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Unit 1:
I.Why study Psychology?
II.What do Psychologists do?
III.A History of Psychology
IV.Contemporary Perspectives
Source:
Rathus, SpencerPsychology: Principles in PracticeHolt 2007
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UNIT I : SECTION 1
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How would you define the term psychology?Psychology - the scientific study of behavior and
mental process.
The word comes from the Greek Psyche: spirit or breath of life Logos: knowledge or study of
It is a philosophical science It is a traditional science it include biology,
medicine, and physics It is systematic and scientific
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How would you define the word behavior?
Behavior any action that other people canobserve or measure.
Joshua opened his eyes when the alarm rang. Herose from bed, raised the blinds, and shook hishead. All of these are observable behaviors.
Joshua is also is thinking about hitting the snoozebutton and going back to sleep. Is this abehavior?
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Walking Talking Sleeping Dream imagery Heartbeat Digesting Emotion Perception Feelings
Dreaming cannot be specifically measured. The dream image isonly seen by the dreamer. The only research that can be takenfrom a dream is brain activity. Emotion, perception, and feelingsare also mental processes that cannot be measured. Emotion canspark a behavioral reaction that can be measured later Anger -> Punching a wall Sadness -> Crying
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Behavior walking, talking, sleeping, eatingAutomatic body functions heart rate, blood
pressure, digestion, brain activity, etc.
Cognitive activity dreams, perceptions,thoughts, memoriesEmotions anxiety, anger, happiness,
sorrow, fear, rage
They often trigger a biological reactionThey often influence both behavior and mental
processes
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Social sciences include:HistoryAnthropology
EconomicsPolitical scienceSociology
Social scientists deal with the structure of
human nature and the interactions of theindividuals who make up society.
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Natural sciences include:BiologyChemistryPhysics
A major natural science area of research isthe function of the brain.
Psychologists research by:Conducting surveysExperimentsCollecting dataAnalyzing dataDrawing conclusions
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Surveys are a method of collecting data thatusually involves asking questions of people ina particular group.
Question Yes No
Are you happy with your current job?
Would higher pay make you happy?
Do you get along with your co-workers?Does your boss respect the job you do?
Do you respect the job your boss does?
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Scientists in general seek to1. observe, describe, explain, predict, and control the
events they study.Psychologists have the same goals. Observe behavior and mental processes to better
understand them Understanding behavior will allow psychologists to
explain, predict, and control behaviorGoals of Psychology:
1. Observe
2. Describe3. Explain4. Understand5. Predict6. Control the events they study.
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The Buffalo Bills placekicker Scott Norwood hadtoiled for many years perfecting his techniques. Heprepared for the day when he might play in aSuper Bowl. For several hours a day he worked to
perfect his techniques. He could kick from variousdistances in many types of weather conditions. Hefinally got a chance in Super Bowl XXV against theNY Giants. It was the final seconds of the game,the kick could win the Super Bowl. He missed.
What would a psychologist study and work toaccomplish if they worked with Norwood as aclient?
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How would you define theory?Theory statement that attempts to explain why
things are the way they are and happen the waythey do
Psychologists organize their research aboutbehavior and mental processes into theories
A useful psychological theory allows psychologiststo predict behavior and mental processes
Fatigue will lead to a complete body shutdown(forced sleep) when stress occurs
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How would you define a principle?
Principle a rule or law
Example you will probably get bettergrades if you study more
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1. Organism
2. Phenomena
3. Psychiatrist
4. Psychoanalysis5. Psychologist
6. Psychology
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1. How would you define psychology, other thanthe way in which it is defined in this chapter?
2. Psychologists use animals in their experimentsquite often. Do results from such studies apply
also to human beings? Why or why not?3. Is psychology as true of a science as chemistry,
biology, or physics? Explain.
4. Who contributes more to the welfare of society:
anthropologists, sociologists, biologists,chemists, physicists, or psychologists? Why?
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UNIT I : SECTION 2
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Sam Houston State University conducted a study on allowingconcealed weapons on college campuses to stop events of massviolence. (i.e. Kent State, Virginia Tech)
Consider you are a student at a state university. On a scale of 1 5, rate the following:
1 = not at all comfortable
5 = very comfortable1. Students and staff could carry concealed weapons with a state
sanctioned permit.2. Only staff could carry concealed weapons with a state sanctioned
permit.3. Security officers could be the only people to carry weapons.
4. The campus would remain gun free.5. All persons are subject to metal detectors before entering
university buildings Predict the percent students of Sam Houston that responded to this
survey in support of concealed weapons both on and off campus.
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Texas The average student reported a 39 percent comfort level with the idea
of concealed weapons on the campus. (0% = Not Comfortable at All;100% = Very Comfortable)
23 percent of students indicated they were not comfortable at allwith the idea.
10 percent of students reported they were very comfortable withallowing concealed handguns on campus.
Washington The average student reported a 33 percent comfort level with the idea
of concealed weapons on the campus. (0% = Not Comfortable at All;100% = Very Comfortable)
27 percent of students were not comfortable at all with concealedweapons on campus.
8 percent of students said they were very comfortable with guns oncampus.
According to the research, the Texas sample of students were morecomfortable with concealed weapons in the community, with theaverage reported comfort level at 49 percent on a 100 point scale,compared to 39 percent on campus
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All psychologists share a keen interest inbehavior and also believe in the value ofscientific research.
They also believe that the theories aboutbehavior and mental processes should besupported by scientific evidence.
They only accept something as true if the
evidence shows it so.Many will use this evidence to form theories
to guide therapy
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Clinical PsychologistsCounseling PsychologistsEducational PsychologistsDevelopmental PsychologistsPersonality Psychologists Social PsychologistsExperimental Psychologists Specialty Psychologists Industrial and organizational Environmental Consumer Forensic Health
Foreachyoushouldknow:
Clientelewhotheyhelp
Aimhowtheyhelp
Employmentwheretheywork
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Nearly half ofthe doctoralstudents whoenroll inPsychologyprograms go
into clinicalprograms. Thenext mostpopular field iscounselingpsychology.
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According to theBureau of LaborStatistics:
The highest 10percent ofpsychologists earnedmore than $106,840
The middle 50percent earnedbetween $48,700 and
$82,800.The lowest 10 percent
earned less than$37,900
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They are the kind you would think of when you hear thename psychologist. The couch & clipboard type
Clientele - help people with psychological problems:anxiety, depression, or serious disorders likeschizophrenia.
They are trained to evaluate problems through a series ofinterviews and tests.
Aim - help clients understand and resolve their problemsby changing ineffective or harmful behavior.
Employment - in hospitals, prisons, college clinics, and
private practices. How are they different from psychiatrists? They are not medical doctors. They cannot prescribe medicine. Psychiatry is a specialty of a medical doctor. They specialize
in psychology but are foremost medical doctors.
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They are similar to clinical psychologists. Interviews Tests Identify problems
Clientele: They focus on people who have adjustment problems ratherthan disorders College Career Married Divorced Employed Unemployed Only child Step child
Their clients have trouble Making decisions
Making friends With relationships With superiors
Aim - to get their clients to identify goals, overcome their adjustmentproblems, and meet challenges.
Employment businesses counseling centers, college counseling, testing
centers
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Many school districts employ one or more schoolpsychologists.
Clientele: students who may or do have problems thatinterfere with learning.
Aim: They help students cope with peer group and family
problems, psychological problems, and learning disorders.They make a plan for students that will help themovercome their disability
They often administer IQ and achievement tests, givingassistance to those who need assistance. Theyrecommend students to programs to best fit their needs.
School psychologists often observe students in theclassroom to see how they interact with other studentsand teachers.
In most cases, school psychologists deal with theplacement of students
Employment: school districts
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Clientele: special needs students of the entire schooldistrict
They work with larger groups of students with moregeneralized needs.
Aim: Create course plans and instructional methods for
an entire school system that can meet the needs of largegroups of students with similar learning disabilities. Research Psychological factors motivation, emotions, creativity, and
intelligence Cultural factors beliefs, customs, activity
Economic factors level of income of the families Instruction factors methods of the classroom
Employment: school districts, testing companies (SAT),colleges
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Clientele: research based Aim: study the changes that occur throughout a persons life
span. Physical height, weight, growth, maturity, aging Emotion developing self-esteem Cognitive mental images of the world Social bonds between parents and children, relationship between
parents and children, peers, and children and other adults Research relative influences of heredity and the environment on
development. (Nature vs. Nurture) How can psychologists help parents and school officials encourage
adolescents to avoid activities that may be harmful to their physicaland psychological well-being?
What are the causes of suicide and depression among teens? How can people prevent painful situations from occurring?
Employment: mostly private practices, some work adjunct withschools
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Clientele: individuals who exhibit anxiety,aggression, gender role, or other disordersrelated to personality. Clients seek tocontrol the behaviors that go with a certaindisorder
Aim: Study the development of traits so thatinterested clients can control and adjust thepattern of certain behavior (angermanagement, shyness, friendliness)
Employment: personal practice, researchgroups
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Clientele: individuals who want reasons for whythey act or relate a certain way in public. The ways in which women and men behave in a given
setting The physical and psychological factors that attract
people to one another The reasons people tend to conform to group standards
and expectations How peoples behavior changes when they are members
of a group
Aim: provide help or research to people so thatthey can have more control over their behavior inpublic
Employment: research, private practice
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Clientele: Research for university or industry studies. Aim: provide data which will explain the basic processes of
the nervous system and the brain and how it impactshuman behavior Sensation
Perception Memory Learning Motivation
Basic research is research that has no immediateapplication and is done for its own sake. Their findings
usually put into practice other kinds of psychologicalspecialists. (motivation research has helped clinicalpsychologists develop plans for how to control eatinghabits)
Employment: universities, industry, pharmaceuticalcompanies
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Industrial and Organizational Psychologists Study the behavior of people at work Improve working conditions to increase worker output
Environmental Psychologists Investigate the psychological effects of extremes in
temperature, noise, and air pollution Consumer Psychologists Study the behavior of shoppers to explain and predict their
behavior Forensic Psychologists Explain the behavior associated with evidence used in court
Train officer in how to handle dangerous situations Health Psychologists Examine the ways in which behavior and mental processes are
related to physical health. Ex: The effect of stress on health conditions like heart disease
and headaches
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Unit I: Section 3
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Advice that has remained a motto of modernpsychological studyKnow thyself. Socrates
Socrates suggested also that we can learn
much about ourselves by carefully examiningour thoughts and feelings.
This method of learning about yourself iscalled introspection
Introspection looking within ones ownthoughts and feelings in an effort to learnabout themself
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Platos student, Aristotle also contributed manyquestions about behavior that still shapepsychological research today.
Associationism An experience often can be associated with a past
experience. The face of a loved one can make you feel secure
He believed that people are greatly motivated toseek pleasure and to avoid pain. This is still anoverlying modern psychological view
Aristotle published his explorations on psychology in abook called Peri Psyches. It covers a wide range ofissues such as sensation, perception, thought,intelligence, needs and motives, feelings andemotions, and also memory.
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Outlandish research techniques characterize psychologicalstudies in the Middle Ages.
Europeans generally believed that psychological disorderswere signs of possession by demons. This was supposedlya punishment for sins or deals with the devil.
Tests were used to determine whether a person waspossessed.
The Water Float Test Based on the principle that pure metals will sink. Additionally,
a pure person would sink. Suspected possessed individuals were thrown into deep water. If you floated you were impure and in association with the
devil If you sank, you were pure. But likely, would die from
drowning.
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Modern science emerges in the 1500s 1700sCopernicus suggests the Earth revolves around
the sunNewton formulates the laws of gravity.
Locke knowledge is not inborn, but learnedfrom experience
Lavoisier animals and plants use oxygen inrespiration
Psychology develops in the 1800sHuman behavior and mental processes should be
supported with evidence.1879 the beginning of psychology as a modern
laboratory science
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Structuralism the basicelements of consciousnesscontain two categories:1. Objective sensations sight,
taste, hearing. They accuratelydescribe the outside world.
2. Subjective sensations feelings,emotions, mental images. Theyare subjective to the individual.
Example A person can experience an
apple objectively by observing
its shape, color, texture, andtaste. The person can also experience
an apple subjectively byremembering how good it feelsto bite into one.
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Disagreed with structuralism He maintained that experience is a
continuous stream of consciousness He focused on the relationships
between experience and behavior Functionalists are concerned with how
mental processes help organisms adaptto their environment.
Example Cameron stopped asking out a girl he was
attracted to because he was laughed atafter three nos
Adaptive (successful) actions arerepeated and eventually become habits Less-adaptive (failed) actions are
discontinued
pbs.org
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Structuralists Functionalists
What are theelements (structures)of psychologicalprocesses?
What is involved?
What are thepurposes (functions)of behavior andmental processes?
What do certainbehaviors and mentalprocesses accomplishfor the person
(animal)?
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Challenged functionalismsstudy of consciousness.
Consciousness, to Watson is aprivate event that is onlyknown to the individual.
Many disagreed with himHe asserted that if psychology
is a natural science, it mustbe limited to observable,measurable events behavior.
He defined psychology as thescientific study of observablebehavior.ebooks-library.com
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Added reinforcement tothe behaviorist tradition
Reinforcement anaction is likely torepeated when
accompanied with arewardAccording to Skinner,
people learn the sameway animals do. Humansbehave in certain waysbecause we have beenreinforced for doing so.
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Gestalt German for:shape or form
It is the idea thatperceptions are more thanthe sums of their parts.Rather, they are wholes
that give shape, ormeaning to the parts. They reject the
behaviorist notion thatpsychologists should onlyconcentrate on observable
behavior. Learning and problem
solving are accomplishedby insight, not mechanicalrepetition
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ARE THE CIRCLES IN THE CENTER OF THE TWO SETS THE SAME SIZE?
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The father ofpsychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis theimportance ofunconscious motives
and internal conflictsin determining humanbehavior
Psychodynamicthinking
People are driven byhidden impulses Verbal slips and dreams
are unconscious wishes
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Unit I: Section 4
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There are very few psychologists that followthe structuralist, functionalist, or Gestaltperspective.
Many today follow the behaviorist traditionof Watson and Skinner with somemodifications
The most important of these contemporaryperspectives are the biological, evolutionary,cognitive, humanistic, psychoanalytic,learning, and sociocultural perspectives.
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Emphasizes the influence of biology onour behavior.
Especially focused on the brain They look for the connections between
events in the brain, such as activity of
brain cells, and behavior and mentalprocesses. Using CAT scans (Computerized Axial
Tomography) They are interested in the influence of
hormones and genes. They have learned: Certain parts of the brain are highly active
when a person is listening to music. Certain chemicals in the brain are
connected with the storage of information the formation of memories
Xanatos Satanicos Bombasticos
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Focuses on the evolution ofbehavior and mental processes.
Charles Darwin in the struggle forsurvival, the most-adaptiveorganisms have a greater chance ofsurviving to maturity, when hey
can reproduce. Example: People who are naturally resistant
to certain diseases are more likelyto transmit their genes to futuregenerations.
Many believed that behaviorpatterns, like aggressive behavior,has roots in heredity which evolvewithin a genetic family.
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Thoughts Behavior They investigate ways in which
people perceive information andmake mental images of the world,solve problems, and dream.
Cognitive psychologists sometimesrefer to our strategies for solvingproblems as our mentalprograms or software. In thiscomputer metaphor, our brainsare the hardware that runs themental programs.
The human brain is like acomputer. The organ is thehardware, which runssoftware which are ourthoughts
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Emphasizes the human capacity for self-fulfillment and the importance ofconsciousness, self-awareness, and thecapacity to make choices.
Peoples personal experiences areconsidered the most important part of
this perspective Humanists believe we are free to choose
our own behavior and it is not shaped byoutside forces.
The goal of this perspective is to helppeople explore their feelings, manage
their negative impulses, and realize theirpotential. Critics of this perspective argue that their
focus is not scientific because feelings cannot be measured.
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The influence of unconscious forces aresignificant towards human behavior.Ex A person may have built up animosity
towards their father, this person may
unconsciously take out their aggression on a co-worker who looks similar to their father.
Shaped by Sigmund FreudThis no longer dominates psychology as it did
in the 1940s and 50s. It focuses on the experiences of people in
their early childhood
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Emphasizes the effects of experience onbehavior
Social-learning theory: people can changetheir environments or create new ones
Learning occurs intentionally by observingothers and adapting to a situation
People act a certain way only when they
recognize that the circumstances call forthat behaviorActing with hostility when provokedActing with friendliness when treated well
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Studies the influences of ethnicity,gender, culture, and socio-economic
status on behavior and mentalprocesses Prejudices Ethnic differences on intelligence tests Vulnerabilities to health problems in
different groups Gender roles
Recent findings: More than half of American college
students are women.
Two thirds of doctoral degrees inPsychology are awarded to women.
African Americans and Hispanics areunderrepresented in fields ofPsychology
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Perspective Subject Matter Key Assumption
Bi l i l N t l d h Bi l i l
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Biological Nervous system, glands, hormones,genetic factors
Biological processesinfluence behavior andmental processes
Perspective Subject Matter Key Assumption
Biological Ner o s s stem glands hormones Biological processes
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Biological Nervous system, glands, hormones,genetic factors
Biological processesinfluence behavior andmental processes
Evolutionary Physical traits, social behavior Adaptive organisms survive
and transmit their genes tofuture generations
Cognitive Interpretation of mental images,thinking, language
Perceptions and thoughtsinfluence behavior
Humanistic Self-concept, consciousness People make free andconscious choices based ontheir unique experiences
Psychoanalytic Unconscious processes, early-childhood experiences
Unconscious motivesinfluence behavior
Learning Environmental influences, learning,observational learning Personal experience andreinforcement guideindividual differences
Sociocultural Ethnicity, gender, culture,socioeconomic status
Sociocultural, biological, andpsychological factors createindividual differences
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V. Research Methods
VI. Learning Styles
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Is it enough for a psychologist to argue thatsomething is true because it has been saidbefore?No, it must be supported with evidencePsychologists are skeptical of claims that lack
scientific valueMuch of the debate in the psychological
community is what can be measured?
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Many questions form from daily experience Experience: Siamese fighting fish tend to be
aggressiveWhy are Siamese fighting fish aggressive?
Others are formed out of psychological
theories Theory: people learn from observing others Question: What effects (if any) does watching
television violence have on viewers Some are even formed from common
knowledge Common knowledge: two heads are better than one Question: Do pairs of individuals solve problems
more effectively than people working alone?
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Hypothesis a prediction orassumption about behavior that istested through scientific research
They may be worded in an if-then statement IfSiamese fighting fish are
aggressive, then they will attackeach other The average person could make
this assumption simply from thename of the species of fish
The hypothesis is also based on
the pet shop sales personsadvice not to put more than oneSiamese fish in one tank.
This hypothesis must be tested.
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The scientific nature of psychologyrequires a hypothesis to be testedbefore it can be concluded as true.
Psychologists research in a method thatis ethical. They do not want to harmthe participants
In proving the hypothesis, if Siamesefish are aggressive, then they willattack each other, there are two waysto test the hypothesis1. Throw two Siamese fish in a tank
together
2. Create an illusion of another fish witha mirror Psychologists would tend to use the
later method so that the fish werentharmed.
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Within the collection of data:Decide what information is needed to test the
hypothesisGather information
Examine information Is the information sufficient to test hypothesis? If no, return to the beginning
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What do the findings mean?
After seeing the reflection
The fish go into an attack positionThey fan out their finsPuff out their cheeks
After looking through the data from tests,psychologists look for patterns andrelationships in the data.
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Studies can sometimes produce a random occurrence. The fish that was studied was abnormal and acted in an
uncharacteristic way. To be widely accepted as theory, a study will undergo the
scrutiny of replication Replication repeating a study to determine if the results
will be produced in the same way Some parts of the experiment may change More fish may be used Males and females may be used Water temperature may change
In a study where people are the participants, a replicationmay need to get a diverse group Ethnicity Age Education Income level
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Often a study will produce a whole new setof questions to be studied. They are usuallymore specific.Are Siamese fish territorially aggressive?
Do water temperatures affect the aggressivenature of Siamese fish?
Are females as aggressive as males?
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Form a question and hypothesis based on thethree ways to form a question.Daily experiencePsychological theoryCommon knowledge
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While the game is on, you are a psychologist.
Develop your own 5 step research method,based on the scientific method.
Your research should involve theenvironment of opening day, and how it
affect players performance.
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V. Research Methods
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Take out a sheet of paper.
Record your answers to the following. Betruthful as this is anonymous.
1. What is your gender?
2. Do you have friends of another race in
school?3. Do you have a friend of another race outside
of school?
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The survey method is what we just did. You ask people questions directly to gather data. The experiment that we completed mimics at 1990 study done
among races. The experiment concluded that even though many students
attend racially diverse schools, their neighborhoods are
segregated as patterns of settlement (de facto segregation). Surveys can be oral or written questionnaires It is important to take a large sample of people in order to get
accurate results Some respondents may just want to please the interviewer Others may assume their answers are not confidential
This happened in the 1960s when a survey was conducted to seehow frequent people brush their teeth. Many did not respondhonestly and the survey showed that their should be three timesas much toothpaste sold in the US according to the frequencyreported.
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Suppose the city government was issuing a referendumballot to begin a 10:00pm curfew for people under the ageof 18. How would each group vote? Teenagers not of age to vote College students (18-22) Middle class adults (23-55)
Retired (55-beyond) It is important to equally represent different groups. Researchers usually focus on a target population, or a
group that will be studied in the research. In the study above, the target population would be all the
possible voters on the referendum. Within the target population, a researcher would study a
sample which is only part of the target population. Itwould be costly and inefficient to survey every member ofa target population
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Random sample individuals are selected atrandom from the target population. Eachmember has an equal chance at beingselected
Stratified sample subgroups in a populationare proportionately represented. If 15% of the population is African American,
then the study must include 15% AfricanAmerican participants
In some cases, a researcher may only want tofind out the results of a certain group ofpeople. A sample of only females may benecessary for research on gender roles.
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The Survey MethodPeople respond to a series of questions about a
particular subjectAdvantage It enables researchers to gather
information about large numbers of peopleDisadvantage People may not be entirely
honest when responding. They are not alwaysrepresentative of the target population
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V. Research Methods
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Psychologists learn about human behavior bygiving tests. Intelligence tests measure learning abilityAptitude tests measure certain skills and talents
like music or mechanical skills.Personality tests can diagnose psychological
problems such as anxiety or depression
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A case study is an in-depth investigation of anindividual or a small group.
Methods in a case study: Speak to individuals Interview clients Find out personal histories
Psychologists use what they learn in a case studyto generalize broader principles that apply to the
larger population.Case studies can be inconsistent because many
people have gaps in their memories or falselyinterpret their past to impress the researcher
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Many studies need to research an individualor group over a long period of time.
A longitudinal method is one waypsychologists study a group of individuals
over a long period of time (years, decades)Observations occur at intervals once a year
depending on the type of study If they are studying development of young
people, the intervals may be shorter once a
monthThese types of studies are costly and time
consuming.
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Focuses on changes over time withdevelopment
The cross-sectional method follows a set ofindividuals over a number of years, but they
take groups of different ages and comparetheir differences.Example: in a language-learning study,
psychologists may study; 12 month, 14month, and 16 month old children. Theywould study the skills of the members ofeach group and make generalizations abouteach group over time.
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Which is a more reliable and accuratemethod?The longitudinal methodThe cross-sectional method
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Psychologists tend to trustobservations that take placein the participants naturalsetting.
The naturalistic-observationalmethod is used to observepeople and animals in their
field. People homes, office, school
Animals natural habitats
Example: Jane Goodalls studyof chimpanzees in Tanzania
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Some observations are difficult in a naturalsetting. An artificial model can sometimes makethe observation easier.
Laboratory-observation methods create anartificial environment which are morecontrollable and easier to manipulate.
Example: B. F. Skinner used Skinner boxes tostudy the behavior of rats. In his laboratory, hewould drop a food pellet into a box when the rat
presses a lever. The rats learned to repeat thisbehavior when they are hungry. The rats wouldeven travel through extensive mazes to seek thereinforcement.
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Once psychologists have made theirobservations, they must analyze andinterpret them and find correlations.
One method they use is correlation
Correlation is a measure of how closely twothings are related.
Questions involving correlationDoes the need for achievement attain higher
salaries?What is the relation between stress and health?Does involvement in extra-curricular activities
yield higher grades?
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Positive correlation Negative correlation
A relationshipbetween twovariables in which onevariable increaseswhile the other alsoincreases
People with a higher
need to achieve havea higher salary
A relationshipbetween twovariables when onevariable increaseswhile the otherdecreases
People with high
stress have worseimmune systems
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Correlation describes relationshipsCorrelation does not reveal the cause and
effect.
Just because a persons immune system maybe weaker and they have high stress, doesnot mean that the stress causes the weakimmune system. They are just related.
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Method Description Advantages Disadvantages
Testing
Case-study
Longitudinal
Cross-sectional
Naturalistic-observational
Laboratory-observational
In your own words
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Unit I: Section V
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The method researchers use to answerquestions about cause and effect is theexperiment.
In an experiment, participants receive what is
called a treatment, such as a change in roomtemperature or a new drug.
Researchers then carefully observe theparticipants to determine how the treatment
influences their behavior.The conditions created in an experiment may
not accurately reflect conditions in real life.
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Variables are factors that can change Independent variable the factor that
researchers manipulate so that they candetermine its effectExperiment warm temperatures cause
aggression in humans Independent variable the temperature
Dependent variable the factor that depends
on something the independent variableSame experimentDependent variable aggression
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Ideal experiments use experimental andcontrol groups
Experimental group receives the treatmentControl group does not receive the
treatmentThis method makes it possible for
researchers to conclude that theexperiments results are caused by the
treatment and not by something elseWhen an experiment uses both control as
well as experimental groups, they are calledcontrolled experiments
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People who seek psychotherapy expect it towork.
They may feel better simply because theyexpect it to make them feel better.
This is an example of theplacebo effectPlacebo a substance or treatment that has
no effect apart from the participants beliefin it.Ex a pill that has no medicinal value (sugar pill)
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Bias can change the outcome of studies aparticipant expects that a drug may havecertain effects would pay close attention toany sensations that are similar to those
effects.Single-blind study in order to reduce bias,
participants do not know whether they are inthe experimental or the control group. The
researchers would know.
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Researchers can alsobecome biased aboutthe outcome of atreatment. A double-blind study intends to
decrease the possibilityof this.
Double-blind study astudy in which both theparticipants and theresearchers are unawareof who receives thetreatment.
aicr.org
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Researchers organize data to generalizeabout the information.Finding the central tendency the mean or modeFind the range of scores or how variable the
scores areTwo frequently used measures of variabilityRange lowest score subtracted from highest
score
Standard deviation the measure of distance ofevery score to the mean.
Large standard deviation = more spread outscores
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Ethics are standards for proper andresponsible behavior
Ethics of psychologists1. Promote the dignity of the individual
2. Foster human welfare
3. Maintain scientific integrity
The American Psychological Association (APA)has established specific guidelines to guideethical research. Confidentiality Informed consent
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To study the development of children whohave been separated from their parentPurposefully separate infants from their mothers
to study the effects of separation
Observe the development of children who havealready been separated from their mothers sincean early age
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The APA requires that the records ofresearch participants and clients remainconfidential
People are more likely to disclose truthful
information when they know that what theysay will be private
Confidentiality can be breeched if a clientreveals plans to harm someone
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The APA has strict restrictions againstresearch that could pose a serious threat tothe physical or psychological health ofparticipants
The APA generally requires that participantsin studies are given informed consent aboutthe research.
Informed consent is a general overview of
what will be done in the research along withthe participants choice to be a part of it ornot
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Psychologists may use deception aboutresearch only under specified conditions:When they believe the benefits of the research
outweigh its potential harm
When they believe that the individuals wouldhave been willing to participate if they hadunderstood the benefits of the research
When participants receive an explanation of thestudy after it has occurred
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Unit I: Section VI
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Intelligence is the abilities to learn fromexperience, to think rationally, and to dealeffectively with others.
It does not have to do with achievementAchievement is the knowledge and skills
gained from experience.
Intelligence provides the basis forachievement. Achievement is made possibleby intelligence.
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g + s = intelligenceCharles Spearman suggested that general
intelligence g is all of our intellectualabilities.
The g factor represents the abilities toreason and solve problems
Intelligence also includes specific abilitiess math, music, writing
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Psychologist Howard Gardner (1983, 1993)suggests we have multiple intelligences insteadof one Verbal/linguistic Logical/mathematical
Visual/spatial Bodily/kinesthetic dancers and athletesMusical/rhythmic Interpersonal sensitivity to others feelings Intrapersonal insight into own feelings
Naturalist nature and the laws that govern behavior Existential insight into philosophyGardner suggests that these intelligences are
independent of one another
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Psychologist RobertSternberg breaksintelligence intothree factors (1997,
2001, 2003)1. Analytical
intelligence academia
2. Creative intelligence
new situations3. Practical intelligence
street smarts
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Psychologist Daniel Goleman (1995) was interestedin why smart people are not always as successfulas might be expected.
He proposes a new intelligence: emotionalintelligence sometimes called E.Q.
Emotional intelligence includes 5 factors that
contribute to success1. Self awareness: recognizing your own feelings2. Mood management: distracting oneself from an
uncomfortable feeling3. Self-motivation: moving ahead with confidence and
enthusiasm
4. Impulse control: delaying pleasure until the task hasbeen accomplished
5. People skills: empathizing and communicating withothers
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Today, the Wechsler Scale (1995) is morecommonly used to gauge intelligence
It does not use the concept of mental age,
although they use still use the term IQ It yields three scoresVerbalNon-verbalCombined
This is particularly good at identifyinglearning disabilities (reading comprehension)
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50% of IQ scores in the United States fallbetween 90-110
95% are between 70-130The average is 1005% are eitherbelow 70 = retardationAbove 130 = gifted
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Mental retardation is defined with an IQ below 70. Itcan be caused by many factors: Fetal alcoholsyndrome, malnourishment, genetics
Mild retardation - 50-70 IQProblems with walking, feeding themselves, talking
Moderate retardation 35-49 IQUsually cannot read or complete math problems
Severe retardation 20-34 IQHave trouble with daily tasks and routines
Profound retardation below 20 IQCannot function without assistance
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People who have IQ scores above 130 areconsideredgifted
Being gifted means one has potential foroutstanding talent or accomplishment comparedto others of the same age
Some researchers believe this caused bymotivation and creativity (Renzulli 1986)
Others believe it is the result of insight (Davidson1986)
Educators recognize the importance of identifyinggifted children early and providing them with rich,varied learning opportunities to help them developtheir potential
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Thomas Bouchard (1990), studied twins to see ifthere IQ scores were similar. Identical twins had the most similar results, even
when the children were raised in different homes Fraternal twins were moderately similar
Brothers and sisters, parents and children were alsomoderately similarHe also studied heritability, or the extent to
which variations in a trait can be explained bygenetic factors
He determines that about half of the differencesin IQ scores among people can be accounted forby heredity. The remainder is determined byenvironment.
Some of intelligence is affected by environment
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Schaie (1993, 94) has found that intellectualfunctioning in older people is linked toseveral environmental factorsLevel of income
Level of educationA history of stimulating jobs Intact family lifeAttendance at cultural events
Married to a intelligent personFlexible personality
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Unit I: Section VII
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Study of the changes that take placethroughout a persons life spanConception Infancy
ChildhoodAdolescenceAdulthoodElderly
From previous lessons, what are the twotypes of research methods that adevelopmental psychologist would use toshow development?
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Most of the research in the field of developmentrevolves around the influence of: Nature heredity, genes, biology Nurture environment
Certain kinds of behavior are biologically
programmed and will occur as long as thechildren receive adequate nutrition and socialexperience.
The influences of nurture or the environmentare:
Nutrition Family background Culture Learning from home, school, work
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Infants can only reach certain developmentsif they have reached the sequentialmaturation
Maturation is the automatic and sequential
process of development that results fromgenetic signals Infants sit up before they crawlCrawl before they standStand before they walk
Maturation cannot be forced, infants will notreach certain stages until they are ready known as critical periods
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John Locke - Infants are like a tabula rasa(blank slate) where experiences will bewritten (nurture)
Arnold Gessel maturation plays the most
important role in development.Benjamin Watson the influence of nurture
is much greater than that of nature
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Most physical development occurs in stagesSitting crawling standing walking
in that orderCognitive (mental) development occurs more
gradually (Flavell 2002)Learning is unique to the individual and occurs
rapidly at certain times and slower at othertimes
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Infants possess immediate physicalcharacteristics and abilitiesHeightWeight
Reflexes involuntary actions (swallowing)Changes in height and weight are examples
of physical developmentFrom conception to birth, newborns:Grow from a microscopic cell to 20 in lengthGrows a billion times more than its weight at
conception
2 days old
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Birth 2 years Infants double their birth
weight in 5 months, triple inthe first year (8lbs 21lbs)
They grow about 10 in thefirst year
During the second year, theygenerally gain 4-6 in heightand 4-7lbs in weight
2 days old
18 months old
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2 years adolescence2-3 height gain/year4-6lbs gain/year
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rhsmpsychology.com
Culture does affect motor development
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Culture does affect motor development In the USA, infants start walking at around 12
months Babies lie in cribs In Uganda, infants start walking around 10
month Babies carried on backs and are kept upright
fic.nih.gov
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Infants have certain reflexes automatically(they are not learned)Grasping squeezing a fingerBreathing
SuckingSwallowingRooting moving head towards an object on
cheek (nipple to mouth)
Moro (startle) withdrawing from painful stimulilike loud noisesDefecation - waste elimination
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The process by which infants learn to makesense of the sights, sounds, tastes, and othersensations to which they are exposed.
Infants tend to be attracted to new stimuli
5-10 week infants look longest at compleximages
15-20 week infants prefer images that resemblefaces
Depth perception develops around ninemonths of age. They begin being afraid ofheights and falling.
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The processCling to mother contact with others playing
with toys playing with others
Attachment in infants is essential to their
survival. They begin to distinguishfriendlies who can help them meet theirneeds.
Attachment grows from birth to the age of
seven months. It tends to expand to two ormore caregivers (dad and grandma).
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By the age of 8 months, some infants developstranger anxiety, or the fear of strangers. It is high when they are alone with strangers Less when they are with a friendly
Around the same age, infants may also develop
separation anxiety, or stress when a caregiver isnot presentThese anxieties may be caused by: Contact comfort human need for physical contact
from ones mother Imprinting instinctive attachment during a critical
period.Attachment is not solely for biological parents.
It develops in adoptive parents as well.
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Caregivers that are affectionate and reliabletend to raise children that are securely attached.(Cox 1992) Upset when caregiver leaves Seeks affection upon return
Caregivers that are unresponsive or unreliablewill raise children that are insecurely attached. Children dont mind when caregiver leaves No change in emotion when caregiver returns Sometimes upset when caregiver returns
Secure children are happier, friendlier, and morecooperative with parents and teachers than areinsecure children (Belsky 1991).
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bloggymoms.com
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Authoritative parents combine warmth withpositive strictness. These children are moreindependent and achievement oriented
Authoritarian parents believe in obedience
for its own sake. They have strict guidelinesthat they expect children to follow. Theirchildren tend to not do as well as theauthoritative parents because they create
stress.Both can prove successful
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Secure attachment plays a major role in selfesteemPsychologist Carl Rogers noted that there are
two types of support parents can give to theirchildren unconditional positive regard and
conditional positive regardUnconditional positive regard means that parentslove and accept their children for who they are no matter how they behave
Conditional positive regard means that parentsshow love only when the children behave in anacceptable form
Conditional positive regard contributes to longterm low self esteem and a constant need forapproval
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To be added later
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