COGNITION
PsychologyOswayo Valley High School
an exercise for and about the brain
Cognitive Psychology
One DefinitionThe study of higher mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, and thinking.
Three ConceptsLearningThinkingRemembering
“I think, therefore I am”
Introduction
Introduction
Step #1 - LearningThe transforming of information so the nervous system can process it; a relatively permanent change in behavioral tendency that results from experience
Cognitive Processes
It is the “input” stage
Introduction
Step #2 - ThinkingThe maintaining of information over a period of time; the changing and reorganizing of stored information to create new information
Cognitive Processes
It is the “processing” stage
Introduction
Step #3 – RememberingThe process of obtaining information that has been stored
Cognitive Processes
It is the “output” stage
Classical Conditioning
DefinitionA learning procedure in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus
Ivan Pavlov(1849-1936)
John B Watson(1878-1958)
Learning, Classical Conditioning
Key Terms/Concepts
Neutral Stimulus: a stimulus that does not initially elicit any part of the unconditioned response
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): an event that elicits a certain predictable response typically without previous training
Unconditioned Response (UCR): an organism’s automatic (or natural) reaction to a stimulus
Learning, Classical Conditioning
Learning, Classical Conditioning
Key Terms, cont’d
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): a once-natural event that elicits a given response after a period of training in which it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned Response (CR): the learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus
Learning, Classical ConditioningW
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The Case of Little Albert
“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up and I’ll guarantee to take
any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might
select—doctor, lawyer, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants,
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.”
(1930, John B. Watson)
Learning, Classical Conditioning
Principles of Classical Conditioning
Acquisition of a classically conditioned response generally occurs gradually
Time of the CS before the UCS
Generalization: process in which a response spreads from one specific stimulus to other similar stimuli
Learning, Classical Conditioning
Principles of Classical Conditioning, cont’d
Extinction: the gradual loss of an association over time when the conditioned response is repeatedly presented without the unconditional stimulus
Spontaneous recovery: the sudden reappearance of an extinguished response
Learning, Classical Conditioning
Applications of Classical Conditioning
Flooding: exposure to harmless stimulus until fear response to that stimulus is extinguished
Systematic Desensitization: a pleasant, relaxed state is associated with gradually increasing anxiety triggering stimuli
Learning, Classical Conditioning
Applications of Classical Conditioning, cont’d
Counter-conditioning: a pleasant stimulus is paired repeatedly with a fearful one, counteracting the fear
Pleasant Response
Taste Aversion
coulrophobia
Operant Conditioning
DefinitionLearning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in learning
B F Skinner(1904-1990)
Learning, Operant Conditioning
Key Terms/Concepts
Reinforcement: stimulus or event that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated
Positive: something good is added after the action
Negative: something bad is taken away after the action
Primary reinforcer: satisfies a basic biological need
Secondary reinforcer: paired with a primary and through classical conditioning has acquired value and reinforcement
Fixed Ratio
Reinforcement after a fixed number of
responses
Number TimePre
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Variable Ratio
Reinforcement after varying number of
responses
Fixed Interval
Reinforcement of first response after a fixed amount of time has
passed
Variable Interval
Reinforcement of first response after varying
amounts of time
Learning, Operant ConditioningKey Terms/Concepts, cont’d
Reward: not the same as reinforcer; something given in recognition
Punishment: the process of weakening a response by following it with unpleasant consequences
something desired can be taken away something undesired can be added
Punishment does not in itself teach acceptable behaviorPunishment tends to work only when guaranteedPunishment can create anger and hostilityPunishment may be imitated as a way of problem-solvingPunishment is sometimes accompanied by unseen benefits that maker the behavior more, not less, likely to be repeated
Learning, Operant ConditioningKey Terms/Concepts, cont’d
Shaping: the process of gradually refining a response by successively reinforcing closer approximations of it; technique in which the desired behavior is “molded” by first rewarding any act similar to that behavior and then requiring ever-closer approximations to the behavior before giving the reward
Chaining: learned reactions that follow one another in sequence, each reaction producing the signal for the next
Social Learning
DefinitionProcess of altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others; also known as modeling or observational learning
Albert Bandura(1925-)
Learning, Social Learning
Cognitive Learning
DefinitionAn approach to the study of learning that emphasizes abstract mental processes and previous knowledge
Learning, Cognitive Learning
Key Terms/ConceptsLatent Learning: learning that is not obvious but goes on under the surface; it remains hidden until needed
(Tolman, 1930)
Learning, Cognitive Learning
Key Terms/Concepts, cont’d Cognitive Map: a mental image of where one is located in space
Expectancies: beliefs about our ability to perform on action and to get the desired reward
Reinforcement Value: the preference for certain types of reinforcement over other types
Strategies: techniques for problem-solving
(Gould)
Learning, Cognitive Learning
Principles of Cognitive Learning Acoustic Codes: recording the memory as a sequence of sounds
Visual Codes: forming a mental picture
Semantic Codes: making sense of the letters by figuring out what they might mean
OTTFFSSENT
Learning, Cognitive Learning
Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d Selective Attention: concentrating on one sensation among many outputs while not completely blocking out others; information that… Relates to a basic need Is of personal interest Is unusual or novel
Feature Extraction: focusing on the significant characteristics of the information selected for attention
Learning, Cognitive Learning
Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d Elaboration: the process of attaching a maximum number of associations to an item to be learned so that it can be retrieved more easilyIn 1925, lawyer William Jennings Bryan prosecuted John Scopes for teaching evolution and won the case. In1919, many states were won over to the cause of the Eighteenth Amendment, which prohibited the sale of liquor. Fourteen years later the Twenty-First Amendment repealed the Eighteenth.In 1925, lawyer William Jennings Bryan prosecuted a young high school teacher named John Scopes who wanted to give students information about evolution. The trial took on the atmosphere of a circus. It became a free-for-all, with shouting by “liberated” (for that time) college students and young reporters who reflected antireligious feeling that was then erupting in the country. The teacher was found guilty, so Bryan won the case, but he was mocked so much during the trial that some people believe that this led to his death five days later.
Learning, Cognitive Learning
Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d Mnemonic Devices: unusual associations made to aid memory
Method of LocationMaterial to be Learned: grocery list (milk, eggs, celery, etc.)
Method of Locations: imagine a familiar location and place the items to be remembered in various areas of that location. It is usually effective to enlarge the items in a bizarre way.
How the information is stored: The sink is filled with milk that overflows onto the floor. Giant eggs roll along the tabletop. On the chairs, sitting at attention, are giant celery stalks; they prevent the eggs from falling.
Learning, Cognitive Learning
Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d
AcronymMaterial to be Learned: The planets
Acronym: Take the first letter of each item on a list and make a word
How the information is stored:
My MercuryVery VenusEducated EarthMother MarsJust JupiterShowed SaturnUs UranusNine NeptunePlanets Pluto
Learning, Cognitive Learning
Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d
Narrative ChainingMaterial to be Learned: A part of the brain: the cerebellum, which controls balance
Narrative Chaining: Tie together the material to be learned into a story
How the information is stored: He hit me in the cerebellum with a brick, and I was thrown off balance….
Learning, Cognitive Learning
Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d Principle Learning: learning in which an overall view (principle) of the material to be learned is developed so that the material is better organized
Drill and Practice: “repetition aids learning”
Funnel Approach: learning general concepts before moving on to specific details
learning by association
learning through reinforcement
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Picture Credits
Exercising Brainhttp://thm-a01.yimg.com/image/eff5a4c1adb9efd4
Brain (with vessels)http://www.alzheimer.ca/english/alzheimer_brain_mini_site/images/02a.jpg
Descarteshttp://math.usask.ca/conicsdemo/DEMO/extensions/images/descartes.jpeg
Pavlovhttp://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch05_conditioning/05pavlov.jpg
Watsonhttp://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch01_psychology_and_science/01watson.jpg
Pavlov – before, during afterhttp://www.northern.ac.uk/learning/NCMaterial/Psychology/lifespan%20folder/PAVLOV.gif
Pavlov - diagramhttp://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch05_conditioning/05pavlovsdog.jpg
Pavlov cartoonhttp://www.age-of-the-sage.org/psychology/pavlov_conditioning_dogs.gif
Little Alberthttp://cdn-www.cracked.com/articleimages/dan/scientific/albert
Marlboro Manhttp://i44.photobucket.com/albums/f5/atanudotcom/marlboro.jpg
Michelin Tire Adhttp://aroundthesphere.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/michelin-baby-in-tire-ad.jpg?w=450&h=299
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