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A NAT IV E AME R ICA N EXP RESS I ON
OF TH E JESU S WAY
R E S C U I N G T H E
G O S P E L F R O M
T H E C O W B O Y S
R I C H A R D T W I S SAuthor of One Church Many Tribes
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InterVarsity Press
PO Box 983089983092983088983088 Downers Grove IL 983094983088983093983089983093-983089983092983090983094
ivpresscom
emailivpresscom
copy983090983088983089983093 by Katherine wiss
All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission from
InterVarsity Press
InterVarsity Pressreg is the book-publishing division of InterVarsity Christian FellowshipUSAreg a movement of
students and faculty active on campus at hundreds of universities colleges and schools of nursing in the United
States of America and a member movement of the International Fellowship of Evangelical Students For
information about local and regional activities visit intervarsityorg
Unless otherwise indicated all Scripture quotations are taken from the Holy Bible New Living ranslation
copyright copy983089983097983097983094 983090983088983088983092 983090983088983088983095 Used by permission of yndale House Publishers Inc Carol Stream Illinois 983094983088983089983096983096
All rights reserved
In Memoriam is used by permission of erry LeBlanc
While all stories in this book are true some names and identifying information may have been changed to protect
the privacy of individuals
Cover design Cindy Kiple
Interior design Beth McGill
Images Lakota rinity by Father John Giuliani
ISBN 983097983095983096-983088-983096983091983088983096-983092983092983090983091-983092 (print)
ISBN 983097983095983096-983088-983096983091983088983096-983097983096983093983091-983092 (digital)
Printed in the United States of America
As a member of the Green Press Initiative InterVarsity Press is committed to protectingthe environment and to the responsible use of natural resources o learn more visit
greenpressinitiativeorg
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
P 983090983091 983090983090 983090983089 983090983088 983089983097 983089983096 983089983095 983089983094 983089983093 983089983092 983089983091 983089983090 983089983089 983089983088 983097 983096 983095 983094 983093 983092 983091 983090 983089
Y 983091983092 983091983091 983091983090 983091983089 983091983088 983090983097 983090983096 983090983095 983090983094 983090983093 983090983092 983090983091 983090983090 983090983089 983090983088 983089983097 983089983096 983089983095 983089983094 983089983093
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
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CONTENTS
In Memoriam 983097
Foreword 983089983089
Preace 983089983093
983089 he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 983089983095
983090 he Colonization Evangelization and Assimilation
o First Nations People 983094983089
983091 Sweating with Jesus 983097983091
Stories of the Native Experience
983092 A View rom the Hill 983089983091983089
Emerging Native Expressions of the Jesus Way
983093 From Colonization to Contextualization 983089983097983089
983094 Looking Down the Road 983090983089983093
he Future of the Native Church
Editorsrsquo Acknowledgments 983090983091983089
Editorsrsquo ribute to Richard wiss 983090983091983091
Appendix A Final Words on Indigenous Education
and heology 983090983091983093
Appendix B What Should We Call You 983090983091983097
Glossary 983090983092983091
Abbreviations 983090983092983093
Notes 983090983092983095
Bibliography 983090983094983090
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IN MEMORIAM
RICHARD LEO TWISS
June 983089983089 983089983097983093983092ndashFebruary 983097 983090983088983089983091
Richard Leo wiss aoyate Obnajin ldquoHe Stands with His Peoplerdquo
passed rom this lie and into the next on February 1048633 104862698308810486251048627 in Wash-
ington DC encircled by his wie Katherine and sons Andrew Phillip
Ian and Daniel Richard was fify-eightRichard was born on the Rosebud Reservation South Dakota among
his mother Winona (Larvie) LaPointersquos people the Sicangu Band o the
Rosebud LakotaSioux Richardrsquos ather Franklin (Buster) wiss (de-
ceased) was Oglala rom the Pine Ridge LakotaSioux Reservation also
in South Dakota
Until age seven Richard lived in Rosebud a town o six hundred on
the reservation In 1048625104863310486301048625 Richardrsquos mom moved the amily rom the res-ervation to Denver then to Klamath Falls Oregon and eventually to
Silverton Oregon where Richard attended the third through twelfh
grades Richardrsquos mom ensured they made regular summer visits back
home in order to stay connected with amily and culture
Afer graduating rom high school in 1048625104863310486311048626 Richard moved back to
Rosebud to attend Sinte Gleska ldquoSpotted ailrdquo College It was here that
he became involved in the American Indian Movement (AIM) Duringthis tumultuous time Richard strengthened his connection with rela-
tives and deepened his appreciation or Lakota culture
Richard wandered or a while ending up on the island o Maui in
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1048625983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
Hawaii where late one night alone on a deserted beach Creator re-
sponded to Richardrsquos desperate prayer making himsel known to him
From that night in 1048625104863310486311048628 until his passing Richard was on a spiritual journey to live a meaningul lie as a Lakota ollower o the Jesus Way
Richard met and ell in love with Katherine Kroshus o Vancouver
Washington and married her in 1048625104863310486311048630 Richardrsquos proudest legacy is his our
boys Andrew (Diana) Phillip Ian (oni) and Daniel and his grandsons
Ezra Leo and Jude
In February 1048625104863310486331048631 Richard and Katherine ounded the nonprofit min-
istry o Wiconi International Trough Wiconi Richard and Katherinetouched the lives o many thousands o people Richard also coounded
NAIIS (North American Institute or Indigenous Teological Studies)
he was chairman o the board or My People International a member o
the CCDA (Christian Community Development Association) and co-
ounder o Evangelicals or Justice In 104862698308810486251048625 Richard earned his doctorate
in missiology rom Asbury Teological Seminary Until his passing
Richard continued his teaching career through the NAIIS programPortland State University and other institutions o higher education
Richard authored a number o books pamphlets and articles over the
years His first book One Church Many ribes reached many people
with the message o an inculturated aith in Jesus
Richardrsquos mother Winona LaPointe sisters Elaine and Laurie LaPointe
nieces Stacy (Mark) Melissa (ony) Jana and their children remain to
continue his memory His brother om passed beore Richard in 10486269830881048625983088
Composed by erry LeBlanc with assistance from Richardrsquos family
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FOREWORD
Each o us met Richard wiss at different times yet each o us met
when our own journeys (and Richardrsquos) needed additional lif to go
orward on our common trail Whether our first meeting was at a con-
erence through an introduction while studying together or just
hanging out and taking a retrospective look at our Creatorrsquos thoughts all
o us became ast riends with Richard
We all reflect very similarly on the act that Richard had the as-tounding ability to absorb what he read or heard rom others trans-
orming and then seamlessly integrating it into his own thinking While
each o us does somewhat the same thing as a unction o our Indigenous
communal approach to knowledge Richard was a master
It was in Spokane Washington in 1048625104863310486331048629 where Richard hit his stride
He had convened a Christ Culture and the Kingdom seminar or pastors
to present our ldquonewrdquo ideas about culture and aith When the conerenceended and all the attendees had departed we turned to one another
amazed that non-Indigenous pastors were keenly interested in what we
had to say It was the start o a new era or Indigenous ollowers o the
Jesus Way
Our individual and collective encounters orged links o deep and un-
breakable riendship Our camaraderie was truly symbioticmdashan idea
rom one transormed by the other complete with escalating humor Our
journey together depended so much on humor that afer a number o
years o tag-team conerences Richardrsquos mom reerred to us as a stand-up
comedy team Tere was never any doubt that erry was the straight man
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10486251048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
When Richard was provided the opportunity or doctoral studies at
Asbury Teological Seminary he was more than a bit reluctant to at-
tempt such a lofy goal Moreover we were all rustrated that advanceddegrees seemed necessary to urther our efforts to bring an Indigenous
voice to the wider public In Richardrsquos first week o school we had no
ewer than seven serious discussions about him quitting the program
Yet in the end the experience brought us closer together
Te Indigenous message we brought to class discussions became such
a dominant decolonizing voice that we were concerned about being too
great an influencemdashbut the proessors encouraged us pointing out howwe were empowering international students to speak up Following a
welcome event that we hostedmdashwhere Richard spoke words o affir-
mation or those in attendancemdashseventy students rom around the world
expressed that or the first time they elt welcomed to this country
Passionate argument ofen highlighted our close riendship Yet while
so engaged we never expressed animosity or ill willmdashonly deep com-
mitment to one another Just beore his passing or example an ar-gument raged over Richardrsquos attempt to nuance the definition o syn-
cretism in this his last book He used the descriptor counteractive to
modiy the word syncretism attempting a new definition with this two-
word phrase counteractive syncretism We told him it was needless con-
usionmdashthis hybrid phrase just didnrsquot correspond to the simple defi-
nition o syncretism A lot o ood or thought like this came to him in
deep discussions over many lattes
Tat he took our viewpoints seriously was always evident because later
on we would hear people say ldquoRichard says rdquo and in their words we
would hear our own words being repeatedmdashthe ones we had previously
discussed even argued over In our Indigenous communal way he took
our thoughtsmdashthose that were different rom hismdashand made them his
own wo different things his thoughts and our thoughts became one
new thingmdashhis new thought Now that is the definition o syncretism
His nuancing o the word syncretism is still not what we might agree with
but we think he would just laugh at this nonendorsement endorsement
o one o our best and deepest riends
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Foreword 10486251048627
Richard was enigmatic On the one hand as he made clear in the closing
years o his lie he was a common man Yet undoubtedly in many ways he
was not He became or many in the wider Indigenous community ldquothe voice o one crying in the wildernessrdquo inviting believers to make straight
paths or people to find Jesus Denominational and doctrinal competition
that encroached on his early experience o aith set Richard up to return
to the simple message o Jesusmdasha highly-energized story o a Jesus stripped
o colonial baggage And Richard used his unique style and affable sense
o humor to communicate this like no one else ever could
Richard was a oil to anyone who encumbered the message o Jesuswith culturally-bound prejudice He presented a simple path to aithmdash
inviting people to be all they could be through a renewed relationship
with Creatorrsquos son He welcomed everyone to be a part o what Creator
was doing among us making everyone eel special in the process We
hope you will sense his generous spirit as he welcomes you to broaden
your horizonsmdashto come to understand a world where in Richardrsquos
words ldquoTe Gospel is being rescued rom the cowboysrdquo
erry LeBlanc (Gitpu) MirsquokmaqAcadian Listuguj First NationCampbellton
founding chair director NAIIS An Indigenous Learning Community exec-
utive director Indigenous Pathways
Randy S Woodley PhD Keetoowah descendant Distinguished Professor of
Faith and Culture George Fox Seminary author of Shalom and the Com-
munity o Creation An Indigenous Vision (Eerdmans) and Living in
Color Embracing Godrsquos Passion or Ethnic Diversity (InterVarsity Press)
Adrian Jacobs (Ganosono) urtle Clan Cayuga Nation Six Nations Hau-
denosaunee Confederacy Keeper of the Circle (principal) Sandy-Saulteaux
Spiritual Centre
Ray Aldred (Neyihaw) Cree reaty 1048632 assistant professor of theology Ambrose
University and Seminary chair NAIIS An Indigenous Learning Community
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YOU JUST GHOSTED
You didnrsquot say goodbye you just ghosted
We turned around and you just werenrsquot there
A thousand miles away rom home you ell
You lef or heaven and plunged us all in hell
You didnrsquot give us a hug you just ghosted
In the middle o winter the cold breeze blew
Stranded and poor we had no way to get to you
A month later we finally showed sofened and blue
You lef without a word you just ghosted
Words only partially typed and a messy pile
Now wersquore sweeping things up and tying a bow
Finishing your story with ldquothis is what we knowrdquo
You lef without a signature you just ghosted
Outstanding heart accounts thatrsquoll never be paid
But wersquore carrying on doing the best we surmise
Dealing with your quick exit and total surprise
Adrian Jacobs
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PREFACE
Hau kola ldquoHello riendrdquo
Tis manuscript Rescuing the Gospel from the Cowboys is based
on my reflections experiences and intense research over the past twenty-
our years It is the story o many o us Native and Indigenous leaders
who have been finding our way out o neocolonialism into a new liberty
as wersquove walked this Jesus Road together since the late 10486251048633983096983088s
Tis book began as a doctoral dissertation to research whether or notthere is or has been an Indigenous contextualized expression o the
Christian aith among the tribes o the United States and to a lesser
degree Canada Te purpose o my research was to identiy in what ways
Native leaders were reraming the gospel narrative as part o a larger
narrative o postcolonial decolonization in their own unique cultural
contexts Te specific ocus will be on the years 104862510486339830961048633ndash10486269830889830881048633
As I think about it these days contextualization is not a principleormula or evangelistic strategy Contextualization is a relational process
o theological and cultural reflection within a communitymdashseeking to
incorporate traditional symbols music dance ceremony and ritual to
make aith in Jesus a truly local expression Tere is an honest recognition
o the guidance o Creatorrsquos Spirit behind the widening critique and cor-
rection to the hegemonic assumptions o modernity and colonization
decolonization Critical thinking and retraditionalization are key to the
good contextualization efforts arising among Indigenous communities
In the radically-changing ethnic demographics o American culture
and the global community ollowers o Jesus are presented with great
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10486251048630 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
opportunities and challenges or good We must genuinely appreciate all
cultures as being capable o reflecting biblical aith We must move away
rom ldquoAmerican Christian mythologyrdquo which undergirds colonizationand its resulting paternalism in Indigenous communities We must em-
brace new theological perspectives emerging rom Native leaders as
being ldquoequalrdquo Tese perspectives provide new pathways or the contex-
tualization process Tese pathways identiy Indigenous cultural values
spirituality and ceremony as central to the new approaches to disci-
pleship and leadership development which occur within the community
No longer are such ldquonew approachesrdquo brought in by the cultural outsider
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1
THE CREATORrsquoS PRESENCE
AMONG NATIVE PEOPLE
There is only one Creator o heaven and earth Tere are not ldquomanyrdquo
Creators Just one All o human and nonhuman creation comes out
o this one Creator Tere is not a Creator who created Arica and A-
ricans or Asia and Asians or Europe and Europeans and so orth Who
can create something rom nothing or bring into existence something
that was previously nonexistent It is only this one Creator and there is
none like himher1 Tat being said this one Creator sel-reveals in and
through a myriad o cultural realities in human and nonhuman persons
throughout Unci Maka our ldquoMother Earthrdquo2
Tere are world religions that present names or this one Creator
Tese religions provide creation stories and explanations or heaven
earth and humans and supply wisdom and doctrines to help humanity
resolve its existential dilemma Tere are world religions that have a
sacred text to reerence their belies and there are thousands o ldquoolk
religionsrdquo with oral traditions that do the same through story yetmdashthere
is still just one Creator
For us First Nations people ollowing Creator-Jesus within our Indig-
enous cultural ways without submitting to the hegemonic cultural as-
sumptions o todayrsquos conservative evangelicals is tough I am remindedweekly o these neocolonial and ignorant assumptions as they show up
on the radar o my lie Te ollowing email conversation I had in 104862698308810486251048626
typifies these ldquopingsrdquo
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1048625983096 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
A group o my First Nations riends and I were looking or a acility
to host a weekend planning retreat We looked at a ew o them and de-
cided on one I knew about rom past experience Te negotiations tobook the acility took an unexpected but not totally surprising turn as
the registration person reacted to the ldquoheathen Indiansrdquo once again
Hello Mr wiss
Whenever we have a new group register with our acility we take
the time and effort to research their belies and methods etc I have
been doing that with your group and we must CANCEL your re-treat with us In your effort to ldquorestore culturerdquo you are taking the
indigenous people back into paganism shamanism alse gods and
the occult You are leading them away rom the Gospel message o
the Bible We pray you will rethink what you are doing to the very
people you love so much I will return your deposit
Tank you ldquoJane Doerdquo
Greetings Jane Doe
Tank you or your response I have many years o involvement and
riendship with people in your center I look orward to continuing
this conversation and still keeping our reservation to host our re-
treat there While a ew may have some narrow and misinormed
ideas about our aith in Jesus and the scriptures please be assured
our group is as remarkable a group o Christ-ollowers as you will
meet Please eel ree to give me a call on my cell phone today
Tank you Richard
Hello Richard
Tank you so much or your email I am aware o your history We
do not doubt your sincere heart and desires But some o theteachings o your group andor its speakers seem to be steering
people away rom the solid Gospel and taking people toward other
gods It may be subtle and it may not be your intent but i one
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486251048633
person leaves our acility compromised in their Christian walk
then we have ailed in our mission It is a hard thing we have to do
but the Lord has asked us to take a very strong stand and we cando nothing less I have returned the deposit and have still canceled
the retreat We pray the Lord will continue to guide you careully
in your efforts
Jane Doe
Greetings Jane
Tanks or your response which honestly surprises me It is cer-
tainly not the spirit that I have elt rom the organizationrsquos be-
ginning as its ounders poured their lives into creating a space or
people to wrestle with the deep issues o lie and spiritual growth
So many o us were in our early twenties when we first journeyed
there struggling to make sense o this new aith and lie we ound
in JesusTe accusations you make against usmdashldquobiblical compromise
[alsehoodheresy] steering people away rom the Gospel into
idolatry [rejecting Christ]rdquo clothed in the notion o protecting the
true Gospel rom Native cultural ways o our Native Christian
communitymdashare plainly offensive theologically arrogant and
judgmental at bestmdashperhaps culturally racist at worst Your lan-
guage o ldquothe Lord has asked us to take a very strong standrdquo againstpeople like us and the way we express our aith in Jesus biblically
culturally and theologically reveals the kind o cultural oppression
our people ace rom an idealized and racialized view o scripture
I the goal is to turn your center into a bastion o biblical protec-
tionism theological control and cultural judgmentalism your
words well reflect that direction
Peace and gracemdashRichard
Richard
Te answer is still ldquoNOrdquo I hear what you are saying but we still
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1048626983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot support what your group and the Indigenous People
Movement are teaching No retreat at our acility
Jane Doe
While this person may represent a more extreme point o view it
nonetheless is what the majority o Euro-American evangelicals believe
about our Native cultural and ceremonial ways Ignorance suspicion and
ear o Native ways run deep in the soul o the American church I will
show later how this has been (and remains) the American churchrsquos at-titude toward our Native ways or centuries now Te tragedy is that it is
not just we who suffer Because we suffer so deeply the entire church and
nation does too
However suspicion and ear run both ways Indigenous people have
a lot to ear about the ldquowhite manrsquos religionrdquo Conquest racism hatred
prejudice exclusion orced assimilation and ongoing institutional injus-
tices are just a ew o the ears that come to mind
ldquoE983158983141983150 W983144983141983150 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 R983145983143983144983156 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 W983154983151983150983143rdquo
mdashS983152983151983147983137983150983141 G983137983154983154983161
When my wie and I lived on the Coeur drsquoAlene Reservation in Northern
Idaho in 1048625104863310486331048630 I was introduced to a lie-changing story about a re-
markable Native leader named Chie Spokane Garry He is one o my
heroes o aith and culture Creator used Chie Garry (104862598309610486251048625ndash104862598309610486331048626) as aldquomessengerrdquo who had a proound spiritual impact by spreading the gospel
(along with his riend and co-worker Kootenai Pelly) among his people
and numerous other tribes in Washington Idaho Oregon and southward3
I have been to the cemetery in Spokane Washington where Chie
Garry was buried It was an honor and a privilege to be standing there
and I was deeply touched He was a tribal leader husband ather and
advocate or justice and Christian values While his efforts appeared tohave no lasting impact and did not bring the white settlers to an under-
standing o justice neverthelessmdashthroughout it allmdashhe remained true
to his aith in Jesus He died rejected and impoverished
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048625
While we were living on the ldquoRezrdquo (reservation) we did not know o
one Native man who regularly attended any o the six Protestant evan-
gelical churchesmdashdespite Garryrsquos lie work Barely hal a dozen womenattended Tis was true as well or the neighboring Nez Perce and Kalispel
reservations Tis act stood in stark contrast to the amazing spiritual
movement inspired by Chie Garry in this region that occurred prior to
an established colonial presence
Tere were other instances o divine intervention in ldquopreparing the
way o the Lordrdquo (Isaiah 10486289830881048627) or mission work among the tribes o
this area including prophecies among the Middle Spokane and Ka-lispel tribes
Yuree-rachen Yuree-rachen ldquoCircling Ravenrdquo was a shaman rom the
Middle Spokane tribe in the late 10486251048631983088983088s He had a personal crisis o aith
in Creator afer his sonrsquos untimely death so he went to Mt Spokane or
a time o asting and prayer During this worship time he received a
vision rom Creator whom they called Quilent-sat-men ldquoHe-Made-Usrdquo
In the vision Yuree-rachen saw white men dressed strangely carryingbundles o leaves astened together He was told that the people were to
learn rom the teachings inscribed on the leaves4
Shining Shirt A similar vision in about the same time period was
given to ldquoShining Shirtrdquo said to be both a chie and a shaman o the Ka-
lispel tribe Ethnologist Harry Holbert urney-High writes that Shining
Shirt was granted a vision in which he was told that there is a Creator and
that air-skinned men in black robes would come and teach them how to
live in a new way according to a moral law During the vision Shining
Shirt was given a metal object engraved with a cross White men were
unknown to these tribal people at that time5
Creator had been at work preparing the Native people or the arrival o
the gospel o Jesus Te Christian revival among those tribes evangelized
by Spokane Garry and Kootenai Pelly was noted by white settlers and ex-
plorers For example Washington Irving in ldquoTe Adventures o Captain
Bonnevillerdquo urther documents the spread o Christianity throughout the
tribes o that region During the winter o 104862598309610486271048626 Bonneville camped with
the Nez Perce on the upper Salmon River in Oregon and observed
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10486261048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
Simply to call these people religious would convey but a aint
idea o the deep hue o piety and devotion which pervades their
whole conduct Teir honesty is immaculate and their purity opurpose and their observance o the rites o their religion are most
uniorm and remarkable Tey are certainly more like a nation o
saints than a horde o savages6
I think the purity and genuine aith mentioned by Bonneville and
others was a result o a aith birthed rom the witness o Jesus-ollowing
Indigenous people to their own tribes Tey spoke the contextual
gospel rom their hearts among their people Tis was not simply the
ldquowhite manrsquos gospelrdquo7
During the time rame o 104862598309610486271048629 to 10486259830961048629983088 European-American mission-
aries arrived in Washington and Oregon Tey communicated the gospel
rom their own cultural viewpoints Te truth is that the gospel o Christ
already had a oothold among the tribes o these areas
With the arrival o the white missionaries and their brand o Christi-
anity the story takes a predictable and unortunate turn Just as Catholic
missionaries insisted on Roman control over earlier Celtic Christian
areas8 so these Anglo missionaries insisted on Euro-American (Western-
style) Christian worship as well as doctrine What is worse their pater-
nalism ethnocentrism colonial collusion and modernism soon ldquocivi-
lizedrdquo this Indigenous movement o the gospel story and thus blinded
these Christians to the already existing work o Creator among theNative nations o the land oday throughout the entire region except
or the history books there is but a remnant o that remarkable out-
pouring o Creatorrsquos story o grace spirituality and community renewal
Unortunately this negative legacy o Christian mission among the
Coeur drsquoAlene Spokane Nez Perce and other tribes is not exceptional
Afer our centuries First Nations peoplesrsquo cultural expressions are still
marginalized or oppressed across North America Native leadership inthe wider church is absent in the evangelical mainstream Tese early
missionaries ldquopeople o their timesrdquo ound little reason to regard Native
believers as coequals because they perceived their own cultural ways as
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048627
superior Tus the majority o these missionaries denounced and de-
monized Native cultural ways part and parcel as pagan idolatrous evil
and sinulAs a result an authentic Native American cultural or Indigenous
expression o ollowing Jesus was never allowed to developmdashthe very
idea being rejected as syncretistic and incongruous with ldquobiblicalrdquo aith
Tis kind o colonial missionary mindset is sadly not a thing o the
past but is still the prevailing perspective (in both Native and non-
Native Christian leaders) among those working in our tribal commu-
nities today Instead o embracing Jesus as the Creator the majority oNative Americans blame American Christianity and the church or the
loss o their own culture and identity Is it any wonder that the vast
majority o Native people today reject Christianity as the ldquowhite manrsquos
religionrdquo
Te headline o a 10486269830889830881048631 article rom the CBC News Network in Canada
read ldquoWinnipeg Church Nixes Native Dancing at Habitat or Humanity
Eventrdquo Te article went on to say
A Winnipeg church prevented aboriginal dancers rom perorming
at a Habitat or Humanity event this week saying the perormance
was not an expression o Christian aith ldquoNative spiritual dancing
has its roots in a different spiritual belie system that is incongruent
with traditional Christian worshiprdquomdashPastor Mark Hughes9
Tis pastor and his church staff though proessing a vision or creatinga multiethnic congregation are not exceptional in their ethnocentric
views and attitudes toward First Nations people and their cultural ex-
pressions Tis church averages 10486261048629983088983088 people in Sunday attendance is
one o the largest in Canada and is considered a leading ldquoChristian voicerdquo
in the province and city
Because o colonial missionariesrsquo attitudes o cultural superiority a
Native American cultural expression o ollowing Jesus didnrsquot developat the time Another powerul actor contributing to the cultural op-
pression brought with the gospel was that Native people were many
times first introduced to Jesus as part o American territorialism
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treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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10486271048628 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 339
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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InterVarsity Press
PO Box 983089983092983088983088 Downers Grove IL 983094983088983093983089983093-983089983092983090983094
ivpresscom
emailivpresscom
copy983090983088983089983093 by Katherine wiss
All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission from
InterVarsity Press
InterVarsity Pressreg is the book-publishing division of InterVarsity Christian FellowshipUSAreg a movement of
students and faculty active on campus at hundreds of universities colleges and schools of nursing in the United
States of America and a member movement of the International Fellowship of Evangelical Students For
information about local and regional activities visit intervarsityorg
Unless otherwise indicated all Scripture quotations are taken from the Holy Bible New Living ranslation
copyright copy983089983097983097983094 983090983088983088983092 983090983088983088983095 Used by permission of yndale House Publishers Inc Carol Stream Illinois 983094983088983089983096983096
All rights reserved
In Memoriam is used by permission of erry LeBlanc
While all stories in this book are true some names and identifying information may have been changed to protect
the privacy of individuals
Cover design Cindy Kiple
Interior design Beth McGill
Images Lakota rinity by Father John Giuliani
ISBN 983097983095983096-983088-983096983091983088983096-983092983092983090983091-983092 (print)
ISBN 983097983095983096-983088-983096983091983088983096-983097983096983093983091-983092 (digital)
Printed in the United States of America
As a member of the Green Press Initiative InterVarsity Press is committed to protectingthe environment and to the responsible use of natural resources o learn more visit
greenpressinitiativeorg
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
P 983090983091 983090983090 983090983089 983090983088 983089983097 983089983096 983089983095 983089983094 983089983093 983089983092 983089983091 983089983090 983089983089 983089983088 983097 983096 983095 983094 983093 983092 983091 983090 983089
Y 983091983092 983091983091 983091983090 983091983089 983091983088 983090983097 983090983096 983090983095 983090983094 983090983093 983090983092 983090983091 983090983090 983090983089 983090983088 983089983097 983089983096 983089983095 983089983094 983089983093
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CONTENTS
In Memoriam 983097
Foreword 983089983089
Preace 983089983093
983089 he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 983089983095
983090 he Colonization Evangelization and Assimilation
o First Nations People 983094983089
983091 Sweating with Jesus 983097983091
Stories of the Native Experience
983092 A View rom the Hill 983089983091983089
Emerging Native Expressions of the Jesus Way
983093 From Colonization to Contextualization 983089983097983089
983094 Looking Down the Road 983090983089983093
he Future of the Native Church
Editorsrsquo Acknowledgments 983090983091983089
Editorsrsquo ribute to Richard wiss 983090983091983091
Appendix A Final Words on Indigenous Education
and heology 983090983091983093
Appendix B What Should We Call You 983090983091983097
Glossary 983090983092983091
Abbreviations 983090983092983093
Notes 983090983092983095
Bibliography 983090983094983090
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IN MEMORIAM
RICHARD LEO TWISS
June 983089983089 983089983097983093983092ndashFebruary 983097 983090983088983089983091
Richard Leo wiss aoyate Obnajin ldquoHe Stands with His Peoplerdquo
passed rom this lie and into the next on February 1048633 104862698308810486251048627 in Wash-
ington DC encircled by his wie Katherine and sons Andrew Phillip
Ian and Daniel Richard was fify-eightRichard was born on the Rosebud Reservation South Dakota among
his mother Winona (Larvie) LaPointersquos people the Sicangu Band o the
Rosebud LakotaSioux Richardrsquos ather Franklin (Buster) wiss (de-
ceased) was Oglala rom the Pine Ridge LakotaSioux Reservation also
in South Dakota
Until age seven Richard lived in Rosebud a town o six hundred on
the reservation In 1048625104863310486301048625 Richardrsquos mom moved the amily rom the res-ervation to Denver then to Klamath Falls Oregon and eventually to
Silverton Oregon where Richard attended the third through twelfh
grades Richardrsquos mom ensured they made regular summer visits back
home in order to stay connected with amily and culture
Afer graduating rom high school in 1048625104863310486311048626 Richard moved back to
Rosebud to attend Sinte Gleska ldquoSpotted ailrdquo College It was here that
he became involved in the American Indian Movement (AIM) Duringthis tumultuous time Richard strengthened his connection with rela-
tives and deepened his appreciation or Lakota culture
Richard wandered or a while ending up on the island o Maui in
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1048625983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
Hawaii where late one night alone on a deserted beach Creator re-
sponded to Richardrsquos desperate prayer making himsel known to him
From that night in 1048625104863310486311048628 until his passing Richard was on a spiritual journey to live a meaningul lie as a Lakota ollower o the Jesus Way
Richard met and ell in love with Katherine Kroshus o Vancouver
Washington and married her in 1048625104863310486311048630 Richardrsquos proudest legacy is his our
boys Andrew (Diana) Phillip Ian (oni) and Daniel and his grandsons
Ezra Leo and Jude
In February 1048625104863310486331048631 Richard and Katherine ounded the nonprofit min-
istry o Wiconi International Trough Wiconi Richard and Katherinetouched the lives o many thousands o people Richard also coounded
NAIIS (North American Institute or Indigenous Teological Studies)
he was chairman o the board or My People International a member o
the CCDA (Christian Community Development Association) and co-
ounder o Evangelicals or Justice In 104862698308810486251048625 Richard earned his doctorate
in missiology rom Asbury Teological Seminary Until his passing
Richard continued his teaching career through the NAIIS programPortland State University and other institutions o higher education
Richard authored a number o books pamphlets and articles over the
years His first book One Church Many ribes reached many people
with the message o an inculturated aith in Jesus
Richardrsquos mother Winona LaPointe sisters Elaine and Laurie LaPointe
nieces Stacy (Mark) Melissa (ony) Jana and their children remain to
continue his memory His brother om passed beore Richard in 10486269830881048625983088
Composed by erry LeBlanc with assistance from Richardrsquos family
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FOREWORD
Each o us met Richard wiss at different times yet each o us met
when our own journeys (and Richardrsquos) needed additional lif to go
orward on our common trail Whether our first meeting was at a con-
erence through an introduction while studying together or just
hanging out and taking a retrospective look at our Creatorrsquos thoughts all
o us became ast riends with Richard
We all reflect very similarly on the act that Richard had the as-tounding ability to absorb what he read or heard rom others trans-
orming and then seamlessly integrating it into his own thinking While
each o us does somewhat the same thing as a unction o our Indigenous
communal approach to knowledge Richard was a master
It was in Spokane Washington in 1048625104863310486331048629 where Richard hit his stride
He had convened a Christ Culture and the Kingdom seminar or pastors
to present our ldquonewrdquo ideas about culture and aith When the conerenceended and all the attendees had departed we turned to one another
amazed that non-Indigenous pastors were keenly interested in what we
had to say It was the start o a new era or Indigenous ollowers o the
Jesus Way
Our individual and collective encounters orged links o deep and un-
breakable riendship Our camaraderie was truly symbioticmdashan idea
rom one transormed by the other complete with escalating humor Our
journey together depended so much on humor that afer a number o
years o tag-team conerences Richardrsquos mom reerred to us as a stand-up
comedy team Tere was never any doubt that erry was the straight man
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10486251048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
When Richard was provided the opportunity or doctoral studies at
Asbury Teological Seminary he was more than a bit reluctant to at-
tempt such a lofy goal Moreover we were all rustrated that advanceddegrees seemed necessary to urther our efforts to bring an Indigenous
voice to the wider public In Richardrsquos first week o school we had no
ewer than seven serious discussions about him quitting the program
Yet in the end the experience brought us closer together
Te Indigenous message we brought to class discussions became such
a dominant decolonizing voice that we were concerned about being too
great an influencemdashbut the proessors encouraged us pointing out howwe were empowering international students to speak up Following a
welcome event that we hostedmdashwhere Richard spoke words o affir-
mation or those in attendancemdashseventy students rom around the world
expressed that or the first time they elt welcomed to this country
Passionate argument ofen highlighted our close riendship Yet while
so engaged we never expressed animosity or ill willmdashonly deep com-
mitment to one another Just beore his passing or example an ar-gument raged over Richardrsquos attempt to nuance the definition o syn-
cretism in this his last book He used the descriptor counteractive to
modiy the word syncretism attempting a new definition with this two-
word phrase counteractive syncretism We told him it was needless con-
usionmdashthis hybrid phrase just didnrsquot correspond to the simple defi-
nition o syncretism A lot o ood or thought like this came to him in
deep discussions over many lattes
Tat he took our viewpoints seriously was always evident because later
on we would hear people say ldquoRichard says rdquo and in their words we
would hear our own words being repeatedmdashthe ones we had previously
discussed even argued over In our Indigenous communal way he took
our thoughtsmdashthose that were different rom hismdashand made them his
own wo different things his thoughts and our thoughts became one
new thingmdashhis new thought Now that is the definition o syncretism
His nuancing o the word syncretism is still not what we might agree with
but we think he would just laugh at this nonendorsement endorsement
o one o our best and deepest riends
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Foreword 10486251048627
Richard was enigmatic On the one hand as he made clear in the closing
years o his lie he was a common man Yet undoubtedly in many ways he
was not He became or many in the wider Indigenous community ldquothe voice o one crying in the wildernessrdquo inviting believers to make straight
paths or people to find Jesus Denominational and doctrinal competition
that encroached on his early experience o aith set Richard up to return
to the simple message o Jesusmdasha highly-energized story o a Jesus stripped
o colonial baggage And Richard used his unique style and affable sense
o humor to communicate this like no one else ever could
Richard was a oil to anyone who encumbered the message o Jesuswith culturally-bound prejudice He presented a simple path to aithmdash
inviting people to be all they could be through a renewed relationship
with Creatorrsquos son He welcomed everyone to be a part o what Creator
was doing among us making everyone eel special in the process We
hope you will sense his generous spirit as he welcomes you to broaden
your horizonsmdashto come to understand a world where in Richardrsquos
words ldquoTe Gospel is being rescued rom the cowboysrdquo
erry LeBlanc (Gitpu) MirsquokmaqAcadian Listuguj First NationCampbellton
founding chair director NAIIS An Indigenous Learning Community exec-
utive director Indigenous Pathways
Randy S Woodley PhD Keetoowah descendant Distinguished Professor of
Faith and Culture George Fox Seminary author of Shalom and the Com-
munity o Creation An Indigenous Vision (Eerdmans) and Living in
Color Embracing Godrsquos Passion or Ethnic Diversity (InterVarsity Press)
Adrian Jacobs (Ganosono) urtle Clan Cayuga Nation Six Nations Hau-
denosaunee Confederacy Keeper of the Circle (principal) Sandy-Saulteaux
Spiritual Centre
Ray Aldred (Neyihaw) Cree reaty 1048632 assistant professor of theology Ambrose
University and Seminary chair NAIIS An Indigenous Learning Community
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YOU JUST GHOSTED
You didnrsquot say goodbye you just ghosted
We turned around and you just werenrsquot there
A thousand miles away rom home you ell
You lef or heaven and plunged us all in hell
You didnrsquot give us a hug you just ghosted
In the middle o winter the cold breeze blew
Stranded and poor we had no way to get to you
A month later we finally showed sofened and blue
You lef without a word you just ghosted
Words only partially typed and a messy pile
Now wersquore sweeping things up and tying a bow
Finishing your story with ldquothis is what we knowrdquo
You lef without a signature you just ghosted
Outstanding heart accounts thatrsquoll never be paid
But wersquore carrying on doing the best we surmise
Dealing with your quick exit and total surprise
Adrian Jacobs
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PREFACE
Hau kola ldquoHello riendrdquo
Tis manuscript Rescuing the Gospel from the Cowboys is based
on my reflections experiences and intense research over the past twenty-
our years It is the story o many o us Native and Indigenous leaders
who have been finding our way out o neocolonialism into a new liberty
as wersquove walked this Jesus Road together since the late 10486251048633983096983088s
Tis book began as a doctoral dissertation to research whether or notthere is or has been an Indigenous contextualized expression o the
Christian aith among the tribes o the United States and to a lesser
degree Canada Te purpose o my research was to identiy in what ways
Native leaders were reraming the gospel narrative as part o a larger
narrative o postcolonial decolonization in their own unique cultural
contexts Te specific ocus will be on the years 104862510486339830961048633ndash10486269830889830881048633
As I think about it these days contextualization is not a principleormula or evangelistic strategy Contextualization is a relational process
o theological and cultural reflection within a communitymdashseeking to
incorporate traditional symbols music dance ceremony and ritual to
make aith in Jesus a truly local expression Tere is an honest recognition
o the guidance o Creatorrsquos Spirit behind the widening critique and cor-
rection to the hegemonic assumptions o modernity and colonization
decolonization Critical thinking and retraditionalization are key to the
good contextualization efforts arising among Indigenous communities
In the radically-changing ethnic demographics o American culture
and the global community ollowers o Jesus are presented with great
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opportunities and challenges or good We must genuinely appreciate all
cultures as being capable o reflecting biblical aith We must move away
rom ldquoAmerican Christian mythologyrdquo which undergirds colonizationand its resulting paternalism in Indigenous communities We must em-
brace new theological perspectives emerging rom Native leaders as
being ldquoequalrdquo Tese perspectives provide new pathways or the contex-
tualization process Tese pathways identiy Indigenous cultural values
spirituality and ceremony as central to the new approaches to disci-
pleship and leadership development which occur within the community
No longer are such ldquonew approachesrdquo brought in by the cultural outsider
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1
THE CREATORrsquoS PRESENCE
AMONG NATIVE PEOPLE
There is only one Creator o heaven and earth Tere are not ldquomanyrdquo
Creators Just one All o human and nonhuman creation comes out
o this one Creator Tere is not a Creator who created Arica and A-
ricans or Asia and Asians or Europe and Europeans and so orth Who
can create something rom nothing or bring into existence something
that was previously nonexistent It is only this one Creator and there is
none like himher1 Tat being said this one Creator sel-reveals in and
through a myriad o cultural realities in human and nonhuman persons
throughout Unci Maka our ldquoMother Earthrdquo2
Tere are world religions that present names or this one Creator
Tese religions provide creation stories and explanations or heaven
earth and humans and supply wisdom and doctrines to help humanity
resolve its existential dilemma Tere are world religions that have a
sacred text to reerence their belies and there are thousands o ldquoolk
religionsrdquo with oral traditions that do the same through story yetmdashthere
is still just one Creator
For us First Nations people ollowing Creator-Jesus within our Indig-
enous cultural ways without submitting to the hegemonic cultural as-
sumptions o todayrsquos conservative evangelicals is tough I am remindedweekly o these neocolonial and ignorant assumptions as they show up
on the radar o my lie Te ollowing email conversation I had in 104862698308810486251048626
typifies these ldquopingsrdquo
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A group o my First Nations riends and I were looking or a acility
to host a weekend planning retreat We looked at a ew o them and de-
cided on one I knew about rom past experience Te negotiations tobook the acility took an unexpected but not totally surprising turn as
the registration person reacted to the ldquoheathen Indiansrdquo once again
Hello Mr wiss
Whenever we have a new group register with our acility we take
the time and effort to research their belies and methods etc I have
been doing that with your group and we must CANCEL your re-treat with us In your effort to ldquorestore culturerdquo you are taking the
indigenous people back into paganism shamanism alse gods and
the occult You are leading them away rom the Gospel message o
the Bible We pray you will rethink what you are doing to the very
people you love so much I will return your deposit
Tank you ldquoJane Doerdquo
Greetings Jane Doe
Tank you or your response I have many years o involvement and
riendship with people in your center I look orward to continuing
this conversation and still keeping our reservation to host our re-
treat there While a ew may have some narrow and misinormed
ideas about our aith in Jesus and the scriptures please be assured
our group is as remarkable a group o Christ-ollowers as you will
meet Please eel ree to give me a call on my cell phone today
Tank you Richard
Hello Richard
Tank you so much or your email I am aware o your history We
do not doubt your sincere heart and desires But some o theteachings o your group andor its speakers seem to be steering
people away rom the solid Gospel and taking people toward other
gods It may be subtle and it may not be your intent but i one
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486251048633
person leaves our acility compromised in their Christian walk
then we have ailed in our mission It is a hard thing we have to do
but the Lord has asked us to take a very strong stand and we cando nothing less I have returned the deposit and have still canceled
the retreat We pray the Lord will continue to guide you careully
in your efforts
Jane Doe
Greetings Jane
Tanks or your response which honestly surprises me It is cer-
tainly not the spirit that I have elt rom the organizationrsquos be-
ginning as its ounders poured their lives into creating a space or
people to wrestle with the deep issues o lie and spiritual growth
So many o us were in our early twenties when we first journeyed
there struggling to make sense o this new aith and lie we ound
in JesusTe accusations you make against usmdashldquobiblical compromise
[alsehoodheresy] steering people away rom the Gospel into
idolatry [rejecting Christ]rdquo clothed in the notion o protecting the
true Gospel rom Native cultural ways o our Native Christian
communitymdashare plainly offensive theologically arrogant and
judgmental at bestmdashperhaps culturally racist at worst Your lan-
guage o ldquothe Lord has asked us to take a very strong standrdquo againstpeople like us and the way we express our aith in Jesus biblically
culturally and theologically reveals the kind o cultural oppression
our people ace rom an idealized and racialized view o scripture
I the goal is to turn your center into a bastion o biblical protec-
tionism theological control and cultural judgmentalism your
words well reflect that direction
Peace and gracemdashRichard
Richard
Te answer is still ldquoNOrdquo I hear what you are saying but we still
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cannot support what your group and the Indigenous People
Movement are teaching No retreat at our acility
Jane Doe
While this person may represent a more extreme point o view it
nonetheless is what the majority o Euro-American evangelicals believe
about our Native cultural and ceremonial ways Ignorance suspicion and
ear o Native ways run deep in the soul o the American church I will
show later how this has been (and remains) the American churchrsquos at-titude toward our Native ways or centuries now Te tragedy is that it is
not just we who suffer Because we suffer so deeply the entire church and
nation does too
However suspicion and ear run both ways Indigenous people have
a lot to ear about the ldquowhite manrsquos religionrdquo Conquest racism hatred
prejudice exclusion orced assimilation and ongoing institutional injus-
tices are just a ew o the ears that come to mind
ldquoE983158983141983150 W983144983141983150 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 R983145983143983144983156 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 W983154983151983150983143rdquo
mdashS983152983151983147983137983150983141 G983137983154983154983161
When my wie and I lived on the Coeur drsquoAlene Reservation in Northern
Idaho in 1048625104863310486331048630 I was introduced to a lie-changing story about a re-
markable Native leader named Chie Spokane Garry He is one o my
heroes o aith and culture Creator used Chie Garry (104862598309610486251048625ndash104862598309610486331048626) as aldquomessengerrdquo who had a proound spiritual impact by spreading the gospel
(along with his riend and co-worker Kootenai Pelly) among his people
and numerous other tribes in Washington Idaho Oregon and southward3
I have been to the cemetery in Spokane Washington where Chie
Garry was buried It was an honor and a privilege to be standing there
and I was deeply touched He was a tribal leader husband ather and
advocate or justice and Christian values While his efforts appeared tohave no lasting impact and did not bring the white settlers to an under-
standing o justice neverthelessmdashthroughout it allmdashhe remained true
to his aith in Jesus He died rejected and impoverished
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048625
While we were living on the ldquoRezrdquo (reservation) we did not know o
one Native man who regularly attended any o the six Protestant evan-
gelical churchesmdashdespite Garryrsquos lie work Barely hal a dozen womenattended Tis was true as well or the neighboring Nez Perce and Kalispel
reservations Tis act stood in stark contrast to the amazing spiritual
movement inspired by Chie Garry in this region that occurred prior to
an established colonial presence
Tere were other instances o divine intervention in ldquopreparing the
way o the Lordrdquo (Isaiah 10486289830881048627) or mission work among the tribes o
this area including prophecies among the Middle Spokane and Ka-lispel tribes
Yuree-rachen Yuree-rachen ldquoCircling Ravenrdquo was a shaman rom the
Middle Spokane tribe in the late 10486251048631983088983088s He had a personal crisis o aith
in Creator afer his sonrsquos untimely death so he went to Mt Spokane or
a time o asting and prayer During this worship time he received a
vision rom Creator whom they called Quilent-sat-men ldquoHe-Made-Usrdquo
In the vision Yuree-rachen saw white men dressed strangely carryingbundles o leaves astened together He was told that the people were to
learn rom the teachings inscribed on the leaves4
Shining Shirt A similar vision in about the same time period was
given to ldquoShining Shirtrdquo said to be both a chie and a shaman o the Ka-
lispel tribe Ethnologist Harry Holbert urney-High writes that Shining
Shirt was granted a vision in which he was told that there is a Creator and
that air-skinned men in black robes would come and teach them how to
live in a new way according to a moral law During the vision Shining
Shirt was given a metal object engraved with a cross White men were
unknown to these tribal people at that time5
Creator had been at work preparing the Native people or the arrival o
the gospel o Jesus Te Christian revival among those tribes evangelized
by Spokane Garry and Kootenai Pelly was noted by white settlers and ex-
plorers For example Washington Irving in ldquoTe Adventures o Captain
Bonnevillerdquo urther documents the spread o Christianity throughout the
tribes o that region During the winter o 104862598309610486271048626 Bonneville camped with
the Nez Perce on the upper Salmon River in Oregon and observed
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10486261048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
Simply to call these people religious would convey but a aint
idea o the deep hue o piety and devotion which pervades their
whole conduct Teir honesty is immaculate and their purity opurpose and their observance o the rites o their religion are most
uniorm and remarkable Tey are certainly more like a nation o
saints than a horde o savages6
I think the purity and genuine aith mentioned by Bonneville and
others was a result o a aith birthed rom the witness o Jesus-ollowing
Indigenous people to their own tribes Tey spoke the contextual
gospel rom their hearts among their people Tis was not simply the
ldquowhite manrsquos gospelrdquo7
During the time rame o 104862598309610486271048629 to 10486259830961048629983088 European-American mission-
aries arrived in Washington and Oregon Tey communicated the gospel
rom their own cultural viewpoints Te truth is that the gospel o Christ
already had a oothold among the tribes o these areas
With the arrival o the white missionaries and their brand o Christi-
anity the story takes a predictable and unortunate turn Just as Catholic
missionaries insisted on Roman control over earlier Celtic Christian
areas8 so these Anglo missionaries insisted on Euro-American (Western-
style) Christian worship as well as doctrine What is worse their pater-
nalism ethnocentrism colonial collusion and modernism soon ldquocivi-
lizedrdquo this Indigenous movement o the gospel story and thus blinded
these Christians to the already existing work o Creator among theNative nations o the land oday throughout the entire region except
or the history books there is but a remnant o that remarkable out-
pouring o Creatorrsquos story o grace spirituality and community renewal
Unortunately this negative legacy o Christian mission among the
Coeur drsquoAlene Spokane Nez Perce and other tribes is not exceptional
Afer our centuries First Nations peoplesrsquo cultural expressions are still
marginalized or oppressed across North America Native leadership inthe wider church is absent in the evangelical mainstream Tese early
missionaries ldquopeople o their timesrdquo ound little reason to regard Native
believers as coequals because they perceived their own cultural ways as
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048627
superior Tus the majority o these missionaries denounced and de-
monized Native cultural ways part and parcel as pagan idolatrous evil
and sinulAs a result an authentic Native American cultural or Indigenous
expression o ollowing Jesus was never allowed to developmdashthe very
idea being rejected as syncretistic and incongruous with ldquobiblicalrdquo aith
Tis kind o colonial missionary mindset is sadly not a thing o the
past but is still the prevailing perspective (in both Native and non-
Native Christian leaders) among those working in our tribal commu-
nities today Instead o embracing Jesus as the Creator the majority oNative Americans blame American Christianity and the church or the
loss o their own culture and identity Is it any wonder that the vast
majority o Native people today reject Christianity as the ldquowhite manrsquos
religionrdquo
Te headline o a 10486269830889830881048631 article rom the CBC News Network in Canada
read ldquoWinnipeg Church Nixes Native Dancing at Habitat or Humanity
Eventrdquo Te article went on to say
A Winnipeg church prevented aboriginal dancers rom perorming
at a Habitat or Humanity event this week saying the perormance
was not an expression o Christian aith ldquoNative spiritual dancing
has its roots in a different spiritual belie system that is incongruent
with traditional Christian worshiprdquomdashPastor Mark Hughes9
Tis pastor and his church staff though proessing a vision or creatinga multiethnic congregation are not exceptional in their ethnocentric
views and attitudes toward First Nations people and their cultural ex-
pressions Tis church averages 10486261048629983088983088 people in Sunday attendance is
one o the largest in Canada and is considered a leading ldquoChristian voicerdquo
in the province and city
Because o colonial missionariesrsquo attitudes o cultural superiority a
Native American cultural expression o ollowing Jesus didnrsquot developat the time Another powerul actor contributing to the cultural op-
pression brought with the gospel was that Native people were many
times first introduced to Jesus as part o American territorialism
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treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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InterVarsity Press
PO Box 983089983092983088983088 Downers Grove IL 983094983088983093983089983093-983089983092983090983094
ivpresscom
emailivpresscom
copy983090983088983089983093 by Katherine wiss
All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission from
InterVarsity Press
InterVarsity Pressreg is the book-publishing division of InterVarsity Christian FellowshipUSAreg a movement of
students and faculty active on campus at hundreds of universities colleges and schools of nursing in the United
States of America and a member movement of the International Fellowship of Evangelical Students For
information about local and regional activities visit intervarsityorg
Unless otherwise indicated all Scripture quotations are taken from the Holy Bible New Living ranslation
copyright copy983089983097983097983094 983090983088983088983092 983090983088983088983095 Used by permission of yndale House Publishers Inc Carol Stream Illinois 983094983088983089983096983096
All rights reserved
In Memoriam is used by permission of erry LeBlanc
While all stories in this book are true some names and identifying information may have been changed to protect
the privacy of individuals
Cover design Cindy Kiple
Interior design Beth McGill
Images Lakota rinity by Father John Giuliani
ISBN 983097983095983096-983088-983096983091983088983096-983092983092983090983091-983092 (print)
ISBN 983097983095983096-983088-983096983091983088983096-983097983096983093983091-983092 (digital)
Printed in the United States of America
As a member of the Green Press Initiative InterVarsity Press is committed to protectingthe environment and to the responsible use of natural resources o learn more visit
greenpressinitiativeorg
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
P 983090983091 983090983090 983090983089 983090983088 983089983097 983089983096 983089983095 983089983094 983089983093 983089983092 983089983091 983089983090 983089983089 983089983088 983097 983096 983095 983094 983093 983092 983091 983090 983089
Y 983091983092 983091983091 983091983090 983091983089 983091983088 983090983097 983090983096 983090983095 983090983094 983090983093 983090983092 983090983091 983090983090 983090983089 983090983088 983089983097 983089983096 983089983095 983089983094 983089983093
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CONTENTS
In Memoriam 983097
Foreword 983089983089
Preace 983089983093
983089 he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 983089983095
983090 he Colonization Evangelization and Assimilation
o First Nations People 983094983089
983091 Sweating with Jesus 983097983091
Stories of the Native Experience
983092 A View rom the Hill 983089983091983089
Emerging Native Expressions of the Jesus Way
983093 From Colonization to Contextualization 983089983097983089
983094 Looking Down the Road 983090983089983093
he Future of the Native Church
Editorsrsquo Acknowledgments 983090983091983089
Editorsrsquo ribute to Richard wiss 983090983091983091
Appendix A Final Words on Indigenous Education
and heology 983090983091983093
Appendix B What Should We Call You 983090983091983097
Glossary 983090983092983091
Abbreviations 983090983092983093
Notes 983090983092983095
Bibliography 983090983094983090
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IN MEMORIAM
RICHARD LEO TWISS
June 983089983089 983089983097983093983092ndashFebruary 983097 983090983088983089983091
Richard Leo wiss aoyate Obnajin ldquoHe Stands with His Peoplerdquo
passed rom this lie and into the next on February 1048633 104862698308810486251048627 in Wash-
ington DC encircled by his wie Katherine and sons Andrew Phillip
Ian and Daniel Richard was fify-eightRichard was born on the Rosebud Reservation South Dakota among
his mother Winona (Larvie) LaPointersquos people the Sicangu Band o the
Rosebud LakotaSioux Richardrsquos ather Franklin (Buster) wiss (de-
ceased) was Oglala rom the Pine Ridge LakotaSioux Reservation also
in South Dakota
Until age seven Richard lived in Rosebud a town o six hundred on
the reservation In 1048625104863310486301048625 Richardrsquos mom moved the amily rom the res-ervation to Denver then to Klamath Falls Oregon and eventually to
Silverton Oregon where Richard attended the third through twelfh
grades Richardrsquos mom ensured they made regular summer visits back
home in order to stay connected with amily and culture
Afer graduating rom high school in 1048625104863310486311048626 Richard moved back to
Rosebud to attend Sinte Gleska ldquoSpotted ailrdquo College It was here that
he became involved in the American Indian Movement (AIM) Duringthis tumultuous time Richard strengthened his connection with rela-
tives and deepened his appreciation or Lakota culture
Richard wandered or a while ending up on the island o Maui in
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Hawaii where late one night alone on a deserted beach Creator re-
sponded to Richardrsquos desperate prayer making himsel known to him
From that night in 1048625104863310486311048628 until his passing Richard was on a spiritual journey to live a meaningul lie as a Lakota ollower o the Jesus Way
Richard met and ell in love with Katherine Kroshus o Vancouver
Washington and married her in 1048625104863310486311048630 Richardrsquos proudest legacy is his our
boys Andrew (Diana) Phillip Ian (oni) and Daniel and his grandsons
Ezra Leo and Jude
In February 1048625104863310486331048631 Richard and Katherine ounded the nonprofit min-
istry o Wiconi International Trough Wiconi Richard and Katherinetouched the lives o many thousands o people Richard also coounded
NAIIS (North American Institute or Indigenous Teological Studies)
he was chairman o the board or My People International a member o
the CCDA (Christian Community Development Association) and co-
ounder o Evangelicals or Justice In 104862698308810486251048625 Richard earned his doctorate
in missiology rom Asbury Teological Seminary Until his passing
Richard continued his teaching career through the NAIIS programPortland State University and other institutions o higher education
Richard authored a number o books pamphlets and articles over the
years His first book One Church Many ribes reached many people
with the message o an inculturated aith in Jesus
Richardrsquos mother Winona LaPointe sisters Elaine and Laurie LaPointe
nieces Stacy (Mark) Melissa (ony) Jana and their children remain to
continue his memory His brother om passed beore Richard in 10486269830881048625983088
Composed by erry LeBlanc with assistance from Richardrsquos family
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FOREWORD
Each o us met Richard wiss at different times yet each o us met
when our own journeys (and Richardrsquos) needed additional lif to go
orward on our common trail Whether our first meeting was at a con-
erence through an introduction while studying together or just
hanging out and taking a retrospective look at our Creatorrsquos thoughts all
o us became ast riends with Richard
We all reflect very similarly on the act that Richard had the as-tounding ability to absorb what he read or heard rom others trans-
orming and then seamlessly integrating it into his own thinking While
each o us does somewhat the same thing as a unction o our Indigenous
communal approach to knowledge Richard was a master
It was in Spokane Washington in 1048625104863310486331048629 where Richard hit his stride
He had convened a Christ Culture and the Kingdom seminar or pastors
to present our ldquonewrdquo ideas about culture and aith When the conerenceended and all the attendees had departed we turned to one another
amazed that non-Indigenous pastors were keenly interested in what we
had to say It was the start o a new era or Indigenous ollowers o the
Jesus Way
Our individual and collective encounters orged links o deep and un-
breakable riendship Our camaraderie was truly symbioticmdashan idea
rom one transormed by the other complete with escalating humor Our
journey together depended so much on humor that afer a number o
years o tag-team conerences Richardrsquos mom reerred to us as a stand-up
comedy team Tere was never any doubt that erry was the straight man
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When Richard was provided the opportunity or doctoral studies at
Asbury Teological Seminary he was more than a bit reluctant to at-
tempt such a lofy goal Moreover we were all rustrated that advanceddegrees seemed necessary to urther our efforts to bring an Indigenous
voice to the wider public In Richardrsquos first week o school we had no
ewer than seven serious discussions about him quitting the program
Yet in the end the experience brought us closer together
Te Indigenous message we brought to class discussions became such
a dominant decolonizing voice that we were concerned about being too
great an influencemdashbut the proessors encouraged us pointing out howwe were empowering international students to speak up Following a
welcome event that we hostedmdashwhere Richard spoke words o affir-
mation or those in attendancemdashseventy students rom around the world
expressed that or the first time they elt welcomed to this country
Passionate argument ofen highlighted our close riendship Yet while
so engaged we never expressed animosity or ill willmdashonly deep com-
mitment to one another Just beore his passing or example an ar-gument raged over Richardrsquos attempt to nuance the definition o syn-
cretism in this his last book He used the descriptor counteractive to
modiy the word syncretism attempting a new definition with this two-
word phrase counteractive syncretism We told him it was needless con-
usionmdashthis hybrid phrase just didnrsquot correspond to the simple defi-
nition o syncretism A lot o ood or thought like this came to him in
deep discussions over many lattes
Tat he took our viewpoints seriously was always evident because later
on we would hear people say ldquoRichard says rdquo and in their words we
would hear our own words being repeatedmdashthe ones we had previously
discussed even argued over In our Indigenous communal way he took
our thoughtsmdashthose that were different rom hismdashand made them his
own wo different things his thoughts and our thoughts became one
new thingmdashhis new thought Now that is the definition o syncretism
His nuancing o the word syncretism is still not what we might agree with
but we think he would just laugh at this nonendorsement endorsement
o one o our best and deepest riends
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Foreword 10486251048627
Richard was enigmatic On the one hand as he made clear in the closing
years o his lie he was a common man Yet undoubtedly in many ways he
was not He became or many in the wider Indigenous community ldquothe voice o one crying in the wildernessrdquo inviting believers to make straight
paths or people to find Jesus Denominational and doctrinal competition
that encroached on his early experience o aith set Richard up to return
to the simple message o Jesusmdasha highly-energized story o a Jesus stripped
o colonial baggage And Richard used his unique style and affable sense
o humor to communicate this like no one else ever could
Richard was a oil to anyone who encumbered the message o Jesuswith culturally-bound prejudice He presented a simple path to aithmdash
inviting people to be all they could be through a renewed relationship
with Creatorrsquos son He welcomed everyone to be a part o what Creator
was doing among us making everyone eel special in the process We
hope you will sense his generous spirit as he welcomes you to broaden
your horizonsmdashto come to understand a world where in Richardrsquos
words ldquoTe Gospel is being rescued rom the cowboysrdquo
erry LeBlanc (Gitpu) MirsquokmaqAcadian Listuguj First NationCampbellton
founding chair director NAIIS An Indigenous Learning Community exec-
utive director Indigenous Pathways
Randy S Woodley PhD Keetoowah descendant Distinguished Professor of
Faith and Culture George Fox Seminary author of Shalom and the Com-
munity o Creation An Indigenous Vision (Eerdmans) and Living in
Color Embracing Godrsquos Passion or Ethnic Diversity (InterVarsity Press)
Adrian Jacobs (Ganosono) urtle Clan Cayuga Nation Six Nations Hau-
denosaunee Confederacy Keeper of the Circle (principal) Sandy-Saulteaux
Spiritual Centre
Ray Aldred (Neyihaw) Cree reaty 1048632 assistant professor of theology Ambrose
University and Seminary chair NAIIS An Indigenous Learning Community
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YOU JUST GHOSTED
You didnrsquot say goodbye you just ghosted
We turned around and you just werenrsquot there
A thousand miles away rom home you ell
You lef or heaven and plunged us all in hell
You didnrsquot give us a hug you just ghosted
In the middle o winter the cold breeze blew
Stranded and poor we had no way to get to you
A month later we finally showed sofened and blue
You lef without a word you just ghosted
Words only partially typed and a messy pile
Now wersquore sweeping things up and tying a bow
Finishing your story with ldquothis is what we knowrdquo
You lef without a signature you just ghosted
Outstanding heart accounts thatrsquoll never be paid
But wersquore carrying on doing the best we surmise
Dealing with your quick exit and total surprise
Adrian Jacobs
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PREFACE
Hau kola ldquoHello riendrdquo
Tis manuscript Rescuing the Gospel from the Cowboys is based
on my reflections experiences and intense research over the past twenty-
our years It is the story o many o us Native and Indigenous leaders
who have been finding our way out o neocolonialism into a new liberty
as wersquove walked this Jesus Road together since the late 10486251048633983096983088s
Tis book began as a doctoral dissertation to research whether or notthere is or has been an Indigenous contextualized expression o the
Christian aith among the tribes o the United States and to a lesser
degree Canada Te purpose o my research was to identiy in what ways
Native leaders were reraming the gospel narrative as part o a larger
narrative o postcolonial decolonization in their own unique cultural
contexts Te specific ocus will be on the years 104862510486339830961048633ndash10486269830889830881048633
As I think about it these days contextualization is not a principleormula or evangelistic strategy Contextualization is a relational process
o theological and cultural reflection within a communitymdashseeking to
incorporate traditional symbols music dance ceremony and ritual to
make aith in Jesus a truly local expression Tere is an honest recognition
o the guidance o Creatorrsquos Spirit behind the widening critique and cor-
rection to the hegemonic assumptions o modernity and colonization
decolonization Critical thinking and retraditionalization are key to the
good contextualization efforts arising among Indigenous communities
In the radically-changing ethnic demographics o American culture
and the global community ollowers o Jesus are presented with great
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opportunities and challenges or good We must genuinely appreciate all
cultures as being capable o reflecting biblical aith We must move away
rom ldquoAmerican Christian mythologyrdquo which undergirds colonizationand its resulting paternalism in Indigenous communities We must em-
brace new theological perspectives emerging rom Native leaders as
being ldquoequalrdquo Tese perspectives provide new pathways or the contex-
tualization process Tese pathways identiy Indigenous cultural values
spirituality and ceremony as central to the new approaches to disci-
pleship and leadership development which occur within the community
No longer are such ldquonew approachesrdquo brought in by the cultural outsider
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1
THE CREATORrsquoS PRESENCE
AMONG NATIVE PEOPLE
There is only one Creator o heaven and earth Tere are not ldquomanyrdquo
Creators Just one All o human and nonhuman creation comes out
o this one Creator Tere is not a Creator who created Arica and A-
ricans or Asia and Asians or Europe and Europeans and so orth Who
can create something rom nothing or bring into existence something
that was previously nonexistent It is only this one Creator and there is
none like himher1 Tat being said this one Creator sel-reveals in and
through a myriad o cultural realities in human and nonhuman persons
throughout Unci Maka our ldquoMother Earthrdquo2
Tere are world religions that present names or this one Creator
Tese religions provide creation stories and explanations or heaven
earth and humans and supply wisdom and doctrines to help humanity
resolve its existential dilemma Tere are world religions that have a
sacred text to reerence their belies and there are thousands o ldquoolk
religionsrdquo with oral traditions that do the same through story yetmdashthere
is still just one Creator
For us First Nations people ollowing Creator-Jesus within our Indig-
enous cultural ways without submitting to the hegemonic cultural as-
sumptions o todayrsquos conservative evangelicals is tough I am remindedweekly o these neocolonial and ignorant assumptions as they show up
on the radar o my lie Te ollowing email conversation I had in 104862698308810486251048626
typifies these ldquopingsrdquo
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1048625983096 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
A group o my First Nations riends and I were looking or a acility
to host a weekend planning retreat We looked at a ew o them and de-
cided on one I knew about rom past experience Te negotiations tobook the acility took an unexpected but not totally surprising turn as
the registration person reacted to the ldquoheathen Indiansrdquo once again
Hello Mr wiss
Whenever we have a new group register with our acility we take
the time and effort to research their belies and methods etc I have
been doing that with your group and we must CANCEL your re-treat with us In your effort to ldquorestore culturerdquo you are taking the
indigenous people back into paganism shamanism alse gods and
the occult You are leading them away rom the Gospel message o
the Bible We pray you will rethink what you are doing to the very
people you love so much I will return your deposit
Tank you ldquoJane Doerdquo
Greetings Jane Doe
Tank you or your response I have many years o involvement and
riendship with people in your center I look orward to continuing
this conversation and still keeping our reservation to host our re-
treat there While a ew may have some narrow and misinormed
ideas about our aith in Jesus and the scriptures please be assured
our group is as remarkable a group o Christ-ollowers as you will
meet Please eel ree to give me a call on my cell phone today
Tank you Richard
Hello Richard
Tank you so much or your email I am aware o your history We
do not doubt your sincere heart and desires But some o theteachings o your group andor its speakers seem to be steering
people away rom the solid Gospel and taking people toward other
gods It may be subtle and it may not be your intent but i one
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486251048633
person leaves our acility compromised in their Christian walk
then we have ailed in our mission It is a hard thing we have to do
but the Lord has asked us to take a very strong stand and we cando nothing less I have returned the deposit and have still canceled
the retreat We pray the Lord will continue to guide you careully
in your efforts
Jane Doe
Greetings Jane
Tanks or your response which honestly surprises me It is cer-
tainly not the spirit that I have elt rom the organizationrsquos be-
ginning as its ounders poured their lives into creating a space or
people to wrestle with the deep issues o lie and spiritual growth
So many o us were in our early twenties when we first journeyed
there struggling to make sense o this new aith and lie we ound
in JesusTe accusations you make against usmdashldquobiblical compromise
[alsehoodheresy] steering people away rom the Gospel into
idolatry [rejecting Christ]rdquo clothed in the notion o protecting the
true Gospel rom Native cultural ways o our Native Christian
communitymdashare plainly offensive theologically arrogant and
judgmental at bestmdashperhaps culturally racist at worst Your lan-
guage o ldquothe Lord has asked us to take a very strong standrdquo againstpeople like us and the way we express our aith in Jesus biblically
culturally and theologically reveals the kind o cultural oppression
our people ace rom an idealized and racialized view o scripture
I the goal is to turn your center into a bastion o biblical protec-
tionism theological control and cultural judgmentalism your
words well reflect that direction
Peace and gracemdashRichard
Richard
Te answer is still ldquoNOrdquo I hear what you are saying but we still
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1048626983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot support what your group and the Indigenous People
Movement are teaching No retreat at our acility
Jane Doe
While this person may represent a more extreme point o view it
nonetheless is what the majority o Euro-American evangelicals believe
about our Native cultural and ceremonial ways Ignorance suspicion and
ear o Native ways run deep in the soul o the American church I will
show later how this has been (and remains) the American churchrsquos at-titude toward our Native ways or centuries now Te tragedy is that it is
not just we who suffer Because we suffer so deeply the entire church and
nation does too
However suspicion and ear run both ways Indigenous people have
a lot to ear about the ldquowhite manrsquos religionrdquo Conquest racism hatred
prejudice exclusion orced assimilation and ongoing institutional injus-
tices are just a ew o the ears that come to mind
ldquoE983158983141983150 W983144983141983150 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 R983145983143983144983156 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 W983154983151983150983143rdquo
mdashS983152983151983147983137983150983141 G983137983154983154983161
When my wie and I lived on the Coeur drsquoAlene Reservation in Northern
Idaho in 1048625104863310486331048630 I was introduced to a lie-changing story about a re-
markable Native leader named Chie Spokane Garry He is one o my
heroes o aith and culture Creator used Chie Garry (104862598309610486251048625ndash104862598309610486331048626) as aldquomessengerrdquo who had a proound spiritual impact by spreading the gospel
(along with his riend and co-worker Kootenai Pelly) among his people
and numerous other tribes in Washington Idaho Oregon and southward3
I have been to the cemetery in Spokane Washington where Chie
Garry was buried It was an honor and a privilege to be standing there
and I was deeply touched He was a tribal leader husband ather and
advocate or justice and Christian values While his efforts appeared tohave no lasting impact and did not bring the white settlers to an under-
standing o justice neverthelessmdashthroughout it allmdashhe remained true
to his aith in Jesus He died rejected and impoverished
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048625
While we were living on the ldquoRezrdquo (reservation) we did not know o
one Native man who regularly attended any o the six Protestant evan-
gelical churchesmdashdespite Garryrsquos lie work Barely hal a dozen womenattended Tis was true as well or the neighboring Nez Perce and Kalispel
reservations Tis act stood in stark contrast to the amazing spiritual
movement inspired by Chie Garry in this region that occurred prior to
an established colonial presence
Tere were other instances o divine intervention in ldquopreparing the
way o the Lordrdquo (Isaiah 10486289830881048627) or mission work among the tribes o
this area including prophecies among the Middle Spokane and Ka-lispel tribes
Yuree-rachen Yuree-rachen ldquoCircling Ravenrdquo was a shaman rom the
Middle Spokane tribe in the late 10486251048631983088983088s He had a personal crisis o aith
in Creator afer his sonrsquos untimely death so he went to Mt Spokane or
a time o asting and prayer During this worship time he received a
vision rom Creator whom they called Quilent-sat-men ldquoHe-Made-Usrdquo
In the vision Yuree-rachen saw white men dressed strangely carryingbundles o leaves astened together He was told that the people were to
learn rom the teachings inscribed on the leaves4
Shining Shirt A similar vision in about the same time period was
given to ldquoShining Shirtrdquo said to be both a chie and a shaman o the Ka-
lispel tribe Ethnologist Harry Holbert urney-High writes that Shining
Shirt was granted a vision in which he was told that there is a Creator and
that air-skinned men in black robes would come and teach them how to
live in a new way according to a moral law During the vision Shining
Shirt was given a metal object engraved with a cross White men were
unknown to these tribal people at that time5
Creator had been at work preparing the Native people or the arrival o
the gospel o Jesus Te Christian revival among those tribes evangelized
by Spokane Garry and Kootenai Pelly was noted by white settlers and ex-
plorers For example Washington Irving in ldquoTe Adventures o Captain
Bonnevillerdquo urther documents the spread o Christianity throughout the
tribes o that region During the winter o 104862598309610486271048626 Bonneville camped with
the Nez Perce on the upper Salmon River in Oregon and observed
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10486261048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
Simply to call these people religious would convey but a aint
idea o the deep hue o piety and devotion which pervades their
whole conduct Teir honesty is immaculate and their purity opurpose and their observance o the rites o their religion are most
uniorm and remarkable Tey are certainly more like a nation o
saints than a horde o savages6
I think the purity and genuine aith mentioned by Bonneville and
others was a result o a aith birthed rom the witness o Jesus-ollowing
Indigenous people to their own tribes Tey spoke the contextual
gospel rom their hearts among their people Tis was not simply the
ldquowhite manrsquos gospelrdquo7
During the time rame o 104862598309610486271048629 to 10486259830961048629983088 European-American mission-
aries arrived in Washington and Oregon Tey communicated the gospel
rom their own cultural viewpoints Te truth is that the gospel o Christ
already had a oothold among the tribes o these areas
With the arrival o the white missionaries and their brand o Christi-
anity the story takes a predictable and unortunate turn Just as Catholic
missionaries insisted on Roman control over earlier Celtic Christian
areas8 so these Anglo missionaries insisted on Euro-American (Western-
style) Christian worship as well as doctrine What is worse their pater-
nalism ethnocentrism colonial collusion and modernism soon ldquocivi-
lizedrdquo this Indigenous movement o the gospel story and thus blinded
these Christians to the already existing work o Creator among theNative nations o the land oday throughout the entire region except
or the history books there is but a remnant o that remarkable out-
pouring o Creatorrsquos story o grace spirituality and community renewal
Unortunately this negative legacy o Christian mission among the
Coeur drsquoAlene Spokane Nez Perce and other tribes is not exceptional
Afer our centuries First Nations peoplesrsquo cultural expressions are still
marginalized or oppressed across North America Native leadership inthe wider church is absent in the evangelical mainstream Tese early
missionaries ldquopeople o their timesrdquo ound little reason to regard Native
believers as coequals because they perceived their own cultural ways as
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048627
superior Tus the majority o these missionaries denounced and de-
monized Native cultural ways part and parcel as pagan idolatrous evil
and sinulAs a result an authentic Native American cultural or Indigenous
expression o ollowing Jesus was never allowed to developmdashthe very
idea being rejected as syncretistic and incongruous with ldquobiblicalrdquo aith
Tis kind o colonial missionary mindset is sadly not a thing o the
past but is still the prevailing perspective (in both Native and non-
Native Christian leaders) among those working in our tribal commu-
nities today Instead o embracing Jesus as the Creator the majority oNative Americans blame American Christianity and the church or the
loss o their own culture and identity Is it any wonder that the vast
majority o Native people today reject Christianity as the ldquowhite manrsquos
religionrdquo
Te headline o a 10486269830889830881048631 article rom the CBC News Network in Canada
read ldquoWinnipeg Church Nixes Native Dancing at Habitat or Humanity
Eventrdquo Te article went on to say
A Winnipeg church prevented aboriginal dancers rom perorming
at a Habitat or Humanity event this week saying the perormance
was not an expression o Christian aith ldquoNative spiritual dancing
has its roots in a different spiritual belie system that is incongruent
with traditional Christian worshiprdquomdashPastor Mark Hughes9
Tis pastor and his church staff though proessing a vision or creatinga multiethnic congregation are not exceptional in their ethnocentric
views and attitudes toward First Nations people and their cultural ex-
pressions Tis church averages 10486261048629983088983088 people in Sunday attendance is
one o the largest in Canada and is considered a leading ldquoChristian voicerdquo
in the province and city
Because o colonial missionariesrsquo attitudes o cultural superiority a
Native American cultural expression o ollowing Jesus didnrsquot developat the time Another powerul actor contributing to the cultural op-
pression brought with the gospel was that Native people were many
times first introduced to Jesus as part o American territorialism
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10486261048628 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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10486261048630 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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1048627983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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10486271048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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10486271048628 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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InterVarsity Press
PO Box 983089983092983088983088 Downers Grove IL 983094983088983093983089983093-983089983092983090983094
ivpresscom
emailivpresscom
copy983090983088983089983093 by Katherine wiss
All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission from
InterVarsity Press
InterVarsity Pressreg is the book-publishing division of InterVarsity Christian FellowshipUSAreg a movement of
students and faculty active on campus at hundreds of universities colleges and schools of nursing in the United
States of America and a member movement of the International Fellowship of Evangelical Students For
information about local and regional activities visit intervarsityorg
Unless otherwise indicated all Scripture quotations are taken from the Holy Bible New Living ranslation
copyright copy983089983097983097983094 983090983088983088983092 983090983088983088983095 Used by permission of yndale House Publishers Inc Carol Stream Illinois 983094983088983089983096983096
All rights reserved
In Memoriam is used by permission of erry LeBlanc
While all stories in this book are true some names and identifying information may have been changed to protect
the privacy of individuals
Cover design Cindy Kiple
Interior design Beth McGill
Images Lakota rinity by Father John Giuliani
ISBN 983097983095983096-983088-983096983091983088983096-983092983092983090983091-983092 (print)
ISBN 983097983095983096-983088-983096983091983088983096-983097983096983093983091-983092 (digital)
Printed in the United States of America
As a member of the Green Press Initiative InterVarsity Press is committed to protectingthe environment and to the responsible use of natural resources o learn more visit
greenpressinitiativeorg
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
P 983090983091 983090983090 983090983089 983090983088 983089983097 983089983096 983089983095 983089983094 983089983093 983089983092 983089983091 983089983090 983089983089 983089983088 983097 983096 983095 983094 983093 983092 983091 983090 983089
Y 983091983092 983091983091 983091983090 983091983089 983091983088 983090983097 983090983096 983090983095 983090983094 983090983093 983090983092 983090983091 983090983090 983090983089 983090983088 983089983097 983089983096 983089983095 983089983094 983089983093
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CONTENTS
In Memoriam 983097
Foreword 983089983089
Preace 983089983093
983089 he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 983089983095
983090 he Colonization Evangelization and Assimilation
o First Nations People 983094983089
983091 Sweating with Jesus 983097983091
Stories of the Native Experience
983092 A View rom the Hill 983089983091983089
Emerging Native Expressions of the Jesus Way
983093 From Colonization to Contextualization 983089983097983089
983094 Looking Down the Road 983090983089983093
he Future of the Native Church
Editorsrsquo Acknowledgments 983090983091983089
Editorsrsquo ribute to Richard wiss 983090983091983091
Appendix A Final Words on Indigenous Education
and heology 983090983091983093
Appendix B What Should We Call You 983090983091983097
Glossary 983090983092983091
Abbreviations 983090983092983093
Notes 983090983092983095
Bibliography 983090983094983090
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IN MEMORIAM
RICHARD LEO TWISS
June 983089983089 983089983097983093983092ndashFebruary 983097 983090983088983089983091
Richard Leo wiss aoyate Obnajin ldquoHe Stands with His Peoplerdquo
passed rom this lie and into the next on February 1048633 104862698308810486251048627 in Wash-
ington DC encircled by his wie Katherine and sons Andrew Phillip
Ian and Daniel Richard was fify-eightRichard was born on the Rosebud Reservation South Dakota among
his mother Winona (Larvie) LaPointersquos people the Sicangu Band o the
Rosebud LakotaSioux Richardrsquos ather Franklin (Buster) wiss (de-
ceased) was Oglala rom the Pine Ridge LakotaSioux Reservation also
in South Dakota
Until age seven Richard lived in Rosebud a town o six hundred on
the reservation In 1048625104863310486301048625 Richardrsquos mom moved the amily rom the res-ervation to Denver then to Klamath Falls Oregon and eventually to
Silverton Oregon where Richard attended the third through twelfh
grades Richardrsquos mom ensured they made regular summer visits back
home in order to stay connected with amily and culture
Afer graduating rom high school in 1048625104863310486311048626 Richard moved back to
Rosebud to attend Sinte Gleska ldquoSpotted ailrdquo College It was here that
he became involved in the American Indian Movement (AIM) Duringthis tumultuous time Richard strengthened his connection with rela-
tives and deepened his appreciation or Lakota culture
Richard wandered or a while ending up on the island o Maui in
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1048625983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
Hawaii where late one night alone on a deserted beach Creator re-
sponded to Richardrsquos desperate prayer making himsel known to him
From that night in 1048625104863310486311048628 until his passing Richard was on a spiritual journey to live a meaningul lie as a Lakota ollower o the Jesus Way
Richard met and ell in love with Katherine Kroshus o Vancouver
Washington and married her in 1048625104863310486311048630 Richardrsquos proudest legacy is his our
boys Andrew (Diana) Phillip Ian (oni) and Daniel and his grandsons
Ezra Leo and Jude
In February 1048625104863310486331048631 Richard and Katherine ounded the nonprofit min-
istry o Wiconi International Trough Wiconi Richard and Katherinetouched the lives o many thousands o people Richard also coounded
NAIIS (North American Institute or Indigenous Teological Studies)
he was chairman o the board or My People International a member o
the CCDA (Christian Community Development Association) and co-
ounder o Evangelicals or Justice In 104862698308810486251048625 Richard earned his doctorate
in missiology rom Asbury Teological Seminary Until his passing
Richard continued his teaching career through the NAIIS programPortland State University and other institutions o higher education
Richard authored a number o books pamphlets and articles over the
years His first book One Church Many ribes reached many people
with the message o an inculturated aith in Jesus
Richardrsquos mother Winona LaPointe sisters Elaine and Laurie LaPointe
nieces Stacy (Mark) Melissa (ony) Jana and their children remain to
continue his memory His brother om passed beore Richard in 10486269830881048625983088
Composed by erry LeBlanc with assistance from Richardrsquos family
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FOREWORD
Each o us met Richard wiss at different times yet each o us met
when our own journeys (and Richardrsquos) needed additional lif to go
orward on our common trail Whether our first meeting was at a con-
erence through an introduction while studying together or just
hanging out and taking a retrospective look at our Creatorrsquos thoughts all
o us became ast riends with Richard
We all reflect very similarly on the act that Richard had the as-tounding ability to absorb what he read or heard rom others trans-
orming and then seamlessly integrating it into his own thinking While
each o us does somewhat the same thing as a unction o our Indigenous
communal approach to knowledge Richard was a master
It was in Spokane Washington in 1048625104863310486331048629 where Richard hit his stride
He had convened a Christ Culture and the Kingdom seminar or pastors
to present our ldquonewrdquo ideas about culture and aith When the conerenceended and all the attendees had departed we turned to one another
amazed that non-Indigenous pastors were keenly interested in what we
had to say It was the start o a new era or Indigenous ollowers o the
Jesus Way
Our individual and collective encounters orged links o deep and un-
breakable riendship Our camaraderie was truly symbioticmdashan idea
rom one transormed by the other complete with escalating humor Our
journey together depended so much on humor that afer a number o
years o tag-team conerences Richardrsquos mom reerred to us as a stand-up
comedy team Tere was never any doubt that erry was the straight man
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10486251048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
When Richard was provided the opportunity or doctoral studies at
Asbury Teological Seminary he was more than a bit reluctant to at-
tempt such a lofy goal Moreover we were all rustrated that advanceddegrees seemed necessary to urther our efforts to bring an Indigenous
voice to the wider public In Richardrsquos first week o school we had no
ewer than seven serious discussions about him quitting the program
Yet in the end the experience brought us closer together
Te Indigenous message we brought to class discussions became such
a dominant decolonizing voice that we were concerned about being too
great an influencemdashbut the proessors encouraged us pointing out howwe were empowering international students to speak up Following a
welcome event that we hostedmdashwhere Richard spoke words o affir-
mation or those in attendancemdashseventy students rom around the world
expressed that or the first time they elt welcomed to this country
Passionate argument ofen highlighted our close riendship Yet while
so engaged we never expressed animosity or ill willmdashonly deep com-
mitment to one another Just beore his passing or example an ar-gument raged over Richardrsquos attempt to nuance the definition o syn-
cretism in this his last book He used the descriptor counteractive to
modiy the word syncretism attempting a new definition with this two-
word phrase counteractive syncretism We told him it was needless con-
usionmdashthis hybrid phrase just didnrsquot correspond to the simple defi-
nition o syncretism A lot o ood or thought like this came to him in
deep discussions over many lattes
Tat he took our viewpoints seriously was always evident because later
on we would hear people say ldquoRichard says rdquo and in their words we
would hear our own words being repeatedmdashthe ones we had previously
discussed even argued over In our Indigenous communal way he took
our thoughtsmdashthose that were different rom hismdashand made them his
own wo different things his thoughts and our thoughts became one
new thingmdashhis new thought Now that is the definition o syncretism
His nuancing o the word syncretism is still not what we might agree with
but we think he would just laugh at this nonendorsement endorsement
o one o our best and deepest riends
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Foreword 10486251048627
Richard was enigmatic On the one hand as he made clear in the closing
years o his lie he was a common man Yet undoubtedly in many ways he
was not He became or many in the wider Indigenous community ldquothe voice o one crying in the wildernessrdquo inviting believers to make straight
paths or people to find Jesus Denominational and doctrinal competition
that encroached on his early experience o aith set Richard up to return
to the simple message o Jesusmdasha highly-energized story o a Jesus stripped
o colonial baggage And Richard used his unique style and affable sense
o humor to communicate this like no one else ever could
Richard was a oil to anyone who encumbered the message o Jesuswith culturally-bound prejudice He presented a simple path to aithmdash
inviting people to be all they could be through a renewed relationship
with Creatorrsquos son He welcomed everyone to be a part o what Creator
was doing among us making everyone eel special in the process We
hope you will sense his generous spirit as he welcomes you to broaden
your horizonsmdashto come to understand a world where in Richardrsquos
words ldquoTe Gospel is being rescued rom the cowboysrdquo
erry LeBlanc (Gitpu) MirsquokmaqAcadian Listuguj First NationCampbellton
founding chair director NAIIS An Indigenous Learning Community exec-
utive director Indigenous Pathways
Randy S Woodley PhD Keetoowah descendant Distinguished Professor of
Faith and Culture George Fox Seminary author of Shalom and the Com-
munity o Creation An Indigenous Vision (Eerdmans) and Living in
Color Embracing Godrsquos Passion or Ethnic Diversity (InterVarsity Press)
Adrian Jacobs (Ganosono) urtle Clan Cayuga Nation Six Nations Hau-
denosaunee Confederacy Keeper of the Circle (principal) Sandy-Saulteaux
Spiritual Centre
Ray Aldred (Neyihaw) Cree reaty 1048632 assistant professor of theology Ambrose
University and Seminary chair NAIIS An Indigenous Learning Community
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YOU JUST GHOSTED
You didnrsquot say goodbye you just ghosted
We turned around and you just werenrsquot there
A thousand miles away rom home you ell
You lef or heaven and plunged us all in hell
You didnrsquot give us a hug you just ghosted
In the middle o winter the cold breeze blew
Stranded and poor we had no way to get to you
A month later we finally showed sofened and blue
You lef without a word you just ghosted
Words only partially typed and a messy pile
Now wersquore sweeping things up and tying a bow
Finishing your story with ldquothis is what we knowrdquo
You lef without a signature you just ghosted
Outstanding heart accounts thatrsquoll never be paid
But wersquore carrying on doing the best we surmise
Dealing with your quick exit and total surprise
Adrian Jacobs
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PREFACE
Hau kola ldquoHello riendrdquo
Tis manuscript Rescuing the Gospel from the Cowboys is based
on my reflections experiences and intense research over the past twenty-
our years It is the story o many o us Native and Indigenous leaders
who have been finding our way out o neocolonialism into a new liberty
as wersquove walked this Jesus Road together since the late 10486251048633983096983088s
Tis book began as a doctoral dissertation to research whether or notthere is or has been an Indigenous contextualized expression o the
Christian aith among the tribes o the United States and to a lesser
degree Canada Te purpose o my research was to identiy in what ways
Native leaders were reraming the gospel narrative as part o a larger
narrative o postcolonial decolonization in their own unique cultural
contexts Te specific ocus will be on the years 104862510486339830961048633ndash10486269830889830881048633
As I think about it these days contextualization is not a principleormula or evangelistic strategy Contextualization is a relational process
o theological and cultural reflection within a communitymdashseeking to
incorporate traditional symbols music dance ceremony and ritual to
make aith in Jesus a truly local expression Tere is an honest recognition
o the guidance o Creatorrsquos Spirit behind the widening critique and cor-
rection to the hegemonic assumptions o modernity and colonization
decolonization Critical thinking and retraditionalization are key to the
good contextualization efforts arising among Indigenous communities
In the radically-changing ethnic demographics o American culture
and the global community ollowers o Jesus are presented with great
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opportunities and challenges or good We must genuinely appreciate all
cultures as being capable o reflecting biblical aith We must move away
rom ldquoAmerican Christian mythologyrdquo which undergirds colonizationand its resulting paternalism in Indigenous communities We must em-
brace new theological perspectives emerging rom Native leaders as
being ldquoequalrdquo Tese perspectives provide new pathways or the contex-
tualization process Tese pathways identiy Indigenous cultural values
spirituality and ceremony as central to the new approaches to disci-
pleship and leadership development which occur within the community
No longer are such ldquonew approachesrdquo brought in by the cultural outsider
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1
THE CREATORrsquoS PRESENCE
AMONG NATIVE PEOPLE
There is only one Creator o heaven and earth Tere are not ldquomanyrdquo
Creators Just one All o human and nonhuman creation comes out
o this one Creator Tere is not a Creator who created Arica and A-
ricans or Asia and Asians or Europe and Europeans and so orth Who
can create something rom nothing or bring into existence something
that was previously nonexistent It is only this one Creator and there is
none like himher1 Tat being said this one Creator sel-reveals in and
through a myriad o cultural realities in human and nonhuman persons
throughout Unci Maka our ldquoMother Earthrdquo2
Tere are world religions that present names or this one Creator
Tese religions provide creation stories and explanations or heaven
earth and humans and supply wisdom and doctrines to help humanity
resolve its existential dilemma Tere are world religions that have a
sacred text to reerence their belies and there are thousands o ldquoolk
religionsrdquo with oral traditions that do the same through story yetmdashthere
is still just one Creator
For us First Nations people ollowing Creator-Jesus within our Indig-
enous cultural ways without submitting to the hegemonic cultural as-
sumptions o todayrsquos conservative evangelicals is tough I am remindedweekly o these neocolonial and ignorant assumptions as they show up
on the radar o my lie Te ollowing email conversation I had in 104862698308810486251048626
typifies these ldquopingsrdquo
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A group o my First Nations riends and I were looking or a acility
to host a weekend planning retreat We looked at a ew o them and de-
cided on one I knew about rom past experience Te negotiations tobook the acility took an unexpected but not totally surprising turn as
the registration person reacted to the ldquoheathen Indiansrdquo once again
Hello Mr wiss
Whenever we have a new group register with our acility we take
the time and effort to research their belies and methods etc I have
been doing that with your group and we must CANCEL your re-treat with us In your effort to ldquorestore culturerdquo you are taking the
indigenous people back into paganism shamanism alse gods and
the occult You are leading them away rom the Gospel message o
the Bible We pray you will rethink what you are doing to the very
people you love so much I will return your deposit
Tank you ldquoJane Doerdquo
Greetings Jane Doe
Tank you or your response I have many years o involvement and
riendship with people in your center I look orward to continuing
this conversation and still keeping our reservation to host our re-
treat there While a ew may have some narrow and misinormed
ideas about our aith in Jesus and the scriptures please be assured
our group is as remarkable a group o Christ-ollowers as you will
meet Please eel ree to give me a call on my cell phone today
Tank you Richard
Hello Richard
Tank you so much or your email I am aware o your history We
do not doubt your sincere heart and desires But some o theteachings o your group andor its speakers seem to be steering
people away rom the solid Gospel and taking people toward other
gods It may be subtle and it may not be your intent but i one
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486251048633
person leaves our acility compromised in their Christian walk
then we have ailed in our mission It is a hard thing we have to do
but the Lord has asked us to take a very strong stand and we cando nothing less I have returned the deposit and have still canceled
the retreat We pray the Lord will continue to guide you careully
in your efforts
Jane Doe
Greetings Jane
Tanks or your response which honestly surprises me It is cer-
tainly not the spirit that I have elt rom the organizationrsquos be-
ginning as its ounders poured their lives into creating a space or
people to wrestle with the deep issues o lie and spiritual growth
So many o us were in our early twenties when we first journeyed
there struggling to make sense o this new aith and lie we ound
in JesusTe accusations you make against usmdashldquobiblical compromise
[alsehoodheresy] steering people away rom the Gospel into
idolatry [rejecting Christ]rdquo clothed in the notion o protecting the
true Gospel rom Native cultural ways o our Native Christian
communitymdashare plainly offensive theologically arrogant and
judgmental at bestmdashperhaps culturally racist at worst Your lan-
guage o ldquothe Lord has asked us to take a very strong standrdquo againstpeople like us and the way we express our aith in Jesus biblically
culturally and theologically reveals the kind o cultural oppression
our people ace rom an idealized and racialized view o scripture
I the goal is to turn your center into a bastion o biblical protec-
tionism theological control and cultural judgmentalism your
words well reflect that direction
Peace and gracemdashRichard
Richard
Te answer is still ldquoNOrdquo I hear what you are saying but we still
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cannot support what your group and the Indigenous People
Movement are teaching No retreat at our acility
Jane Doe
While this person may represent a more extreme point o view it
nonetheless is what the majority o Euro-American evangelicals believe
about our Native cultural and ceremonial ways Ignorance suspicion and
ear o Native ways run deep in the soul o the American church I will
show later how this has been (and remains) the American churchrsquos at-titude toward our Native ways or centuries now Te tragedy is that it is
not just we who suffer Because we suffer so deeply the entire church and
nation does too
However suspicion and ear run both ways Indigenous people have
a lot to ear about the ldquowhite manrsquos religionrdquo Conquest racism hatred
prejudice exclusion orced assimilation and ongoing institutional injus-
tices are just a ew o the ears that come to mind
ldquoE983158983141983150 W983144983141983150 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 R983145983143983144983156 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 W983154983151983150983143rdquo
mdashS983152983151983147983137983150983141 G983137983154983154983161
When my wie and I lived on the Coeur drsquoAlene Reservation in Northern
Idaho in 1048625104863310486331048630 I was introduced to a lie-changing story about a re-
markable Native leader named Chie Spokane Garry He is one o my
heroes o aith and culture Creator used Chie Garry (104862598309610486251048625ndash104862598309610486331048626) as aldquomessengerrdquo who had a proound spiritual impact by spreading the gospel
(along with his riend and co-worker Kootenai Pelly) among his people
and numerous other tribes in Washington Idaho Oregon and southward3
I have been to the cemetery in Spokane Washington where Chie
Garry was buried It was an honor and a privilege to be standing there
and I was deeply touched He was a tribal leader husband ather and
advocate or justice and Christian values While his efforts appeared tohave no lasting impact and did not bring the white settlers to an under-
standing o justice neverthelessmdashthroughout it allmdashhe remained true
to his aith in Jesus He died rejected and impoverished
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048625
While we were living on the ldquoRezrdquo (reservation) we did not know o
one Native man who regularly attended any o the six Protestant evan-
gelical churchesmdashdespite Garryrsquos lie work Barely hal a dozen womenattended Tis was true as well or the neighboring Nez Perce and Kalispel
reservations Tis act stood in stark contrast to the amazing spiritual
movement inspired by Chie Garry in this region that occurred prior to
an established colonial presence
Tere were other instances o divine intervention in ldquopreparing the
way o the Lordrdquo (Isaiah 10486289830881048627) or mission work among the tribes o
this area including prophecies among the Middle Spokane and Ka-lispel tribes
Yuree-rachen Yuree-rachen ldquoCircling Ravenrdquo was a shaman rom the
Middle Spokane tribe in the late 10486251048631983088983088s He had a personal crisis o aith
in Creator afer his sonrsquos untimely death so he went to Mt Spokane or
a time o asting and prayer During this worship time he received a
vision rom Creator whom they called Quilent-sat-men ldquoHe-Made-Usrdquo
In the vision Yuree-rachen saw white men dressed strangely carryingbundles o leaves astened together He was told that the people were to
learn rom the teachings inscribed on the leaves4
Shining Shirt A similar vision in about the same time period was
given to ldquoShining Shirtrdquo said to be both a chie and a shaman o the Ka-
lispel tribe Ethnologist Harry Holbert urney-High writes that Shining
Shirt was granted a vision in which he was told that there is a Creator and
that air-skinned men in black robes would come and teach them how to
live in a new way according to a moral law During the vision Shining
Shirt was given a metal object engraved with a cross White men were
unknown to these tribal people at that time5
Creator had been at work preparing the Native people or the arrival o
the gospel o Jesus Te Christian revival among those tribes evangelized
by Spokane Garry and Kootenai Pelly was noted by white settlers and ex-
plorers For example Washington Irving in ldquoTe Adventures o Captain
Bonnevillerdquo urther documents the spread o Christianity throughout the
tribes o that region During the winter o 104862598309610486271048626 Bonneville camped with
the Nez Perce on the upper Salmon River in Oregon and observed
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10486261048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
Simply to call these people religious would convey but a aint
idea o the deep hue o piety and devotion which pervades their
whole conduct Teir honesty is immaculate and their purity opurpose and their observance o the rites o their religion are most
uniorm and remarkable Tey are certainly more like a nation o
saints than a horde o savages6
I think the purity and genuine aith mentioned by Bonneville and
others was a result o a aith birthed rom the witness o Jesus-ollowing
Indigenous people to their own tribes Tey spoke the contextual
gospel rom their hearts among their people Tis was not simply the
ldquowhite manrsquos gospelrdquo7
During the time rame o 104862598309610486271048629 to 10486259830961048629983088 European-American mission-
aries arrived in Washington and Oregon Tey communicated the gospel
rom their own cultural viewpoints Te truth is that the gospel o Christ
already had a oothold among the tribes o these areas
With the arrival o the white missionaries and their brand o Christi-
anity the story takes a predictable and unortunate turn Just as Catholic
missionaries insisted on Roman control over earlier Celtic Christian
areas8 so these Anglo missionaries insisted on Euro-American (Western-
style) Christian worship as well as doctrine What is worse their pater-
nalism ethnocentrism colonial collusion and modernism soon ldquocivi-
lizedrdquo this Indigenous movement o the gospel story and thus blinded
these Christians to the already existing work o Creator among theNative nations o the land oday throughout the entire region except
or the history books there is but a remnant o that remarkable out-
pouring o Creatorrsquos story o grace spirituality and community renewal
Unortunately this negative legacy o Christian mission among the
Coeur drsquoAlene Spokane Nez Perce and other tribes is not exceptional
Afer our centuries First Nations peoplesrsquo cultural expressions are still
marginalized or oppressed across North America Native leadership inthe wider church is absent in the evangelical mainstream Tese early
missionaries ldquopeople o their timesrdquo ound little reason to regard Native
believers as coequals because they perceived their own cultural ways as
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048627
superior Tus the majority o these missionaries denounced and de-
monized Native cultural ways part and parcel as pagan idolatrous evil
and sinulAs a result an authentic Native American cultural or Indigenous
expression o ollowing Jesus was never allowed to developmdashthe very
idea being rejected as syncretistic and incongruous with ldquobiblicalrdquo aith
Tis kind o colonial missionary mindset is sadly not a thing o the
past but is still the prevailing perspective (in both Native and non-
Native Christian leaders) among those working in our tribal commu-
nities today Instead o embracing Jesus as the Creator the majority oNative Americans blame American Christianity and the church or the
loss o their own culture and identity Is it any wonder that the vast
majority o Native people today reject Christianity as the ldquowhite manrsquos
religionrdquo
Te headline o a 10486269830889830881048631 article rom the CBC News Network in Canada
read ldquoWinnipeg Church Nixes Native Dancing at Habitat or Humanity
Eventrdquo Te article went on to say
A Winnipeg church prevented aboriginal dancers rom perorming
at a Habitat or Humanity event this week saying the perormance
was not an expression o Christian aith ldquoNative spiritual dancing
has its roots in a different spiritual belie system that is incongruent
with traditional Christian worshiprdquomdashPastor Mark Hughes9
Tis pastor and his church staff though proessing a vision or creatinga multiethnic congregation are not exceptional in their ethnocentric
views and attitudes toward First Nations people and their cultural ex-
pressions Tis church averages 10486261048629983088983088 people in Sunday attendance is
one o the largest in Canada and is considered a leading ldquoChristian voicerdquo
in the province and city
Because o colonial missionariesrsquo attitudes o cultural superiority a
Native American cultural expression o ollowing Jesus didnrsquot developat the time Another powerul actor contributing to the cultural op-
pression brought with the gospel was that Native people were many
times first introduced to Jesus as part o American territorialism
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treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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1048627983096 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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CONTENTS
In Memoriam 983097
Foreword 983089983089
Preace 983089983093
983089 he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 983089983095
983090 he Colonization Evangelization and Assimilation
o First Nations People 983094983089
983091 Sweating with Jesus 983097983091
Stories of the Native Experience
983092 A View rom the Hill 983089983091983089
Emerging Native Expressions of the Jesus Way
983093 From Colonization to Contextualization 983089983097983089
983094 Looking Down the Road 983090983089983093
he Future of the Native Church
Editorsrsquo Acknowledgments 983090983091983089
Editorsrsquo ribute to Richard wiss 983090983091983091
Appendix A Final Words on Indigenous Education
and heology 983090983091983093
Appendix B What Should We Call You 983090983091983097
Glossary 983090983092983091
Abbreviations 983090983092983093
Notes 983090983092983095
Bibliography 983090983094983090
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IN MEMORIAM
RICHARD LEO TWISS
June 983089983089 983089983097983093983092ndashFebruary 983097 983090983088983089983091
Richard Leo wiss aoyate Obnajin ldquoHe Stands with His Peoplerdquo
passed rom this lie and into the next on February 1048633 104862698308810486251048627 in Wash-
ington DC encircled by his wie Katherine and sons Andrew Phillip
Ian and Daniel Richard was fify-eightRichard was born on the Rosebud Reservation South Dakota among
his mother Winona (Larvie) LaPointersquos people the Sicangu Band o the
Rosebud LakotaSioux Richardrsquos ather Franklin (Buster) wiss (de-
ceased) was Oglala rom the Pine Ridge LakotaSioux Reservation also
in South Dakota
Until age seven Richard lived in Rosebud a town o six hundred on
the reservation In 1048625104863310486301048625 Richardrsquos mom moved the amily rom the res-ervation to Denver then to Klamath Falls Oregon and eventually to
Silverton Oregon where Richard attended the third through twelfh
grades Richardrsquos mom ensured they made regular summer visits back
home in order to stay connected with amily and culture
Afer graduating rom high school in 1048625104863310486311048626 Richard moved back to
Rosebud to attend Sinte Gleska ldquoSpotted ailrdquo College It was here that
he became involved in the American Indian Movement (AIM) Duringthis tumultuous time Richard strengthened his connection with rela-
tives and deepened his appreciation or Lakota culture
Richard wandered or a while ending up on the island o Maui in
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Hawaii where late one night alone on a deserted beach Creator re-
sponded to Richardrsquos desperate prayer making himsel known to him
From that night in 1048625104863310486311048628 until his passing Richard was on a spiritual journey to live a meaningul lie as a Lakota ollower o the Jesus Way
Richard met and ell in love with Katherine Kroshus o Vancouver
Washington and married her in 1048625104863310486311048630 Richardrsquos proudest legacy is his our
boys Andrew (Diana) Phillip Ian (oni) and Daniel and his grandsons
Ezra Leo and Jude
In February 1048625104863310486331048631 Richard and Katherine ounded the nonprofit min-
istry o Wiconi International Trough Wiconi Richard and Katherinetouched the lives o many thousands o people Richard also coounded
NAIIS (North American Institute or Indigenous Teological Studies)
he was chairman o the board or My People International a member o
the CCDA (Christian Community Development Association) and co-
ounder o Evangelicals or Justice In 104862698308810486251048625 Richard earned his doctorate
in missiology rom Asbury Teological Seminary Until his passing
Richard continued his teaching career through the NAIIS programPortland State University and other institutions o higher education
Richard authored a number o books pamphlets and articles over the
years His first book One Church Many ribes reached many people
with the message o an inculturated aith in Jesus
Richardrsquos mother Winona LaPointe sisters Elaine and Laurie LaPointe
nieces Stacy (Mark) Melissa (ony) Jana and their children remain to
continue his memory His brother om passed beore Richard in 10486269830881048625983088
Composed by erry LeBlanc with assistance from Richardrsquos family
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FOREWORD
Each o us met Richard wiss at different times yet each o us met
when our own journeys (and Richardrsquos) needed additional lif to go
orward on our common trail Whether our first meeting was at a con-
erence through an introduction while studying together or just
hanging out and taking a retrospective look at our Creatorrsquos thoughts all
o us became ast riends with Richard
We all reflect very similarly on the act that Richard had the as-tounding ability to absorb what he read or heard rom others trans-
orming and then seamlessly integrating it into his own thinking While
each o us does somewhat the same thing as a unction o our Indigenous
communal approach to knowledge Richard was a master
It was in Spokane Washington in 1048625104863310486331048629 where Richard hit his stride
He had convened a Christ Culture and the Kingdom seminar or pastors
to present our ldquonewrdquo ideas about culture and aith When the conerenceended and all the attendees had departed we turned to one another
amazed that non-Indigenous pastors were keenly interested in what we
had to say It was the start o a new era or Indigenous ollowers o the
Jesus Way
Our individual and collective encounters orged links o deep and un-
breakable riendship Our camaraderie was truly symbioticmdashan idea
rom one transormed by the other complete with escalating humor Our
journey together depended so much on humor that afer a number o
years o tag-team conerences Richardrsquos mom reerred to us as a stand-up
comedy team Tere was never any doubt that erry was the straight man
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When Richard was provided the opportunity or doctoral studies at
Asbury Teological Seminary he was more than a bit reluctant to at-
tempt such a lofy goal Moreover we were all rustrated that advanceddegrees seemed necessary to urther our efforts to bring an Indigenous
voice to the wider public In Richardrsquos first week o school we had no
ewer than seven serious discussions about him quitting the program
Yet in the end the experience brought us closer together
Te Indigenous message we brought to class discussions became such
a dominant decolonizing voice that we were concerned about being too
great an influencemdashbut the proessors encouraged us pointing out howwe were empowering international students to speak up Following a
welcome event that we hostedmdashwhere Richard spoke words o affir-
mation or those in attendancemdashseventy students rom around the world
expressed that or the first time they elt welcomed to this country
Passionate argument ofen highlighted our close riendship Yet while
so engaged we never expressed animosity or ill willmdashonly deep com-
mitment to one another Just beore his passing or example an ar-gument raged over Richardrsquos attempt to nuance the definition o syn-
cretism in this his last book He used the descriptor counteractive to
modiy the word syncretism attempting a new definition with this two-
word phrase counteractive syncretism We told him it was needless con-
usionmdashthis hybrid phrase just didnrsquot correspond to the simple defi-
nition o syncretism A lot o ood or thought like this came to him in
deep discussions over many lattes
Tat he took our viewpoints seriously was always evident because later
on we would hear people say ldquoRichard says rdquo and in their words we
would hear our own words being repeatedmdashthe ones we had previously
discussed even argued over In our Indigenous communal way he took
our thoughtsmdashthose that were different rom hismdashand made them his
own wo different things his thoughts and our thoughts became one
new thingmdashhis new thought Now that is the definition o syncretism
His nuancing o the word syncretism is still not what we might agree with
but we think he would just laugh at this nonendorsement endorsement
o one o our best and deepest riends
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Foreword 10486251048627
Richard was enigmatic On the one hand as he made clear in the closing
years o his lie he was a common man Yet undoubtedly in many ways he
was not He became or many in the wider Indigenous community ldquothe voice o one crying in the wildernessrdquo inviting believers to make straight
paths or people to find Jesus Denominational and doctrinal competition
that encroached on his early experience o aith set Richard up to return
to the simple message o Jesusmdasha highly-energized story o a Jesus stripped
o colonial baggage And Richard used his unique style and affable sense
o humor to communicate this like no one else ever could
Richard was a oil to anyone who encumbered the message o Jesuswith culturally-bound prejudice He presented a simple path to aithmdash
inviting people to be all they could be through a renewed relationship
with Creatorrsquos son He welcomed everyone to be a part o what Creator
was doing among us making everyone eel special in the process We
hope you will sense his generous spirit as he welcomes you to broaden
your horizonsmdashto come to understand a world where in Richardrsquos
words ldquoTe Gospel is being rescued rom the cowboysrdquo
erry LeBlanc (Gitpu) MirsquokmaqAcadian Listuguj First NationCampbellton
founding chair director NAIIS An Indigenous Learning Community exec-
utive director Indigenous Pathways
Randy S Woodley PhD Keetoowah descendant Distinguished Professor of
Faith and Culture George Fox Seminary author of Shalom and the Com-
munity o Creation An Indigenous Vision (Eerdmans) and Living in
Color Embracing Godrsquos Passion or Ethnic Diversity (InterVarsity Press)
Adrian Jacobs (Ganosono) urtle Clan Cayuga Nation Six Nations Hau-
denosaunee Confederacy Keeper of the Circle (principal) Sandy-Saulteaux
Spiritual Centre
Ray Aldred (Neyihaw) Cree reaty 1048632 assistant professor of theology Ambrose
University and Seminary chair NAIIS An Indigenous Learning Community
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YOU JUST GHOSTED
You didnrsquot say goodbye you just ghosted
We turned around and you just werenrsquot there
A thousand miles away rom home you ell
You lef or heaven and plunged us all in hell
You didnrsquot give us a hug you just ghosted
In the middle o winter the cold breeze blew
Stranded and poor we had no way to get to you
A month later we finally showed sofened and blue
You lef without a word you just ghosted
Words only partially typed and a messy pile
Now wersquore sweeping things up and tying a bow
Finishing your story with ldquothis is what we knowrdquo
You lef without a signature you just ghosted
Outstanding heart accounts thatrsquoll never be paid
But wersquore carrying on doing the best we surmise
Dealing with your quick exit and total surprise
Adrian Jacobs
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PREFACE
Hau kola ldquoHello riendrdquo
Tis manuscript Rescuing the Gospel from the Cowboys is based
on my reflections experiences and intense research over the past twenty-
our years It is the story o many o us Native and Indigenous leaders
who have been finding our way out o neocolonialism into a new liberty
as wersquove walked this Jesus Road together since the late 10486251048633983096983088s
Tis book began as a doctoral dissertation to research whether or notthere is or has been an Indigenous contextualized expression o the
Christian aith among the tribes o the United States and to a lesser
degree Canada Te purpose o my research was to identiy in what ways
Native leaders were reraming the gospel narrative as part o a larger
narrative o postcolonial decolonization in their own unique cultural
contexts Te specific ocus will be on the years 104862510486339830961048633ndash10486269830889830881048633
As I think about it these days contextualization is not a principleormula or evangelistic strategy Contextualization is a relational process
o theological and cultural reflection within a communitymdashseeking to
incorporate traditional symbols music dance ceremony and ritual to
make aith in Jesus a truly local expression Tere is an honest recognition
o the guidance o Creatorrsquos Spirit behind the widening critique and cor-
rection to the hegemonic assumptions o modernity and colonization
decolonization Critical thinking and retraditionalization are key to the
good contextualization efforts arising among Indigenous communities
In the radically-changing ethnic demographics o American culture
and the global community ollowers o Jesus are presented with great
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opportunities and challenges or good We must genuinely appreciate all
cultures as being capable o reflecting biblical aith We must move away
rom ldquoAmerican Christian mythologyrdquo which undergirds colonizationand its resulting paternalism in Indigenous communities We must em-
brace new theological perspectives emerging rom Native leaders as
being ldquoequalrdquo Tese perspectives provide new pathways or the contex-
tualization process Tese pathways identiy Indigenous cultural values
spirituality and ceremony as central to the new approaches to disci-
pleship and leadership development which occur within the community
No longer are such ldquonew approachesrdquo brought in by the cultural outsider
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1
THE CREATORrsquoS PRESENCE
AMONG NATIVE PEOPLE
There is only one Creator o heaven and earth Tere are not ldquomanyrdquo
Creators Just one All o human and nonhuman creation comes out
o this one Creator Tere is not a Creator who created Arica and A-
ricans or Asia and Asians or Europe and Europeans and so orth Who
can create something rom nothing or bring into existence something
that was previously nonexistent It is only this one Creator and there is
none like himher1 Tat being said this one Creator sel-reveals in and
through a myriad o cultural realities in human and nonhuman persons
throughout Unci Maka our ldquoMother Earthrdquo2
Tere are world religions that present names or this one Creator
Tese religions provide creation stories and explanations or heaven
earth and humans and supply wisdom and doctrines to help humanity
resolve its existential dilemma Tere are world religions that have a
sacred text to reerence their belies and there are thousands o ldquoolk
religionsrdquo with oral traditions that do the same through story yetmdashthere
is still just one Creator
For us First Nations people ollowing Creator-Jesus within our Indig-
enous cultural ways without submitting to the hegemonic cultural as-
sumptions o todayrsquos conservative evangelicals is tough I am remindedweekly o these neocolonial and ignorant assumptions as they show up
on the radar o my lie Te ollowing email conversation I had in 104862698308810486251048626
typifies these ldquopingsrdquo
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A group o my First Nations riends and I were looking or a acility
to host a weekend planning retreat We looked at a ew o them and de-
cided on one I knew about rom past experience Te negotiations tobook the acility took an unexpected but not totally surprising turn as
the registration person reacted to the ldquoheathen Indiansrdquo once again
Hello Mr wiss
Whenever we have a new group register with our acility we take
the time and effort to research their belies and methods etc I have
been doing that with your group and we must CANCEL your re-treat with us In your effort to ldquorestore culturerdquo you are taking the
indigenous people back into paganism shamanism alse gods and
the occult You are leading them away rom the Gospel message o
the Bible We pray you will rethink what you are doing to the very
people you love so much I will return your deposit
Tank you ldquoJane Doerdquo
Greetings Jane Doe
Tank you or your response I have many years o involvement and
riendship with people in your center I look orward to continuing
this conversation and still keeping our reservation to host our re-
treat there While a ew may have some narrow and misinormed
ideas about our aith in Jesus and the scriptures please be assured
our group is as remarkable a group o Christ-ollowers as you will
meet Please eel ree to give me a call on my cell phone today
Tank you Richard
Hello Richard
Tank you so much or your email I am aware o your history We
do not doubt your sincere heart and desires But some o theteachings o your group andor its speakers seem to be steering
people away rom the solid Gospel and taking people toward other
gods It may be subtle and it may not be your intent but i one
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486251048633
person leaves our acility compromised in their Christian walk
then we have ailed in our mission It is a hard thing we have to do
but the Lord has asked us to take a very strong stand and we cando nothing less I have returned the deposit and have still canceled
the retreat We pray the Lord will continue to guide you careully
in your efforts
Jane Doe
Greetings Jane
Tanks or your response which honestly surprises me It is cer-
tainly not the spirit that I have elt rom the organizationrsquos be-
ginning as its ounders poured their lives into creating a space or
people to wrestle with the deep issues o lie and spiritual growth
So many o us were in our early twenties when we first journeyed
there struggling to make sense o this new aith and lie we ound
in JesusTe accusations you make against usmdashldquobiblical compromise
[alsehoodheresy] steering people away rom the Gospel into
idolatry [rejecting Christ]rdquo clothed in the notion o protecting the
true Gospel rom Native cultural ways o our Native Christian
communitymdashare plainly offensive theologically arrogant and
judgmental at bestmdashperhaps culturally racist at worst Your lan-
guage o ldquothe Lord has asked us to take a very strong standrdquo againstpeople like us and the way we express our aith in Jesus biblically
culturally and theologically reveals the kind o cultural oppression
our people ace rom an idealized and racialized view o scripture
I the goal is to turn your center into a bastion o biblical protec-
tionism theological control and cultural judgmentalism your
words well reflect that direction
Peace and gracemdashRichard
Richard
Te answer is still ldquoNOrdquo I hear what you are saying but we still
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cannot support what your group and the Indigenous People
Movement are teaching No retreat at our acility
Jane Doe
While this person may represent a more extreme point o view it
nonetheless is what the majority o Euro-American evangelicals believe
about our Native cultural and ceremonial ways Ignorance suspicion and
ear o Native ways run deep in the soul o the American church I will
show later how this has been (and remains) the American churchrsquos at-titude toward our Native ways or centuries now Te tragedy is that it is
not just we who suffer Because we suffer so deeply the entire church and
nation does too
However suspicion and ear run both ways Indigenous people have
a lot to ear about the ldquowhite manrsquos religionrdquo Conquest racism hatred
prejudice exclusion orced assimilation and ongoing institutional injus-
tices are just a ew o the ears that come to mind
ldquoE983158983141983150 W983144983141983150 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 R983145983143983144983156 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 W983154983151983150983143rdquo
mdashS983152983151983147983137983150983141 G983137983154983154983161
When my wie and I lived on the Coeur drsquoAlene Reservation in Northern
Idaho in 1048625104863310486331048630 I was introduced to a lie-changing story about a re-
markable Native leader named Chie Spokane Garry He is one o my
heroes o aith and culture Creator used Chie Garry (104862598309610486251048625ndash104862598309610486331048626) as aldquomessengerrdquo who had a proound spiritual impact by spreading the gospel
(along with his riend and co-worker Kootenai Pelly) among his people
and numerous other tribes in Washington Idaho Oregon and southward3
I have been to the cemetery in Spokane Washington where Chie
Garry was buried It was an honor and a privilege to be standing there
and I was deeply touched He was a tribal leader husband ather and
advocate or justice and Christian values While his efforts appeared tohave no lasting impact and did not bring the white settlers to an under-
standing o justice neverthelessmdashthroughout it allmdashhe remained true
to his aith in Jesus He died rejected and impoverished
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048625
While we were living on the ldquoRezrdquo (reservation) we did not know o
one Native man who regularly attended any o the six Protestant evan-
gelical churchesmdashdespite Garryrsquos lie work Barely hal a dozen womenattended Tis was true as well or the neighboring Nez Perce and Kalispel
reservations Tis act stood in stark contrast to the amazing spiritual
movement inspired by Chie Garry in this region that occurred prior to
an established colonial presence
Tere were other instances o divine intervention in ldquopreparing the
way o the Lordrdquo (Isaiah 10486289830881048627) or mission work among the tribes o
this area including prophecies among the Middle Spokane and Ka-lispel tribes
Yuree-rachen Yuree-rachen ldquoCircling Ravenrdquo was a shaman rom the
Middle Spokane tribe in the late 10486251048631983088983088s He had a personal crisis o aith
in Creator afer his sonrsquos untimely death so he went to Mt Spokane or
a time o asting and prayer During this worship time he received a
vision rom Creator whom they called Quilent-sat-men ldquoHe-Made-Usrdquo
In the vision Yuree-rachen saw white men dressed strangely carryingbundles o leaves astened together He was told that the people were to
learn rom the teachings inscribed on the leaves4
Shining Shirt A similar vision in about the same time period was
given to ldquoShining Shirtrdquo said to be both a chie and a shaman o the Ka-
lispel tribe Ethnologist Harry Holbert urney-High writes that Shining
Shirt was granted a vision in which he was told that there is a Creator and
that air-skinned men in black robes would come and teach them how to
live in a new way according to a moral law During the vision Shining
Shirt was given a metal object engraved with a cross White men were
unknown to these tribal people at that time5
Creator had been at work preparing the Native people or the arrival o
the gospel o Jesus Te Christian revival among those tribes evangelized
by Spokane Garry and Kootenai Pelly was noted by white settlers and ex-
plorers For example Washington Irving in ldquoTe Adventures o Captain
Bonnevillerdquo urther documents the spread o Christianity throughout the
tribes o that region During the winter o 104862598309610486271048626 Bonneville camped with
the Nez Perce on the upper Salmon River in Oregon and observed
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10486261048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
Simply to call these people religious would convey but a aint
idea o the deep hue o piety and devotion which pervades their
whole conduct Teir honesty is immaculate and their purity opurpose and their observance o the rites o their religion are most
uniorm and remarkable Tey are certainly more like a nation o
saints than a horde o savages6
I think the purity and genuine aith mentioned by Bonneville and
others was a result o a aith birthed rom the witness o Jesus-ollowing
Indigenous people to their own tribes Tey spoke the contextual
gospel rom their hearts among their people Tis was not simply the
ldquowhite manrsquos gospelrdquo7
During the time rame o 104862598309610486271048629 to 10486259830961048629983088 European-American mission-
aries arrived in Washington and Oregon Tey communicated the gospel
rom their own cultural viewpoints Te truth is that the gospel o Christ
already had a oothold among the tribes o these areas
With the arrival o the white missionaries and their brand o Christi-
anity the story takes a predictable and unortunate turn Just as Catholic
missionaries insisted on Roman control over earlier Celtic Christian
areas8 so these Anglo missionaries insisted on Euro-American (Western-
style) Christian worship as well as doctrine What is worse their pater-
nalism ethnocentrism colonial collusion and modernism soon ldquocivi-
lizedrdquo this Indigenous movement o the gospel story and thus blinded
these Christians to the already existing work o Creator among theNative nations o the land oday throughout the entire region except
or the history books there is but a remnant o that remarkable out-
pouring o Creatorrsquos story o grace spirituality and community renewal
Unortunately this negative legacy o Christian mission among the
Coeur drsquoAlene Spokane Nez Perce and other tribes is not exceptional
Afer our centuries First Nations peoplesrsquo cultural expressions are still
marginalized or oppressed across North America Native leadership inthe wider church is absent in the evangelical mainstream Tese early
missionaries ldquopeople o their timesrdquo ound little reason to regard Native
believers as coequals because they perceived their own cultural ways as
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048627
superior Tus the majority o these missionaries denounced and de-
monized Native cultural ways part and parcel as pagan idolatrous evil
and sinulAs a result an authentic Native American cultural or Indigenous
expression o ollowing Jesus was never allowed to developmdashthe very
idea being rejected as syncretistic and incongruous with ldquobiblicalrdquo aith
Tis kind o colonial missionary mindset is sadly not a thing o the
past but is still the prevailing perspective (in both Native and non-
Native Christian leaders) among those working in our tribal commu-
nities today Instead o embracing Jesus as the Creator the majority oNative Americans blame American Christianity and the church or the
loss o their own culture and identity Is it any wonder that the vast
majority o Native people today reject Christianity as the ldquowhite manrsquos
religionrdquo
Te headline o a 10486269830889830881048631 article rom the CBC News Network in Canada
read ldquoWinnipeg Church Nixes Native Dancing at Habitat or Humanity
Eventrdquo Te article went on to say
A Winnipeg church prevented aboriginal dancers rom perorming
at a Habitat or Humanity event this week saying the perormance
was not an expression o Christian aith ldquoNative spiritual dancing
has its roots in a different spiritual belie system that is incongruent
with traditional Christian worshiprdquomdashPastor Mark Hughes9
Tis pastor and his church staff though proessing a vision or creatinga multiethnic congregation are not exceptional in their ethnocentric
views and attitudes toward First Nations people and their cultural ex-
pressions Tis church averages 10486261048629983088983088 people in Sunday attendance is
one o the largest in Canada and is considered a leading ldquoChristian voicerdquo
in the province and city
Because o colonial missionariesrsquo attitudes o cultural superiority a
Native American cultural expression o ollowing Jesus didnrsquot developat the time Another powerul actor contributing to the cultural op-
pression brought with the gospel was that Native people were many
times first introduced to Jesus as part o American territorialism
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treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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10486261048630 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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1048627983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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10486271048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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10486271048628 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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IN MEMORIAM
RICHARD LEO TWISS
June 983089983089 983089983097983093983092ndashFebruary 983097 983090983088983089983091
Richard Leo wiss aoyate Obnajin ldquoHe Stands with His Peoplerdquo
passed rom this lie and into the next on February 1048633 104862698308810486251048627 in Wash-
ington DC encircled by his wie Katherine and sons Andrew Phillip
Ian and Daniel Richard was fify-eightRichard was born on the Rosebud Reservation South Dakota among
his mother Winona (Larvie) LaPointersquos people the Sicangu Band o the
Rosebud LakotaSioux Richardrsquos ather Franklin (Buster) wiss (de-
ceased) was Oglala rom the Pine Ridge LakotaSioux Reservation also
in South Dakota
Until age seven Richard lived in Rosebud a town o six hundred on
the reservation In 1048625104863310486301048625 Richardrsquos mom moved the amily rom the res-ervation to Denver then to Klamath Falls Oregon and eventually to
Silverton Oregon where Richard attended the third through twelfh
grades Richardrsquos mom ensured they made regular summer visits back
home in order to stay connected with amily and culture
Afer graduating rom high school in 1048625104863310486311048626 Richard moved back to
Rosebud to attend Sinte Gleska ldquoSpotted ailrdquo College It was here that
he became involved in the American Indian Movement (AIM) Duringthis tumultuous time Richard strengthened his connection with rela-
tives and deepened his appreciation or Lakota culture
Richard wandered or a while ending up on the island o Maui in
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Hawaii where late one night alone on a deserted beach Creator re-
sponded to Richardrsquos desperate prayer making himsel known to him
From that night in 1048625104863310486311048628 until his passing Richard was on a spiritual journey to live a meaningul lie as a Lakota ollower o the Jesus Way
Richard met and ell in love with Katherine Kroshus o Vancouver
Washington and married her in 1048625104863310486311048630 Richardrsquos proudest legacy is his our
boys Andrew (Diana) Phillip Ian (oni) and Daniel and his grandsons
Ezra Leo and Jude
In February 1048625104863310486331048631 Richard and Katherine ounded the nonprofit min-
istry o Wiconi International Trough Wiconi Richard and Katherinetouched the lives o many thousands o people Richard also coounded
NAIIS (North American Institute or Indigenous Teological Studies)
he was chairman o the board or My People International a member o
the CCDA (Christian Community Development Association) and co-
ounder o Evangelicals or Justice In 104862698308810486251048625 Richard earned his doctorate
in missiology rom Asbury Teological Seminary Until his passing
Richard continued his teaching career through the NAIIS programPortland State University and other institutions o higher education
Richard authored a number o books pamphlets and articles over the
years His first book One Church Many ribes reached many people
with the message o an inculturated aith in Jesus
Richardrsquos mother Winona LaPointe sisters Elaine and Laurie LaPointe
nieces Stacy (Mark) Melissa (ony) Jana and their children remain to
continue his memory His brother om passed beore Richard in 10486269830881048625983088
Composed by erry LeBlanc with assistance from Richardrsquos family
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FOREWORD
Each o us met Richard wiss at different times yet each o us met
when our own journeys (and Richardrsquos) needed additional lif to go
orward on our common trail Whether our first meeting was at a con-
erence through an introduction while studying together or just
hanging out and taking a retrospective look at our Creatorrsquos thoughts all
o us became ast riends with Richard
We all reflect very similarly on the act that Richard had the as-tounding ability to absorb what he read or heard rom others trans-
orming and then seamlessly integrating it into his own thinking While
each o us does somewhat the same thing as a unction o our Indigenous
communal approach to knowledge Richard was a master
It was in Spokane Washington in 1048625104863310486331048629 where Richard hit his stride
He had convened a Christ Culture and the Kingdom seminar or pastors
to present our ldquonewrdquo ideas about culture and aith When the conerenceended and all the attendees had departed we turned to one another
amazed that non-Indigenous pastors were keenly interested in what we
had to say It was the start o a new era or Indigenous ollowers o the
Jesus Way
Our individual and collective encounters orged links o deep and un-
breakable riendship Our camaraderie was truly symbioticmdashan idea
rom one transormed by the other complete with escalating humor Our
journey together depended so much on humor that afer a number o
years o tag-team conerences Richardrsquos mom reerred to us as a stand-up
comedy team Tere was never any doubt that erry was the straight man
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When Richard was provided the opportunity or doctoral studies at
Asbury Teological Seminary he was more than a bit reluctant to at-
tempt such a lofy goal Moreover we were all rustrated that advanceddegrees seemed necessary to urther our efforts to bring an Indigenous
voice to the wider public In Richardrsquos first week o school we had no
ewer than seven serious discussions about him quitting the program
Yet in the end the experience brought us closer together
Te Indigenous message we brought to class discussions became such
a dominant decolonizing voice that we were concerned about being too
great an influencemdashbut the proessors encouraged us pointing out howwe were empowering international students to speak up Following a
welcome event that we hostedmdashwhere Richard spoke words o affir-
mation or those in attendancemdashseventy students rom around the world
expressed that or the first time they elt welcomed to this country
Passionate argument ofen highlighted our close riendship Yet while
so engaged we never expressed animosity or ill willmdashonly deep com-
mitment to one another Just beore his passing or example an ar-gument raged over Richardrsquos attempt to nuance the definition o syn-
cretism in this his last book He used the descriptor counteractive to
modiy the word syncretism attempting a new definition with this two-
word phrase counteractive syncretism We told him it was needless con-
usionmdashthis hybrid phrase just didnrsquot correspond to the simple defi-
nition o syncretism A lot o ood or thought like this came to him in
deep discussions over many lattes
Tat he took our viewpoints seriously was always evident because later
on we would hear people say ldquoRichard says rdquo and in their words we
would hear our own words being repeatedmdashthe ones we had previously
discussed even argued over In our Indigenous communal way he took
our thoughtsmdashthose that were different rom hismdashand made them his
own wo different things his thoughts and our thoughts became one
new thingmdashhis new thought Now that is the definition o syncretism
His nuancing o the word syncretism is still not what we might agree with
but we think he would just laugh at this nonendorsement endorsement
o one o our best and deepest riends
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Foreword 10486251048627
Richard was enigmatic On the one hand as he made clear in the closing
years o his lie he was a common man Yet undoubtedly in many ways he
was not He became or many in the wider Indigenous community ldquothe voice o one crying in the wildernessrdquo inviting believers to make straight
paths or people to find Jesus Denominational and doctrinal competition
that encroached on his early experience o aith set Richard up to return
to the simple message o Jesusmdasha highly-energized story o a Jesus stripped
o colonial baggage And Richard used his unique style and affable sense
o humor to communicate this like no one else ever could
Richard was a oil to anyone who encumbered the message o Jesuswith culturally-bound prejudice He presented a simple path to aithmdash
inviting people to be all they could be through a renewed relationship
with Creatorrsquos son He welcomed everyone to be a part o what Creator
was doing among us making everyone eel special in the process We
hope you will sense his generous spirit as he welcomes you to broaden
your horizonsmdashto come to understand a world where in Richardrsquos
words ldquoTe Gospel is being rescued rom the cowboysrdquo
erry LeBlanc (Gitpu) MirsquokmaqAcadian Listuguj First NationCampbellton
founding chair director NAIIS An Indigenous Learning Community exec-
utive director Indigenous Pathways
Randy S Woodley PhD Keetoowah descendant Distinguished Professor of
Faith and Culture George Fox Seminary author of Shalom and the Com-
munity o Creation An Indigenous Vision (Eerdmans) and Living in
Color Embracing Godrsquos Passion or Ethnic Diversity (InterVarsity Press)
Adrian Jacobs (Ganosono) urtle Clan Cayuga Nation Six Nations Hau-
denosaunee Confederacy Keeper of the Circle (principal) Sandy-Saulteaux
Spiritual Centre
Ray Aldred (Neyihaw) Cree reaty 1048632 assistant professor of theology Ambrose
University and Seminary chair NAIIS An Indigenous Learning Community
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YOU JUST GHOSTED
You didnrsquot say goodbye you just ghosted
We turned around and you just werenrsquot there
A thousand miles away rom home you ell
You lef or heaven and plunged us all in hell
You didnrsquot give us a hug you just ghosted
In the middle o winter the cold breeze blew
Stranded and poor we had no way to get to you
A month later we finally showed sofened and blue
You lef without a word you just ghosted
Words only partially typed and a messy pile
Now wersquore sweeping things up and tying a bow
Finishing your story with ldquothis is what we knowrdquo
You lef without a signature you just ghosted
Outstanding heart accounts thatrsquoll never be paid
But wersquore carrying on doing the best we surmise
Dealing with your quick exit and total surprise
Adrian Jacobs
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PREFACE
Hau kola ldquoHello riendrdquo
Tis manuscript Rescuing the Gospel from the Cowboys is based
on my reflections experiences and intense research over the past twenty-
our years It is the story o many o us Native and Indigenous leaders
who have been finding our way out o neocolonialism into a new liberty
as wersquove walked this Jesus Road together since the late 10486251048633983096983088s
Tis book began as a doctoral dissertation to research whether or notthere is or has been an Indigenous contextualized expression o the
Christian aith among the tribes o the United States and to a lesser
degree Canada Te purpose o my research was to identiy in what ways
Native leaders were reraming the gospel narrative as part o a larger
narrative o postcolonial decolonization in their own unique cultural
contexts Te specific ocus will be on the years 104862510486339830961048633ndash10486269830889830881048633
As I think about it these days contextualization is not a principleormula or evangelistic strategy Contextualization is a relational process
o theological and cultural reflection within a communitymdashseeking to
incorporate traditional symbols music dance ceremony and ritual to
make aith in Jesus a truly local expression Tere is an honest recognition
o the guidance o Creatorrsquos Spirit behind the widening critique and cor-
rection to the hegemonic assumptions o modernity and colonization
decolonization Critical thinking and retraditionalization are key to the
good contextualization efforts arising among Indigenous communities
In the radically-changing ethnic demographics o American culture
and the global community ollowers o Jesus are presented with great
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opportunities and challenges or good We must genuinely appreciate all
cultures as being capable o reflecting biblical aith We must move away
rom ldquoAmerican Christian mythologyrdquo which undergirds colonizationand its resulting paternalism in Indigenous communities We must em-
brace new theological perspectives emerging rom Native leaders as
being ldquoequalrdquo Tese perspectives provide new pathways or the contex-
tualization process Tese pathways identiy Indigenous cultural values
spirituality and ceremony as central to the new approaches to disci-
pleship and leadership development which occur within the community
No longer are such ldquonew approachesrdquo brought in by the cultural outsider
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1
THE CREATORrsquoS PRESENCE
AMONG NATIVE PEOPLE
There is only one Creator o heaven and earth Tere are not ldquomanyrdquo
Creators Just one All o human and nonhuman creation comes out
o this one Creator Tere is not a Creator who created Arica and A-
ricans or Asia and Asians or Europe and Europeans and so orth Who
can create something rom nothing or bring into existence something
that was previously nonexistent It is only this one Creator and there is
none like himher1 Tat being said this one Creator sel-reveals in and
through a myriad o cultural realities in human and nonhuman persons
throughout Unci Maka our ldquoMother Earthrdquo2
Tere are world religions that present names or this one Creator
Tese religions provide creation stories and explanations or heaven
earth and humans and supply wisdom and doctrines to help humanity
resolve its existential dilemma Tere are world religions that have a
sacred text to reerence their belies and there are thousands o ldquoolk
religionsrdquo with oral traditions that do the same through story yetmdashthere
is still just one Creator
For us First Nations people ollowing Creator-Jesus within our Indig-
enous cultural ways without submitting to the hegemonic cultural as-
sumptions o todayrsquos conservative evangelicals is tough I am remindedweekly o these neocolonial and ignorant assumptions as they show up
on the radar o my lie Te ollowing email conversation I had in 104862698308810486251048626
typifies these ldquopingsrdquo
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A group o my First Nations riends and I were looking or a acility
to host a weekend planning retreat We looked at a ew o them and de-
cided on one I knew about rom past experience Te negotiations tobook the acility took an unexpected but not totally surprising turn as
the registration person reacted to the ldquoheathen Indiansrdquo once again
Hello Mr wiss
Whenever we have a new group register with our acility we take
the time and effort to research their belies and methods etc I have
been doing that with your group and we must CANCEL your re-treat with us In your effort to ldquorestore culturerdquo you are taking the
indigenous people back into paganism shamanism alse gods and
the occult You are leading them away rom the Gospel message o
the Bible We pray you will rethink what you are doing to the very
people you love so much I will return your deposit
Tank you ldquoJane Doerdquo
Greetings Jane Doe
Tank you or your response I have many years o involvement and
riendship with people in your center I look orward to continuing
this conversation and still keeping our reservation to host our re-
treat there While a ew may have some narrow and misinormed
ideas about our aith in Jesus and the scriptures please be assured
our group is as remarkable a group o Christ-ollowers as you will
meet Please eel ree to give me a call on my cell phone today
Tank you Richard
Hello Richard
Tank you so much or your email I am aware o your history We
do not doubt your sincere heart and desires But some o theteachings o your group andor its speakers seem to be steering
people away rom the solid Gospel and taking people toward other
gods It may be subtle and it may not be your intent but i one
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486251048633
person leaves our acility compromised in their Christian walk
then we have ailed in our mission It is a hard thing we have to do
but the Lord has asked us to take a very strong stand and we cando nothing less I have returned the deposit and have still canceled
the retreat We pray the Lord will continue to guide you careully
in your efforts
Jane Doe
Greetings Jane
Tanks or your response which honestly surprises me It is cer-
tainly not the spirit that I have elt rom the organizationrsquos be-
ginning as its ounders poured their lives into creating a space or
people to wrestle with the deep issues o lie and spiritual growth
So many o us were in our early twenties when we first journeyed
there struggling to make sense o this new aith and lie we ound
in JesusTe accusations you make against usmdashldquobiblical compromise
[alsehoodheresy] steering people away rom the Gospel into
idolatry [rejecting Christ]rdquo clothed in the notion o protecting the
true Gospel rom Native cultural ways o our Native Christian
communitymdashare plainly offensive theologically arrogant and
judgmental at bestmdashperhaps culturally racist at worst Your lan-
guage o ldquothe Lord has asked us to take a very strong standrdquo againstpeople like us and the way we express our aith in Jesus biblically
culturally and theologically reveals the kind o cultural oppression
our people ace rom an idealized and racialized view o scripture
I the goal is to turn your center into a bastion o biblical protec-
tionism theological control and cultural judgmentalism your
words well reflect that direction
Peace and gracemdashRichard
Richard
Te answer is still ldquoNOrdquo I hear what you are saying but we still
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cannot support what your group and the Indigenous People
Movement are teaching No retreat at our acility
Jane Doe
While this person may represent a more extreme point o view it
nonetheless is what the majority o Euro-American evangelicals believe
about our Native cultural and ceremonial ways Ignorance suspicion and
ear o Native ways run deep in the soul o the American church I will
show later how this has been (and remains) the American churchrsquos at-titude toward our Native ways or centuries now Te tragedy is that it is
not just we who suffer Because we suffer so deeply the entire church and
nation does too
However suspicion and ear run both ways Indigenous people have
a lot to ear about the ldquowhite manrsquos religionrdquo Conquest racism hatred
prejudice exclusion orced assimilation and ongoing institutional injus-
tices are just a ew o the ears that come to mind
ldquoE983158983141983150 W983144983141983150 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 R983145983143983144983156 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 W983154983151983150983143rdquo
mdashS983152983151983147983137983150983141 G983137983154983154983161
When my wie and I lived on the Coeur drsquoAlene Reservation in Northern
Idaho in 1048625104863310486331048630 I was introduced to a lie-changing story about a re-
markable Native leader named Chie Spokane Garry He is one o my
heroes o aith and culture Creator used Chie Garry (104862598309610486251048625ndash104862598309610486331048626) as aldquomessengerrdquo who had a proound spiritual impact by spreading the gospel
(along with his riend and co-worker Kootenai Pelly) among his people
and numerous other tribes in Washington Idaho Oregon and southward3
I have been to the cemetery in Spokane Washington where Chie
Garry was buried It was an honor and a privilege to be standing there
and I was deeply touched He was a tribal leader husband ather and
advocate or justice and Christian values While his efforts appeared tohave no lasting impact and did not bring the white settlers to an under-
standing o justice neverthelessmdashthroughout it allmdashhe remained true
to his aith in Jesus He died rejected and impoverished
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048625
While we were living on the ldquoRezrdquo (reservation) we did not know o
one Native man who regularly attended any o the six Protestant evan-
gelical churchesmdashdespite Garryrsquos lie work Barely hal a dozen womenattended Tis was true as well or the neighboring Nez Perce and Kalispel
reservations Tis act stood in stark contrast to the amazing spiritual
movement inspired by Chie Garry in this region that occurred prior to
an established colonial presence
Tere were other instances o divine intervention in ldquopreparing the
way o the Lordrdquo (Isaiah 10486289830881048627) or mission work among the tribes o
this area including prophecies among the Middle Spokane and Ka-lispel tribes
Yuree-rachen Yuree-rachen ldquoCircling Ravenrdquo was a shaman rom the
Middle Spokane tribe in the late 10486251048631983088983088s He had a personal crisis o aith
in Creator afer his sonrsquos untimely death so he went to Mt Spokane or
a time o asting and prayer During this worship time he received a
vision rom Creator whom they called Quilent-sat-men ldquoHe-Made-Usrdquo
In the vision Yuree-rachen saw white men dressed strangely carryingbundles o leaves astened together He was told that the people were to
learn rom the teachings inscribed on the leaves4
Shining Shirt A similar vision in about the same time period was
given to ldquoShining Shirtrdquo said to be both a chie and a shaman o the Ka-
lispel tribe Ethnologist Harry Holbert urney-High writes that Shining
Shirt was granted a vision in which he was told that there is a Creator and
that air-skinned men in black robes would come and teach them how to
live in a new way according to a moral law During the vision Shining
Shirt was given a metal object engraved with a cross White men were
unknown to these tribal people at that time5
Creator had been at work preparing the Native people or the arrival o
the gospel o Jesus Te Christian revival among those tribes evangelized
by Spokane Garry and Kootenai Pelly was noted by white settlers and ex-
plorers For example Washington Irving in ldquoTe Adventures o Captain
Bonnevillerdquo urther documents the spread o Christianity throughout the
tribes o that region During the winter o 104862598309610486271048626 Bonneville camped with
the Nez Perce on the upper Salmon River in Oregon and observed
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10486261048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
Simply to call these people religious would convey but a aint
idea o the deep hue o piety and devotion which pervades their
whole conduct Teir honesty is immaculate and their purity opurpose and their observance o the rites o their religion are most
uniorm and remarkable Tey are certainly more like a nation o
saints than a horde o savages6
I think the purity and genuine aith mentioned by Bonneville and
others was a result o a aith birthed rom the witness o Jesus-ollowing
Indigenous people to their own tribes Tey spoke the contextual
gospel rom their hearts among their people Tis was not simply the
ldquowhite manrsquos gospelrdquo7
During the time rame o 104862598309610486271048629 to 10486259830961048629983088 European-American mission-
aries arrived in Washington and Oregon Tey communicated the gospel
rom their own cultural viewpoints Te truth is that the gospel o Christ
already had a oothold among the tribes o these areas
With the arrival o the white missionaries and their brand o Christi-
anity the story takes a predictable and unortunate turn Just as Catholic
missionaries insisted on Roman control over earlier Celtic Christian
areas8 so these Anglo missionaries insisted on Euro-American (Western-
style) Christian worship as well as doctrine What is worse their pater-
nalism ethnocentrism colonial collusion and modernism soon ldquocivi-
lizedrdquo this Indigenous movement o the gospel story and thus blinded
these Christians to the already existing work o Creator among theNative nations o the land oday throughout the entire region except
or the history books there is but a remnant o that remarkable out-
pouring o Creatorrsquos story o grace spirituality and community renewal
Unortunately this negative legacy o Christian mission among the
Coeur drsquoAlene Spokane Nez Perce and other tribes is not exceptional
Afer our centuries First Nations peoplesrsquo cultural expressions are still
marginalized or oppressed across North America Native leadership inthe wider church is absent in the evangelical mainstream Tese early
missionaries ldquopeople o their timesrdquo ound little reason to regard Native
believers as coequals because they perceived their own cultural ways as
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048627
superior Tus the majority o these missionaries denounced and de-
monized Native cultural ways part and parcel as pagan idolatrous evil
and sinulAs a result an authentic Native American cultural or Indigenous
expression o ollowing Jesus was never allowed to developmdashthe very
idea being rejected as syncretistic and incongruous with ldquobiblicalrdquo aith
Tis kind o colonial missionary mindset is sadly not a thing o the
past but is still the prevailing perspective (in both Native and non-
Native Christian leaders) among those working in our tribal commu-
nities today Instead o embracing Jesus as the Creator the majority oNative Americans blame American Christianity and the church or the
loss o their own culture and identity Is it any wonder that the vast
majority o Native people today reject Christianity as the ldquowhite manrsquos
religionrdquo
Te headline o a 10486269830889830881048631 article rom the CBC News Network in Canada
read ldquoWinnipeg Church Nixes Native Dancing at Habitat or Humanity
Eventrdquo Te article went on to say
A Winnipeg church prevented aboriginal dancers rom perorming
at a Habitat or Humanity event this week saying the perormance
was not an expression o Christian aith ldquoNative spiritual dancing
has its roots in a different spiritual belie system that is incongruent
with traditional Christian worshiprdquomdashPastor Mark Hughes9
Tis pastor and his church staff though proessing a vision or creatinga multiethnic congregation are not exceptional in their ethnocentric
views and attitudes toward First Nations people and their cultural ex-
pressions Tis church averages 10486261048629983088983088 people in Sunday attendance is
one o the largest in Canada and is considered a leading ldquoChristian voicerdquo
in the province and city
Because o colonial missionariesrsquo attitudes o cultural superiority a
Native American cultural expression o ollowing Jesus didnrsquot developat the time Another powerul actor contributing to the cultural op-
pression brought with the gospel was that Native people were many
times first introduced to Jesus as part o American territorialism
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treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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Hawaii where late one night alone on a deserted beach Creator re-
sponded to Richardrsquos desperate prayer making himsel known to him
From that night in 1048625104863310486311048628 until his passing Richard was on a spiritual journey to live a meaningul lie as a Lakota ollower o the Jesus Way
Richard met and ell in love with Katherine Kroshus o Vancouver
Washington and married her in 1048625104863310486311048630 Richardrsquos proudest legacy is his our
boys Andrew (Diana) Phillip Ian (oni) and Daniel and his grandsons
Ezra Leo and Jude
In February 1048625104863310486331048631 Richard and Katherine ounded the nonprofit min-
istry o Wiconi International Trough Wiconi Richard and Katherinetouched the lives o many thousands o people Richard also coounded
NAIIS (North American Institute or Indigenous Teological Studies)
he was chairman o the board or My People International a member o
the CCDA (Christian Community Development Association) and co-
ounder o Evangelicals or Justice In 104862698308810486251048625 Richard earned his doctorate
in missiology rom Asbury Teological Seminary Until his passing
Richard continued his teaching career through the NAIIS programPortland State University and other institutions o higher education
Richard authored a number o books pamphlets and articles over the
years His first book One Church Many ribes reached many people
with the message o an inculturated aith in Jesus
Richardrsquos mother Winona LaPointe sisters Elaine and Laurie LaPointe
nieces Stacy (Mark) Melissa (ony) Jana and their children remain to
continue his memory His brother om passed beore Richard in 10486269830881048625983088
Composed by erry LeBlanc with assistance from Richardrsquos family
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FOREWORD
Each o us met Richard wiss at different times yet each o us met
when our own journeys (and Richardrsquos) needed additional lif to go
orward on our common trail Whether our first meeting was at a con-
erence through an introduction while studying together or just
hanging out and taking a retrospective look at our Creatorrsquos thoughts all
o us became ast riends with Richard
We all reflect very similarly on the act that Richard had the as-tounding ability to absorb what he read or heard rom others trans-
orming and then seamlessly integrating it into his own thinking While
each o us does somewhat the same thing as a unction o our Indigenous
communal approach to knowledge Richard was a master
It was in Spokane Washington in 1048625104863310486331048629 where Richard hit his stride
He had convened a Christ Culture and the Kingdom seminar or pastors
to present our ldquonewrdquo ideas about culture and aith When the conerenceended and all the attendees had departed we turned to one another
amazed that non-Indigenous pastors were keenly interested in what we
had to say It was the start o a new era or Indigenous ollowers o the
Jesus Way
Our individual and collective encounters orged links o deep and un-
breakable riendship Our camaraderie was truly symbioticmdashan idea
rom one transormed by the other complete with escalating humor Our
journey together depended so much on humor that afer a number o
years o tag-team conerences Richardrsquos mom reerred to us as a stand-up
comedy team Tere was never any doubt that erry was the straight man
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When Richard was provided the opportunity or doctoral studies at
Asbury Teological Seminary he was more than a bit reluctant to at-
tempt such a lofy goal Moreover we were all rustrated that advanceddegrees seemed necessary to urther our efforts to bring an Indigenous
voice to the wider public In Richardrsquos first week o school we had no
ewer than seven serious discussions about him quitting the program
Yet in the end the experience brought us closer together
Te Indigenous message we brought to class discussions became such
a dominant decolonizing voice that we were concerned about being too
great an influencemdashbut the proessors encouraged us pointing out howwe were empowering international students to speak up Following a
welcome event that we hostedmdashwhere Richard spoke words o affir-
mation or those in attendancemdashseventy students rom around the world
expressed that or the first time they elt welcomed to this country
Passionate argument ofen highlighted our close riendship Yet while
so engaged we never expressed animosity or ill willmdashonly deep com-
mitment to one another Just beore his passing or example an ar-gument raged over Richardrsquos attempt to nuance the definition o syn-
cretism in this his last book He used the descriptor counteractive to
modiy the word syncretism attempting a new definition with this two-
word phrase counteractive syncretism We told him it was needless con-
usionmdashthis hybrid phrase just didnrsquot correspond to the simple defi-
nition o syncretism A lot o ood or thought like this came to him in
deep discussions over many lattes
Tat he took our viewpoints seriously was always evident because later
on we would hear people say ldquoRichard says rdquo and in their words we
would hear our own words being repeatedmdashthe ones we had previously
discussed even argued over In our Indigenous communal way he took
our thoughtsmdashthose that were different rom hismdashand made them his
own wo different things his thoughts and our thoughts became one
new thingmdashhis new thought Now that is the definition o syncretism
His nuancing o the word syncretism is still not what we might agree with
but we think he would just laugh at this nonendorsement endorsement
o one o our best and deepest riends
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Foreword 10486251048627
Richard was enigmatic On the one hand as he made clear in the closing
years o his lie he was a common man Yet undoubtedly in many ways he
was not He became or many in the wider Indigenous community ldquothe voice o one crying in the wildernessrdquo inviting believers to make straight
paths or people to find Jesus Denominational and doctrinal competition
that encroached on his early experience o aith set Richard up to return
to the simple message o Jesusmdasha highly-energized story o a Jesus stripped
o colonial baggage And Richard used his unique style and affable sense
o humor to communicate this like no one else ever could
Richard was a oil to anyone who encumbered the message o Jesuswith culturally-bound prejudice He presented a simple path to aithmdash
inviting people to be all they could be through a renewed relationship
with Creatorrsquos son He welcomed everyone to be a part o what Creator
was doing among us making everyone eel special in the process We
hope you will sense his generous spirit as he welcomes you to broaden
your horizonsmdashto come to understand a world where in Richardrsquos
words ldquoTe Gospel is being rescued rom the cowboysrdquo
erry LeBlanc (Gitpu) MirsquokmaqAcadian Listuguj First NationCampbellton
founding chair director NAIIS An Indigenous Learning Community exec-
utive director Indigenous Pathways
Randy S Woodley PhD Keetoowah descendant Distinguished Professor of
Faith and Culture George Fox Seminary author of Shalom and the Com-
munity o Creation An Indigenous Vision (Eerdmans) and Living in
Color Embracing Godrsquos Passion or Ethnic Diversity (InterVarsity Press)
Adrian Jacobs (Ganosono) urtle Clan Cayuga Nation Six Nations Hau-
denosaunee Confederacy Keeper of the Circle (principal) Sandy-Saulteaux
Spiritual Centre
Ray Aldred (Neyihaw) Cree reaty 1048632 assistant professor of theology Ambrose
University and Seminary chair NAIIS An Indigenous Learning Community
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YOU JUST GHOSTED
You didnrsquot say goodbye you just ghosted
We turned around and you just werenrsquot there
A thousand miles away rom home you ell
You lef or heaven and plunged us all in hell
You didnrsquot give us a hug you just ghosted
In the middle o winter the cold breeze blew
Stranded and poor we had no way to get to you
A month later we finally showed sofened and blue
You lef without a word you just ghosted
Words only partially typed and a messy pile
Now wersquore sweeping things up and tying a bow
Finishing your story with ldquothis is what we knowrdquo
You lef without a signature you just ghosted
Outstanding heart accounts thatrsquoll never be paid
But wersquore carrying on doing the best we surmise
Dealing with your quick exit and total surprise
Adrian Jacobs
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PREFACE
Hau kola ldquoHello riendrdquo
Tis manuscript Rescuing the Gospel from the Cowboys is based
on my reflections experiences and intense research over the past twenty-
our years It is the story o many o us Native and Indigenous leaders
who have been finding our way out o neocolonialism into a new liberty
as wersquove walked this Jesus Road together since the late 10486251048633983096983088s
Tis book began as a doctoral dissertation to research whether or notthere is or has been an Indigenous contextualized expression o the
Christian aith among the tribes o the United States and to a lesser
degree Canada Te purpose o my research was to identiy in what ways
Native leaders were reraming the gospel narrative as part o a larger
narrative o postcolonial decolonization in their own unique cultural
contexts Te specific ocus will be on the years 104862510486339830961048633ndash10486269830889830881048633
As I think about it these days contextualization is not a principleormula or evangelistic strategy Contextualization is a relational process
o theological and cultural reflection within a communitymdashseeking to
incorporate traditional symbols music dance ceremony and ritual to
make aith in Jesus a truly local expression Tere is an honest recognition
o the guidance o Creatorrsquos Spirit behind the widening critique and cor-
rection to the hegemonic assumptions o modernity and colonization
decolonization Critical thinking and retraditionalization are key to the
good contextualization efforts arising among Indigenous communities
In the radically-changing ethnic demographics o American culture
and the global community ollowers o Jesus are presented with great
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opportunities and challenges or good We must genuinely appreciate all
cultures as being capable o reflecting biblical aith We must move away
rom ldquoAmerican Christian mythologyrdquo which undergirds colonizationand its resulting paternalism in Indigenous communities We must em-
brace new theological perspectives emerging rom Native leaders as
being ldquoequalrdquo Tese perspectives provide new pathways or the contex-
tualization process Tese pathways identiy Indigenous cultural values
spirituality and ceremony as central to the new approaches to disci-
pleship and leadership development which occur within the community
No longer are such ldquonew approachesrdquo brought in by the cultural outsider
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1
THE CREATORrsquoS PRESENCE
AMONG NATIVE PEOPLE
There is only one Creator o heaven and earth Tere are not ldquomanyrdquo
Creators Just one All o human and nonhuman creation comes out
o this one Creator Tere is not a Creator who created Arica and A-
ricans or Asia and Asians or Europe and Europeans and so orth Who
can create something rom nothing or bring into existence something
that was previously nonexistent It is only this one Creator and there is
none like himher1 Tat being said this one Creator sel-reveals in and
through a myriad o cultural realities in human and nonhuman persons
throughout Unci Maka our ldquoMother Earthrdquo2
Tere are world religions that present names or this one Creator
Tese religions provide creation stories and explanations or heaven
earth and humans and supply wisdom and doctrines to help humanity
resolve its existential dilemma Tere are world religions that have a
sacred text to reerence their belies and there are thousands o ldquoolk
religionsrdquo with oral traditions that do the same through story yetmdashthere
is still just one Creator
For us First Nations people ollowing Creator-Jesus within our Indig-
enous cultural ways without submitting to the hegemonic cultural as-
sumptions o todayrsquos conservative evangelicals is tough I am remindedweekly o these neocolonial and ignorant assumptions as they show up
on the radar o my lie Te ollowing email conversation I had in 104862698308810486251048626
typifies these ldquopingsrdquo
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A group o my First Nations riends and I were looking or a acility
to host a weekend planning retreat We looked at a ew o them and de-
cided on one I knew about rom past experience Te negotiations tobook the acility took an unexpected but not totally surprising turn as
the registration person reacted to the ldquoheathen Indiansrdquo once again
Hello Mr wiss
Whenever we have a new group register with our acility we take
the time and effort to research their belies and methods etc I have
been doing that with your group and we must CANCEL your re-treat with us In your effort to ldquorestore culturerdquo you are taking the
indigenous people back into paganism shamanism alse gods and
the occult You are leading them away rom the Gospel message o
the Bible We pray you will rethink what you are doing to the very
people you love so much I will return your deposit
Tank you ldquoJane Doerdquo
Greetings Jane Doe
Tank you or your response I have many years o involvement and
riendship with people in your center I look orward to continuing
this conversation and still keeping our reservation to host our re-
treat there While a ew may have some narrow and misinormed
ideas about our aith in Jesus and the scriptures please be assured
our group is as remarkable a group o Christ-ollowers as you will
meet Please eel ree to give me a call on my cell phone today
Tank you Richard
Hello Richard
Tank you so much or your email I am aware o your history We
do not doubt your sincere heart and desires But some o theteachings o your group andor its speakers seem to be steering
people away rom the solid Gospel and taking people toward other
gods It may be subtle and it may not be your intent but i one
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486251048633
person leaves our acility compromised in their Christian walk
then we have ailed in our mission It is a hard thing we have to do
but the Lord has asked us to take a very strong stand and we cando nothing less I have returned the deposit and have still canceled
the retreat We pray the Lord will continue to guide you careully
in your efforts
Jane Doe
Greetings Jane
Tanks or your response which honestly surprises me It is cer-
tainly not the spirit that I have elt rom the organizationrsquos be-
ginning as its ounders poured their lives into creating a space or
people to wrestle with the deep issues o lie and spiritual growth
So many o us were in our early twenties when we first journeyed
there struggling to make sense o this new aith and lie we ound
in JesusTe accusations you make against usmdashldquobiblical compromise
[alsehoodheresy] steering people away rom the Gospel into
idolatry [rejecting Christ]rdquo clothed in the notion o protecting the
true Gospel rom Native cultural ways o our Native Christian
communitymdashare plainly offensive theologically arrogant and
judgmental at bestmdashperhaps culturally racist at worst Your lan-
guage o ldquothe Lord has asked us to take a very strong standrdquo againstpeople like us and the way we express our aith in Jesus biblically
culturally and theologically reveals the kind o cultural oppression
our people ace rom an idealized and racialized view o scripture
I the goal is to turn your center into a bastion o biblical protec-
tionism theological control and cultural judgmentalism your
words well reflect that direction
Peace and gracemdashRichard
Richard
Te answer is still ldquoNOrdquo I hear what you are saying but we still
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cannot support what your group and the Indigenous People
Movement are teaching No retreat at our acility
Jane Doe
While this person may represent a more extreme point o view it
nonetheless is what the majority o Euro-American evangelicals believe
about our Native cultural and ceremonial ways Ignorance suspicion and
ear o Native ways run deep in the soul o the American church I will
show later how this has been (and remains) the American churchrsquos at-titude toward our Native ways or centuries now Te tragedy is that it is
not just we who suffer Because we suffer so deeply the entire church and
nation does too
However suspicion and ear run both ways Indigenous people have
a lot to ear about the ldquowhite manrsquos religionrdquo Conquest racism hatred
prejudice exclusion orced assimilation and ongoing institutional injus-
tices are just a ew o the ears that come to mind
ldquoE983158983141983150 W983144983141983150 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 R983145983143983144983156 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 W983154983151983150983143rdquo
mdashS983152983151983147983137983150983141 G983137983154983154983161
When my wie and I lived on the Coeur drsquoAlene Reservation in Northern
Idaho in 1048625104863310486331048630 I was introduced to a lie-changing story about a re-
markable Native leader named Chie Spokane Garry He is one o my
heroes o aith and culture Creator used Chie Garry (104862598309610486251048625ndash104862598309610486331048626) as aldquomessengerrdquo who had a proound spiritual impact by spreading the gospel
(along with his riend and co-worker Kootenai Pelly) among his people
and numerous other tribes in Washington Idaho Oregon and southward3
I have been to the cemetery in Spokane Washington where Chie
Garry was buried It was an honor and a privilege to be standing there
and I was deeply touched He was a tribal leader husband ather and
advocate or justice and Christian values While his efforts appeared tohave no lasting impact and did not bring the white settlers to an under-
standing o justice neverthelessmdashthroughout it allmdashhe remained true
to his aith in Jesus He died rejected and impoverished
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048625
While we were living on the ldquoRezrdquo (reservation) we did not know o
one Native man who regularly attended any o the six Protestant evan-
gelical churchesmdashdespite Garryrsquos lie work Barely hal a dozen womenattended Tis was true as well or the neighboring Nez Perce and Kalispel
reservations Tis act stood in stark contrast to the amazing spiritual
movement inspired by Chie Garry in this region that occurred prior to
an established colonial presence
Tere were other instances o divine intervention in ldquopreparing the
way o the Lordrdquo (Isaiah 10486289830881048627) or mission work among the tribes o
this area including prophecies among the Middle Spokane and Ka-lispel tribes
Yuree-rachen Yuree-rachen ldquoCircling Ravenrdquo was a shaman rom the
Middle Spokane tribe in the late 10486251048631983088983088s He had a personal crisis o aith
in Creator afer his sonrsquos untimely death so he went to Mt Spokane or
a time o asting and prayer During this worship time he received a
vision rom Creator whom they called Quilent-sat-men ldquoHe-Made-Usrdquo
In the vision Yuree-rachen saw white men dressed strangely carryingbundles o leaves astened together He was told that the people were to
learn rom the teachings inscribed on the leaves4
Shining Shirt A similar vision in about the same time period was
given to ldquoShining Shirtrdquo said to be both a chie and a shaman o the Ka-
lispel tribe Ethnologist Harry Holbert urney-High writes that Shining
Shirt was granted a vision in which he was told that there is a Creator and
that air-skinned men in black robes would come and teach them how to
live in a new way according to a moral law During the vision Shining
Shirt was given a metal object engraved with a cross White men were
unknown to these tribal people at that time5
Creator had been at work preparing the Native people or the arrival o
the gospel o Jesus Te Christian revival among those tribes evangelized
by Spokane Garry and Kootenai Pelly was noted by white settlers and ex-
plorers For example Washington Irving in ldquoTe Adventures o Captain
Bonnevillerdquo urther documents the spread o Christianity throughout the
tribes o that region During the winter o 104862598309610486271048626 Bonneville camped with
the Nez Perce on the upper Salmon River in Oregon and observed
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10486261048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
Simply to call these people religious would convey but a aint
idea o the deep hue o piety and devotion which pervades their
whole conduct Teir honesty is immaculate and their purity opurpose and their observance o the rites o their religion are most
uniorm and remarkable Tey are certainly more like a nation o
saints than a horde o savages6
I think the purity and genuine aith mentioned by Bonneville and
others was a result o a aith birthed rom the witness o Jesus-ollowing
Indigenous people to their own tribes Tey spoke the contextual
gospel rom their hearts among their people Tis was not simply the
ldquowhite manrsquos gospelrdquo7
During the time rame o 104862598309610486271048629 to 10486259830961048629983088 European-American mission-
aries arrived in Washington and Oregon Tey communicated the gospel
rom their own cultural viewpoints Te truth is that the gospel o Christ
already had a oothold among the tribes o these areas
With the arrival o the white missionaries and their brand o Christi-
anity the story takes a predictable and unortunate turn Just as Catholic
missionaries insisted on Roman control over earlier Celtic Christian
areas8 so these Anglo missionaries insisted on Euro-American (Western-
style) Christian worship as well as doctrine What is worse their pater-
nalism ethnocentrism colonial collusion and modernism soon ldquocivi-
lizedrdquo this Indigenous movement o the gospel story and thus blinded
these Christians to the already existing work o Creator among theNative nations o the land oday throughout the entire region except
or the history books there is but a remnant o that remarkable out-
pouring o Creatorrsquos story o grace spirituality and community renewal
Unortunately this negative legacy o Christian mission among the
Coeur drsquoAlene Spokane Nez Perce and other tribes is not exceptional
Afer our centuries First Nations peoplesrsquo cultural expressions are still
marginalized or oppressed across North America Native leadership inthe wider church is absent in the evangelical mainstream Tese early
missionaries ldquopeople o their timesrdquo ound little reason to regard Native
believers as coequals because they perceived their own cultural ways as
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048627
superior Tus the majority o these missionaries denounced and de-
monized Native cultural ways part and parcel as pagan idolatrous evil
and sinulAs a result an authentic Native American cultural or Indigenous
expression o ollowing Jesus was never allowed to developmdashthe very
idea being rejected as syncretistic and incongruous with ldquobiblicalrdquo aith
Tis kind o colonial missionary mindset is sadly not a thing o the
past but is still the prevailing perspective (in both Native and non-
Native Christian leaders) among those working in our tribal commu-
nities today Instead o embracing Jesus as the Creator the majority oNative Americans blame American Christianity and the church or the
loss o their own culture and identity Is it any wonder that the vast
majority o Native people today reject Christianity as the ldquowhite manrsquos
religionrdquo
Te headline o a 10486269830889830881048631 article rom the CBC News Network in Canada
read ldquoWinnipeg Church Nixes Native Dancing at Habitat or Humanity
Eventrdquo Te article went on to say
A Winnipeg church prevented aboriginal dancers rom perorming
at a Habitat or Humanity event this week saying the perormance
was not an expression o Christian aith ldquoNative spiritual dancing
has its roots in a different spiritual belie system that is incongruent
with traditional Christian worshiprdquomdashPastor Mark Hughes9
Tis pastor and his church staff though proessing a vision or creatinga multiethnic congregation are not exceptional in their ethnocentric
views and attitudes toward First Nations people and their cultural ex-
pressions Tis church averages 10486261048629983088983088 people in Sunday attendance is
one o the largest in Canada and is considered a leading ldquoChristian voicerdquo
in the province and city
Because o colonial missionariesrsquo attitudes o cultural superiority a
Native American cultural expression o ollowing Jesus didnrsquot developat the time Another powerul actor contributing to the cultural op-
pression brought with the gospel was that Native people were many
times first introduced to Jesus as part o American territorialism
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treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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10486271048628 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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FOREWORD
Each o us met Richard wiss at different times yet each o us met
when our own journeys (and Richardrsquos) needed additional lif to go
orward on our common trail Whether our first meeting was at a con-
erence through an introduction while studying together or just
hanging out and taking a retrospective look at our Creatorrsquos thoughts all
o us became ast riends with Richard
We all reflect very similarly on the act that Richard had the as-tounding ability to absorb what he read or heard rom others trans-
orming and then seamlessly integrating it into his own thinking While
each o us does somewhat the same thing as a unction o our Indigenous
communal approach to knowledge Richard was a master
It was in Spokane Washington in 1048625104863310486331048629 where Richard hit his stride
He had convened a Christ Culture and the Kingdom seminar or pastors
to present our ldquonewrdquo ideas about culture and aith When the conerenceended and all the attendees had departed we turned to one another
amazed that non-Indigenous pastors were keenly interested in what we
had to say It was the start o a new era or Indigenous ollowers o the
Jesus Way
Our individual and collective encounters orged links o deep and un-
breakable riendship Our camaraderie was truly symbioticmdashan idea
rom one transormed by the other complete with escalating humor Our
journey together depended so much on humor that afer a number o
years o tag-team conerences Richardrsquos mom reerred to us as a stand-up
comedy team Tere was never any doubt that erry was the straight man
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When Richard was provided the opportunity or doctoral studies at
Asbury Teological Seminary he was more than a bit reluctant to at-
tempt such a lofy goal Moreover we were all rustrated that advanceddegrees seemed necessary to urther our efforts to bring an Indigenous
voice to the wider public In Richardrsquos first week o school we had no
ewer than seven serious discussions about him quitting the program
Yet in the end the experience brought us closer together
Te Indigenous message we brought to class discussions became such
a dominant decolonizing voice that we were concerned about being too
great an influencemdashbut the proessors encouraged us pointing out howwe were empowering international students to speak up Following a
welcome event that we hostedmdashwhere Richard spoke words o affir-
mation or those in attendancemdashseventy students rom around the world
expressed that or the first time they elt welcomed to this country
Passionate argument ofen highlighted our close riendship Yet while
so engaged we never expressed animosity or ill willmdashonly deep com-
mitment to one another Just beore his passing or example an ar-gument raged over Richardrsquos attempt to nuance the definition o syn-
cretism in this his last book He used the descriptor counteractive to
modiy the word syncretism attempting a new definition with this two-
word phrase counteractive syncretism We told him it was needless con-
usionmdashthis hybrid phrase just didnrsquot correspond to the simple defi-
nition o syncretism A lot o ood or thought like this came to him in
deep discussions over many lattes
Tat he took our viewpoints seriously was always evident because later
on we would hear people say ldquoRichard says rdquo and in their words we
would hear our own words being repeatedmdashthe ones we had previously
discussed even argued over In our Indigenous communal way he took
our thoughtsmdashthose that were different rom hismdashand made them his
own wo different things his thoughts and our thoughts became one
new thingmdashhis new thought Now that is the definition o syncretism
His nuancing o the word syncretism is still not what we might agree with
but we think he would just laugh at this nonendorsement endorsement
o one o our best and deepest riends
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Foreword 10486251048627
Richard was enigmatic On the one hand as he made clear in the closing
years o his lie he was a common man Yet undoubtedly in many ways he
was not He became or many in the wider Indigenous community ldquothe voice o one crying in the wildernessrdquo inviting believers to make straight
paths or people to find Jesus Denominational and doctrinal competition
that encroached on his early experience o aith set Richard up to return
to the simple message o Jesusmdasha highly-energized story o a Jesus stripped
o colonial baggage And Richard used his unique style and affable sense
o humor to communicate this like no one else ever could
Richard was a oil to anyone who encumbered the message o Jesuswith culturally-bound prejudice He presented a simple path to aithmdash
inviting people to be all they could be through a renewed relationship
with Creatorrsquos son He welcomed everyone to be a part o what Creator
was doing among us making everyone eel special in the process We
hope you will sense his generous spirit as he welcomes you to broaden
your horizonsmdashto come to understand a world where in Richardrsquos
words ldquoTe Gospel is being rescued rom the cowboysrdquo
erry LeBlanc (Gitpu) MirsquokmaqAcadian Listuguj First NationCampbellton
founding chair director NAIIS An Indigenous Learning Community exec-
utive director Indigenous Pathways
Randy S Woodley PhD Keetoowah descendant Distinguished Professor of
Faith and Culture George Fox Seminary author of Shalom and the Com-
munity o Creation An Indigenous Vision (Eerdmans) and Living in
Color Embracing Godrsquos Passion or Ethnic Diversity (InterVarsity Press)
Adrian Jacobs (Ganosono) urtle Clan Cayuga Nation Six Nations Hau-
denosaunee Confederacy Keeper of the Circle (principal) Sandy-Saulteaux
Spiritual Centre
Ray Aldred (Neyihaw) Cree reaty 1048632 assistant professor of theology Ambrose
University and Seminary chair NAIIS An Indigenous Learning Community
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YOU JUST GHOSTED
You didnrsquot say goodbye you just ghosted
We turned around and you just werenrsquot there
A thousand miles away rom home you ell
You lef or heaven and plunged us all in hell
You didnrsquot give us a hug you just ghosted
In the middle o winter the cold breeze blew
Stranded and poor we had no way to get to you
A month later we finally showed sofened and blue
You lef without a word you just ghosted
Words only partially typed and a messy pile
Now wersquore sweeping things up and tying a bow
Finishing your story with ldquothis is what we knowrdquo
You lef without a signature you just ghosted
Outstanding heart accounts thatrsquoll never be paid
But wersquore carrying on doing the best we surmise
Dealing with your quick exit and total surprise
Adrian Jacobs
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PREFACE
Hau kola ldquoHello riendrdquo
Tis manuscript Rescuing the Gospel from the Cowboys is based
on my reflections experiences and intense research over the past twenty-
our years It is the story o many o us Native and Indigenous leaders
who have been finding our way out o neocolonialism into a new liberty
as wersquove walked this Jesus Road together since the late 10486251048633983096983088s
Tis book began as a doctoral dissertation to research whether or notthere is or has been an Indigenous contextualized expression o the
Christian aith among the tribes o the United States and to a lesser
degree Canada Te purpose o my research was to identiy in what ways
Native leaders were reraming the gospel narrative as part o a larger
narrative o postcolonial decolonization in their own unique cultural
contexts Te specific ocus will be on the years 104862510486339830961048633ndash10486269830889830881048633
As I think about it these days contextualization is not a principleormula or evangelistic strategy Contextualization is a relational process
o theological and cultural reflection within a communitymdashseeking to
incorporate traditional symbols music dance ceremony and ritual to
make aith in Jesus a truly local expression Tere is an honest recognition
o the guidance o Creatorrsquos Spirit behind the widening critique and cor-
rection to the hegemonic assumptions o modernity and colonization
decolonization Critical thinking and retraditionalization are key to the
good contextualization efforts arising among Indigenous communities
In the radically-changing ethnic demographics o American culture
and the global community ollowers o Jesus are presented with great
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opportunities and challenges or good We must genuinely appreciate all
cultures as being capable o reflecting biblical aith We must move away
rom ldquoAmerican Christian mythologyrdquo which undergirds colonizationand its resulting paternalism in Indigenous communities We must em-
brace new theological perspectives emerging rom Native leaders as
being ldquoequalrdquo Tese perspectives provide new pathways or the contex-
tualization process Tese pathways identiy Indigenous cultural values
spirituality and ceremony as central to the new approaches to disci-
pleship and leadership development which occur within the community
No longer are such ldquonew approachesrdquo brought in by the cultural outsider
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1
THE CREATORrsquoS PRESENCE
AMONG NATIVE PEOPLE
There is only one Creator o heaven and earth Tere are not ldquomanyrdquo
Creators Just one All o human and nonhuman creation comes out
o this one Creator Tere is not a Creator who created Arica and A-
ricans or Asia and Asians or Europe and Europeans and so orth Who
can create something rom nothing or bring into existence something
that was previously nonexistent It is only this one Creator and there is
none like himher1 Tat being said this one Creator sel-reveals in and
through a myriad o cultural realities in human and nonhuman persons
throughout Unci Maka our ldquoMother Earthrdquo2
Tere are world religions that present names or this one Creator
Tese religions provide creation stories and explanations or heaven
earth and humans and supply wisdom and doctrines to help humanity
resolve its existential dilemma Tere are world religions that have a
sacred text to reerence their belies and there are thousands o ldquoolk
religionsrdquo with oral traditions that do the same through story yetmdashthere
is still just one Creator
For us First Nations people ollowing Creator-Jesus within our Indig-
enous cultural ways without submitting to the hegemonic cultural as-
sumptions o todayrsquos conservative evangelicals is tough I am remindedweekly o these neocolonial and ignorant assumptions as they show up
on the radar o my lie Te ollowing email conversation I had in 104862698308810486251048626
typifies these ldquopingsrdquo
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A group o my First Nations riends and I were looking or a acility
to host a weekend planning retreat We looked at a ew o them and de-
cided on one I knew about rom past experience Te negotiations tobook the acility took an unexpected but not totally surprising turn as
the registration person reacted to the ldquoheathen Indiansrdquo once again
Hello Mr wiss
Whenever we have a new group register with our acility we take
the time and effort to research their belies and methods etc I have
been doing that with your group and we must CANCEL your re-treat with us In your effort to ldquorestore culturerdquo you are taking the
indigenous people back into paganism shamanism alse gods and
the occult You are leading them away rom the Gospel message o
the Bible We pray you will rethink what you are doing to the very
people you love so much I will return your deposit
Tank you ldquoJane Doerdquo
Greetings Jane Doe
Tank you or your response I have many years o involvement and
riendship with people in your center I look orward to continuing
this conversation and still keeping our reservation to host our re-
treat there While a ew may have some narrow and misinormed
ideas about our aith in Jesus and the scriptures please be assured
our group is as remarkable a group o Christ-ollowers as you will
meet Please eel ree to give me a call on my cell phone today
Tank you Richard
Hello Richard
Tank you so much or your email I am aware o your history We
do not doubt your sincere heart and desires But some o theteachings o your group andor its speakers seem to be steering
people away rom the solid Gospel and taking people toward other
gods It may be subtle and it may not be your intent but i one
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486251048633
person leaves our acility compromised in their Christian walk
then we have ailed in our mission It is a hard thing we have to do
but the Lord has asked us to take a very strong stand and we cando nothing less I have returned the deposit and have still canceled
the retreat We pray the Lord will continue to guide you careully
in your efforts
Jane Doe
Greetings Jane
Tanks or your response which honestly surprises me It is cer-
tainly not the spirit that I have elt rom the organizationrsquos be-
ginning as its ounders poured their lives into creating a space or
people to wrestle with the deep issues o lie and spiritual growth
So many o us were in our early twenties when we first journeyed
there struggling to make sense o this new aith and lie we ound
in JesusTe accusations you make against usmdashldquobiblical compromise
[alsehoodheresy] steering people away rom the Gospel into
idolatry [rejecting Christ]rdquo clothed in the notion o protecting the
true Gospel rom Native cultural ways o our Native Christian
communitymdashare plainly offensive theologically arrogant and
judgmental at bestmdashperhaps culturally racist at worst Your lan-
guage o ldquothe Lord has asked us to take a very strong standrdquo againstpeople like us and the way we express our aith in Jesus biblically
culturally and theologically reveals the kind o cultural oppression
our people ace rom an idealized and racialized view o scripture
I the goal is to turn your center into a bastion o biblical protec-
tionism theological control and cultural judgmentalism your
words well reflect that direction
Peace and gracemdashRichard
Richard
Te answer is still ldquoNOrdquo I hear what you are saying but we still
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cannot support what your group and the Indigenous People
Movement are teaching No retreat at our acility
Jane Doe
While this person may represent a more extreme point o view it
nonetheless is what the majority o Euro-American evangelicals believe
about our Native cultural and ceremonial ways Ignorance suspicion and
ear o Native ways run deep in the soul o the American church I will
show later how this has been (and remains) the American churchrsquos at-titude toward our Native ways or centuries now Te tragedy is that it is
not just we who suffer Because we suffer so deeply the entire church and
nation does too
However suspicion and ear run both ways Indigenous people have
a lot to ear about the ldquowhite manrsquos religionrdquo Conquest racism hatred
prejudice exclusion orced assimilation and ongoing institutional injus-
tices are just a ew o the ears that come to mind
ldquoE983158983141983150 W983144983141983150 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 R983145983143983144983156 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 W983154983151983150983143rdquo
mdashS983152983151983147983137983150983141 G983137983154983154983161
When my wie and I lived on the Coeur drsquoAlene Reservation in Northern
Idaho in 1048625104863310486331048630 I was introduced to a lie-changing story about a re-
markable Native leader named Chie Spokane Garry He is one o my
heroes o aith and culture Creator used Chie Garry (104862598309610486251048625ndash104862598309610486331048626) as aldquomessengerrdquo who had a proound spiritual impact by spreading the gospel
(along with his riend and co-worker Kootenai Pelly) among his people
and numerous other tribes in Washington Idaho Oregon and southward3
I have been to the cemetery in Spokane Washington where Chie
Garry was buried It was an honor and a privilege to be standing there
and I was deeply touched He was a tribal leader husband ather and
advocate or justice and Christian values While his efforts appeared tohave no lasting impact and did not bring the white settlers to an under-
standing o justice neverthelessmdashthroughout it allmdashhe remained true
to his aith in Jesus He died rejected and impoverished
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048625
While we were living on the ldquoRezrdquo (reservation) we did not know o
one Native man who regularly attended any o the six Protestant evan-
gelical churchesmdashdespite Garryrsquos lie work Barely hal a dozen womenattended Tis was true as well or the neighboring Nez Perce and Kalispel
reservations Tis act stood in stark contrast to the amazing spiritual
movement inspired by Chie Garry in this region that occurred prior to
an established colonial presence
Tere were other instances o divine intervention in ldquopreparing the
way o the Lordrdquo (Isaiah 10486289830881048627) or mission work among the tribes o
this area including prophecies among the Middle Spokane and Ka-lispel tribes
Yuree-rachen Yuree-rachen ldquoCircling Ravenrdquo was a shaman rom the
Middle Spokane tribe in the late 10486251048631983088983088s He had a personal crisis o aith
in Creator afer his sonrsquos untimely death so he went to Mt Spokane or
a time o asting and prayer During this worship time he received a
vision rom Creator whom they called Quilent-sat-men ldquoHe-Made-Usrdquo
In the vision Yuree-rachen saw white men dressed strangely carryingbundles o leaves astened together He was told that the people were to
learn rom the teachings inscribed on the leaves4
Shining Shirt A similar vision in about the same time period was
given to ldquoShining Shirtrdquo said to be both a chie and a shaman o the Ka-
lispel tribe Ethnologist Harry Holbert urney-High writes that Shining
Shirt was granted a vision in which he was told that there is a Creator and
that air-skinned men in black robes would come and teach them how to
live in a new way according to a moral law During the vision Shining
Shirt was given a metal object engraved with a cross White men were
unknown to these tribal people at that time5
Creator had been at work preparing the Native people or the arrival o
the gospel o Jesus Te Christian revival among those tribes evangelized
by Spokane Garry and Kootenai Pelly was noted by white settlers and ex-
plorers For example Washington Irving in ldquoTe Adventures o Captain
Bonnevillerdquo urther documents the spread o Christianity throughout the
tribes o that region During the winter o 104862598309610486271048626 Bonneville camped with
the Nez Perce on the upper Salmon River in Oregon and observed
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10486261048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
Simply to call these people religious would convey but a aint
idea o the deep hue o piety and devotion which pervades their
whole conduct Teir honesty is immaculate and their purity opurpose and their observance o the rites o their religion are most
uniorm and remarkable Tey are certainly more like a nation o
saints than a horde o savages6
I think the purity and genuine aith mentioned by Bonneville and
others was a result o a aith birthed rom the witness o Jesus-ollowing
Indigenous people to their own tribes Tey spoke the contextual
gospel rom their hearts among their people Tis was not simply the
ldquowhite manrsquos gospelrdquo7
During the time rame o 104862598309610486271048629 to 10486259830961048629983088 European-American mission-
aries arrived in Washington and Oregon Tey communicated the gospel
rom their own cultural viewpoints Te truth is that the gospel o Christ
already had a oothold among the tribes o these areas
With the arrival o the white missionaries and their brand o Christi-
anity the story takes a predictable and unortunate turn Just as Catholic
missionaries insisted on Roman control over earlier Celtic Christian
areas8 so these Anglo missionaries insisted on Euro-American (Western-
style) Christian worship as well as doctrine What is worse their pater-
nalism ethnocentrism colonial collusion and modernism soon ldquocivi-
lizedrdquo this Indigenous movement o the gospel story and thus blinded
these Christians to the already existing work o Creator among theNative nations o the land oday throughout the entire region except
or the history books there is but a remnant o that remarkable out-
pouring o Creatorrsquos story o grace spirituality and community renewal
Unortunately this negative legacy o Christian mission among the
Coeur drsquoAlene Spokane Nez Perce and other tribes is not exceptional
Afer our centuries First Nations peoplesrsquo cultural expressions are still
marginalized or oppressed across North America Native leadership inthe wider church is absent in the evangelical mainstream Tese early
missionaries ldquopeople o their timesrdquo ound little reason to regard Native
believers as coequals because they perceived their own cultural ways as
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048627
superior Tus the majority o these missionaries denounced and de-
monized Native cultural ways part and parcel as pagan idolatrous evil
and sinulAs a result an authentic Native American cultural or Indigenous
expression o ollowing Jesus was never allowed to developmdashthe very
idea being rejected as syncretistic and incongruous with ldquobiblicalrdquo aith
Tis kind o colonial missionary mindset is sadly not a thing o the
past but is still the prevailing perspective (in both Native and non-
Native Christian leaders) among those working in our tribal commu-
nities today Instead o embracing Jesus as the Creator the majority oNative Americans blame American Christianity and the church or the
loss o their own culture and identity Is it any wonder that the vast
majority o Native people today reject Christianity as the ldquowhite manrsquos
religionrdquo
Te headline o a 10486269830889830881048631 article rom the CBC News Network in Canada
read ldquoWinnipeg Church Nixes Native Dancing at Habitat or Humanity
Eventrdquo Te article went on to say
A Winnipeg church prevented aboriginal dancers rom perorming
at a Habitat or Humanity event this week saying the perormance
was not an expression o Christian aith ldquoNative spiritual dancing
has its roots in a different spiritual belie system that is incongruent
with traditional Christian worshiprdquomdashPastor Mark Hughes9
Tis pastor and his church staff though proessing a vision or creatinga multiethnic congregation are not exceptional in their ethnocentric
views and attitudes toward First Nations people and their cultural ex-
pressions Tis church averages 10486261048629983088983088 people in Sunday attendance is
one o the largest in Canada and is considered a leading ldquoChristian voicerdquo
in the province and city
Because o colonial missionariesrsquo attitudes o cultural superiority a
Native American cultural expression o ollowing Jesus didnrsquot developat the time Another powerul actor contributing to the cultural op-
pression brought with the gospel was that Native people were many
times first introduced to Jesus as part o American territorialism
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treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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10486261048630 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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1048627983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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10486271048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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When Richard was provided the opportunity or doctoral studies at
Asbury Teological Seminary he was more than a bit reluctant to at-
tempt such a lofy goal Moreover we were all rustrated that advanceddegrees seemed necessary to urther our efforts to bring an Indigenous
voice to the wider public In Richardrsquos first week o school we had no
ewer than seven serious discussions about him quitting the program
Yet in the end the experience brought us closer together
Te Indigenous message we brought to class discussions became such
a dominant decolonizing voice that we were concerned about being too
great an influencemdashbut the proessors encouraged us pointing out howwe were empowering international students to speak up Following a
welcome event that we hostedmdashwhere Richard spoke words o affir-
mation or those in attendancemdashseventy students rom around the world
expressed that or the first time they elt welcomed to this country
Passionate argument ofen highlighted our close riendship Yet while
so engaged we never expressed animosity or ill willmdashonly deep com-
mitment to one another Just beore his passing or example an ar-gument raged over Richardrsquos attempt to nuance the definition o syn-
cretism in this his last book He used the descriptor counteractive to
modiy the word syncretism attempting a new definition with this two-
word phrase counteractive syncretism We told him it was needless con-
usionmdashthis hybrid phrase just didnrsquot correspond to the simple defi-
nition o syncretism A lot o ood or thought like this came to him in
deep discussions over many lattes
Tat he took our viewpoints seriously was always evident because later
on we would hear people say ldquoRichard says rdquo and in their words we
would hear our own words being repeatedmdashthe ones we had previously
discussed even argued over In our Indigenous communal way he took
our thoughtsmdashthose that were different rom hismdashand made them his
own wo different things his thoughts and our thoughts became one
new thingmdashhis new thought Now that is the definition o syncretism
His nuancing o the word syncretism is still not what we might agree with
but we think he would just laugh at this nonendorsement endorsement
o one o our best and deepest riends
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Foreword 10486251048627
Richard was enigmatic On the one hand as he made clear in the closing
years o his lie he was a common man Yet undoubtedly in many ways he
was not He became or many in the wider Indigenous community ldquothe voice o one crying in the wildernessrdquo inviting believers to make straight
paths or people to find Jesus Denominational and doctrinal competition
that encroached on his early experience o aith set Richard up to return
to the simple message o Jesusmdasha highly-energized story o a Jesus stripped
o colonial baggage And Richard used his unique style and affable sense
o humor to communicate this like no one else ever could
Richard was a oil to anyone who encumbered the message o Jesuswith culturally-bound prejudice He presented a simple path to aithmdash
inviting people to be all they could be through a renewed relationship
with Creatorrsquos son He welcomed everyone to be a part o what Creator
was doing among us making everyone eel special in the process We
hope you will sense his generous spirit as he welcomes you to broaden
your horizonsmdashto come to understand a world where in Richardrsquos
words ldquoTe Gospel is being rescued rom the cowboysrdquo
erry LeBlanc (Gitpu) MirsquokmaqAcadian Listuguj First NationCampbellton
founding chair director NAIIS An Indigenous Learning Community exec-
utive director Indigenous Pathways
Randy S Woodley PhD Keetoowah descendant Distinguished Professor of
Faith and Culture George Fox Seminary author of Shalom and the Com-
munity o Creation An Indigenous Vision (Eerdmans) and Living in
Color Embracing Godrsquos Passion or Ethnic Diversity (InterVarsity Press)
Adrian Jacobs (Ganosono) urtle Clan Cayuga Nation Six Nations Hau-
denosaunee Confederacy Keeper of the Circle (principal) Sandy-Saulteaux
Spiritual Centre
Ray Aldred (Neyihaw) Cree reaty 1048632 assistant professor of theology Ambrose
University and Seminary chair NAIIS An Indigenous Learning Community
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YOU JUST GHOSTED
You didnrsquot say goodbye you just ghosted
We turned around and you just werenrsquot there
A thousand miles away rom home you ell
You lef or heaven and plunged us all in hell
You didnrsquot give us a hug you just ghosted
In the middle o winter the cold breeze blew
Stranded and poor we had no way to get to you
A month later we finally showed sofened and blue
You lef without a word you just ghosted
Words only partially typed and a messy pile
Now wersquore sweeping things up and tying a bow
Finishing your story with ldquothis is what we knowrdquo
You lef without a signature you just ghosted
Outstanding heart accounts thatrsquoll never be paid
But wersquore carrying on doing the best we surmise
Dealing with your quick exit and total surprise
Adrian Jacobs
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PREFACE
Hau kola ldquoHello riendrdquo
Tis manuscript Rescuing the Gospel from the Cowboys is based
on my reflections experiences and intense research over the past twenty-
our years It is the story o many o us Native and Indigenous leaders
who have been finding our way out o neocolonialism into a new liberty
as wersquove walked this Jesus Road together since the late 10486251048633983096983088s
Tis book began as a doctoral dissertation to research whether or notthere is or has been an Indigenous contextualized expression o the
Christian aith among the tribes o the United States and to a lesser
degree Canada Te purpose o my research was to identiy in what ways
Native leaders were reraming the gospel narrative as part o a larger
narrative o postcolonial decolonization in their own unique cultural
contexts Te specific ocus will be on the years 104862510486339830961048633ndash10486269830889830881048633
As I think about it these days contextualization is not a principleormula or evangelistic strategy Contextualization is a relational process
o theological and cultural reflection within a communitymdashseeking to
incorporate traditional symbols music dance ceremony and ritual to
make aith in Jesus a truly local expression Tere is an honest recognition
o the guidance o Creatorrsquos Spirit behind the widening critique and cor-
rection to the hegemonic assumptions o modernity and colonization
decolonization Critical thinking and retraditionalization are key to the
good contextualization efforts arising among Indigenous communities
In the radically-changing ethnic demographics o American culture
and the global community ollowers o Jesus are presented with great
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opportunities and challenges or good We must genuinely appreciate all
cultures as being capable o reflecting biblical aith We must move away
rom ldquoAmerican Christian mythologyrdquo which undergirds colonizationand its resulting paternalism in Indigenous communities We must em-
brace new theological perspectives emerging rom Native leaders as
being ldquoequalrdquo Tese perspectives provide new pathways or the contex-
tualization process Tese pathways identiy Indigenous cultural values
spirituality and ceremony as central to the new approaches to disci-
pleship and leadership development which occur within the community
No longer are such ldquonew approachesrdquo brought in by the cultural outsider
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1
THE CREATORrsquoS PRESENCE
AMONG NATIVE PEOPLE
There is only one Creator o heaven and earth Tere are not ldquomanyrdquo
Creators Just one All o human and nonhuman creation comes out
o this one Creator Tere is not a Creator who created Arica and A-
ricans or Asia and Asians or Europe and Europeans and so orth Who
can create something rom nothing or bring into existence something
that was previously nonexistent It is only this one Creator and there is
none like himher1 Tat being said this one Creator sel-reveals in and
through a myriad o cultural realities in human and nonhuman persons
throughout Unci Maka our ldquoMother Earthrdquo2
Tere are world religions that present names or this one Creator
Tese religions provide creation stories and explanations or heaven
earth and humans and supply wisdom and doctrines to help humanity
resolve its existential dilemma Tere are world religions that have a
sacred text to reerence their belies and there are thousands o ldquoolk
religionsrdquo with oral traditions that do the same through story yetmdashthere
is still just one Creator
For us First Nations people ollowing Creator-Jesus within our Indig-
enous cultural ways without submitting to the hegemonic cultural as-
sumptions o todayrsquos conservative evangelicals is tough I am remindedweekly o these neocolonial and ignorant assumptions as they show up
on the radar o my lie Te ollowing email conversation I had in 104862698308810486251048626
typifies these ldquopingsrdquo
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A group o my First Nations riends and I were looking or a acility
to host a weekend planning retreat We looked at a ew o them and de-
cided on one I knew about rom past experience Te negotiations tobook the acility took an unexpected but not totally surprising turn as
the registration person reacted to the ldquoheathen Indiansrdquo once again
Hello Mr wiss
Whenever we have a new group register with our acility we take
the time and effort to research their belies and methods etc I have
been doing that with your group and we must CANCEL your re-treat with us In your effort to ldquorestore culturerdquo you are taking the
indigenous people back into paganism shamanism alse gods and
the occult You are leading them away rom the Gospel message o
the Bible We pray you will rethink what you are doing to the very
people you love so much I will return your deposit
Tank you ldquoJane Doerdquo
Greetings Jane Doe
Tank you or your response I have many years o involvement and
riendship with people in your center I look orward to continuing
this conversation and still keeping our reservation to host our re-
treat there While a ew may have some narrow and misinormed
ideas about our aith in Jesus and the scriptures please be assured
our group is as remarkable a group o Christ-ollowers as you will
meet Please eel ree to give me a call on my cell phone today
Tank you Richard
Hello Richard
Tank you so much or your email I am aware o your history We
do not doubt your sincere heart and desires But some o theteachings o your group andor its speakers seem to be steering
people away rom the solid Gospel and taking people toward other
gods It may be subtle and it may not be your intent but i one
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486251048633
person leaves our acility compromised in their Christian walk
then we have ailed in our mission It is a hard thing we have to do
but the Lord has asked us to take a very strong stand and we cando nothing less I have returned the deposit and have still canceled
the retreat We pray the Lord will continue to guide you careully
in your efforts
Jane Doe
Greetings Jane
Tanks or your response which honestly surprises me It is cer-
tainly not the spirit that I have elt rom the organizationrsquos be-
ginning as its ounders poured their lives into creating a space or
people to wrestle with the deep issues o lie and spiritual growth
So many o us were in our early twenties when we first journeyed
there struggling to make sense o this new aith and lie we ound
in JesusTe accusations you make against usmdashldquobiblical compromise
[alsehoodheresy] steering people away rom the Gospel into
idolatry [rejecting Christ]rdquo clothed in the notion o protecting the
true Gospel rom Native cultural ways o our Native Christian
communitymdashare plainly offensive theologically arrogant and
judgmental at bestmdashperhaps culturally racist at worst Your lan-
guage o ldquothe Lord has asked us to take a very strong standrdquo againstpeople like us and the way we express our aith in Jesus biblically
culturally and theologically reveals the kind o cultural oppression
our people ace rom an idealized and racialized view o scripture
I the goal is to turn your center into a bastion o biblical protec-
tionism theological control and cultural judgmentalism your
words well reflect that direction
Peace and gracemdashRichard
Richard
Te answer is still ldquoNOrdquo I hear what you are saying but we still
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cannot support what your group and the Indigenous People
Movement are teaching No retreat at our acility
Jane Doe
While this person may represent a more extreme point o view it
nonetheless is what the majority o Euro-American evangelicals believe
about our Native cultural and ceremonial ways Ignorance suspicion and
ear o Native ways run deep in the soul o the American church I will
show later how this has been (and remains) the American churchrsquos at-titude toward our Native ways or centuries now Te tragedy is that it is
not just we who suffer Because we suffer so deeply the entire church and
nation does too
However suspicion and ear run both ways Indigenous people have
a lot to ear about the ldquowhite manrsquos religionrdquo Conquest racism hatred
prejudice exclusion orced assimilation and ongoing institutional injus-
tices are just a ew o the ears that come to mind
ldquoE983158983141983150 W983144983141983150 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 R983145983143983144983156 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 W983154983151983150983143rdquo
mdashS983152983151983147983137983150983141 G983137983154983154983161
When my wie and I lived on the Coeur drsquoAlene Reservation in Northern
Idaho in 1048625104863310486331048630 I was introduced to a lie-changing story about a re-
markable Native leader named Chie Spokane Garry He is one o my
heroes o aith and culture Creator used Chie Garry (104862598309610486251048625ndash104862598309610486331048626) as aldquomessengerrdquo who had a proound spiritual impact by spreading the gospel
(along with his riend and co-worker Kootenai Pelly) among his people
and numerous other tribes in Washington Idaho Oregon and southward3
I have been to the cemetery in Spokane Washington where Chie
Garry was buried It was an honor and a privilege to be standing there
and I was deeply touched He was a tribal leader husband ather and
advocate or justice and Christian values While his efforts appeared tohave no lasting impact and did not bring the white settlers to an under-
standing o justice neverthelessmdashthroughout it allmdashhe remained true
to his aith in Jesus He died rejected and impoverished
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048625
While we were living on the ldquoRezrdquo (reservation) we did not know o
one Native man who regularly attended any o the six Protestant evan-
gelical churchesmdashdespite Garryrsquos lie work Barely hal a dozen womenattended Tis was true as well or the neighboring Nez Perce and Kalispel
reservations Tis act stood in stark contrast to the amazing spiritual
movement inspired by Chie Garry in this region that occurred prior to
an established colonial presence
Tere were other instances o divine intervention in ldquopreparing the
way o the Lordrdquo (Isaiah 10486289830881048627) or mission work among the tribes o
this area including prophecies among the Middle Spokane and Ka-lispel tribes
Yuree-rachen Yuree-rachen ldquoCircling Ravenrdquo was a shaman rom the
Middle Spokane tribe in the late 10486251048631983088983088s He had a personal crisis o aith
in Creator afer his sonrsquos untimely death so he went to Mt Spokane or
a time o asting and prayer During this worship time he received a
vision rom Creator whom they called Quilent-sat-men ldquoHe-Made-Usrdquo
In the vision Yuree-rachen saw white men dressed strangely carryingbundles o leaves astened together He was told that the people were to
learn rom the teachings inscribed on the leaves4
Shining Shirt A similar vision in about the same time period was
given to ldquoShining Shirtrdquo said to be both a chie and a shaman o the Ka-
lispel tribe Ethnologist Harry Holbert urney-High writes that Shining
Shirt was granted a vision in which he was told that there is a Creator and
that air-skinned men in black robes would come and teach them how to
live in a new way according to a moral law During the vision Shining
Shirt was given a metal object engraved with a cross White men were
unknown to these tribal people at that time5
Creator had been at work preparing the Native people or the arrival o
the gospel o Jesus Te Christian revival among those tribes evangelized
by Spokane Garry and Kootenai Pelly was noted by white settlers and ex-
plorers For example Washington Irving in ldquoTe Adventures o Captain
Bonnevillerdquo urther documents the spread o Christianity throughout the
tribes o that region During the winter o 104862598309610486271048626 Bonneville camped with
the Nez Perce on the upper Salmon River in Oregon and observed
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10486261048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
Simply to call these people religious would convey but a aint
idea o the deep hue o piety and devotion which pervades their
whole conduct Teir honesty is immaculate and their purity opurpose and their observance o the rites o their religion are most
uniorm and remarkable Tey are certainly more like a nation o
saints than a horde o savages6
I think the purity and genuine aith mentioned by Bonneville and
others was a result o a aith birthed rom the witness o Jesus-ollowing
Indigenous people to their own tribes Tey spoke the contextual
gospel rom their hearts among their people Tis was not simply the
ldquowhite manrsquos gospelrdquo7
During the time rame o 104862598309610486271048629 to 10486259830961048629983088 European-American mission-
aries arrived in Washington and Oregon Tey communicated the gospel
rom their own cultural viewpoints Te truth is that the gospel o Christ
already had a oothold among the tribes o these areas
With the arrival o the white missionaries and their brand o Christi-
anity the story takes a predictable and unortunate turn Just as Catholic
missionaries insisted on Roman control over earlier Celtic Christian
areas8 so these Anglo missionaries insisted on Euro-American (Western-
style) Christian worship as well as doctrine What is worse their pater-
nalism ethnocentrism colonial collusion and modernism soon ldquocivi-
lizedrdquo this Indigenous movement o the gospel story and thus blinded
these Christians to the already existing work o Creator among theNative nations o the land oday throughout the entire region except
or the history books there is but a remnant o that remarkable out-
pouring o Creatorrsquos story o grace spirituality and community renewal
Unortunately this negative legacy o Christian mission among the
Coeur drsquoAlene Spokane Nez Perce and other tribes is not exceptional
Afer our centuries First Nations peoplesrsquo cultural expressions are still
marginalized or oppressed across North America Native leadership inthe wider church is absent in the evangelical mainstream Tese early
missionaries ldquopeople o their timesrdquo ound little reason to regard Native
believers as coequals because they perceived their own cultural ways as
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048627
superior Tus the majority o these missionaries denounced and de-
monized Native cultural ways part and parcel as pagan idolatrous evil
and sinulAs a result an authentic Native American cultural or Indigenous
expression o ollowing Jesus was never allowed to developmdashthe very
idea being rejected as syncretistic and incongruous with ldquobiblicalrdquo aith
Tis kind o colonial missionary mindset is sadly not a thing o the
past but is still the prevailing perspective (in both Native and non-
Native Christian leaders) among those working in our tribal commu-
nities today Instead o embracing Jesus as the Creator the majority oNative Americans blame American Christianity and the church or the
loss o their own culture and identity Is it any wonder that the vast
majority o Native people today reject Christianity as the ldquowhite manrsquos
religionrdquo
Te headline o a 10486269830889830881048631 article rom the CBC News Network in Canada
read ldquoWinnipeg Church Nixes Native Dancing at Habitat or Humanity
Eventrdquo Te article went on to say
A Winnipeg church prevented aboriginal dancers rom perorming
at a Habitat or Humanity event this week saying the perormance
was not an expression o Christian aith ldquoNative spiritual dancing
has its roots in a different spiritual belie system that is incongruent
with traditional Christian worshiprdquomdashPastor Mark Hughes9
Tis pastor and his church staff though proessing a vision or creatinga multiethnic congregation are not exceptional in their ethnocentric
views and attitudes toward First Nations people and their cultural ex-
pressions Tis church averages 10486261048629983088983088 people in Sunday attendance is
one o the largest in Canada and is considered a leading ldquoChristian voicerdquo
in the province and city
Because o colonial missionariesrsquo attitudes o cultural superiority a
Native American cultural expression o ollowing Jesus didnrsquot developat the time Another powerul actor contributing to the cultural op-
pression brought with the gospel was that Native people were many
times first introduced to Jesus as part o American territorialism
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treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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1048627983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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Foreword 10486251048627
Richard was enigmatic On the one hand as he made clear in the closing
years o his lie he was a common man Yet undoubtedly in many ways he
was not He became or many in the wider Indigenous community ldquothe voice o one crying in the wildernessrdquo inviting believers to make straight
paths or people to find Jesus Denominational and doctrinal competition
that encroached on his early experience o aith set Richard up to return
to the simple message o Jesusmdasha highly-energized story o a Jesus stripped
o colonial baggage And Richard used his unique style and affable sense
o humor to communicate this like no one else ever could
Richard was a oil to anyone who encumbered the message o Jesuswith culturally-bound prejudice He presented a simple path to aithmdash
inviting people to be all they could be through a renewed relationship
with Creatorrsquos son He welcomed everyone to be a part o what Creator
was doing among us making everyone eel special in the process We
hope you will sense his generous spirit as he welcomes you to broaden
your horizonsmdashto come to understand a world where in Richardrsquos
words ldquoTe Gospel is being rescued rom the cowboysrdquo
erry LeBlanc (Gitpu) MirsquokmaqAcadian Listuguj First NationCampbellton
founding chair director NAIIS An Indigenous Learning Community exec-
utive director Indigenous Pathways
Randy S Woodley PhD Keetoowah descendant Distinguished Professor of
Faith and Culture George Fox Seminary author of Shalom and the Com-
munity o Creation An Indigenous Vision (Eerdmans) and Living in
Color Embracing Godrsquos Passion or Ethnic Diversity (InterVarsity Press)
Adrian Jacobs (Ganosono) urtle Clan Cayuga Nation Six Nations Hau-
denosaunee Confederacy Keeper of the Circle (principal) Sandy-Saulteaux
Spiritual Centre
Ray Aldred (Neyihaw) Cree reaty 1048632 assistant professor of theology Ambrose
University and Seminary chair NAIIS An Indigenous Learning Community
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YOU JUST GHOSTED
You didnrsquot say goodbye you just ghosted
We turned around and you just werenrsquot there
A thousand miles away rom home you ell
You lef or heaven and plunged us all in hell
You didnrsquot give us a hug you just ghosted
In the middle o winter the cold breeze blew
Stranded and poor we had no way to get to you
A month later we finally showed sofened and blue
You lef without a word you just ghosted
Words only partially typed and a messy pile
Now wersquore sweeping things up and tying a bow
Finishing your story with ldquothis is what we knowrdquo
You lef without a signature you just ghosted
Outstanding heart accounts thatrsquoll never be paid
But wersquore carrying on doing the best we surmise
Dealing with your quick exit and total surprise
Adrian Jacobs
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PREFACE
Hau kola ldquoHello riendrdquo
Tis manuscript Rescuing the Gospel from the Cowboys is based
on my reflections experiences and intense research over the past twenty-
our years It is the story o many o us Native and Indigenous leaders
who have been finding our way out o neocolonialism into a new liberty
as wersquove walked this Jesus Road together since the late 10486251048633983096983088s
Tis book began as a doctoral dissertation to research whether or notthere is or has been an Indigenous contextualized expression o the
Christian aith among the tribes o the United States and to a lesser
degree Canada Te purpose o my research was to identiy in what ways
Native leaders were reraming the gospel narrative as part o a larger
narrative o postcolonial decolonization in their own unique cultural
contexts Te specific ocus will be on the years 104862510486339830961048633ndash10486269830889830881048633
As I think about it these days contextualization is not a principleormula or evangelistic strategy Contextualization is a relational process
o theological and cultural reflection within a communitymdashseeking to
incorporate traditional symbols music dance ceremony and ritual to
make aith in Jesus a truly local expression Tere is an honest recognition
o the guidance o Creatorrsquos Spirit behind the widening critique and cor-
rection to the hegemonic assumptions o modernity and colonization
decolonization Critical thinking and retraditionalization are key to the
good contextualization efforts arising among Indigenous communities
In the radically-changing ethnic demographics o American culture
and the global community ollowers o Jesus are presented with great
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opportunities and challenges or good We must genuinely appreciate all
cultures as being capable o reflecting biblical aith We must move away
rom ldquoAmerican Christian mythologyrdquo which undergirds colonizationand its resulting paternalism in Indigenous communities We must em-
brace new theological perspectives emerging rom Native leaders as
being ldquoequalrdquo Tese perspectives provide new pathways or the contex-
tualization process Tese pathways identiy Indigenous cultural values
spirituality and ceremony as central to the new approaches to disci-
pleship and leadership development which occur within the community
No longer are such ldquonew approachesrdquo brought in by the cultural outsider
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1
THE CREATORrsquoS PRESENCE
AMONG NATIVE PEOPLE
There is only one Creator o heaven and earth Tere are not ldquomanyrdquo
Creators Just one All o human and nonhuman creation comes out
o this one Creator Tere is not a Creator who created Arica and A-
ricans or Asia and Asians or Europe and Europeans and so orth Who
can create something rom nothing or bring into existence something
that was previously nonexistent It is only this one Creator and there is
none like himher1 Tat being said this one Creator sel-reveals in and
through a myriad o cultural realities in human and nonhuman persons
throughout Unci Maka our ldquoMother Earthrdquo2
Tere are world religions that present names or this one Creator
Tese religions provide creation stories and explanations or heaven
earth and humans and supply wisdom and doctrines to help humanity
resolve its existential dilemma Tere are world religions that have a
sacred text to reerence their belies and there are thousands o ldquoolk
religionsrdquo with oral traditions that do the same through story yetmdashthere
is still just one Creator
For us First Nations people ollowing Creator-Jesus within our Indig-
enous cultural ways without submitting to the hegemonic cultural as-
sumptions o todayrsquos conservative evangelicals is tough I am remindedweekly o these neocolonial and ignorant assumptions as they show up
on the radar o my lie Te ollowing email conversation I had in 104862698308810486251048626
typifies these ldquopingsrdquo
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A group o my First Nations riends and I were looking or a acility
to host a weekend planning retreat We looked at a ew o them and de-
cided on one I knew about rom past experience Te negotiations tobook the acility took an unexpected but not totally surprising turn as
the registration person reacted to the ldquoheathen Indiansrdquo once again
Hello Mr wiss
Whenever we have a new group register with our acility we take
the time and effort to research their belies and methods etc I have
been doing that with your group and we must CANCEL your re-treat with us In your effort to ldquorestore culturerdquo you are taking the
indigenous people back into paganism shamanism alse gods and
the occult You are leading them away rom the Gospel message o
the Bible We pray you will rethink what you are doing to the very
people you love so much I will return your deposit
Tank you ldquoJane Doerdquo
Greetings Jane Doe
Tank you or your response I have many years o involvement and
riendship with people in your center I look orward to continuing
this conversation and still keeping our reservation to host our re-
treat there While a ew may have some narrow and misinormed
ideas about our aith in Jesus and the scriptures please be assured
our group is as remarkable a group o Christ-ollowers as you will
meet Please eel ree to give me a call on my cell phone today
Tank you Richard
Hello Richard
Tank you so much or your email I am aware o your history We
do not doubt your sincere heart and desires But some o theteachings o your group andor its speakers seem to be steering
people away rom the solid Gospel and taking people toward other
gods It may be subtle and it may not be your intent but i one
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486251048633
person leaves our acility compromised in their Christian walk
then we have ailed in our mission It is a hard thing we have to do
but the Lord has asked us to take a very strong stand and we cando nothing less I have returned the deposit and have still canceled
the retreat We pray the Lord will continue to guide you careully
in your efforts
Jane Doe
Greetings Jane
Tanks or your response which honestly surprises me It is cer-
tainly not the spirit that I have elt rom the organizationrsquos be-
ginning as its ounders poured their lives into creating a space or
people to wrestle with the deep issues o lie and spiritual growth
So many o us were in our early twenties when we first journeyed
there struggling to make sense o this new aith and lie we ound
in JesusTe accusations you make against usmdashldquobiblical compromise
[alsehoodheresy] steering people away rom the Gospel into
idolatry [rejecting Christ]rdquo clothed in the notion o protecting the
true Gospel rom Native cultural ways o our Native Christian
communitymdashare plainly offensive theologically arrogant and
judgmental at bestmdashperhaps culturally racist at worst Your lan-
guage o ldquothe Lord has asked us to take a very strong standrdquo againstpeople like us and the way we express our aith in Jesus biblically
culturally and theologically reveals the kind o cultural oppression
our people ace rom an idealized and racialized view o scripture
I the goal is to turn your center into a bastion o biblical protec-
tionism theological control and cultural judgmentalism your
words well reflect that direction
Peace and gracemdashRichard
Richard
Te answer is still ldquoNOrdquo I hear what you are saying but we still
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cannot support what your group and the Indigenous People
Movement are teaching No retreat at our acility
Jane Doe
While this person may represent a more extreme point o view it
nonetheless is what the majority o Euro-American evangelicals believe
about our Native cultural and ceremonial ways Ignorance suspicion and
ear o Native ways run deep in the soul o the American church I will
show later how this has been (and remains) the American churchrsquos at-titude toward our Native ways or centuries now Te tragedy is that it is
not just we who suffer Because we suffer so deeply the entire church and
nation does too
However suspicion and ear run both ways Indigenous people have
a lot to ear about the ldquowhite manrsquos religionrdquo Conquest racism hatred
prejudice exclusion orced assimilation and ongoing institutional injus-
tices are just a ew o the ears that come to mind
ldquoE983158983141983150 W983144983141983150 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 R983145983143983144983156 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 W983154983151983150983143rdquo
mdashS983152983151983147983137983150983141 G983137983154983154983161
When my wie and I lived on the Coeur drsquoAlene Reservation in Northern
Idaho in 1048625104863310486331048630 I was introduced to a lie-changing story about a re-
markable Native leader named Chie Spokane Garry He is one o my
heroes o aith and culture Creator used Chie Garry (104862598309610486251048625ndash104862598309610486331048626) as aldquomessengerrdquo who had a proound spiritual impact by spreading the gospel
(along with his riend and co-worker Kootenai Pelly) among his people
and numerous other tribes in Washington Idaho Oregon and southward3
I have been to the cemetery in Spokane Washington where Chie
Garry was buried It was an honor and a privilege to be standing there
and I was deeply touched He was a tribal leader husband ather and
advocate or justice and Christian values While his efforts appeared tohave no lasting impact and did not bring the white settlers to an under-
standing o justice neverthelessmdashthroughout it allmdashhe remained true
to his aith in Jesus He died rejected and impoverished
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048625
While we were living on the ldquoRezrdquo (reservation) we did not know o
one Native man who regularly attended any o the six Protestant evan-
gelical churchesmdashdespite Garryrsquos lie work Barely hal a dozen womenattended Tis was true as well or the neighboring Nez Perce and Kalispel
reservations Tis act stood in stark contrast to the amazing spiritual
movement inspired by Chie Garry in this region that occurred prior to
an established colonial presence
Tere were other instances o divine intervention in ldquopreparing the
way o the Lordrdquo (Isaiah 10486289830881048627) or mission work among the tribes o
this area including prophecies among the Middle Spokane and Ka-lispel tribes
Yuree-rachen Yuree-rachen ldquoCircling Ravenrdquo was a shaman rom the
Middle Spokane tribe in the late 10486251048631983088983088s He had a personal crisis o aith
in Creator afer his sonrsquos untimely death so he went to Mt Spokane or
a time o asting and prayer During this worship time he received a
vision rom Creator whom they called Quilent-sat-men ldquoHe-Made-Usrdquo
In the vision Yuree-rachen saw white men dressed strangely carryingbundles o leaves astened together He was told that the people were to
learn rom the teachings inscribed on the leaves4
Shining Shirt A similar vision in about the same time period was
given to ldquoShining Shirtrdquo said to be both a chie and a shaman o the Ka-
lispel tribe Ethnologist Harry Holbert urney-High writes that Shining
Shirt was granted a vision in which he was told that there is a Creator and
that air-skinned men in black robes would come and teach them how to
live in a new way according to a moral law During the vision Shining
Shirt was given a metal object engraved with a cross White men were
unknown to these tribal people at that time5
Creator had been at work preparing the Native people or the arrival o
the gospel o Jesus Te Christian revival among those tribes evangelized
by Spokane Garry and Kootenai Pelly was noted by white settlers and ex-
plorers For example Washington Irving in ldquoTe Adventures o Captain
Bonnevillerdquo urther documents the spread o Christianity throughout the
tribes o that region During the winter o 104862598309610486271048626 Bonneville camped with
the Nez Perce on the upper Salmon River in Oregon and observed
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10486261048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
Simply to call these people religious would convey but a aint
idea o the deep hue o piety and devotion which pervades their
whole conduct Teir honesty is immaculate and their purity opurpose and their observance o the rites o their religion are most
uniorm and remarkable Tey are certainly more like a nation o
saints than a horde o savages6
I think the purity and genuine aith mentioned by Bonneville and
others was a result o a aith birthed rom the witness o Jesus-ollowing
Indigenous people to their own tribes Tey spoke the contextual
gospel rom their hearts among their people Tis was not simply the
ldquowhite manrsquos gospelrdquo7
During the time rame o 104862598309610486271048629 to 10486259830961048629983088 European-American mission-
aries arrived in Washington and Oregon Tey communicated the gospel
rom their own cultural viewpoints Te truth is that the gospel o Christ
already had a oothold among the tribes o these areas
With the arrival o the white missionaries and their brand o Christi-
anity the story takes a predictable and unortunate turn Just as Catholic
missionaries insisted on Roman control over earlier Celtic Christian
areas8 so these Anglo missionaries insisted on Euro-American (Western-
style) Christian worship as well as doctrine What is worse their pater-
nalism ethnocentrism colonial collusion and modernism soon ldquocivi-
lizedrdquo this Indigenous movement o the gospel story and thus blinded
these Christians to the already existing work o Creator among theNative nations o the land oday throughout the entire region except
or the history books there is but a remnant o that remarkable out-
pouring o Creatorrsquos story o grace spirituality and community renewal
Unortunately this negative legacy o Christian mission among the
Coeur drsquoAlene Spokane Nez Perce and other tribes is not exceptional
Afer our centuries First Nations peoplesrsquo cultural expressions are still
marginalized or oppressed across North America Native leadership inthe wider church is absent in the evangelical mainstream Tese early
missionaries ldquopeople o their timesrdquo ound little reason to regard Native
believers as coequals because they perceived their own cultural ways as
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048627
superior Tus the majority o these missionaries denounced and de-
monized Native cultural ways part and parcel as pagan idolatrous evil
and sinulAs a result an authentic Native American cultural or Indigenous
expression o ollowing Jesus was never allowed to developmdashthe very
idea being rejected as syncretistic and incongruous with ldquobiblicalrdquo aith
Tis kind o colonial missionary mindset is sadly not a thing o the
past but is still the prevailing perspective (in both Native and non-
Native Christian leaders) among those working in our tribal commu-
nities today Instead o embracing Jesus as the Creator the majority oNative Americans blame American Christianity and the church or the
loss o their own culture and identity Is it any wonder that the vast
majority o Native people today reject Christianity as the ldquowhite manrsquos
religionrdquo
Te headline o a 10486269830889830881048631 article rom the CBC News Network in Canada
read ldquoWinnipeg Church Nixes Native Dancing at Habitat or Humanity
Eventrdquo Te article went on to say
A Winnipeg church prevented aboriginal dancers rom perorming
at a Habitat or Humanity event this week saying the perormance
was not an expression o Christian aith ldquoNative spiritual dancing
has its roots in a different spiritual belie system that is incongruent
with traditional Christian worshiprdquomdashPastor Mark Hughes9
Tis pastor and his church staff though proessing a vision or creatinga multiethnic congregation are not exceptional in their ethnocentric
views and attitudes toward First Nations people and their cultural ex-
pressions Tis church averages 10486261048629983088983088 people in Sunday attendance is
one o the largest in Canada and is considered a leading ldquoChristian voicerdquo
in the province and city
Because o colonial missionariesrsquo attitudes o cultural superiority a
Native American cultural expression o ollowing Jesus didnrsquot developat the time Another powerul actor contributing to the cultural op-
pression brought with the gospel was that Native people were many
times first introduced to Jesus as part o American territorialism
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treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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10486261048630 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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YOU JUST GHOSTED
You didnrsquot say goodbye you just ghosted
We turned around and you just werenrsquot there
A thousand miles away rom home you ell
You lef or heaven and plunged us all in hell
You didnrsquot give us a hug you just ghosted
In the middle o winter the cold breeze blew
Stranded and poor we had no way to get to you
A month later we finally showed sofened and blue
You lef without a word you just ghosted
Words only partially typed and a messy pile
Now wersquore sweeping things up and tying a bow
Finishing your story with ldquothis is what we knowrdquo
You lef without a signature you just ghosted
Outstanding heart accounts thatrsquoll never be paid
But wersquore carrying on doing the best we surmise
Dealing with your quick exit and total surprise
Adrian Jacobs
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PREFACE
Hau kola ldquoHello riendrdquo
Tis manuscript Rescuing the Gospel from the Cowboys is based
on my reflections experiences and intense research over the past twenty-
our years It is the story o many o us Native and Indigenous leaders
who have been finding our way out o neocolonialism into a new liberty
as wersquove walked this Jesus Road together since the late 10486251048633983096983088s
Tis book began as a doctoral dissertation to research whether or notthere is or has been an Indigenous contextualized expression o the
Christian aith among the tribes o the United States and to a lesser
degree Canada Te purpose o my research was to identiy in what ways
Native leaders were reraming the gospel narrative as part o a larger
narrative o postcolonial decolonization in their own unique cultural
contexts Te specific ocus will be on the years 104862510486339830961048633ndash10486269830889830881048633
As I think about it these days contextualization is not a principleormula or evangelistic strategy Contextualization is a relational process
o theological and cultural reflection within a communitymdashseeking to
incorporate traditional symbols music dance ceremony and ritual to
make aith in Jesus a truly local expression Tere is an honest recognition
o the guidance o Creatorrsquos Spirit behind the widening critique and cor-
rection to the hegemonic assumptions o modernity and colonization
decolonization Critical thinking and retraditionalization are key to the
good contextualization efforts arising among Indigenous communities
In the radically-changing ethnic demographics o American culture
and the global community ollowers o Jesus are presented with great
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opportunities and challenges or good We must genuinely appreciate all
cultures as being capable o reflecting biblical aith We must move away
rom ldquoAmerican Christian mythologyrdquo which undergirds colonizationand its resulting paternalism in Indigenous communities We must em-
brace new theological perspectives emerging rom Native leaders as
being ldquoequalrdquo Tese perspectives provide new pathways or the contex-
tualization process Tese pathways identiy Indigenous cultural values
spirituality and ceremony as central to the new approaches to disci-
pleship and leadership development which occur within the community
No longer are such ldquonew approachesrdquo brought in by the cultural outsider
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1
THE CREATORrsquoS PRESENCE
AMONG NATIVE PEOPLE
There is only one Creator o heaven and earth Tere are not ldquomanyrdquo
Creators Just one All o human and nonhuman creation comes out
o this one Creator Tere is not a Creator who created Arica and A-
ricans or Asia and Asians or Europe and Europeans and so orth Who
can create something rom nothing or bring into existence something
that was previously nonexistent It is only this one Creator and there is
none like himher1 Tat being said this one Creator sel-reveals in and
through a myriad o cultural realities in human and nonhuman persons
throughout Unci Maka our ldquoMother Earthrdquo2
Tere are world religions that present names or this one Creator
Tese religions provide creation stories and explanations or heaven
earth and humans and supply wisdom and doctrines to help humanity
resolve its existential dilemma Tere are world religions that have a
sacred text to reerence their belies and there are thousands o ldquoolk
religionsrdquo with oral traditions that do the same through story yetmdashthere
is still just one Creator
For us First Nations people ollowing Creator-Jesus within our Indig-
enous cultural ways without submitting to the hegemonic cultural as-
sumptions o todayrsquos conservative evangelicals is tough I am remindedweekly o these neocolonial and ignorant assumptions as they show up
on the radar o my lie Te ollowing email conversation I had in 104862698308810486251048626
typifies these ldquopingsrdquo
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A group o my First Nations riends and I were looking or a acility
to host a weekend planning retreat We looked at a ew o them and de-
cided on one I knew about rom past experience Te negotiations tobook the acility took an unexpected but not totally surprising turn as
the registration person reacted to the ldquoheathen Indiansrdquo once again
Hello Mr wiss
Whenever we have a new group register with our acility we take
the time and effort to research their belies and methods etc I have
been doing that with your group and we must CANCEL your re-treat with us In your effort to ldquorestore culturerdquo you are taking the
indigenous people back into paganism shamanism alse gods and
the occult You are leading them away rom the Gospel message o
the Bible We pray you will rethink what you are doing to the very
people you love so much I will return your deposit
Tank you ldquoJane Doerdquo
Greetings Jane Doe
Tank you or your response I have many years o involvement and
riendship with people in your center I look orward to continuing
this conversation and still keeping our reservation to host our re-
treat there While a ew may have some narrow and misinormed
ideas about our aith in Jesus and the scriptures please be assured
our group is as remarkable a group o Christ-ollowers as you will
meet Please eel ree to give me a call on my cell phone today
Tank you Richard
Hello Richard
Tank you so much or your email I am aware o your history We
do not doubt your sincere heart and desires But some o theteachings o your group andor its speakers seem to be steering
people away rom the solid Gospel and taking people toward other
gods It may be subtle and it may not be your intent but i one
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486251048633
person leaves our acility compromised in their Christian walk
then we have ailed in our mission It is a hard thing we have to do
but the Lord has asked us to take a very strong stand and we cando nothing less I have returned the deposit and have still canceled
the retreat We pray the Lord will continue to guide you careully
in your efforts
Jane Doe
Greetings Jane
Tanks or your response which honestly surprises me It is cer-
tainly not the spirit that I have elt rom the organizationrsquos be-
ginning as its ounders poured their lives into creating a space or
people to wrestle with the deep issues o lie and spiritual growth
So many o us were in our early twenties when we first journeyed
there struggling to make sense o this new aith and lie we ound
in JesusTe accusations you make against usmdashldquobiblical compromise
[alsehoodheresy] steering people away rom the Gospel into
idolatry [rejecting Christ]rdquo clothed in the notion o protecting the
true Gospel rom Native cultural ways o our Native Christian
communitymdashare plainly offensive theologically arrogant and
judgmental at bestmdashperhaps culturally racist at worst Your lan-
guage o ldquothe Lord has asked us to take a very strong standrdquo againstpeople like us and the way we express our aith in Jesus biblically
culturally and theologically reveals the kind o cultural oppression
our people ace rom an idealized and racialized view o scripture
I the goal is to turn your center into a bastion o biblical protec-
tionism theological control and cultural judgmentalism your
words well reflect that direction
Peace and gracemdashRichard
Richard
Te answer is still ldquoNOrdquo I hear what you are saying but we still
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cannot support what your group and the Indigenous People
Movement are teaching No retreat at our acility
Jane Doe
While this person may represent a more extreme point o view it
nonetheless is what the majority o Euro-American evangelicals believe
about our Native cultural and ceremonial ways Ignorance suspicion and
ear o Native ways run deep in the soul o the American church I will
show later how this has been (and remains) the American churchrsquos at-titude toward our Native ways or centuries now Te tragedy is that it is
not just we who suffer Because we suffer so deeply the entire church and
nation does too
However suspicion and ear run both ways Indigenous people have
a lot to ear about the ldquowhite manrsquos religionrdquo Conquest racism hatred
prejudice exclusion orced assimilation and ongoing institutional injus-
tices are just a ew o the ears that come to mind
ldquoE983158983141983150 W983144983141983150 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 R983145983143983144983156 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 W983154983151983150983143rdquo
mdashS983152983151983147983137983150983141 G983137983154983154983161
When my wie and I lived on the Coeur drsquoAlene Reservation in Northern
Idaho in 1048625104863310486331048630 I was introduced to a lie-changing story about a re-
markable Native leader named Chie Spokane Garry He is one o my
heroes o aith and culture Creator used Chie Garry (104862598309610486251048625ndash104862598309610486331048626) as aldquomessengerrdquo who had a proound spiritual impact by spreading the gospel
(along with his riend and co-worker Kootenai Pelly) among his people
and numerous other tribes in Washington Idaho Oregon and southward3
I have been to the cemetery in Spokane Washington where Chie
Garry was buried It was an honor and a privilege to be standing there
and I was deeply touched He was a tribal leader husband ather and
advocate or justice and Christian values While his efforts appeared tohave no lasting impact and did not bring the white settlers to an under-
standing o justice neverthelessmdashthroughout it allmdashhe remained true
to his aith in Jesus He died rejected and impoverished
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048625
While we were living on the ldquoRezrdquo (reservation) we did not know o
one Native man who regularly attended any o the six Protestant evan-
gelical churchesmdashdespite Garryrsquos lie work Barely hal a dozen womenattended Tis was true as well or the neighboring Nez Perce and Kalispel
reservations Tis act stood in stark contrast to the amazing spiritual
movement inspired by Chie Garry in this region that occurred prior to
an established colonial presence
Tere were other instances o divine intervention in ldquopreparing the
way o the Lordrdquo (Isaiah 10486289830881048627) or mission work among the tribes o
this area including prophecies among the Middle Spokane and Ka-lispel tribes
Yuree-rachen Yuree-rachen ldquoCircling Ravenrdquo was a shaman rom the
Middle Spokane tribe in the late 10486251048631983088983088s He had a personal crisis o aith
in Creator afer his sonrsquos untimely death so he went to Mt Spokane or
a time o asting and prayer During this worship time he received a
vision rom Creator whom they called Quilent-sat-men ldquoHe-Made-Usrdquo
In the vision Yuree-rachen saw white men dressed strangely carryingbundles o leaves astened together He was told that the people were to
learn rom the teachings inscribed on the leaves4
Shining Shirt A similar vision in about the same time period was
given to ldquoShining Shirtrdquo said to be both a chie and a shaman o the Ka-
lispel tribe Ethnologist Harry Holbert urney-High writes that Shining
Shirt was granted a vision in which he was told that there is a Creator and
that air-skinned men in black robes would come and teach them how to
live in a new way according to a moral law During the vision Shining
Shirt was given a metal object engraved with a cross White men were
unknown to these tribal people at that time5
Creator had been at work preparing the Native people or the arrival o
the gospel o Jesus Te Christian revival among those tribes evangelized
by Spokane Garry and Kootenai Pelly was noted by white settlers and ex-
plorers For example Washington Irving in ldquoTe Adventures o Captain
Bonnevillerdquo urther documents the spread o Christianity throughout the
tribes o that region During the winter o 104862598309610486271048626 Bonneville camped with
the Nez Perce on the upper Salmon River in Oregon and observed
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10486261048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
Simply to call these people religious would convey but a aint
idea o the deep hue o piety and devotion which pervades their
whole conduct Teir honesty is immaculate and their purity opurpose and their observance o the rites o their religion are most
uniorm and remarkable Tey are certainly more like a nation o
saints than a horde o savages6
I think the purity and genuine aith mentioned by Bonneville and
others was a result o a aith birthed rom the witness o Jesus-ollowing
Indigenous people to their own tribes Tey spoke the contextual
gospel rom their hearts among their people Tis was not simply the
ldquowhite manrsquos gospelrdquo7
During the time rame o 104862598309610486271048629 to 10486259830961048629983088 European-American mission-
aries arrived in Washington and Oregon Tey communicated the gospel
rom their own cultural viewpoints Te truth is that the gospel o Christ
already had a oothold among the tribes o these areas
With the arrival o the white missionaries and their brand o Christi-
anity the story takes a predictable and unortunate turn Just as Catholic
missionaries insisted on Roman control over earlier Celtic Christian
areas8 so these Anglo missionaries insisted on Euro-American (Western-
style) Christian worship as well as doctrine What is worse their pater-
nalism ethnocentrism colonial collusion and modernism soon ldquocivi-
lizedrdquo this Indigenous movement o the gospel story and thus blinded
these Christians to the already existing work o Creator among theNative nations o the land oday throughout the entire region except
or the history books there is but a remnant o that remarkable out-
pouring o Creatorrsquos story o grace spirituality and community renewal
Unortunately this negative legacy o Christian mission among the
Coeur drsquoAlene Spokane Nez Perce and other tribes is not exceptional
Afer our centuries First Nations peoplesrsquo cultural expressions are still
marginalized or oppressed across North America Native leadership inthe wider church is absent in the evangelical mainstream Tese early
missionaries ldquopeople o their timesrdquo ound little reason to regard Native
believers as coequals because they perceived their own cultural ways as
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048627
superior Tus the majority o these missionaries denounced and de-
monized Native cultural ways part and parcel as pagan idolatrous evil
and sinulAs a result an authentic Native American cultural or Indigenous
expression o ollowing Jesus was never allowed to developmdashthe very
idea being rejected as syncretistic and incongruous with ldquobiblicalrdquo aith
Tis kind o colonial missionary mindset is sadly not a thing o the
past but is still the prevailing perspective (in both Native and non-
Native Christian leaders) among those working in our tribal commu-
nities today Instead o embracing Jesus as the Creator the majority oNative Americans blame American Christianity and the church or the
loss o their own culture and identity Is it any wonder that the vast
majority o Native people today reject Christianity as the ldquowhite manrsquos
religionrdquo
Te headline o a 10486269830889830881048631 article rom the CBC News Network in Canada
read ldquoWinnipeg Church Nixes Native Dancing at Habitat or Humanity
Eventrdquo Te article went on to say
A Winnipeg church prevented aboriginal dancers rom perorming
at a Habitat or Humanity event this week saying the perormance
was not an expression o Christian aith ldquoNative spiritual dancing
has its roots in a different spiritual belie system that is incongruent
with traditional Christian worshiprdquomdashPastor Mark Hughes9
Tis pastor and his church staff though proessing a vision or creatinga multiethnic congregation are not exceptional in their ethnocentric
views and attitudes toward First Nations people and their cultural ex-
pressions Tis church averages 10486261048629983088983088 people in Sunday attendance is
one o the largest in Canada and is considered a leading ldquoChristian voicerdquo
in the province and city
Because o colonial missionariesrsquo attitudes o cultural superiority a
Native American cultural expression o ollowing Jesus didnrsquot developat the time Another powerul actor contributing to the cultural op-
pression brought with the gospel was that Native people were many
times first introduced to Jesus as part o American territorialism
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treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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10486261048630 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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PREFACE
Hau kola ldquoHello riendrdquo
Tis manuscript Rescuing the Gospel from the Cowboys is based
on my reflections experiences and intense research over the past twenty-
our years It is the story o many o us Native and Indigenous leaders
who have been finding our way out o neocolonialism into a new liberty
as wersquove walked this Jesus Road together since the late 10486251048633983096983088s
Tis book began as a doctoral dissertation to research whether or notthere is or has been an Indigenous contextualized expression o the
Christian aith among the tribes o the United States and to a lesser
degree Canada Te purpose o my research was to identiy in what ways
Native leaders were reraming the gospel narrative as part o a larger
narrative o postcolonial decolonization in their own unique cultural
contexts Te specific ocus will be on the years 104862510486339830961048633ndash10486269830889830881048633
As I think about it these days contextualization is not a principleormula or evangelistic strategy Contextualization is a relational process
o theological and cultural reflection within a communitymdashseeking to
incorporate traditional symbols music dance ceremony and ritual to
make aith in Jesus a truly local expression Tere is an honest recognition
o the guidance o Creatorrsquos Spirit behind the widening critique and cor-
rection to the hegemonic assumptions o modernity and colonization
decolonization Critical thinking and retraditionalization are key to the
good contextualization efforts arising among Indigenous communities
In the radically-changing ethnic demographics o American culture
and the global community ollowers o Jesus are presented with great
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opportunities and challenges or good We must genuinely appreciate all
cultures as being capable o reflecting biblical aith We must move away
rom ldquoAmerican Christian mythologyrdquo which undergirds colonizationand its resulting paternalism in Indigenous communities We must em-
brace new theological perspectives emerging rom Native leaders as
being ldquoequalrdquo Tese perspectives provide new pathways or the contex-
tualization process Tese pathways identiy Indigenous cultural values
spirituality and ceremony as central to the new approaches to disci-
pleship and leadership development which occur within the community
No longer are such ldquonew approachesrdquo brought in by the cultural outsider
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1
THE CREATORrsquoS PRESENCE
AMONG NATIVE PEOPLE
There is only one Creator o heaven and earth Tere are not ldquomanyrdquo
Creators Just one All o human and nonhuman creation comes out
o this one Creator Tere is not a Creator who created Arica and A-
ricans or Asia and Asians or Europe and Europeans and so orth Who
can create something rom nothing or bring into existence something
that was previously nonexistent It is only this one Creator and there is
none like himher1 Tat being said this one Creator sel-reveals in and
through a myriad o cultural realities in human and nonhuman persons
throughout Unci Maka our ldquoMother Earthrdquo2
Tere are world religions that present names or this one Creator
Tese religions provide creation stories and explanations or heaven
earth and humans and supply wisdom and doctrines to help humanity
resolve its existential dilemma Tere are world religions that have a
sacred text to reerence their belies and there are thousands o ldquoolk
religionsrdquo with oral traditions that do the same through story yetmdashthere
is still just one Creator
For us First Nations people ollowing Creator-Jesus within our Indig-
enous cultural ways without submitting to the hegemonic cultural as-
sumptions o todayrsquos conservative evangelicals is tough I am remindedweekly o these neocolonial and ignorant assumptions as they show up
on the radar o my lie Te ollowing email conversation I had in 104862698308810486251048626
typifies these ldquopingsrdquo
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A group o my First Nations riends and I were looking or a acility
to host a weekend planning retreat We looked at a ew o them and de-
cided on one I knew about rom past experience Te negotiations tobook the acility took an unexpected but not totally surprising turn as
the registration person reacted to the ldquoheathen Indiansrdquo once again
Hello Mr wiss
Whenever we have a new group register with our acility we take
the time and effort to research their belies and methods etc I have
been doing that with your group and we must CANCEL your re-treat with us In your effort to ldquorestore culturerdquo you are taking the
indigenous people back into paganism shamanism alse gods and
the occult You are leading them away rom the Gospel message o
the Bible We pray you will rethink what you are doing to the very
people you love so much I will return your deposit
Tank you ldquoJane Doerdquo
Greetings Jane Doe
Tank you or your response I have many years o involvement and
riendship with people in your center I look orward to continuing
this conversation and still keeping our reservation to host our re-
treat there While a ew may have some narrow and misinormed
ideas about our aith in Jesus and the scriptures please be assured
our group is as remarkable a group o Christ-ollowers as you will
meet Please eel ree to give me a call on my cell phone today
Tank you Richard
Hello Richard
Tank you so much or your email I am aware o your history We
do not doubt your sincere heart and desires But some o theteachings o your group andor its speakers seem to be steering
people away rom the solid Gospel and taking people toward other
gods It may be subtle and it may not be your intent but i one
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486251048633
person leaves our acility compromised in their Christian walk
then we have ailed in our mission It is a hard thing we have to do
but the Lord has asked us to take a very strong stand and we cando nothing less I have returned the deposit and have still canceled
the retreat We pray the Lord will continue to guide you careully
in your efforts
Jane Doe
Greetings Jane
Tanks or your response which honestly surprises me It is cer-
tainly not the spirit that I have elt rom the organizationrsquos be-
ginning as its ounders poured their lives into creating a space or
people to wrestle with the deep issues o lie and spiritual growth
So many o us were in our early twenties when we first journeyed
there struggling to make sense o this new aith and lie we ound
in JesusTe accusations you make against usmdashldquobiblical compromise
[alsehoodheresy] steering people away rom the Gospel into
idolatry [rejecting Christ]rdquo clothed in the notion o protecting the
true Gospel rom Native cultural ways o our Native Christian
communitymdashare plainly offensive theologically arrogant and
judgmental at bestmdashperhaps culturally racist at worst Your lan-
guage o ldquothe Lord has asked us to take a very strong standrdquo againstpeople like us and the way we express our aith in Jesus biblically
culturally and theologically reveals the kind o cultural oppression
our people ace rom an idealized and racialized view o scripture
I the goal is to turn your center into a bastion o biblical protec-
tionism theological control and cultural judgmentalism your
words well reflect that direction
Peace and gracemdashRichard
Richard
Te answer is still ldquoNOrdquo I hear what you are saying but we still
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cannot support what your group and the Indigenous People
Movement are teaching No retreat at our acility
Jane Doe
While this person may represent a more extreme point o view it
nonetheless is what the majority o Euro-American evangelicals believe
about our Native cultural and ceremonial ways Ignorance suspicion and
ear o Native ways run deep in the soul o the American church I will
show later how this has been (and remains) the American churchrsquos at-titude toward our Native ways or centuries now Te tragedy is that it is
not just we who suffer Because we suffer so deeply the entire church and
nation does too
However suspicion and ear run both ways Indigenous people have
a lot to ear about the ldquowhite manrsquos religionrdquo Conquest racism hatred
prejudice exclusion orced assimilation and ongoing institutional injus-
tices are just a ew o the ears that come to mind
ldquoE983158983141983150 W983144983141983150 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 R983145983143983144983156 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 W983154983151983150983143rdquo
mdashS983152983151983147983137983150983141 G983137983154983154983161
When my wie and I lived on the Coeur drsquoAlene Reservation in Northern
Idaho in 1048625104863310486331048630 I was introduced to a lie-changing story about a re-
markable Native leader named Chie Spokane Garry He is one o my
heroes o aith and culture Creator used Chie Garry (104862598309610486251048625ndash104862598309610486331048626) as aldquomessengerrdquo who had a proound spiritual impact by spreading the gospel
(along with his riend and co-worker Kootenai Pelly) among his people
and numerous other tribes in Washington Idaho Oregon and southward3
I have been to the cemetery in Spokane Washington where Chie
Garry was buried It was an honor and a privilege to be standing there
and I was deeply touched He was a tribal leader husband ather and
advocate or justice and Christian values While his efforts appeared tohave no lasting impact and did not bring the white settlers to an under-
standing o justice neverthelessmdashthroughout it allmdashhe remained true
to his aith in Jesus He died rejected and impoverished
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048625
While we were living on the ldquoRezrdquo (reservation) we did not know o
one Native man who regularly attended any o the six Protestant evan-
gelical churchesmdashdespite Garryrsquos lie work Barely hal a dozen womenattended Tis was true as well or the neighboring Nez Perce and Kalispel
reservations Tis act stood in stark contrast to the amazing spiritual
movement inspired by Chie Garry in this region that occurred prior to
an established colonial presence
Tere were other instances o divine intervention in ldquopreparing the
way o the Lordrdquo (Isaiah 10486289830881048627) or mission work among the tribes o
this area including prophecies among the Middle Spokane and Ka-lispel tribes
Yuree-rachen Yuree-rachen ldquoCircling Ravenrdquo was a shaman rom the
Middle Spokane tribe in the late 10486251048631983088983088s He had a personal crisis o aith
in Creator afer his sonrsquos untimely death so he went to Mt Spokane or
a time o asting and prayer During this worship time he received a
vision rom Creator whom they called Quilent-sat-men ldquoHe-Made-Usrdquo
In the vision Yuree-rachen saw white men dressed strangely carryingbundles o leaves astened together He was told that the people were to
learn rom the teachings inscribed on the leaves4
Shining Shirt A similar vision in about the same time period was
given to ldquoShining Shirtrdquo said to be both a chie and a shaman o the Ka-
lispel tribe Ethnologist Harry Holbert urney-High writes that Shining
Shirt was granted a vision in which he was told that there is a Creator and
that air-skinned men in black robes would come and teach them how to
live in a new way according to a moral law During the vision Shining
Shirt was given a metal object engraved with a cross White men were
unknown to these tribal people at that time5
Creator had been at work preparing the Native people or the arrival o
the gospel o Jesus Te Christian revival among those tribes evangelized
by Spokane Garry and Kootenai Pelly was noted by white settlers and ex-
plorers For example Washington Irving in ldquoTe Adventures o Captain
Bonnevillerdquo urther documents the spread o Christianity throughout the
tribes o that region During the winter o 104862598309610486271048626 Bonneville camped with
the Nez Perce on the upper Salmon River in Oregon and observed
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10486261048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
Simply to call these people religious would convey but a aint
idea o the deep hue o piety and devotion which pervades their
whole conduct Teir honesty is immaculate and their purity opurpose and their observance o the rites o their religion are most
uniorm and remarkable Tey are certainly more like a nation o
saints than a horde o savages6
I think the purity and genuine aith mentioned by Bonneville and
others was a result o a aith birthed rom the witness o Jesus-ollowing
Indigenous people to their own tribes Tey spoke the contextual
gospel rom their hearts among their people Tis was not simply the
ldquowhite manrsquos gospelrdquo7
During the time rame o 104862598309610486271048629 to 10486259830961048629983088 European-American mission-
aries arrived in Washington and Oregon Tey communicated the gospel
rom their own cultural viewpoints Te truth is that the gospel o Christ
already had a oothold among the tribes o these areas
With the arrival o the white missionaries and their brand o Christi-
anity the story takes a predictable and unortunate turn Just as Catholic
missionaries insisted on Roman control over earlier Celtic Christian
areas8 so these Anglo missionaries insisted on Euro-American (Western-
style) Christian worship as well as doctrine What is worse their pater-
nalism ethnocentrism colonial collusion and modernism soon ldquocivi-
lizedrdquo this Indigenous movement o the gospel story and thus blinded
these Christians to the already existing work o Creator among theNative nations o the land oday throughout the entire region except
or the history books there is but a remnant o that remarkable out-
pouring o Creatorrsquos story o grace spirituality and community renewal
Unortunately this negative legacy o Christian mission among the
Coeur drsquoAlene Spokane Nez Perce and other tribes is not exceptional
Afer our centuries First Nations peoplesrsquo cultural expressions are still
marginalized or oppressed across North America Native leadership inthe wider church is absent in the evangelical mainstream Tese early
missionaries ldquopeople o their timesrdquo ound little reason to regard Native
believers as coequals because they perceived their own cultural ways as
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048627
superior Tus the majority o these missionaries denounced and de-
monized Native cultural ways part and parcel as pagan idolatrous evil
and sinulAs a result an authentic Native American cultural or Indigenous
expression o ollowing Jesus was never allowed to developmdashthe very
idea being rejected as syncretistic and incongruous with ldquobiblicalrdquo aith
Tis kind o colonial missionary mindset is sadly not a thing o the
past but is still the prevailing perspective (in both Native and non-
Native Christian leaders) among those working in our tribal commu-
nities today Instead o embracing Jesus as the Creator the majority oNative Americans blame American Christianity and the church or the
loss o their own culture and identity Is it any wonder that the vast
majority o Native people today reject Christianity as the ldquowhite manrsquos
religionrdquo
Te headline o a 10486269830889830881048631 article rom the CBC News Network in Canada
read ldquoWinnipeg Church Nixes Native Dancing at Habitat or Humanity
Eventrdquo Te article went on to say
A Winnipeg church prevented aboriginal dancers rom perorming
at a Habitat or Humanity event this week saying the perormance
was not an expression o Christian aith ldquoNative spiritual dancing
has its roots in a different spiritual belie system that is incongruent
with traditional Christian worshiprdquomdashPastor Mark Hughes9
Tis pastor and his church staff though proessing a vision or creatinga multiethnic congregation are not exceptional in their ethnocentric
views and attitudes toward First Nations people and their cultural ex-
pressions Tis church averages 10486261048629983088983088 people in Sunday attendance is
one o the largest in Canada and is considered a leading ldquoChristian voicerdquo
in the province and city
Because o colonial missionariesrsquo attitudes o cultural superiority a
Native American cultural expression o ollowing Jesus didnrsquot developat the time Another powerul actor contributing to the cultural op-
pression brought with the gospel was that Native people were many
times first introduced to Jesus as part o American territorialism
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treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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10486261048630 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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10486251048630 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
opportunities and challenges or good We must genuinely appreciate all
cultures as being capable o reflecting biblical aith We must move away
rom ldquoAmerican Christian mythologyrdquo which undergirds colonizationand its resulting paternalism in Indigenous communities We must em-
brace new theological perspectives emerging rom Native leaders as
being ldquoequalrdquo Tese perspectives provide new pathways or the contex-
tualization process Tese pathways identiy Indigenous cultural values
spirituality and ceremony as central to the new approaches to disci-
pleship and leadership development which occur within the community
No longer are such ldquonew approachesrdquo brought in by the cultural outsider
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1
THE CREATORrsquoS PRESENCE
AMONG NATIVE PEOPLE
There is only one Creator o heaven and earth Tere are not ldquomanyrdquo
Creators Just one All o human and nonhuman creation comes out
o this one Creator Tere is not a Creator who created Arica and A-
ricans or Asia and Asians or Europe and Europeans and so orth Who
can create something rom nothing or bring into existence something
that was previously nonexistent It is only this one Creator and there is
none like himher1 Tat being said this one Creator sel-reveals in and
through a myriad o cultural realities in human and nonhuman persons
throughout Unci Maka our ldquoMother Earthrdquo2
Tere are world religions that present names or this one Creator
Tese religions provide creation stories and explanations or heaven
earth and humans and supply wisdom and doctrines to help humanity
resolve its existential dilemma Tere are world religions that have a
sacred text to reerence their belies and there are thousands o ldquoolk
religionsrdquo with oral traditions that do the same through story yetmdashthere
is still just one Creator
For us First Nations people ollowing Creator-Jesus within our Indig-
enous cultural ways without submitting to the hegemonic cultural as-
sumptions o todayrsquos conservative evangelicals is tough I am remindedweekly o these neocolonial and ignorant assumptions as they show up
on the radar o my lie Te ollowing email conversation I had in 104862698308810486251048626
typifies these ldquopingsrdquo
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1048625983096 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
A group o my First Nations riends and I were looking or a acility
to host a weekend planning retreat We looked at a ew o them and de-
cided on one I knew about rom past experience Te negotiations tobook the acility took an unexpected but not totally surprising turn as
the registration person reacted to the ldquoheathen Indiansrdquo once again
Hello Mr wiss
Whenever we have a new group register with our acility we take
the time and effort to research their belies and methods etc I have
been doing that with your group and we must CANCEL your re-treat with us In your effort to ldquorestore culturerdquo you are taking the
indigenous people back into paganism shamanism alse gods and
the occult You are leading them away rom the Gospel message o
the Bible We pray you will rethink what you are doing to the very
people you love so much I will return your deposit
Tank you ldquoJane Doerdquo
Greetings Jane Doe
Tank you or your response I have many years o involvement and
riendship with people in your center I look orward to continuing
this conversation and still keeping our reservation to host our re-
treat there While a ew may have some narrow and misinormed
ideas about our aith in Jesus and the scriptures please be assured
our group is as remarkable a group o Christ-ollowers as you will
meet Please eel ree to give me a call on my cell phone today
Tank you Richard
Hello Richard
Tank you so much or your email I am aware o your history We
do not doubt your sincere heart and desires But some o theteachings o your group andor its speakers seem to be steering
people away rom the solid Gospel and taking people toward other
gods It may be subtle and it may not be your intent but i one
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486251048633
person leaves our acility compromised in their Christian walk
then we have ailed in our mission It is a hard thing we have to do
but the Lord has asked us to take a very strong stand and we cando nothing less I have returned the deposit and have still canceled
the retreat We pray the Lord will continue to guide you careully
in your efforts
Jane Doe
Greetings Jane
Tanks or your response which honestly surprises me It is cer-
tainly not the spirit that I have elt rom the organizationrsquos be-
ginning as its ounders poured their lives into creating a space or
people to wrestle with the deep issues o lie and spiritual growth
So many o us were in our early twenties when we first journeyed
there struggling to make sense o this new aith and lie we ound
in JesusTe accusations you make against usmdashldquobiblical compromise
[alsehoodheresy] steering people away rom the Gospel into
idolatry [rejecting Christ]rdquo clothed in the notion o protecting the
true Gospel rom Native cultural ways o our Native Christian
communitymdashare plainly offensive theologically arrogant and
judgmental at bestmdashperhaps culturally racist at worst Your lan-
guage o ldquothe Lord has asked us to take a very strong standrdquo againstpeople like us and the way we express our aith in Jesus biblically
culturally and theologically reveals the kind o cultural oppression
our people ace rom an idealized and racialized view o scripture
I the goal is to turn your center into a bastion o biblical protec-
tionism theological control and cultural judgmentalism your
words well reflect that direction
Peace and gracemdashRichard
Richard
Te answer is still ldquoNOrdquo I hear what you are saying but we still
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cannot support what your group and the Indigenous People
Movement are teaching No retreat at our acility
Jane Doe
While this person may represent a more extreme point o view it
nonetheless is what the majority o Euro-American evangelicals believe
about our Native cultural and ceremonial ways Ignorance suspicion and
ear o Native ways run deep in the soul o the American church I will
show later how this has been (and remains) the American churchrsquos at-titude toward our Native ways or centuries now Te tragedy is that it is
not just we who suffer Because we suffer so deeply the entire church and
nation does too
However suspicion and ear run both ways Indigenous people have
a lot to ear about the ldquowhite manrsquos religionrdquo Conquest racism hatred
prejudice exclusion orced assimilation and ongoing institutional injus-
tices are just a ew o the ears that come to mind
ldquoE983158983141983150 W983144983141983150 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 R983145983143983144983156 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 W983154983151983150983143rdquo
mdashS983152983151983147983137983150983141 G983137983154983154983161
When my wie and I lived on the Coeur drsquoAlene Reservation in Northern
Idaho in 1048625104863310486331048630 I was introduced to a lie-changing story about a re-
markable Native leader named Chie Spokane Garry He is one o my
heroes o aith and culture Creator used Chie Garry (104862598309610486251048625ndash104862598309610486331048626) as aldquomessengerrdquo who had a proound spiritual impact by spreading the gospel
(along with his riend and co-worker Kootenai Pelly) among his people
and numerous other tribes in Washington Idaho Oregon and southward3
I have been to the cemetery in Spokane Washington where Chie
Garry was buried It was an honor and a privilege to be standing there
and I was deeply touched He was a tribal leader husband ather and
advocate or justice and Christian values While his efforts appeared tohave no lasting impact and did not bring the white settlers to an under-
standing o justice neverthelessmdashthroughout it allmdashhe remained true
to his aith in Jesus He died rejected and impoverished
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048625
While we were living on the ldquoRezrdquo (reservation) we did not know o
one Native man who regularly attended any o the six Protestant evan-
gelical churchesmdashdespite Garryrsquos lie work Barely hal a dozen womenattended Tis was true as well or the neighboring Nez Perce and Kalispel
reservations Tis act stood in stark contrast to the amazing spiritual
movement inspired by Chie Garry in this region that occurred prior to
an established colonial presence
Tere were other instances o divine intervention in ldquopreparing the
way o the Lordrdquo (Isaiah 10486289830881048627) or mission work among the tribes o
this area including prophecies among the Middle Spokane and Ka-lispel tribes
Yuree-rachen Yuree-rachen ldquoCircling Ravenrdquo was a shaman rom the
Middle Spokane tribe in the late 10486251048631983088983088s He had a personal crisis o aith
in Creator afer his sonrsquos untimely death so he went to Mt Spokane or
a time o asting and prayer During this worship time he received a
vision rom Creator whom they called Quilent-sat-men ldquoHe-Made-Usrdquo
In the vision Yuree-rachen saw white men dressed strangely carryingbundles o leaves astened together He was told that the people were to
learn rom the teachings inscribed on the leaves4
Shining Shirt A similar vision in about the same time period was
given to ldquoShining Shirtrdquo said to be both a chie and a shaman o the Ka-
lispel tribe Ethnologist Harry Holbert urney-High writes that Shining
Shirt was granted a vision in which he was told that there is a Creator and
that air-skinned men in black robes would come and teach them how to
live in a new way according to a moral law During the vision Shining
Shirt was given a metal object engraved with a cross White men were
unknown to these tribal people at that time5
Creator had been at work preparing the Native people or the arrival o
the gospel o Jesus Te Christian revival among those tribes evangelized
by Spokane Garry and Kootenai Pelly was noted by white settlers and ex-
plorers For example Washington Irving in ldquoTe Adventures o Captain
Bonnevillerdquo urther documents the spread o Christianity throughout the
tribes o that region During the winter o 104862598309610486271048626 Bonneville camped with
the Nez Perce on the upper Salmon River in Oregon and observed
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10486261048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
Simply to call these people religious would convey but a aint
idea o the deep hue o piety and devotion which pervades their
whole conduct Teir honesty is immaculate and their purity opurpose and their observance o the rites o their religion are most
uniorm and remarkable Tey are certainly more like a nation o
saints than a horde o savages6
I think the purity and genuine aith mentioned by Bonneville and
others was a result o a aith birthed rom the witness o Jesus-ollowing
Indigenous people to their own tribes Tey spoke the contextual
gospel rom their hearts among their people Tis was not simply the
ldquowhite manrsquos gospelrdquo7
During the time rame o 104862598309610486271048629 to 10486259830961048629983088 European-American mission-
aries arrived in Washington and Oregon Tey communicated the gospel
rom their own cultural viewpoints Te truth is that the gospel o Christ
already had a oothold among the tribes o these areas
With the arrival o the white missionaries and their brand o Christi-
anity the story takes a predictable and unortunate turn Just as Catholic
missionaries insisted on Roman control over earlier Celtic Christian
areas8 so these Anglo missionaries insisted on Euro-American (Western-
style) Christian worship as well as doctrine What is worse their pater-
nalism ethnocentrism colonial collusion and modernism soon ldquocivi-
lizedrdquo this Indigenous movement o the gospel story and thus blinded
these Christians to the already existing work o Creator among theNative nations o the land oday throughout the entire region except
or the history books there is but a remnant o that remarkable out-
pouring o Creatorrsquos story o grace spirituality and community renewal
Unortunately this negative legacy o Christian mission among the
Coeur drsquoAlene Spokane Nez Perce and other tribes is not exceptional
Afer our centuries First Nations peoplesrsquo cultural expressions are still
marginalized or oppressed across North America Native leadership inthe wider church is absent in the evangelical mainstream Tese early
missionaries ldquopeople o their timesrdquo ound little reason to regard Native
believers as coequals because they perceived their own cultural ways as
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048627
superior Tus the majority o these missionaries denounced and de-
monized Native cultural ways part and parcel as pagan idolatrous evil
and sinulAs a result an authentic Native American cultural or Indigenous
expression o ollowing Jesus was never allowed to developmdashthe very
idea being rejected as syncretistic and incongruous with ldquobiblicalrdquo aith
Tis kind o colonial missionary mindset is sadly not a thing o the
past but is still the prevailing perspective (in both Native and non-
Native Christian leaders) among those working in our tribal commu-
nities today Instead o embracing Jesus as the Creator the majority oNative Americans blame American Christianity and the church or the
loss o their own culture and identity Is it any wonder that the vast
majority o Native people today reject Christianity as the ldquowhite manrsquos
religionrdquo
Te headline o a 10486269830889830881048631 article rom the CBC News Network in Canada
read ldquoWinnipeg Church Nixes Native Dancing at Habitat or Humanity
Eventrdquo Te article went on to say
A Winnipeg church prevented aboriginal dancers rom perorming
at a Habitat or Humanity event this week saying the perormance
was not an expression o Christian aith ldquoNative spiritual dancing
has its roots in a different spiritual belie system that is incongruent
with traditional Christian worshiprdquomdashPastor Mark Hughes9
Tis pastor and his church staff though proessing a vision or creatinga multiethnic congregation are not exceptional in their ethnocentric
views and attitudes toward First Nations people and their cultural ex-
pressions Tis church averages 10486261048629983088983088 people in Sunday attendance is
one o the largest in Canada and is considered a leading ldquoChristian voicerdquo
in the province and city
Because o colonial missionariesrsquo attitudes o cultural superiority a
Native American cultural expression o ollowing Jesus didnrsquot developat the time Another powerul actor contributing to the cultural op-
pression brought with the gospel was that Native people were many
times first introduced to Jesus as part o American territorialism
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treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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10486261048630 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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10486271048628 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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1
THE CREATORrsquoS PRESENCE
AMONG NATIVE PEOPLE
There is only one Creator o heaven and earth Tere are not ldquomanyrdquo
Creators Just one All o human and nonhuman creation comes out
o this one Creator Tere is not a Creator who created Arica and A-
ricans or Asia and Asians or Europe and Europeans and so orth Who
can create something rom nothing or bring into existence something
that was previously nonexistent It is only this one Creator and there is
none like himher1 Tat being said this one Creator sel-reveals in and
through a myriad o cultural realities in human and nonhuman persons
throughout Unci Maka our ldquoMother Earthrdquo2
Tere are world religions that present names or this one Creator
Tese religions provide creation stories and explanations or heaven
earth and humans and supply wisdom and doctrines to help humanity
resolve its existential dilemma Tere are world religions that have a
sacred text to reerence their belies and there are thousands o ldquoolk
religionsrdquo with oral traditions that do the same through story yetmdashthere
is still just one Creator
For us First Nations people ollowing Creator-Jesus within our Indig-
enous cultural ways without submitting to the hegemonic cultural as-
sumptions o todayrsquos conservative evangelicals is tough I am remindedweekly o these neocolonial and ignorant assumptions as they show up
on the radar o my lie Te ollowing email conversation I had in 104862698308810486251048626
typifies these ldquopingsrdquo
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A group o my First Nations riends and I were looking or a acility
to host a weekend planning retreat We looked at a ew o them and de-
cided on one I knew about rom past experience Te negotiations tobook the acility took an unexpected but not totally surprising turn as
the registration person reacted to the ldquoheathen Indiansrdquo once again
Hello Mr wiss
Whenever we have a new group register with our acility we take
the time and effort to research their belies and methods etc I have
been doing that with your group and we must CANCEL your re-treat with us In your effort to ldquorestore culturerdquo you are taking the
indigenous people back into paganism shamanism alse gods and
the occult You are leading them away rom the Gospel message o
the Bible We pray you will rethink what you are doing to the very
people you love so much I will return your deposit
Tank you ldquoJane Doerdquo
Greetings Jane Doe
Tank you or your response I have many years o involvement and
riendship with people in your center I look orward to continuing
this conversation and still keeping our reservation to host our re-
treat there While a ew may have some narrow and misinormed
ideas about our aith in Jesus and the scriptures please be assured
our group is as remarkable a group o Christ-ollowers as you will
meet Please eel ree to give me a call on my cell phone today
Tank you Richard
Hello Richard
Tank you so much or your email I am aware o your history We
do not doubt your sincere heart and desires But some o theteachings o your group andor its speakers seem to be steering
people away rom the solid Gospel and taking people toward other
gods It may be subtle and it may not be your intent but i one
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486251048633
person leaves our acility compromised in their Christian walk
then we have ailed in our mission It is a hard thing we have to do
but the Lord has asked us to take a very strong stand and we cando nothing less I have returned the deposit and have still canceled
the retreat We pray the Lord will continue to guide you careully
in your efforts
Jane Doe
Greetings Jane
Tanks or your response which honestly surprises me It is cer-
tainly not the spirit that I have elt rom the organizationrsquos be-
ginning as its ounders poured their lives into creating a space or
people to wrestle with the deep issues o lie and spiritual growth
So many o us were in our early twenties when we first journeyed
there struggling to make sense o this new aith and lie we ound
in JesusTe accusations you make against usmdashldquobiblical compromise
[alsehoodheresy] steering people away rom the Gospel into
idolatry [rejecting Christ]rdquo clothed in the notion o protecting the
true Gospel rom Native cultural ways o our Native Christian
communitymdashare plainly offensive theologically arrogant and
judgmental at bestmdashperhaps culturally racist at worst Your lan-
guage o ldquothe Lord has asked us to take a very strong standrdquo againstpeople like us and the way we express our aith in Jesus biblically
culturally and theologically reveals the kind o cultural oppression
our people ace rom an idealized and racialized view o scripture
I the goal is to turn your center into a bastion o biblical protec-
tionism theological control and cultural judgmentalism your
words well reflect that direction
Peace and gracemdashRichard
Richard
Te answer is still ldquoNOrdquo I hear what you are saying but we still
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cannot support what your group and the Indigenous People
Movement are teaching No retreat at our acility
Jane Doe
While this person may represent a more extreme point o view it
nonetheless is what the majority o Euro-American evangelicals believe
about our Native cultural and ceremonial ways Ignorance suspicion and
ear o Native ways run deep in the soul o the American church I will
show later how this has been (and remains) the American churchrsquos at-titude toward our Native ways or centuries now Te tragedy is that it is
not just we who suffer Because we suffer so deeply the entire church and
nation does too
However suspicion and ear run both ways Indigenous people have
a lot to ear about the ldquowhite manrsquos religionrdquo Conquest racism hatred
prejudice exclusion orced assimilation and ongoing institutional injus-
tices are just a ew o the ears that come to mind
ldquoE983158983141983150 W983144983141983150 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 R983145983143983144983156 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 W983154983151983150983143rdquo
mdashS983152983151983147983137983150983141 G983137983154983154983161
When my wie and I lived on the Coeur drsquoAlene Reservation in Northern
Idaho in 1048625104863310486331048630 I was introduced to a lie-changing story about a re-
markable Native leader named Chie Spokane Garry He is one o my
heroes o aith and culture Creator used Chie Garry (104862598309610486251048625ndash104862598309610486331048626) as aldquomessengerrdquo who had a proound spiritual impact by spreading the gospel
(along with his riend and co-worker Kootenai Pelly) among his people
and numerous other tribes in Washington Idaho Oregon and southward3
I have been to the cemetery in Spokane Washington where Chie
Garry was buried It was an honor and a privilege to be standing there
and I was deeply touched He was a tribal leader husband ather and
advocate or justice and Christian values While his efforts appeared tohave no lasting impact and did not bring the white settlers to an under-
standing o justice neverthelessmdashthroughout it allmdashhe remained true
to his aith in Jesus He died rejected and impoverished
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048625
While we were living on the ldquoRezrdquo (reservation) we did not know o
one Native man who regularly attended any o the six Protestant evan-
gelical churchesmdashdespite Garryrsquos lie work Barely hal a dozen womenattended Tis was true as well or the neighboring Nez Perce and Kalispel
reservations Tis act stood in stark contrast to the amazing spiritual
movement inspired by Chie Garry in this region that occurred prior to
an established colonial presence
Tere were other instances o divine intervention in ldquopreparing the
way o the Lordrdquo (Isaiah 10486289830881048627) or mission work among the tribes o
this area including prophecies among the Middle Spokane and Ka-lispel tribes
Yuree-rachen Yuree-rachen ldquoCircling Ravenrdquo was a shaman rom the
Middle Spokane tribe in the late 10486251048631983088983088s He had a personal crisis o aith
in Creator afer his sonrsquos untimely death so he went to Mt Spokane or
a time o asting and prayer During this worship time he received a
vision rom Creator whom they called Quilent-sat-men ldquoHe-Made-Usrdquo
In the vision Yuree-rachen saw white men dressed strangely carryingbundles o leaves astened together He was told that the people were to
learn rom the teachings inscribed on the leaves4
Shining Shirt A similar vision in about the same time period was
given to ldquoShining Shirtrdquo said to be both a chie and a shaman o the Ka-
lispel tribe Ethnologist Harry Holbert urney-High writes that Shining
Shirt was granted a vision in which he was told that there is a Creator and
that air-skinned men in black robes would come and teach them how to
live in a new way according to a moral law During the vision Shining
Shirt was given a metal object engraved with a cross White men were
unknown to these tribal people at that time5
Creator had been at work preparing the Native people or the arrival o
the gospel o Jesus Te Christian revival among those tribes evangelized
by Spokane Garry and Kootenai Pelly was noted by white settlers and ex-
plorers For example Washington Irving in ldquoTe Adventures o Captain
Bonnevillerdquo urther documents the spread o Christianity throughout the
tribes o that region During the winter o 104862598309610486271048626 Bonneville camped with
the Nez Perce on the upper Salmon River in Oregon and observed
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10486261048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
Simply to call these people religious would convey but a aint
idea o the deep hue o piety and devotion which pervades their
whole conduct Teir honesty is immaculate and their purity opurpose and their observance o the rites o their religion are most
uniorm and remarkable Tey are certainly more like a nation o
saints than a horde o savages6
I think the purity and genuine aith mentioned by Bonneville and
others was a result o a aith birthed rom the witness o Jesus-ollowing
Indigenous people to their own tribes Tey spoke the contextual
gospel rom their hearts among their people Tis was not simply the
ldquowhite manrsquos gospelrdquo7
During the time rame o 104862598309610486271048629 to 10486259830961048629983088 European-American mission-
aries arrived in Washington and Oregon Tey communicated the gospel
rom their own cultural viewpoints Te truth is that the gospel o Christ
already had a oothold among the tribes o these areas
With the arrival o the white missionaries and their brand o Christi-
anity the story takes a predictable and unortunate turn Just as Catholic
missionaries insisted on Roman control over earlier Celtic Christian
areas8 so these Anglo missionaries insisted on Euro-American (Western-
style) Christian worship as well as doctrine What is worse their pater-
nalism ethnocentrism colonial collusion and modernism soon ldquocivi-
lizedrdquo this Indigenous movement o the gospel story and thus blinded
these Christians to the already existing work o Creator among theNative nations o the land oday throughout the entire region except
or the history books there is but a remnant o that remarkable out-
pouring o Creatorrsquos story o grace spirituality and community renewal
Unortunately this negative legacy o Christian mission among the
Coeur drsquoAlene Spokane Nez Perce and other tribes is not exceptional
Afer our centuries First Nations peoplesrsquo cultural expressions are still
marginalized or oppressed across North America Native leadership inthe wider church is absent in the evangelical mainstream Tese early
missionaries ldquopeople o their timesrdquo ound little reason to regard Native
believers as coequals because they perceived their own cultural ways as
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048627
superior Tus the majority o these missionaries denounced and de-
monized Native cultural ways part and parcel as pagan idolatrous evil
and sinulAs a result an authentic Native American cultural or Indigenous
expression o ollowing Jesus was never allowed to developmdashthe very
idea being rejected as syncretistic and incongruous with ldquobiblicalrdquo aith
Tis kind o colonial missionary mindset is sadly not a thing o the
past but is still the prevailing perspective (in both Native and non-
Native Christian leaders) among those working in our tribal commu-
nities today Instead o embracing Jesus as the Creator the majority oNative Americans blame American Christianity and the church or the
loss o their own culture and identity Is it any wonder that the vast
majority o Native people today reject Christianity as the ldquowhite manrsquos
religionrdquo
Te headline o a 10486269830889830881048631 article rom the CBC News Network in Canada
read ldquoWinnipeg Church Nixes Native Dancing at Habitat or Humanity
Eventrdquo Te article went on to say
A Winnipeg church prevented aboriginal dancers rom perorming
at a Habitat or Humanity event this week saying the perormance
was not an expression o Christian aith ldquoNative spiritual dancing
has its roots in a different spiritual belie system that is incongruent
with traditional Christian worshiprdquomdashPastor Mark Hughes9
Tis pastor and his church staff though proessing a vision or creatinga multiethnic congregation are not exceptional in their ethnocentric
views and attitudes toward First Nations people and their cultural ex-
pressions Tis church averages 10486261048629983088983088 people in Sunday attendance is
one o the largest in Canada and is considered a leading ldquoChristian voicerdquo
in the province and city
Because o colonial missionariesrsquo attitudes o cultural superiority a
Native American cultural expression o ollowing Jesus didnrsquot developat the time Another powerul actor contributing to the cultural op-
pression brought with the gospel was that Native people were many
times first introduced to Jesus as part o American territorialism
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treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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10486261048630 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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1048625983096 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
A group o my First Nations riends and I were looking or a acility
to host a weekend planning retreat We looked at a ew o them and de-
cided on one I knew about rom past experience Te negotiations tobook the acility took an unexpected but not totally surprising turn as
the registration person reacted to the ldquoheathen Indiansrdquo once again
Hello Mr wiss
Whenever we have a new group register with our acility we take
the time and effort to research their belies and methods etc I have
been doing that with your group and we must CANCEL your re-treat with us In your effort to ldquorestore culturerdquo you are taking the
indigenous people back into paganism shamanism alse gods and
the occult You are leading them away rom the Gospel message o
the Bible We pray you will rethink what you are doing to the very
people you love so much I will return your deposit
Tank you ldquoJane Doerdquo
Greetings Jane Doe
Tank you or your response I have many years o involvement and
riendship with people in your center I look orward to continuing
this conversation and still keeping our reservation to host our re-
treat there While a ew may have some narrow and misinormed
ideas about our aith in Jesus and the scriptures please be assured
our group is as remarkable a group o Christ-ollowers as you will
meet Please eel ree to give me a call on my cell phone today
Tank you Richard
Hello Richard
Tank you so much or your email I am aware o your history We
do not doubt your sincere heart and desires But some o theteachings o your group andor its speakers seem to be steering
people away rom the solid Gospel and taking people toward other
gods It may be subtle and it may not be your intent but i one
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486251048633
person leaves our acility compromised in their Christian walk
then we have ailed in our mission It is a hard thing we have to do
but the Lord has asked us to take a very strong stand and we cando nothing less I have returned the deposit and have still canceled
the retreat We pray the Lord will continue to guide you careully
in your efforts
Jane Doe
Greetings Jane
Tanks or your response which honestly surprises me It is cer-
tainly not the spirit that I have elt rom the organizationrsquos be-
ginning as its ounders poured their lives into creating a space or
people to wrestle with the deep issues o lie and spiritual growth
So many o us were in our early twenties when we first journeyed
there struggling to make sense o this new aith and lie we ound
in JesusTe accusations you make against usmdashldquobiblical compromise
[alsehoodheresy] steering people away rom the Gospel into
idolatry [rejecting Christ]rdquo clothed in the notion o protecting the
true Gospel rom Native cultural ways o our Native Christian
communitymdashare plainly offensive theologically arrogant and
judgmental at bestmdashperhaps culturally racist at worst Your lan-
guage o ldquothe Lord has asked us to take a very strong standrdquo againstpeople like us and the way we express our aith in Jesus biblically
culturally and theologically reveals the kind o cultural oppression
our people ace rom an idealized and racialized view o scripture
I the goal is to turn your center into a bastion o biblical protec-
tionism theological control and cultural judgmentalism your
words well reflect that direction
Peace and gracemdashRichard
Richard
Te answer is still ldquoNOrdquo I hear what you are saying but we still
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cannot support what your group and the Indigenous People
Movement are teaching No retreat at our acility
Jane Doe
While this person may represent a more extreme point o view it
nonetheless is what the majority o Euro-American evangelicals believe
about our Native cultural and ceremonial ways Ignorance suspicion and
ear o Native ways run deep in the soul o the American church I will
show later how this has been (and remains) the American churchrsquos at-titude toward our Native ways or centuries now Te tragedy is that it is
not just we who suffer Because we suffer so deeply the entire church and
nation does too
However suspicion and ear run both ways Indigenous people have
a lot to ear about the ldquowhite manrsquos religionrdquo Conquest racism hatred
prejudice exclusion orced assimilation and ongoing institutional injus-
tices are just a ew o the ears that come to mind
ldquoE983158983141983150 W983144983141983150 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 R983145983143983144983156 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 W983154983151983150983143rdquo
mdashS983152983151983147983137983150983141 G983137983154983154983161
When my wie and I lived on the Coeur drsquoAlene Reservation in Northern
Idaho in 1048625104863310486331048630 I was introduced to a lie-changing story about a re-
markable Native leader named Chie Spokane Garry He is one o my
heroes o aith and culture Creator used Chie Garry (104862598309610486251048625ndash104862598309610486331048626) as aldquomessengerrdquo who had a proound spiritual impact by spreading the gospel
(along with his riend and co-worker Kootenai Pelly) among his people
and numerous other tribes in Washington Idaho Oregon and southward3
I have been to the cemetery in Spokane Washington where Chie
Garry was buried It was an honor and a privilege to be standing there
and I was deeply touched He was a tribal leader husband ather and
advocate or justice and Christian values While his efforts appeared tohave no lasting impact and did not bring the white settlers to an under-
standing o justice neverthelessmdashthroughout it allmdashhe remained true
to his aith in Jesus He died rejected and impoverished
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048625
While we were living on the ldquoRezrdquo (reservation) we did not know o
one Native man who regularly attended any o the six Protestant evan-
gelical churchesmdashdespite Garryrsquos lie work Barely hal a dozen womenattended Tis was true as well or the neighboring Nez Perce and Kalispel
reservations Tis act stood in stark contrast to the amazing spiritual
movement inspired by Chie Garry in this region that occurred prior to
an established colonial presence
Tere were other instances o divine intervention in ldquopreparing the
way o the Lordrdquo (Isaiah 10486289830881048627) or mission work among the tribes o
this area including prophecies among the Middle Spokane and Ka-lispel tribes
Yuree-rachen Yuree-rachen ldquoCircling Ravenrdquo was a shaman rom the
Middle Spokane tribe in the late 10486251048631983088983088s He had a personal crisis o aith
in Creator afer his sonrsquos untimely death so he went to Mt Spokane or
a time o asting and prayer During this worship time he received a
vision rom Creator whom they called Quilent-sat-men ldquoHe-Made-Usrdquo
In the vision Yuree-rachen saw white men dressed strangely carryingbundles o leaves astened together He was told that the people were to
learn rom the teachings inscribed on the leaves4
Shining Shirt A similar vision in about the same time period was
given to ldquoShining Shirtrdquo said to be both a chie and a shaman o the Ka-
lispel tribe Ethnologist Harry Holbert urney-High writes that Shining
Shirt was granted a vision in which he was told that there is a Creator and
that air-skinned men in black robes would come and teach them how to
live in a new way according to a moral law During the vision Shining
Shirt was given a metal object engraved with a cross White men were
unknown to these tribal people at that time5
Creator had been at work preparing the Native people or the arrival o
the gospel o Jesus Te Christian revival among those tribes evangelized
by Spokane Garry and Kootenai Pelly was noted by white settlers and ex-
plorers For example Washington Irving in ldquoTe Adventures o Captain
Bonnevillerdquo urther documents the spread o Christianity throughout the
tribes o that region During the winter o 104862598309610486271048626 Bonneville camped with
the Nez Perce on the upper Salmon River in Oregon and observed
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10486261048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
Simply to call these people religious would convey but a aint
idea o the deep hue o piety and devotion which pervades their
whole conduct Teir honesty is immaculate and their purity opurpose and their observance o the rites o their religion are most
uniorm and remarkable Tey are certainly more like a nation o
saints than a horde o savages6
I think the purity and genuine aith mentioned by Bonneville and
others was a result o a aith birthed rom the witness o Jesus-ollowing
Indigenous people to their own tribes Tey spoke the contextual
gospel rom their hearts among their people Tis was not simply the
ldquowhite manrsquos gospelrdquo7
During the time rame o 104862598309610486271048629 to 10486259830961048629983088 European-American mission-
aries arrived in Washington and Oregon Tey communicated the gospel
rom their own cultural viewpoints Te truth is that the gospel o Christ
already had a oothold among the tribes o these areas
With the arrival o the white missionaries and their brand o Christi-
anity the story takes a predictable and unortunate turn Just as Catholic
missionaries insisted on Roman control over earlier Celtic Christian
areas8 so these Anglo missionaries insisted on Euro-American (Western-
style) Christian worship as well as doctrine What is worse their pater-
nalism ethnocentrism colonial collusion and modernism soon ldquocivi-
lizedrdquo this Indigenous movement o the gospel story and thus blinded
these Christians to the already existing work o Creator among theNative nations o the land oday throughout the entire region except
or the history books there is but a remnant o that remarkable out-
pouring o Creatorrsquos story o grace spirituality and community renewal
Unortunately this negative legacy o Christian mission among the
Coeur drsquoAlene Spokane Nez Perce and other tribes is not exceptional
Afer our centuries First Nations peoplesrsquo cultural expressions are still
marginalized or oppressed across North America Native leadership inthe wider church is absent in the evangelical mainstream Tese early
missionaries ldquopeople o their timesrdquo ound little reason to regard Native
believers as coequals because they perceived their own cultural ways as
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048627
superior Tus the majority o these missionaries denounced and de-
monized Native cultural ways part and parcel as pagan idolatrous evil
and sinulAs a result an authentic Native American cultural or Indigenous
expression o ollowing Jesus was never allowed to developmdashthe very
idea being rejected as syncretistic and incongruous with ldquobiblicalrdquo aith
Tis kind o colonial missionary mindset is sadly not a thing o the
past but is still the prevailing perspective (in both Native and non-
Native Christian leaders) among those working in our tribal commu-
nities today Instead o embracing Jesus as the Creator the majority oNative Americans blame American Christianity and the church or the
loss o their own culture and identity Is it any wonder that the vast
majority o Native people today reject Christianity as the ldquowhite manrsquos
religionrdquo
Te headline o a 10486269830889830881048631 article rom the CBC News Network in Canada
read ldquoWinnipeg Church Nixes Native Dancing at Habitat or Humanity
Eventrdquo Te article went on to say
A Winnipeg church prevented aboriginal dancers rom perorming
at a Habitat or Humanity event this week saying the perormance
was not an expression o Christian aith ldquoNative spiritual dancing
has its roots in a different spiritual belie system that is incongruent
with traditional Christian worshiprdquomdashPastor Mark Hughes9
Tis pastor and his church staff though proessing a vision or creatinga multiethnic congregation are not exceptional in their ethnocentric
views and attitudes toward First Nations people and their cultural ex-
pressions Tis church averages 10486261048629983088983088 people in Sunday attendance is
one o the largest in Canada and is considered a leading ldquoChristian voicerdquo
in the province and city
Because o colonial missionariesrsquo attitudes o cultural superiority a
Native American cultural expression o ollowing Jesus didnrsquot developat the time Another powerul actor contributing to the cultural op-
pression brought with the gospel was that Native people were many
times first introduced to Jesus as part o American territorialism
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treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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1048627983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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10486271048628 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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10486271048630 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486251048633
person leaves our acility compromised in their Christian walk
then we have ailed in our mission It is a hard thing we have to do
but the Lord has asked us to take a very strong stand and we cando nothing less I have returned the deposit and have still canceled
the retreat We pray the Lord will continue to guide you careully
in your efforts
Jane Doe
Greetings Jane
Tanks or your response which honestly surprises me It is cer-
tainly not the spirit that I have elt rom the organizationrsquos be-
ginning as its ounders poured their lives into creating a space or
people to wrestle with the deep issues o lie and spiritual growth
So many o us were in our early twenties when we first journeyed
there struggling to make sense o this new aith and lie we ound
in JesusTe accusations you make against usmdashldquobiblical compromise
[alsehoodheresy] steering people away rom the Gospel into
idolatry [rejecting Christ]rdquo clothed in the notion o protecting the
true Gospel rom Native cultural ways o our Native Christian
communitymdashare plainly offensive theologically arrogant and
judgmental at bestmdashperhaps culturally racist at worst Your lan-
guage o ldquothe Lord has asked us to take a very strong standrdquo againstpeople like us and the way we express our aith in Jesus biblically
culturally and theologically reveals the kind o cultural oppression
our people ace rom an idealized and racialized view o scripture
I the goal is to turn your center into a bastion o biblical protec-
tionism theological control and cultural judgmentalism your
words well reflect that direction
Peace and gracemdashRichard
Richard
Te answer is still ldquoNOrdquo I hear what you are saying but we still
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1048626983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot support what your group and the Indigenous People
Movement are teaching No retreat at our acility
Jane Doe
While this person may represent a more extreme point o view it
nonetheless is what the majority o Euro-American evangelicals believe
about our Native cultural and ceremonial ways Ignorance suspicion and
ear o Native ways run deep in the soul o the American church I will
show later how this has been (and remains) the American churchrsquos at-titude toward our Native ways or centuries now Te tragedy is that it is
not just we who suffer Because we suffer so deeply the entire church and
nation does too
However suspicion and ear run both ways Indigenous people have
a lot to ear about the ldquowhite manrsquos religionrdquo Conquest racism hatred
prejudice exclusion orced assimilation and ongoing institutional injus-
tices are just a ew o the ears that come to mind
ldquoE983158983141983150 W983144983141983150 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 R983145983143983144983156 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 W983154983151983150983143rdquo
mdashS983152983151983147983137983150983141 G983137983154983154983161
When my wie and I lived on the Coeur drsquoAlene Reservation in Northern
Idaho in 1048625104863310486331048630 I was introduced to a lie-changing story about a re-
markable Native leader named Chie Spokane Garry He is one o my
heroes o aith and culture Creator used Chie Garry (104862598309610486251048625ndash104862598309610486331048626) as aldquomessengerrdquo who had a proound spiritual impact by spreading the gospel
(along with his riend and co-worker Kootenai Pelly) among his people
and numerous other tribes in Washington Idaho Oregon and southward3
I have been to the cemetery in Spokane Washington where Chie
Garry was buried It was an honor and a privilege to be standing there
and I was deeply touched He was a tribal leader husband ather and
advocate or justice and Christian values While his efforts appeared tohave no lasting impact and did not bring the white settlers to an under-
standing o justice neverthelessmdashthroughout it allmdashhe remained true
to his aith in Jesus He died rejected and impoverished
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048625
While we were living on the ldquoRezrdquo (reservation) we did not know o
one Native man who regularly attended any o the six Protestant evan-
gelical churchesmdashdespite Garryrsquos lie work Barely hal a dozen womenattended Tis was true as well or the neighboring Nez Perce and Kalispel
reservations Tis act stood in stark contrast to the amazing spiritual
movement inspired by Chie Garry in this region that occurred prior to
an established colonial presence
Tere were other instances o divine intervention in ldquopreparing the
way o the Lordrdquo (Isaiah 10486289830881048627) or mission work among the tribes o
this area including prophecies among the Middle Spokane and Ka-lispel tribes
Yuree-rachen Yuree-rachen ldquoCircling Ravenrdquo was a shaman rom the
Middle Spokane tribe in the late 10486251048631983088983088s He had a personal crisis o aith
in Creator afer his sonrsquos untimely death so he went to Mt Spokane or
a time o asting and prayer During this worship time he received a
vision rom Creator whom they called Quilent-sat-men ldquoHe-Made-Usrdquo
In the vision Yuree-rachen saw white men dressed strangely carryingbundles o leaves astened together He was told that the people were to
learn rom the teachings inscribed on the leaves4
Shining Shirt A similar vision in about the same time period was
given to ldquoShining Shirtrdquo said to be both a chie and a shaman o the Ka-
lispel tribe Ethnologist Harry Holbert urney-High writes that Shining
Shirt was granted a vision in which he was told that there is a Creator and
that air-skinned men in black robes would come and teach them how to
live in a new way according to a moral law During the vision Shining
Shirt was given a metal object engraved with a cross White men were
unknown to these tribal people at that time5
Creator had been at work preparing the Native people or the arrival o
the gospel o Jesus Te Christian revival among those tribes evangelized
by Spokane Garry and Kootenai Pelly was noted by white settlers and ex-
plorers For example Washington Irving in ldquoTe Adventures o Captain
Bonnevillerdquo urther documents the spread o Christianity throughout the
tribes o that region During the winter o 104862598309610486271048626 Bonneville camped with
the Nez Perce on the upper Salmon River in Oregon and observed
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10486261048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
Simply to call these people religious would convey but a aint
idea o the deep hue o piety and devotion which pervades their
whole conduct Teir honesty is immaculate and their purity opurpose and their observance o the rites o their religion are most
uniorm and remarkable Tey are certainly more like a nation o
saints than a horde o savages6
I think the purity and genuine aith mentioned by Bonneville and
others was a result o a aith birthed rom the witness o Jesus-ollowing
Indigenous people to their own tribes Tey spoke the contextual
gospel rom their hearts among their people Tis was not simply the
ldquowhite manrsquos gospelrdquo7
During the time rame o 104862598309610486271048629 to 10486259830961048629983088 European-American mission-
aries arrived in Washington and Oregon Tey communicated the gospel
rom their own cultural viewpoints Te truth is that the gospel o Christ
already had a oothold among the tribes o these areas
With the arrival o the white missionaries and their brand o Christi-
anity the story takes a predictable and unortunate turn Just as Catholic
missionaries insisted on Roman control over earlier Celtic Christian
areas8 so these Anglo missionaries insisted on Euro-American (Western-
style) Christian worship as well as doctrine What is worse their pater-
nalism ethnocentrism colonial collusion and modernism soon ldquocivi-
lizedrdquo this Indigenous movement o the gospel story and thus blinded
these Christians to the already existing work o Creator among theNative nations o the land oday throughout the entire region except
or the history books there is but a remnant o that remarkable out-
pouring o Creatorrsquos story o grace spirituality and community renewal
Unortunately this negative legacy o Christian mission among the
Coeur drsquoAlene Spokane Nez Perce and other tribes is not exceptional
Afer our centuries First Nations peoplesrsquo cultural expressions are still
marginalized or oppressed across North America Native leadership inthe wider church is absent in the evangelical mainstream Tese early
missionaries ldquopeople o their timesrdquo ound little reason to regard Native
believers as coequals because they perceived their own cultural ways as
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048627
superior Tus the majority o these missionaries denounced and de-
monized Native cultural ways part and parcel as pagan idolatrous evil
and sinulAs a result an authentic Native American cultural or Indigenous
expression o ollowing Jesus was never allowed to developmdashthe very
idea being rejected as syncretistic and incongruous with ldquobiblicalrdquo aith
Tis kind o colonial missionary mindset is sadly not a thing o the
past but is still the prevailing perspective (in both Native and non-
Native Christian leaders) among those working in our tribal commu-
nities today Instead o embracing Jesus as the Creator the majority oNative Americans blame American Christianity and the church or the
loss o their own culture and identity Is it any wonder that the vast
majority o Native people today reject Christianity as the ldquowhite manrsquos
religionrdquo
Te headline o a 10486269830889830881048631 article rom the CBC News Network in Canada
read ldquoWinnipeg Church Nixes Native Dancing at Habitat or Humanity
Eventrdquo Te article went on to say
A Winnipeg church prevented aboriginal dancers rom perorming
at a Habitat or Humanity event this week saying the perormance
was not an expression o Christian aith ldquoNative spiritual dancing
has its roots in a different spiritual belie system that is incongruent
with traditional Christian worshiprdquomdashPastor Mark Hughes9
Tis pastor and his church staff though proessing a vision or creatinga multiethnic congregation are not exceptional in their ethnocentric
views and attitudes toward First Nations people and their cultural ex-
pressions Tis church averages 10486261048629983088983088 people in Sunday attendance is
one o the largest in Canada and is considered a leading ldquoChristian voicerdquo
in the province and city
Because o colonial missionariesrsquo attitudes o cultural superiority a
Native American cultural expression o ollowing Jesus didnrsquot developat the time Another powerul actor contributing to the cultural op-
pression brought with the gospel was that Native people were many
times first introduced to Jesus as part o American territorialism
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treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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10486271048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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10486271048628 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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10486271048630 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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cannot support what your group and the Indigenous People
Movement are teaching No retreat at our acility
Jane Doe
While this person may represent a more extreme point o view it
nonetheless is what the majority o Euro-American evangelicals believe
about our Native cultural and ceremonial ways Ignorance suspicion and
ear o Native ways run deep in the soul o the American church I will
show later how this has been (and remains) the American churchrsquos at-titude toward our Native ways or centuries now Te tragedy is that it is
not just we who suffer Because we suffer so deeply the entire church and
nation does too
However suspicion and ear run both ways Indigenous people have
a lot to ear about the ldquowhite manrsquos religionrdquo Conquest racism hatred
prejudice exclusion orced assimilation and ongoing institutional injus-
tices are just a ew o the ears that come to mind
ldquoE983158983141983150 W983144983141983150 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 R983145983143983144983156 W983141 G983141983156 983145983156 W983154983151983150983143rdquo
mdashS983152983151983147983137983150983141 G983137983154983154983161
When my wie and I lived on the Coeur drsquoAlene Reservation in Northern
Idaho in 1048625104863310486331048630 I was introduced to a lie-changing story about a re-
markable Native leader named Chie Spokane Garry He is one o my
heroes o aith and culture Creator used Chie Garry (104862598309610486251048625ndash104862598309610486331048626) as aldquomessengerrdquo who had a proound spiritual impact by spreading the gospel
(along with his riend and co-worker Kootenai Pelly) among his people
and numerous other tribes in Washington Idaho Oregon and southward3
I have been to the cemetery in Spokane Washington where Chie
Garry was buried It was an honor and a privilege to be standing there
and I was deeply touched He was a tribal leader husband ather and
advocate or justice and Christian values While his efforts appeared tohave no lasting impact and did not bring the white settlers to an under-
standing o justice neverthelessmdashthroughout it allmdashhe remained true
to his aith in Jesus He died rejected and impoverished
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048625
While we were living on the ldquoRezrdquo (reservation) we did not know o
one Native man who regularly attended any o the six Protestant evan-
gelical churchesmdashdespite Garryrsquos lie work Barely hal a dozen womenattended Tis was true as well or the neighboring Nez Perce and Kalispel
reservations Tis act stood in stark contrast to the amazing spiritual
movement inspired by Chie Garry in this region that occurred prior to
an established colonial presence
Tere were other instances o divine intervention in ldquopreparing the
way o the Lordrdquo (Isaiah 10486289830881048627) or mission work among the tribes o
this area including prophecies among the Middle Spokane and Ka-lispel tribes
Yuree-rachen Yuree-rachen ldquoCircling Ravenrdquo was a shaman rom the
Middle Spokane tribe in the late 10486251048631983088983088s He had a personal crisis o aith
in Creator afer his sonrsquos untimely death so he went to Mt Spokane or
a time o asting and prayer During this worship time he received a
vision rom Creator whom they called Quilent-sat-men ldquoHe-Made-Usrdquo
In the vision Yuree-rachen saw white men dressed strangely carryingbundles o leaves astened together He was told that the people were to
learn rom the teachings inscribed on the leaves4
Shining Shirt A similar vision in about the same time period was
given to ldquoShining Shirtrdquo said to be both a chie and a shaman o the Ka-
lispel tribe Ethnologist Harry Holbert urney-High writes that Shining
Shirt was granted a vision in which he was told that there is a Creator and
that air-skinned men in black robes would come and teach them how to
live in a new way according to a moral law During the vision Shining
Shirt was given a metal object engraved with a cross White men were
unknown to these tribal people at that time5
Creator had been at work preparing the Native people or the arrival o
the gospel o Jesus Te Christian revival among those tribes evangelized
by Spokane Garry and Kootenai Pelly was noted by white settlers and ex-
plorers For example Washington Irving in ldquoTe Adventures o Captain
Bonnevillerdquo urther documents the spread o Christianity throughout the
tribes o that region During the winter o 104862598309610486271048626 Bonneville camped with
the Nez Perce on the upper Salmon River in Oregon and observed
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10486261048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
Simply to call these people religious would convey but a aint
idea o the deep hue o piety and devotion which pervades their
whole conduct Teir honesty is immaculate and their purity opurpose and their observance o the rites o their religion are most
uniorm and remarkable Tey are certainly more like a nation o
saints than a horde o savages6
I think the purity and genuine aith mentioned by Bonneville and
others was a result o a aith birthed rom the witness o Jesus-ollowing
Indigenous people to their own tribes Tey spoke the contextual
gospel rom their hearts among their people Tis was not simply the
ldquowhite manrsquos gospelrdquo7
During the time rame o 104862598309610486271048629 to 10486259830961048629983088 European-American mission-
aries arrived in Washington and Oregon Tey communicated the gospel
rom their own cultural viewpoints Te truth is that the gospel o Christ
already had a oothold among the tribes o these areas
With the arrival o the white missionaries and their brand o Christi-
anity the story takes a predictable and unortunate turn Just as Catholic
missionaries insisted on Roman control over earlier Celtic Christian
areas8 so these Anglo missionaries insisted on Euro-American (Western-
style) Christian worship as well as doctrine What is worse their pater-
nalism ethnocentrism colonial collusion and modernism soon ldquocivi-
lizedrdquo this Indigenous movement o the gospel story and thus blinded
these Christians to the already existing work o Creator among theNative nations o the land oday throughout the entire region except
or the history books there is but a remnant o that remarkable out-
pouring o Creatorrsquos story o grace spirituality and community renewal
Unortunately this negative legacy o Christian mission among the
Coeur drsquoAlene Spokane Nez Perce and other tribes is not exceptional
Afer our centuries First Nations peoplesrsquo cultural expressions are still
marginalized or oppressed across North America Native leadership inthe wider church is absent in the evangelical mainstream Tese early
missionaries ldquopeople o their timesrdquo ound little reason to regard Native
believers as coequals because they perceived their own cultural ways as
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048627
superior Tus the majority o these missionaries denounced and de-
monized Native cultural ways part and parcel as pagan idolatrous evil
and sinulAs a result an authentic Native American cultural or Indigenous
expression o ollowing Jesus was never allowed to developmdashthe very
idea being rejected as syncretistic and incongruous with ldquobiblicalrdquo aith
Tis kind o colonial missionary mindset is sadly not a thing o the
past but is still the prevailing perspective (in both Native and non-
Native Christian leaders) among those working in our tribal commu-
nities today Instead o embracing Jesus as the Creator the majority oNative Americans blame American Christianity and the church or the
loss o their own culture and identity Is it any wonder that the vast
majority o Native people today reject Christianity as the ldquowhite manrsquos
religionrdquo
Te headline o a 10486269830889830881048631 article rom the CBC News Network in Canada
read ldquoWinnipeg Church Nixes Native Dancing at Habitat or Humanity
Eventrdquo Te article went on to say
A Winnipeg church prevented aboriginal dancers rom perorming
at a Habitat or Humanity event this week saying the perormance
was not an expression o Christian aith ldquoNative spiritual dancing
has its roots in a different spiritual belie system that is incongruent
with traditional Christian worshiprdquomdashPastor Mark Hughes9
Tis pastor and his church staff though proessing a vision or creatinga multiethnic congregation are not exceptional in their ethnocentric
views and attitudes toward First Nations people and their cultural ex-
pressions Tis church averages 10486261048629983088983088 people in Sunday attendance is
one o the largest in Canada and is considered a leading ldquoChristian voicerdquo
in the province and city
Because o colonial missionariesrsquo attitudes o cultural superiority a
Native American cultural expression o ollowing Jesus didnrsquot developat the time Another powerul actor contributing to the cultural op-
pression brought with the gospel was that Native people were many
times first introduced to Jesus as part o American territorialism
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treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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10486271048628 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048625
While we were living on the ldquoRezrdquo (reservation) we did not know o
one Native man who regularly attended any o the six Protestant evan-
gelical churchesmdashdespite Garryrsquos lie work Barely hal a dozen womenattended Tis was true as well or the neighboring Nez Perce and Kalispel
reservations Tis act stood in stark contrast to the amazing spiritual
movement inspired by Chie Garry in this region that occurred prior to
an established colonial presence
Tere were other instances o divine intervention in ldquopreparing the
way o the Lordrdquo (Isaiah 10486289830881048627) or mission work among the tribes o
this area including prophecies among the Middle Spokane and Ka-lispel tribes
Yuree-rachen Yuree-rachen ldquoCircling Ravenrdquo was a shaman rom the
Middle Spokane tribe in the late 10486251048631983088983088s He had a personal crisis o aith
in Creator afer his sonrsquos untimely death so he went to Mt Spokane or
a time o asting and prayer During this worship time he received a
vision rom Creator whom they called Quilent-sat-men ldquoHe-Made-Usrdquo
In the vision Yuree-rachen saw white men dressed strangely carryingbundles o leaves astened together He was told that the people were to
learn rom the teachings inscribed on the leaves4
Shining Shirt A similar vision in about the same time period was
given to ldquoShining Shirtrdquo said to be both a chie and a shaman o the Ka-
lispel tribe Ethnologist Harry Holbert urney-High writes that Shining
Shirt was granted a vision in which he was told that there is a Creator and
that air-skinned men in black robes would come and teach them how to
live in a new way according to a moral law During the vision Shining
Shirt was given a metal object engraved with a cross White men were
unknown to these tribal people at that time5
Creator had been at work preparing the Native people or the arrival o
the gospel o Jesus Te Christian revival among those tribes evangelized
by Spokane Garry and Kootenai Pelly was noted by white settlers and ex-
plorers For example Washington Irving in ldquoTe Adventures o Captain
Bonnevillerdquo urther documents the spread o Christianity throughout the
tribes o that region During the winter o 104862598309610486271048626 Bonneville camped with
the Nez Perce on the upper Salmon River in Oregon and observed
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Simply to call these people religious would convey but a aint
idea o the deep hue o piety and devotion which pervades their
whole conduct Teir honesty is immaculate and their purity opurpose and their observance o the rites o their religion are most
uniorm and remarkable Tey are certainly more like a nation o
saints than a horde o savages6
I think the purity and genuine aith mentioned by Bonneville and
others was a result o a aith birthed rom the witness o Jesus-ollowing
Indigenous people to their own tribes Tey spoke the contextual
gospel rom their hearts among their people Tis was not simply the
ldquowhite manrsquos gospelrdquo7
During the time rame o 104862598309610486271048629 to 10486259830961048629983088 European-American mission-
aries arrived in Washington and Oregon Tey communicated the gospel
rom their own cultural viewpoints Te truth is that the gospel o Christ
already had a oothold among the tribes o these areas
With the arrival o the white missionaries and their brand o Christi-
anity the story takes a predictable and unortunate turn Just as Catholic
missionaries insisted on Roman control over earlier Celtic Christian
areas8 so these Anglo missionaries insisted on Euro-American (Western-
style) Christian worship as well as doctrine What is worse their pater-
nalism ethnocentrism colonial collusion and modernism soon ldquocivi-
lizedrdquo this Indigenous movement o the gospel story and thus blinded
these Christians to the already existing work o Creator among theNative nations o the land oday throughout the entire region except
or the history books there is but a remnant o that remarkable out-
pouring o Creatorrsquos story o grace spirituality and community renewal
Unortunately this negative legacy o Christian mission among the
Coeur drsquoAlene Spokane Nez Perce and other tribes is not exceptional
Afer our centuries First Nations peoplesrsquo cultural expressions are still
marginalized or oppressed across North America Native leadership inthe wider church is absent in the evangelical mainstream Tese early
missionaries ldquopeople o their timesrdquo ound little reason to regard Native
believers as coequals because they perceived their own cultural ways as
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048627
superior Tus the majority o these missionaries denounced and de-
monized Native cultural ways part and parcel as pagan idolatrous evil
and sinulAs a result an authentic Native American cultural or Indigenous
expression o ollowing Jesus was never allowed to developmdashthe very
idea being rejected as syncretistic and incongruous with ldquobiblicalrdquo aith
Tis kind o colonial missionary mindset is sadly not a thing o the
past but is still the prevailing perspective (in both Native and non-
Native Christian leaders) among those working in our tribal commu-
nities today Instead o embracing Jesus as the Creator the majority oNative Americans blame American Christianity and the church or the
loss o their own culture and identity Is it any wonder that the vast
majority o Native people today reject Christianity as the ldquowhite manrsquos
religionrdquo
Te headline o a 10486269830889830881048631 article rom the CBC News Network in Canada
read ldquoWinnipeg Church Nixes Native Dancing at Habitat or Humanity
Eventrdquo Te article went on to say
A Winnipeg church prevented aboriginal dancers rom perorming
at a Habitat or Humanity event this week saying the perormance
was not an expression o Christian aith ldquoNative spiritual dancing
has its roots in a different spiritual belie system that is incongruent
with traditional Christian worshiprdquomdashPastor Mark Hughes9
Tis pastor and his church staff though proessing a vision or creatinga multiethnic congregation are not exceptional in their ethnocentric
views and attitudes toward First Nations people and their cultural ex-
pressions Tis church averages 10486261048629983088983088 people in Sunday attendance is
one o the largest in Canada and is considered a leading ldquoChristian voicerdquo
in the province and city
Because o colonial missionariesrsquo attitudes o cultural superiority a
Native American cultural expression o ollowing Jesus didnrsquot developat the time Another powerul actor contributing to the cultural op-
pression brought with the gospel was that Native people were many
times first introduced to Jesus as part o American territorialism
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treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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Simply to call these people religious would convey but a aint
idea o the deep hue o piety and devotion which pervades their
whole conduct Teir honesty is immaculate and their purity opurpose and their observance o the rites o their religion are most
uniorm and remarkable Tey are certainly more like a nation o
saints than a horde o savages6
I think the purity and genuine aith mentioned by Bonneville and
others was a result o a aith birthed rom the witness o Jesus-ollowing
Indigenous people to their own tribes Tey spoke the contextual
gospel rom their hearts among their people Tis was not simply the
ldquowhite manrsquos gospelrdquo7
During the time rame o 104862598309610486271048629 to 10486259830961048629983088 European-American mission-
aries arrived in Washington and Oregon Tey communicated the gospel
rom their own cultural viewpoints Te truth is that the gospel o Christ
already had a oothold among the tribes o these areas
With the arrival o the white missionaries and their brand o Christi-
anity the story takes a predictable and unortunate turn Just as Catholic
missionaries insisted on Roman control over earlier Celtic Christian
areas8 so these Anglo missionaries insisted on Euro-American (Western-
style) Christian worship as well as doctrine What is worse their pater-
nalism ethnocentrism colonial collusion and modernism soon ldquocivi-
lizedrdquo this Indigenous movement o the gospel story and thus blinded
these Christians to the already existing work o Creator among theNative nations o the land oday throughout the entire region except
or the history books there is but a remnant o that remarkable out-
pouring o Creatorrsquos story o grace spirituality and community renewal
Unortunately this negative legacy o Christian mission among the
Coeur drsquoAlene Spokane Nez Perce and other tribes is not exceptional
Afer our centuries First Nations peoplesrsquo cultural expressions are still
marginalized or oppressed across North America Native leadership inthe wider church is absent in the evangelical mainstream Tese early
missionaries ldquopeople o their timesrdquo ound little reason to regard Native
believers as coequals because they perceived their own cultural ways as
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048627
superior Tus the majority o these missionaries denounced and de-
monized Native cultural ways part and parcel as pagan idolatrous evil
and sinulAs a result an authentic Native American cultural or Indigenous
expression o ollowing Jesus was never allowed to developmdashthe very
idea being rejected as syncretistic and incongruous with ldquobiblicalrdquo aith
Tis kind o colonial missionary mindset is sadly not a thing o the
past but is still the prevailing perspective (in both Native and non-
Native Christian leaders) among those working in our tribal commu-
nities today Instead o embracing Jesus as the Creator the majority oNative Americans blame American Christianity and the church or the
loss o their own culture and identity Is it any wonder that the vast
majority o Native people today reject Christianity as the ldquowhite manrsquos
religionrdquo
Te headline o a 10486269830889830881048631 article rom the CBC News Network in Canada
read ldquoWinnipeg Church Nixes Native Dancing at Habitat or Humanity
Eventrdquo Te article went on to say
A Winnipeg church prevented aboriginal dancers rom perorming
at a Habitat or Humanity event this week saying the perormance
was not an expression o Christian aith ldquoNative spiritual dancing
has its roots in a different spiritual belie system that is incongruent
with traditional Christian worshiprdquomdashPastor Mark Hughes9
Tis pastor and his church staff though proessing a vision or creatinga multiethnic congregation are not exceptional in their ethnocentric
views and attitudes toward First Nations people and their cultural ex-
pressions Tis church averages 10486261048629983088983088 people in Sunday attendance is
one o the largest in Canada and is considered a leading ldquoChristian voicerdquo
in the province and city
Because o colonial missionariesrsquo attitudes o cultural superiority a
Native American cultural expression o ollowing Jesus didnrsquot developat the time Another powerul actor contributing to the cultural op-
pression brought with the gospel was that Native people were many
times first introduced to Jesus as part o American territorialism
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treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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10486271048628 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
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Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048627
superior Tus the majority o these missionaries denounced and de-
monized Native cultural ways part and parcel as pagan idolatrous evil
and sinulAs a result an authentic Native American cultural or Indigenous
expression o ollowing Jesus was never allowed to developmdashthe very
idea being rejected as syncretistic and incongruous with ldquobiblicalrdquo aith
Tis kind o colonial missionary mindset is sadly not a thing o the
past but is still the prevailing perspective (in both Native and non-
Native Christian leaders) among those working in our tribal commu-
nities today Instead o embracing Jesus as the Creator the majority oNative Americans blame American Christianity and the church or the
loss o their own culture and identity Is it any wonder that the vast
majority o Native people today reject Christianity as the ldquowhite manrsquos
religionrdquo
Te headline o a 10486269830889830881048631 article rom the CBC News Network in Canada
read ldquoWinnipeg Church Nixes Native Dancing at Habitat or Humanity
Eventrdquo Te article went on to say
A Winnipeg church prevented aboriginal dancers rom perorming
at a Habitat or Humanity event this week saying the perormance
was not an expression o Christian aith ldquoNative spiritual dancing
has its roots in a different spiritual belie system that is incongruent
with traditional Christian worshiprdquomdashPastor Mark Hughes9
Tis pastor and his church staff though proessing a vision or creatinga multiethnic congregation are not exceptional in their ethnocentric
views and attitudes toward First Nations people and their cultural ex-
pressions Tis church averages 10486261048629983088983088 people in Sunday attendance is
one o the largest in Canada and is considered a leading ldquoChristian voicerdquo
in the province and city
Because o colonial missionariesrsquo attitudes o cultural superiority a
Native American cultural expression o ollowing Jesus didnrsquot developat the time Another powerul actor contributing to the cultural op-
pression brought with the gospel was that Native people were many
times first introduced to Jesus as part o American territorialism
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treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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treaty enorcement educational programs economic hegemony and
social disintegration through assimilation For a period o time be-
ginning in 104862598309610486301048633 ldquoIndian agencies were assigned to religious societiesrdquoTose assigned were ldquoduly subordinate and responsiblerdquo in these o-
BOARDING SCHOOLS
Perhaps the most devastating blow to the lives of Native Americans
was the forced removal of thousands of their children from their
homes the goal being assimilation into American or Canadian societyMy grandparents parents aunties uncles and numerous cous-
ins were all required andor forced to attend either a Bureau of In-
dian Affairs (BIA) or Catholic-run boarding school on the Pine Ridge
or Rosebud LakotaSioux Reservations I have heard heartbreaking
stories of many of their traumatic experiences As children my rela-
tives endured such cruelties as being forced to work in the fields
dairy bakery and shops as free laborers eating onion sandwiches
while watching the priests and nuns dine lavishly by comparison
and being severely punished for speaking so much as one word intheir own language It was not unusual for children to suffer ner-
vous breakdowns as a result of various abuses
While my mother and her siblings grew up speaking Lakota in
their home they chose not to teach us their children in order to
protect us from the kind of racism and prejudice they had experi-
enced In part too they wanted us to be successful in the white
manrsquos world and speaking Lakota was a hindrance to that The
boarding school experience was a major factor in their decision
The effects of the Boarding School era have steadily flowed
down through the generations to my relatives and to a lesser de-
gree to me and now my wife and sons We see the results of this
policy on the Rosebud Reservation today
An article in the New York Times titled ldquoIndian Reservation Reeling in
Wave of Youth Suicides and Attemptsrdquo tells the story of the traumatic
results of these boarding schools10 The young people attempting and
or committing suicide are the children and grandchildren of those
forced to attend the boarding schools on the Rosebud ReservationDavid Wallace Adams in his book Education for Extinction Amer-
ican Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875ndash1928 goes
into great detail about the history of the Boarding School Era11
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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10486271048628 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048629
ficial capacities as Indian agents to the United States Department o the
Interior via their denominational structures Te Federal Government
along with denominational and missionary groups believed this planmight improve the ability o government policies to stimulate ldquothe slow
growth o the savage beastsrdquo leading to the ldquomoral and religious ad-
vancement o the Indiansrdquo It was hoped that this collaboration be-
tween Christianity and government agencies would work to ldquoassume
charge o the intellectual and moral education o the Indians within
the reach o their influencerdquo12 Te intention was to improve the well-
being o the tribal people assigned to the care o these various churchmissionary societies
W983144983137983156 H983137983152983152983141983150983141983140 983156983151 983156983144983141 G983151983151983140 N983141983159983155983103
My twenty years o observation and participation in mission activities
among First Nations people has made it evident that rather than good
news the ldquoGood Newsrdquo story remains highly ineffective among Native
people and or many it means bad news Afer hundreds o years omissionary efforts an extremely low number o Native people are ac-
tively engaged in a lie o aith in Jesus and participation in some
Christian tradition Tis is largely reflective o Euro-American colonial
cultural orms expressions and worldview values Te majority o Native
evangelical church leaders and members today have little understanding
or appreciation o the meaning and value o critical contextualizationmdash
at least in a ceremonial or ldquoreligiousrdquo setting Little attempt has been
made toward the establishment o a truly Indigenous church movement
that occurs ldquowithinrdquo the sociocultural ceremonial and religious lieways
o the community
While I am only briefly mentioning some points o historical op-
pression and trauma there are volumes o texts that describe in great
detail how a Eurocentric and ldquomodernrdquo worldview o early missionaries
and church workers engendered a neocolonial hegemony in American
missionary efforts toward the Indigenous tribes13 Tese modernist as-
sumptions resulted in the churchrsquos inability to represent Jesus Christ ap-
propriately to the host people o the land thus came the ailure to orm
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a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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10486271048628 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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a biblical Indigenous aith among the tribes o North America Tis he-
gemony has not dissolved or disappeared over time but instead con-
tinues as a major problem plaguing the work o the church among FirstNations people However some Native ministry leaders have begun to
address this problem with vigor wisdom and couragemdashand that is the
point o this book
I have observed that Indigenous believers are increasingly disen-
chanted disillusioned and dissatisfied with their traditional evangelical
mostly ldquowhite churchrdquo experience Tis has served as the impetus or a
new decolonizing contextualization movement o the gospel Tismovement had multiple creative centers each somewhat independent o
each other and spread rom those centers beginning in the late 10486251048633983096983088s
and on into this century Te writings rom Arican South American
and Asian theologians as well as conversations with Indigenous leaders
around the world inspired a new generation o Indigenous leaders
within the wider Christian community to begin exploring other possi-
bilities (ie ldquoinnovationsrdquo) As they reed themselves rom colonialChristianity and began a process o personal internal decolonization
they sought to contextualize the gospel in their various cultural contexts
In the past twenty years this dissatisaction has spread all across North
America as believers embrace a new and holistic view o their rela-
tionship with Jesus and their religious practice within their cultural ways
S983151 I983155 T983144983141983154983141 983137 P983154983151983138983148983141983149983103
For over twenty years I have been a part o the growing international phe-
nomenon o emerging Indigenous decolonizing contextualization initia-
tives Tese initiatives are contextualizing the gospel and engaging in re-
vitalization efforts in response to the prolonged paternalism and
marginalization o Native peoples Various First Nationsndashled decolonizing
efforts are proactively challenging and offering alternative narratives to the
cultural hegemony o previous decades o Native missions Te paradigms
o mission and ecclesiology that are suracing are biblically-inormed al-
ternatives to the current neocolonial models and practices o denomina-
tions mission agencies and some Native Christian organizations
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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10486271048628 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048631
I have used Everett Rogersrsquos Diffusion of Innovations in my research14
I have identified the innovators early adopters and opinion leaders and
traced various networks and communication channels Trough inter- views with the key leaders I discovered the oundational ideologies and
theologies that have inspired the various Native American Indigenous
contextualization initiatives within the period rom 104862510486339830961048633 to 10486269830889830881048633 Obvi-
ously these initiatives did not occur in a vacuum Te work and writings
o others inspired the efforts o these innovators prior to 104862510486339830961048633 and I will
reerence a ew o them but limit my study to the past twenty years I
gathered evidence illustrating how the prevailing attitude o existingNative church leaders and mission agencies toward these emerging con-
textualization effortsmdashwhich had been primarily negativemdashhas changed
over the past twenty years
It is my great hope that this book will enhance the existing body o
literature on First Nations decolonizing contextual efforts in North
America Because this wave o contextualization is so new there is very
little literature available Tere have been many books written by Nativethinkers and theologians on the negative impact o missionary efforts
among Native people While offering a helpul critique they offer little
help in creating a redemptive way forward
I want to magniy the awareness and critical importance o innovative
missiological paradigms emerging rom the Native Christian community
as viable biblical alternatives to existing models A ew Native leadersmdash
representative o a ldquoconservative evangelicalrdquo theological perspectivemdash
have written articles and materials that are highly critical o contextual-
ization efforts15 Other Anglo writers have been very ldquoundamentalistrdquo or
ldquomodernistrdquo in their criticisms o the movement
Tis book as a broad analysis o these decolonizing initiatives repre-
sents the significant possibility o restructuring missionary approaches
and introducing new models or the encouragement o community de-
velopment among our North American tribal people Tis is not exclu-
sively true or Native peoples Our society as a whole is becoming more
diverse culturally and in choice o religious aith New mission and com-
munity development paradigms will be required or those cultures as well
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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1048627983096 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486261048633
ceived as incompatible or opposing beliesmdashnot just surace or behav-
ioral belies but essential worldview perspectives Over the past two to
three decades in North America syncretism has become a topic o in-tense disagreement among those involved in Native American ministry
When it comes to Western systematic theology syncretism is not seen as
positive but rather as antithetical to ldquosound doctrinerdquo Tese perceptions
o syncretism are particularly strident in Indian Country when it comes
to the intersection o aith and culture I acknowledge there are situations
where mixing can blur or distort onersquos vision o Christ which I think is
the essential problem We know that Christ is not distorted but peoplersquosperceptions certainly can be ldquoNow we see things imperectly like puz-
zling reflections in a mirror but then we will see everything with perect
clarity All that I know now is partial and incomplete but then I will
know everything completely just as God now knows me completelyrdquo
(1048625 Cor 1048625104862710486251048626) I we can only at best see ldquopuzzling reflectionsrdquo then
perhaps we can never totally escape distortion I am suggesting in light
o the arguable definitions o ldquowhat is and what isnrsquotrdquo syncretism thatmixing is a normative process o positive change and transormationmdash
and not always so clear
Without attempting to present a succinct definition o syncretism I
invite you to join me and briefly wrestle with the evolution and fluidity
o meanings applications and language Tis means considering the
sources or locations rom which authoritative definitions originate As
Indigenous scholars we acknowledge the need to speak to people in their
own cultural languagesmdashbut there still exists the tension o remaining
true to Creatorrsquos unique story o Jesus and Great Spiritrsquos work among us
while doing that
While theologians and church leaders attempt to define syncretism
with ldquorelative objectivityrdquo I donrsquot see this being possible because the
conversation is situated within thus prejudiced by Western reduc-
tionist categories Native North American ministry leaders have never
seriously studied its meaning outside these Western categories and are
thus predisposed to consider syncretism to be synonymous with bib-
lical heresy18 Ineffective ministry strategies continue unopposed when
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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syncretism is conused with critical contextualization
My riend Harold Roscher (Cree) invites us to widen this discourse to
include ldquoHow we as lsquoIndiansrsquo thought about syncretism What was ourword or that ideardquo He says ldquoI suggest we use our Indigenous eyes to
look at the concept o syncretism not only as comparison but to show
the broader world we struggled with these issues beore Christian mis-
sionaries showed uprdquo He explains it this way
For example letrsquos say you were a spiritual leader rom the Pine
Ridge Sioux Reservation in South Dakota and you moved into our
territory here in Northern Alberta (Canada) Cree country Afer
arriving you began sharing your Lakota teachings among the Cree
Afer a while you might mix in some Cree teachings to make it
more palatable or us Crees Our Cree Elders are not opposed in
principle to your being a cultural teacher however as a Lakota
elder you must ollow our protocols or teaching In the old days
you as a Lakota elder would sit with our different Cree elders and
discuss your teachings and these our elders would eventually get
together to discussdiscern your teachings I they elt your
teachings were trustworthy you would be given permission even
the blessing to conduct your Lakota ceremonies in Cree Country
I believe each tribe had its way o dealing with alse teachings and
the blending o teachings It is because o these cultural saeguards
the teachings in our original languages stayed purer ranslationinto English has been difficult or tribal rituals and ceremonies to
remain as exact to the traditional teachings So is translation an-
other component to syncretism19
As ollowers o Christ we share a common belie in a Ghost Jesus said
he had to leave this world so that ldquoTe Helperrdquo would come in his place
Our Spirit Guidemdashour Helpermdashis a Ghost Fundamental to my dis-
course about syncretism is a great confidence in the presence power andpersuasion o the Holy Spirit to help keep us rom going off the deep end
on this journey o personal and spiritual transormation when it comes
to cultural appropriation in light o biblical revelation
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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1048627983096 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048625
Globally contemporary definitions and concerns about syncretism
must be rescued rom ldquothe Cowboysrdquo or ldquoWestern cultural captivityrdquo
While I eel compelled to use existing terminology on the topic we des-perately need to relocate the discourse about syncretism rom its Western
epistemological hegemony to an Indigenous worldview ramework For
many evangelicals this hegemony is understood as biblically rooted in
the concern or ldquoconverting the lostrdquo Tus syncretism is threatening be-
cause it encroaches on the gospel message as the saving message by di-
erentiating good rom evil sacred rom proane heaven rom hell and
in our instance Native rom non-NativeAs a beginning point or this rescue operation while I acknowledge
the word syncretism cannot be rehabilitated because o its theologically
political nature I do hope to dull its edge o some degree at least I hope
to reduce its culturally demonizing power in our Indigenous commu-
nities by widening the context o the conversation I am proposing based
on biblical research by reputable scholars that a transitional process o
syncretism is a normal part o our spiritual growthmdashyes normal Itmight even be thought o as ldquotransitionalrdquo syncretism or a syncretistic
process o transormation
People move in and out o syncretism as they embrace reject
modiy learn and grow toward spiritual maturity as sociocultural
persons ollowing Jesus Syncretism is not the undisputed end o the
process although it might end up that way Contemporary evangelical
thought has been inclined to see syncretism in a dualistic interpretive
contextmdashas a final and unchangeable state o being It is seen as the
consequence o combining good and evil right and wrong correct
and alse biblical and heretical godly and demonic enlightened and
deceived belies or practices resulting in alsehood heresy or ultimate
deception Tis cultural ldquodeceptionrdquo is identified by contrasting it to
the theological standards or the ldquotrue aithrdquo which is firmly em-
bedded in a Western polemic
Peter van der Veer suggests that the term syncretism reers to a ldquopolitics
o difference and identity and that as such the notion o power is crucial
in its understanding At stake is the power to identiy true religion and to
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authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3739
1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3939
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 2939
10486271048626 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
authorize some practices as lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquordquo Syncretism
came to be used by deenders o ldquothe true aithrdquo as a protection against
illicit contaminationmdashldquoa sign o religious decadencerdquo ldquobetrayal o prin-ciplesrdquo or the ldquocorruption o the ruthrdquo ldquoWhat it attempted to do was to
establish itsel as the single source o authenticationrdquo20
A group o Native evangelical leaders (CHIEFmdashChristian Hope Indian
Eskimo Fellowship) offers this definition o culture and syncretism
By native culture we mean the dynamic learned lie-ways belies
and values o our people as revealed in our languages customs
relationships arts and rituals In native culture religion permeates
all aspects o lie and is ofen identified as being the culture even
though it is only an aspect o it
By syncretism we reer specifically to the subtle attempt to inte-
grate Biblical truth and aith in Christ with non-Biblical Native
religious belies practices and orms Te result is an adulteration
o Biblical truth and the birth o ldquoanother gospelrdquo (Gal 10486251048630-1048633)21
In 1048626983088983088983088 the Native American District o the Christian and Missionary
Alliance (CampMA) Church produced a position paper titled ldquoBoundary
Linesrdquo In the preamble they write their purpose
[]o assist pastors and lay people to protect [them] rom unbiblical
teaching and to promote the proper use o culture in the Native
American evangelical Christian context Over the years there seems
to have been a consensus among the evangelical denominations
mission organizations and independent Native Christian churches
that true believers should break completely with all animistic prac-
tices Recently there has been introduced in the Native evangelical
church community the concept that drums rattles and other sacred
paraphernalia ormerly used in animistic worship can be ldquoredeemedrdquo
or use in Christian worship Tis position does not enjoy consensus
among Native evangelical church leaders Te Paper addresses the
undamental issues relating to the concept o redeemingtrans-
orming animistic objects or Christian worship Legitimate defini-
tions o the terms ldquoCulturerdquo ldquoWorld viewrdquo ldquoSyncretismrdquo ldquoCultural
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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10486271048628 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
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living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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1048627983096 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3739
1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3839
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3939
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048627
Form and Meaningrdquo ldquoSacred Objectsrdquo and ldquoCritical Contextual-
izationrdquo as they relate to this study have been provided22
Both o these Native-produced documents attempt to establish their
views as the standards or biblical authenticity or ldquothe officialrdquo Native
positions Tey are quoted as authoritative sources o biblical scholarship
within our wider Native evangelical community Teir use o the phrases
ldquoadulteration o Biblical truthrdquo ldquobirth o another gospelrdquo ldquotrue believersrdquo
ldquounbiblical teachingrdquo ldquoproper use o culturerdquo and ldquolegitimate definitions
o termsrdquo implies control It is again what van der Veer describes as ldquothe
power to identiy true religion and to authorize some practices as
lsquotruthulrsquo and others as lsquoalsersquo as the single source o authenticationrdquo23
It is not good hermeneutics
It would appear that theology needs not only to be rescued rom the
cowboys and the Crown but perhaps the Indians (Indigenous leaders)
too Rather than creating categories o true and alse I think we would
be better served i we considered syncretism to be the exploration o
the synthesis o aith belie and practice in a dynamic process o
blending adding subtracting changing testing and working things
out Tis process does not take anything away rom the authority o
Scripture or orthodoxy Te critical dynamic or this process o pro-
ducing loving and mature ollowers o Jesus however is that it is not
an individualistic venture It is thoroughly rooted in a community o
ellow seekers Tis is where saety and balance are ound Tat beingsaid however conversations between the conservative and less-
conservative Native leadership have not occurred with any regularity
and relationships remain estranged
Because wersquore rail human beings the dynamics o personal spiritual
growth over time cannot be easily cleanly identified and quantified or
categorized or accuracy Jesus told his early disciples that afer new
seeds were planted and weeds began to grow up alongside them theycouldnrsquot distinguish the difference between the weeds and the wheat
growing in the field So he advised them not to pull up the weeds be-
cause theyrsquod be pulling up the wheat too (Mt 1048625104862710486261048628-1048627983088) Jesus said ldquoYes
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3139
10486271048628 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3239
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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10486271048630 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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1048627983096 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
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he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
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892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3939
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3139
10486271048628 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
just as you can identiy a tree by its ruit so you can identiy people by
their actionsrdquo (Matt 10486311048626983088) Te ruit o the Spirit is love joy peace pa-
tience kindness goodness aithulness gentleness and sel-control(Gal 104862910486261048626) While these ruits qualities values or characteristics are uni-
versally true or all people how do they find expression uniquely in
each local culture
Charles Kraf notes the question aced by Christian witnesses is
however ldquowhether any given undesirable state is but a step in a con-
tinuing process or whether the changes have virtually come to an end
and the people are settled in their present belies and behaviorrdquo24 Issomeone simply passing through on his or her journey or have they
decided to settle in and dwell there Is settling or an hour too long How
about a week month year or decade What is actually at stake with
syncretism Salvation Eternal acceptance in heaven or rejection in hell
Judgment Or how about power control position status and authority
Syncretism implies mixing As cultural beings we have nothing but
syncretism in the church and rightly so since the gospel always getsinside culture (parable o the yeast and the dough parable o the mustard
seed parable o the wheat and the tares) We mix music ceremony lan-
guage art symbols vocabulary ashion ideologies nationalism and
cultural metaphors constantly
So the question is is this a step or the end product And is this a kind
o mixing that respects Creator and culture or the kind that contradicts
or eliminates either a particular view o Creator (what most people mean
by syncretism) or culture (what the conservatives end up doing)
rue conversionmdashbecoming transormed and over a lietime con-
formed to the person o Jesusmdashis a gradual and erratic process o sociocul-
tural change or acculturation It is not regulated or predictable nor is it an
evenly paced process o change and transormation but quite the opposite
It is uneven variable messy irregular and fluctuating It is an organic
process o spiritual transormation as we engage the sacred ways o our
Creator bound by the limitations o our existence as finite human beings
As a ldquosyncretistrdquo I have a core allegiance to Jesus as Creator that is
enriched urther inormed and inspired by traditional Lakota cere-
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3239
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3339
10486271048630 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3439
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3539
1048627983096 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3639
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3739
1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3839
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3939
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3239
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048629
monial ways and belies I am able to hold the ldquoexclusiverdquo claims o Christ
in tension with the religious claims o other Indigenous ways that I em-
brace and lose nothing o my aith in Jesus in the process Tis is part othe contrast o confidence between Western dualistic categories as the
container or ldquotrue knowledge o Godrdquo and Indigenous ambiguity or
embracing Creator ldquoall aroundrdquo Tis ambiguity is normative syncretistic
process not counteractive syncretism
Counteractive syncretism A legitimate concern exists about a kind
o mixing that I will call ldquocounteractive syncretismrdquo Counteractive syn-
cretism conveys the idea o a kind o mixing o core religious belies thatultimately diminish ully resist or finally stopmdashcounteract mdashonersquos per-
sonal aith journey as a ollower o Jesus and his ways As I alluded to
earlier I believe that any o these three conditionsmdashdiminish resist or
stopmdashcan be temporary realities in a personrsquos journey As the adage goes
however ldquoItrsquos one thing i a bird lands on your head Itrsquos another thing i
you let it build a nestrdquo
Does blending or mixing cultural waysbelies complement or mu-tually and positively inorm varying aith perspectives or does it result
in the rejection o the centrality o the biblical historical Jesus Christ as
Creatormdashthe incarnation o Creator among us Does this rejection stem
rom assumptions that other religious beliesspiritual practices are
equally dynamic in ulfilling Creatorrsquos intended purposes or creation
through Jesus Adrian Jacobs (Cayuga rom the Handsome Lake Long-
house o the Six Nations Iroquois Conederacy) sees the essential
problem with syncretism as ldquotaking two things that are not the same and
in the process o syncretism making them the samerdquo He would appeal
to the apostle Paulrsquos positive reerence to the belie o the Mars Hill dev-
otees beore the altar to the Unknown God as being equivalent to (and
thus syncretized with) Paulrsquos declaration o Jesus (Acts 1048625104863110486261048626-10486271048628) He as-
serts that i all non-Christian religious belies are wrongmdashantithetical to
biblical truthmdashthen Paul was promoting counteractive syncretism in his
message to the Mars Hill people
Conversely then does embracing Christ require that one reject all
other cultural and religious ways o being thinking expressing and
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3339
10486271048630 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3439
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3539
1048627983096 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3639
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3739
1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3839
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3939
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3339
10486271048630 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
living out our aith in Jesus as Cree Lakota Maori Navajo Hawaiian
Aborigine and so orth
Counteractive syncretism might be experienced as an uncriticalopen-ended or naive embrace o religious pluralism Additionally
there might not be any acknowledgment o the evil dark malevolent
orces that requently find expression in some religious practices
Counteractive syncretism would direct onersquos ldquoprimary allegiancerdquo to
someonesomething other than Jesus Christ by reason o a personrsquos
participation in a new religious system As my Cree riend and biblical
scholar Ray Aldred would say ldquoSyncretism is not good when it takesaway rom the real message o communionmdashthe redemptive death and
resurrection o Christ which produces lie rom above liberating all o
human and non-human creation to find and experience the beauty o
Creatorrsquos loverdquo25
It seems that Western-trained theologians and the theologies rooted
in them are quite concerned about protecting the Bible rom a kind o
imagined ldquoIndigenous cultural invasionrdquo Te Roman Empire had ahuge military orce to protect its land claims and authority rom
hostile enemies Te United States o America has a similar orce in
place and is not araid to use it to protect its national borders and
international interests
It isnrsquot unusual or influential church leaders to perceive any new
movement as a threat to a ldquogenuinerdquo expression o Christian aith Be-
cause these new ideas ofen originate in the margins o power and end
up outside the culturally-ormed religious ldquoboxesrdquo o these leaders their
authority as representatives o correct biblical truth is threatened Teir
belie systems (or they ofen believe Godrsquos perspective) are under attack
Tey become intent on protecting Godrsquos reputation authority and sacred
text rom being compromised by being too closely linked or combined
with Indigenous ways o being believing and living
As you have read this has happened in Indigenous communities all
over North America and among the Maori o New Zealand Aborigine
o Australia Hawaiians Quechua o Peru and around the world Te
extensive mission history o the past not biblical study has prompted an
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3439
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3539
1048627983096 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3639
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3739
1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3839
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3939
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3439
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048631
intense ear o counteractive syncretismmdashinstead o it being considered
a part o the normal process o adaptation26
American nationalismmdashcounteractive syncretism I want to suggestthat openly displaying the American flag alongside the ldquoChristian flagrdquo
on each side o the stage or pulpit is an example o counteractive syn-
cretism It is blending the ideology o nationhood and the Christian re-
ligion It presupposes an idealized national exceptionalism o Godrsquos cho-
senness blessing and approval o America Te result is a unique
Americanized version o Christianity that directs attention away rom
identity in Christ and his kingdom It redirects allegiance to a kind oldquoChristian patriotismrdquo that demands a deep-seated loyalty reverence
trust and aith in political military and economic might It inspires na-
tional pride and the assumptions o Creatorrsquos divine avor Why donrsquot
Canadian churches place Canadian flags in their churches
Te mixing o Euro-American culture with the gospelmdashrom Plato to
Andrew Jackson to Ronald Reaganmdashis considered permissible and or-
thodox Brian McLaren sees counteractive syncretism when used intypical ways by white Euro-American male theologians as intended to
attack the mixing o any cultural heritage (other than their own) with
the gospel For him the result ldquois the mixing o Platonic categories with
the biblical witness (as the creeds exempliymdashdependent as they are on
terms like lsquohomoousiosrsquo and lsquohypostasisrsquo) without claims o syncretism
but Native American stories and culture cannotrdquo do the same27
Te 1048626983088983088983096 pre-election rhetoric voiced the ears o many conservative
American Christian leaders who believed that the election o President
Barack Obama would signal the ldquoend timesrdquo and the return o Jesus Why
didnrsquot the presidential elections o Brazil the Philippines Russia and so
on cause similar anxieties Because American ethnocentrism is con-
structed and ueled by theologically inormed nationalism In my view
this politico-religious syncretism results in a ldquocompromise o Scripturerdquo
that has and does suppress Indigenous cultural identity It oppresses
Native intellectual thought and resists desperately needed wisdom located
in the Indigenous ldquoknowledge traditionsrdquo that Western Christianity lacks
Tis does not take into account the dehumanizing enslavement o tribal
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3539
1048627983096 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3639
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3739
1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3839
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3939
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3539
1048627983096 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
people rom Arica utilizing a biblical narrative that identifies them as
ldquodescendants o Hamrdquo and ldquocursed by Godrdquo and thus not ully human Nor
does it account or the elevation o male over emale and the unjust op-pression o women particularly in church matters
Counteractive syncretism is not about playing a powwow drum in
church on a Sunday morning doing a Maori Haka dance or going on an
Aborigine ldquoWalkaboutrdquo Nor is it about burning sage or sweet grass in
my prayers or sitting in a sweat lodge ceremony helping young people
make healthy lie choicesmdashhelping couples to become more loving
wiveshusbands mothersathers and community membersTis discourse on syncretism invites First NationsIndigenous theo-
logians and scholars to prophetically address what is an oppressive Eu-
rocentric cultural syncretism in our countries
While I am responding to this concern primarily as ramed within the
North American evangelical community it is necessary to consider on-
going developments in global missions thinking to widen the conver-
sation as Indigenous scholars worldwide find their voice in this emergingera o postcolonial Christianity
Western(ism) culture In Christian Conversion or Cultural Conversion
Charles Kraf finds it unortunate that many missionaries have such a
poor understanding o the cultural dynamics o crosscultural communi-
cation with ldquoregard to culture in general and Western culture in par-
ticularrdquo He states the obvious that people rom Western cultures are most
amiliar with a Christianity that is highly adapted to Western cultural
orms He writes elsewhere ldquoWestern Christianity is (ideally) God in
Christ made relevant to members o Western culture which is charac-
terized by amiliar orms o worship music organization philosophy
(theology) and moral standardsrdquo28
Without exception the many Native North American authors I have
read and researched have wrestled in their words with the negative
influences o Westernism Western culture and Western-American and
Euro-American cultural orces Realizing the magnitude and history o
these concepts in this book I will nonetheless reerence the more com-
monly understood meanings behind the concepts o colonialism and
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3639
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3739
1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3839
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3939
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3639
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486271048633
Westernism Tese meanings will be best understood in our North
American context yet woven into the abric o a global postcolonial dia-
logue I will requently use these terms interchangeably or as synonymsAndrew Walls in ldquoAmerica as the Ultimate Development o the Westrdquo (a
section o his book Te Missionary Movement in Christian History ) offers
this perspective on the unique American expression o Western culture
In so ar as America stands or the West America is the West writ
large Western characteristics are exemplified to the ullest extent
Americans themselves have always been aware that they represent
the decisive and ultimate development o the West Without
plunging into such deep waters we may still recognize a specifically
American Christianity an expression o Christian aith ormed
within and by American culture Among the eatures that mark it
out rom other such Christian expressions are vigorous expan-
sionism readiness o invention a willingness to make the ullest use
o contemporary technology finance organization and business
methods a mental separation o the spiritual and the political
realms combined with the conviction o the superlative excellence
i not a universal relevance o the historic constitution and values
o the nation and an approach to theology evangelism and church
lie in terms o addressing problems and finding solutions29
While Wallsrsquos caricature o American Western culture is certainly de-
batable it does provide a ramework to help describe Westernism LesslieNewbigin in Foolishness to the Greeks Te Gospel and Western Culture
also does excellent work identiying ldquothe essential eatures o our modern
Western culturerdquo30
Te argument made by William Reyburn in Te Missionary and Cul-
tural Diffusion is that essentially ldquothe modern missionaryrsquos inherited
view o the universe is an inseparable part o his own ethos (the dis-
tinctive point o view o his culture) with which means he comes toterms with Christianity His thinking and action are cast in a ramework
which is or him necessary and meaningul but which appears to the olk
societies quite ofen as meaninglessrdquo31 In other words the missionary
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3739
1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3839
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3939
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3739
1048628983088 R983141983155983139983157983145 983150983143 983156983144983141 G983151983155983152983141983148 983142983154983151983149 983156983144983141 C983151983159983138983151983161983155
cannot help but be who he or she is culturally whether German
American Dutch or Korean and this is true or all those who have come
to our reservations and tribal lands or centuriesTis is a problematic eature o crosscultural communicationmdashthe
spread o the gospel message rom one people and place to another Jesus
said to go and communicate with all people in all places the good news
o his coming It is problematic when the culture o the oreigner be-
comes associated with ldquonormativerdquo biblical aith as it occurred
throughout North America One o the eatures o Western thought has
been a perceived dichotomy o natural and supernatural which hasrarely made sense to local Indigenous communities Reyburn points to
the act that
the missionary who disavows being a carrier o Western culture is
denying himsel the very structure o his thought into which he
cradled his presentation o the gospel and lie Te ordered view o
the universe means that aith to believe must be placed in some-
thing which is not beneath that order but over and above it Te
modern man does not sacrifice the ordered eeling or the universe
when he finds aith to believe He views his aith as finding its locus
and the source o order32
A short time ago I met with a non-Native colleague who is actively
involved in ull-time Native ministry as a Bible teacher or a Native
Christian organization While discussing the controversy and challengeo doing contextualization he said to me ldquoI barely know my own white
culture let alone Native culture so I am just going to stick to teaching
the Word o God and you can teach about culturerdquo His pejorative
comment reflects a Western dichotomy that is problematic or us
Reyburn comments on a nearly identical comment made by a missionary
in Arica who said ldquoWe are here only to present the Gospel not American
or Western civilizationrdquo33
It is actually a ridiculous thing to say yet again reflects Western di-
chotomous notions I will reerence throughout this paper From our
First Nations experience this ldquoWesternismrdquo is not a aceless ethereal and
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3839
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3939
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3839
he Creatorrsquos Presence Among Native People 10486281048625
abstract philosophical construct Rather it maniests itsel daily in
persons ideologies policies institutions structures and organizations
Reyburn describes this reality well
Te introduction o Christianity in this century is heavily secu-
larized and institutionalized Te creation o a new class or classes
within the old society opens up new channels or the diffusion o
Western culture Te process is that o making a copy an imitation
A copy can only be partial especially where there are barriers or
intimate contact34
Dale Kietzman and William Smalley in Te Missionaryrsquos Role in
Culture Change provide some analysis by pointing out that missionaries
who declare that they are not going out to introduce Western
culture but only to preach the gospel are no different in this re-
spect rom those with whom they contrast themselves It is usually
institutionalism (hospitalization education agricultural mission
etc) which they are rejecting by such statements not really their
roles as agents o westernization35
Lesslie Newbigin and recently Soong-Chan Rah have articulated the
inherent bias o specific worldview assumptions and thought processes
o Eurocentric people that I will reer to as ldquoWesternrdquo36 Tat being said
it is impossible to comprehensively define the ideas contained in the
term Western culture Troughout this book I will give specific detailedexamples o how this Westernism has plagued the work o Jesus among
the people and First Nations o North America and continues to do so
C983154983151983155983155983139983157983148983156983157983154983137983148 S983156983151983154983161983156983141983148983148983145983150983143 983151983154
D983141983139983151983148983151983150983145983162983145983150983143 C983151983150983156983141983160983156983157983137983148983145983162983137983156983145983151983150
Tis question o how to do contextually appropriate work among Native
American peoples is a centuries-old question It is answered and prac-ticed poorly by innumerable individuals organizations agencies local
churches and denominations operating rom a colonial paternalistic and
hegemonic paradigm While I will review this history this book will
Copyrighted Material wwwivpresscompermissions
892019 Resucuing the Gospel From the Cowboys By Richard Twiss - EXCERPT
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullresucuing-the-gospel-from-the-cowboys-by-richard-twiss-excerpt 3939
Top Related