randomly to include all learning styles
performed better than self-esteemed teams.
There is considerable variation in inquiry norms and
knowledge structures within some fields. Professions such as
management (Loo, 2002a114 & 2002b115; Brown and Burke, 1987)116
and medicine (Sadler et.al., 1978117; Plovnick, 1975)118 are multi-
disciplinary including specialties that emphasize different learning
styles. Social sciences can vary greatly in their basic inquiry
paradigms.
Sharp (2001)119 showed that classroom experience of students
can improve teamwork skills with theory by recognizing and
capitalizing their strengths, respecting all styles, sending messages
in various ways, and analysing style differences to resolve conflict
and communicate effectively with team members.
In the study of a 6-week teambuilding program, Hall (1996) 120
reported difficulty with self-selected teams that tended to group on
the basis of friendship.
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Kayes (2001)121 found that teams made up of members whose
learning styles were balanced among the four learning modes
performed at a higher level on a critical thinking task than teams
whose members had specialised learning styles. Researches by
Hardigan & Sisco (2001)122 supported the idea that students
preferred learning style differ. Sandmire, Vroman, & Sanders
(2000)123 investigating pairs formed on the action /reflection dialectic
showed no significant performance differences.
Research that examined the relationship between learning
style and learning environment has suggested that teachers should
adjust and structure the learning environment and their
expectations of students around the students individual learning
styles. (Gadt-Johnson & Price, 2000;124 Hickson, Land & Aikman,
1994)125
The majority of studies in medicine focus on learning style
analysis in many medical education specialties. Curry (1999)126 has
done a number of studies comparing different measures of learning
styles. Other research has examined learning style and student
performance on examination and the relationship between learning
style and medical specialty career choice.
Reese (1998)127 developed a program using learning style
interventions to improve student learning at the University of Denver
Law School.
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Nulty & Barrett (1996)128 caution that the learning style
grouping should not be taken as absolute representation of a
particular student population, because different teaching strategies
and discourse modes may be adopted which are not traditional to
that discipline. Their study also suggests that learning styles are
related to the stage the students have reached in their studies.
Researchers and educators contend that understanding of the
distribution of learning styles in one’s discipline and subspecialty is
crucial for the improvement of the quality of instructional strategies
that respond to the individual need of the learner, as well as the
optimal level of competency and performance requirement of each
profession (Baker, Simon, & Bazeli, 1986;129 Bostrom, Olfman, &
Sein, 1990;103 Drew & Ottewill, 1998;130 Fox and Ronkowski,
1997;131 Kreber, 2001;132 Laschinger, 1986;133 McMurray, 1998;134
Rosenthal, 1999;135 Sandmire, Vroman, & Sanders, 2000;123 Sims,
1983).136
In the first experimental study of the effect of learning styles
on team performance, Wolfe (1997)137 examined how homogeneous
three-person teams of accommodators, divergers, assimilators, or
convergers performed on a complex computer business simulation
compared with heterogeneous teams. The four groups of
heterogeneous teams had similar performance results.
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There are studies suggest that educators need to adopt their
teaching styles and instructional methods to facilitate the learning
process by offering a variety of learning opportunities appropriate to
different student learning styles and to different subject matters
(Baker, Simon, & Bazeli,1986;129 Buch & Bartley,2002;138 Cartney,
2000).139
Lemire (1998)140 through his research describes the
psychometric issues associated with three different learning style
models (Visual, Auditory and Kinaesthetic) and the instruments
designed to assess their models. He also presents some background
to the learning styles idea along with suggestions for utilising the
information with developments.
In their study of learning style differences among pediatric
residents and faculty, Kosower & Berman (1996)141 found that most
residents preferred accommodating or diverging styles (81%), most
faculties preferred either converging or assimilating learning
strategies (73%). Similar results were found in a longitudinal study
comparing undergraduate nursing students’ learning styles and
faculty learning styles. Nursing students preferred concrete thinking
(59%) over abstract thinking (41%), while their faculty preferred
abstract thinking (82%) over concrete thinking (18%) (Kalsbeek,
1989).142
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Sims & Sims (1995)143 in the book on "The importance of
learning styles: Understanding the implications for learning, course
design, and Education'' discuss on models of different learning
styles, instruments to evaluate learning styles and techniques for
assessing individual learning characteristics as well as the future of
learning style research and its implications for enhancing learning
in higher education institutions.
Sadler, Plovnick, & Snope (1978)117 report some of the
difficulties of teaching in an environment in which the learning style
of the faculty and the students differ. Their study suggests that faced
with such a situation, instructors may be required to use
instructional methods valuable to the students but not necessarily
appearing or intellectually rewarding to the instructors themselves.
Brown & Cooper (1976)144 developed a learning style inventory
that measures Mathematics learning style. The inventory has nine
categories namely Visual language. Visual, Numerical, Auditory
Language, Auditory Numerical Textile concrete, Social individual,
Social group, Oral Expressiveness and Written Expressiveness.
3.4 Studies related to Achievement with respect to Learning Styles
Indu & Ignatious (2008)145 conducted a study on the
perceptual learning styles of High school students. The study
revealed that effective learning depends on the learning style of the
learner. It also showed that a majority of students preferred the
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visual learning style. Government school students preferred the
visual and the auditory learning styles compared to their
counterparts in private, government aided and corporation schools.
Orhun (2007)146 conducted a study on an investigation into
the Mathematics Achievement and Attitude towards Mathematics
with respect to Learning Styles according to gender. This study
aimed to investigate whether there is relationship between gender
and Learning Styles, Mathematical Achievement and attitude
towards mathematics. The results of this study suggested that their
differences among learning modes preferred by female and male
students. Mathematics Achievement and attitude towards
mathematics were not, themselves dependent on gender. It was also
noticed that while female students most preferred the convergent
Learning Styles, male students most preferred the Assimilator
Learning Styles. No students were observed to prefer the
Accommodator Learning Styles in both groups.
Hawk & Shah (2007)147 in their study have indicated that
students can and should develop their abilities that are not in their
natural modes and preferences. This is possible only if they are
aware that learning style does exist in individuals and that not all
individuals learn in the same way. Thomas (2007)148 found that co-
operative learning enhances the achievement of students grouped
according to their learning styles.
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Aruna & Usha (2006)149 conducted a study on the influence of
cognitive style, intelligence and classroom climate on process
outcomes in science. The study found that there is significant
relationship between cognitive skills and process outcomes in
science.
Malathi & Malini (2006)150 conducted a study on the
relationship between learning style and achievement among higher
secondary students of Chennai. The study revealed that there is high
correlation between learning style and achievement which implies
that higher the achievement scores the better was the learning style
among higher secondary students.
Rayneri et al. (2006)151 in their study examined the learning
style of gifted middle school students, student perceptions of
classroom environment and achievement levels. Eighty gifted
students from grades 6, 7 and 8 were administered the learning style
Inventory (LSI) to identify student learning preferences. The study
found that learning style of gifted students has correction with
achievement in all contest areas.
Farkas (2003)152 examined the effects of teaching through
traditional versus learning style instructional methods on an urban
sample of 105 heterogeneously grouped 7th grade students
achievements, attitudes, empathic tendencies and the like. The data
that was subjected to a statistical analysis supported the
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implementation of a multisensory rather than traditional approach
for teaching lessons. He Co-ordinated the effectiveness of learning
style methods for increasing achievement and attitude towards
learning.
A number of studies have examined the relationship between
learning style, assessment method, and academic performance.
While some studies show relationship between grades and the
converging learning style (Rutz, 2003;153 Boyatzis & Mainemelis,
2000),154 other studies indicate that these learning style differences
in student performance may be a function of the assessment
technique used.
There is a good relationship between learning style and class
participation on student enjoyment level. (Du & Simpson; 2002)155
Kinsley (2002)156 conducted a study on the effectiveness of
four stage model of Mathematical learning. He discusses about the
instructional implication of this model. He conducted that the model
is very effective than traditional method.
Krista (2000)62 started in his report on experimental learning
style inventory widely used to understand the stages of living and the
ways people prefer to receive and process new information. The
model and self assessment are both based on Kolb’s experiential
learning theory, emphasis the need for learner involvement is
educational activities.
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Rourke & Lysynchuck (2000)157 investigated the influence of
learning style on achievement in hypertext. The learning style of
twenty one female and twenty male students enrolled in a
psychology class was assessed using the learning style inventory
(Kolb, 1985).158 The learning style inventory categorises respondents
into one of four learning style based on their abilities in the four
stage of experiential learning style. A significant difference was found
between divergers who scored highest and accommodators who
record lowest. The results supported previous research which
indicated that benefits of hypertext are differentially distributed
across learning style.
Ross, Drysdale & Schultz (2000)159 in a study found that
learning styles influence the types of learning experiences that
students find effective, comfortable and growth promoting. They also
found that the effect of learning style on academic preference with
sequential learners performing significantly better than the random
learners in two-computer-science courses.
Bada & Okan (2000)160 found that for students to achieve
effective learning, teachers must give special consideration to the
skills and assumptions of learners and to their individual learning
preferences.
There has been considerable interest in the study of
instructional practices for mathematics teaching in Asia. Recent
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assessments have indicated that students in several Asian countries
such as Japan, Honkong, Korea and Singapore, have indented to
score above international averages (Kelly, Mullis, & Martin, 2000).161
In order to explore possible explanations for these achievement
differences, an international study has been conducted to examine
cultural factors, such as mathematics curriculum and content,
student characteristics and learning styles, and instructional
strategies (International Commission on Mathematical Instruction,
2000).162
Oughton & Reed (2000)163 measured the relationship between
graduate students’ learning styles and performance outcome in a
hypermedia environment in which students were required to
structurally map out their acquired knowledge and grasp the
interrelationships among various ideas and concepts. The result
showed that Assimilating and Diverging learners were the most
productive on their concept maps.
Lynch et al. (1998)164 explores the relationship between
learning style and three different academic performance measures in
a medical school. The study indicated that Converging and
Assimilating learners scored significantly higher on the multiple –
choice performance measures, while no learning style difference was
found on the Computer- based simulation. It also concluded that the
results support the Kolb(1984)165 and Newland & Woelfl (1992)166
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assertions that Converging and assimilating learners may have a
performance advantage on objective, single best answer, multiple-
choice examination.
Holley & Jenkins (1993)167 examined the impact of learning
style on four different accounting exam question formats: multiple-
choice theory (MCT), multiple- choice quantitative (MCQ), open-
ended theory (OET), and open-ended quantitative (OEQ). The result
indicated that there was a significant performance difference by
learning style for all but the multiple-choice quantitative format. It
also concluded that students with different learning styles perform
differently depending on the examination format, and that
performance cannot be generalised for similar subjects if the testing
format varies.
A research entitled as Mathematics learning viewed from
neurobiological model for intellectual functioning was conducted by
Davidson (1983).168 The learning of Mathematics was addressed in
this study with special focus as defining learning styles in
Mathematics, classifying individuals according to learning styles,
relating achievement to learning styles, associating learning styles
with localised. Hemispheric functioning of the brain, correlating
learning styles in Mathematics with general learning styles, and
tailoring teaching strategies to learning styles. Results confirm that
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Mathematics learning styles more strongly reflect qualitative aspects
of performance in their straight success or non-success.
Scott (1994)169 conducted in information analysis of 4 MAT
model. 4 MAT is an eight step sequential instructional model based
on two theoretical constructs. Kolb's model of learning style and the
concept of brain hemispherity. A review of professional literature on
research with 4 MAT model indicates that 4 MAT model is capable of
comprehensive use of developing instructional units for discursive as
well as non-discursive disciplines for secondary as well as
elementary education.
Felder & Solomon’s Inventory of learning styles (1992)170
organises information handling domains into four categories:
Processing (Active or reflective) perception (Sensing or intuitive),
input (visual or verbal) and understanding (Sequential or global).
Student's learning styles are known to effect their performance at
University (Marriott and Marriott 2003,171 Sangester, 1996)172
According to Honey & Mumford (1992)173, a student's learning
style reflects his or her preference for the four stages of the adult
learning cycle: The activist stage, the reflector stage, the theorist
stage, and the pragmatist stage.
Copenhaver (1979)174 has conducted a study to examine the
differences in cognitive learning styles used by students learning
mathematics and English. An attempt was made to determine if
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students do change their learning styles as they move from one
subject area to another.
Grwronski (1971)175 studied the existence of inductive and
deductive learning styles and their effect on Mathematics
achievement. No significant difference in achievement was found
between students identified as having inductive or deductive learning
styles on programs developed inductively or deductively.
3.5 Studies on Experiential Learning and Learning Styles
on Achievement
The primary purpose of the Learning Style Inventory (LSI) and
Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) is to increase individuals’
understanding of the process of learning from experience and their
unique individual approach to learning. There have been many
studies that have used ELT and the LSI to improve the learning
process in education.
There are studies reported to cover a broad range of
applications using ELT and the LSI. Some educators have used an
experimental design to compare the effectiveness of an experiential
learning method with a more traditional course format, whereas
others have developed and implemented assessment methods for
teacher-student interaction. While instructional strategies and
methods were designed to fit the academic requirements of a specific
field, many of the experiential activities reported in the studies can
be broadly applied to different fields with adequate modifications.
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Valiente (2008)176 observed that learning in groups and using
experiential approach may have completely different meanings and
expectation in various cultures. It seems apparent that different
cultures may face difficulties in following the established phases of
an active learning cycle or taking part in experiential learning events
that do not coincide with their vision of the world and their economic
and professional realities.
Warwick (2008)177 used Kolb’s Experiential learning model to
teach mathematics in the UK General certificate of Secondary
Education for which final examinations are taken at the age of 16.
When students attend his first year mathematics module generally
find that there are a significant number of students for whom the
study of mathematics may have been an unpleasant experience in
the past.
Knisley (2002)178 developed a model of mathematical learning
from an exploration of educational research and personal
observations. The study Uses Kolb's model of experiential learning to
characterise four mathematical learning styles: 1) allegorizers
2) integrators 3) analyzers and 4) Synthesizers. There styles viewed
as corresponding to four stages of mathematical learning.
Gardner & Korth (1999)179 used ELT, learning styles, and the
learning cycle to develop a course for human resource development
graduate students that focused on learning to work in teams. They
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123
found strong relationships between learning styles and preference for
learning methods – assimilators preferred lectures, reading, writing,
and individual work, while accommodators and often divergers and
convergers preferred partner and group work.
McMurray (1998)180 organized his English-as-a-foreign-
language classroom using ELT principles. Classroom observations
supported the idea that students benefited from the team role
assignment and from accounting for learning style in the course
design.
There have been two comprehensive reviews of the ELT/LSI
literature, one qualitative and one quantitative. In 1990, Hickcox 181
extensively reviewed the theoretical origins of ELT and qualitatively
analysed 81 studies in Accounting, Business education, Medical
profession, Post-secondary education and Teacher education. She
concluded that 61.7% of the studies supported ELT, 16.1% showed
mixed support and 22.2% did not support ELT. In 1994,
Illiff(1994)182 conducted a meta-analysis of 101 qualitative studies
culled from 275 dissertations and 624 articles that were qualitative,
theoretical and quantitative studies of ELT/LSI. He found that 49
studies showed strong support for the LSI, 40 showed mixed support
and 12 showed no support.
ELT posits that effective learners are able to flex their learning
styles according to the demands of different learning tasks. To the
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extent that the individual learning preferences are respected and
recognized, it is also important for the students to be exposed to
diverse learning situations where their abilities and competencies
can be stretched beyond the comfort of their preferred learning
modes. Several studies suggest that in fact students shift their
learning strategies to match the learning demands of a particular
discipline (Cornett, 1983;183 Entwistle, 1981;184 Kolb, 1984;165
Ornstein, 1977).185 Some studies suggest that the identification of
learning strategies best suited for different learning styles may
increase the learning effectiveness of each individual student and
conversely, increase students’ adaptive flexibility to alter their
learning styles to respond to the learning demand of a specific
environment (Brenenstuhl & Catanello, 1979;186 Curry, 1999;187
Fritzsche, 1977;188 Lynch et al. 1998).164
Conclusion
The review of related literature enabled the investigator to have
an extensive information on modern instructional strategies in
general and experiential learning strategy in particular. It helped the
investigator to know the application of Kolb’s experiential learning
and learning style in various disciplines and its effect on
achievement. It capacitated the investigator to frame the objectives
for the study.
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