Veale and Riley, 2001 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)
Individual differences
CBT BDD(DSM-IV) OCD Mirror gazing(2 types) 9 behavioursresponse prevention 9 point visual analogue scale 4 mirror avoidance
mental cosmetic surgery ‘in vivo’ response costSample and technique
52 patients suffering from BDD and 55 controlsVolunteer BDD and personal contacts (Opportunity)
Methodology and design
Quasi experimentIndependent
Strengths 1st study to look at mirror gazing in BDD controls- questionnaire/pilot study, quantitative (scales)
Weaknesses Self-report measures, sample (personal contacts- ethnocentric bias) ethicsUsefulness Treatment ideas (CBT) and better understanding of BDD
Billington et al, 2007Cognitive style
Individual differences
SQ-R and EQ self-report questionnaires 5 Brain types Eyes Test and FC-EFT Psychometric tests Logistic Regression Parametric test Empathizing (cognitive and affective
component) systemizing (Input-Operations-Output) E-S theory Field Independent Degree subject
Sample and technique
415 students selected from an online database (male=203, female=212).Recruitment was via email post and advertisement throughout the university, with participants being offered an incentive of a prize draw if they completed all tasks. Volunteer (Cambridge students)
Method and design 2 Questionnaires 2 performance tests psychometric testIndependent
Strengths Online sampling Psychometric tests, reliability and validityWeaknesses Online sampling /Quantitative, ethnocentric biasUsefulness Links to Autism, links to degree and career choice
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Rosenhan (1973)Sane in Insane PlacesIndividual Differences
Schizophrenia Schizophrenia in remission pseudo patientsType 1(study 2- insane as sane) and type 2(study 1- sane as insane) errors
Powerlessness Depersonalisation Self-fulfilling prophecy sane and insaneSample and technique
Staff in hospital but 8 pseudo patientsVolunteer
Method and design
Field experiment and observation1st study involved eight sane people (pseudo-patients) attempting to gain admission to 12 different hospitals, in five different states in the USA. There were three women and five men. Repeated measures?2nd Study staff of a teaching and research hospital, which was aware of the first study, was falsely informed that during the next three months one or more pseudo patients would attempt to be admitted into their hospitalIndependent
Strengths 12 different hospitals- ecological validity, social control issue, quantitative(10 point scale-2nd study) and quantitative/qualitative (observations- 1st study)
Weaknesses Ethics, recording of data, Usefulness Reformed ‘mental institutions’- care in the community, raised awareness of
labelling/stigmatisation of the mentally ill (‘stickiness’ of labels)
Thigpen & Cleckley (1954)Multiple Personality Disorder
Individual Differences
Repressed(White) Regressed (Black) Jane Multiple personality disorder EEG hypnosis projective tests-Rorschach Psychometric tests-IQ Case study
Sample and technique
1 –25yr, white female- Eve White/Black and JaneOpportunity
Method and design Case study and longitudinal (14months/ 100hrs)Repeated measures
Strengths Psychometric and projective tests, hypnosis, qualitative and quantitative data, longitudinal, EEG
Weaknesses Ethics, case study, retrospective dataUsefulness Greater understanding of the multiple personality disorder- treatments
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Freud, 1909Little Hans
Developmental
Psyche- id, ego, superego Oedipus/Electra complex 5 Psychosexual stagesUnconscious/ Latent Conscious/ Manifest content Dream analysis
Phobia of horses Psychoanalysis Free association
Sample and technique
1 (Hans) 3-5yrsOpportunity
Methodology and design
Case study and longitudinalIndependent
Strengths Qualitative data , longitudinal, evidence of psychoanalysisWeakness Use of children- ethics, qualitative data- subjective, ethnocentric, alternative
interpretations of phobia (behaviourist)Usefulness Unconscious role/support for theory psychoanalysis/Oedipus
Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961)Aggression
Developmental
Classical conditioning Operant Conditioning Social LearningTheory(Bandura) Matched pairs Bobo doll Partial/imitative
Beh.-verbal+physical 4 Hypotheses 3 conditions (non-agg, agg, control)Sample and technique 72 children matched pairs (36 boys, 36 girls)
OpportunityMethodology and design Laboratory experiment
Matched pairsStrengths 5 point scale for aggressions, evidence for nurture, quantitative
and qualitative dataWeaknesses Scales, ecological validity, reductionist, deterministic, ethics- use
of children (why not do prosocial?)Usefulness TV violence, media violence, nurture debate
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Langlois, 1991Facial attractiveness
Developmental
Attraction Attractive and unattractive faces (symmetry) Maternal attractiveness Fussing
Cognitive explanation Pictures usedEvolution explanation Same sex Preference
Likert Scale:1-5 Quantitative data Single blind techniqueStandardisation: controls (pictures+procedures) Infant side bias.
Sample and technique
Study 1-(Adults) 110 6-month old infants from children’s research lab at Uni of Texas.Study 2- (Black female)40 Pps 15 boys, 25 girls, average age 6 months, 36 white, 2 black, 2 Hispanic.Study 3- (Babies) 29Pps- 19 boys, 20 girls) middle class families, 37 Caucasian, 2 Hispanic.
Method and design Laboratory experiment, observationIndependent Measures
Strengths Evidence for nature debate?, controls used-standardised procedure, scales (mean average), slides used from a previous study + inter-rater reliability
Weakness Reductionist- scales, ethnocentric sample/generalisable?, ecologically valid- static photos, ethics of fussing,
Usefulness Evolution and mate selection? Role of nature
Nelson, 1980Morals
Developmental
Morality Motive Outcome Heteronomous (Piaget)Autonomous (Piaget) Verbal Story Presentation study 1 study 2 7 point rating scale
Independent variable: story presentation condition (one of three) and the dependent variable: judgment rating of the actor in the story out of seven.
Sample and technique
90 (60 preschoolers and 30 second graders),50:50 gender ratioOpportunity
Method and design Laboratory experimentIndependent measures
Strengths Ethics, sample size/generalising, quantitative data- 7 point scale, controls/procedure, pilot study, nature and nurture- overcame difficulties of previous research using and stories (ecologically valid-pilot study)
Weakness Ethnocentric/sample- Middle class, white, rating scale/quantitative data only, story always a boy- gender bias?, low ecological validity
Usefulness Child development- moral development, nature and nurture
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Maguire et al (2000)Taxi drivers’ brains
Physiological
The Knowledge (London Taxi drivers), PET, topographical memory, semantic memory,
episodic memory, landmark knowledge, sequence, baseline for speech and the
hippocampus. Brain Neuroplasticity rCBF Film frames and plots Factorial design(4
tasks) 3 aims
Sample and technique
Participants were 11 right-handed qualified and licensed male London taxi drivers (mean age 45 +- 7yrs)Volunteer
Method and design
Field? ExperimentRepeated measures
Strengths Ethics, generalisation PET + MRIs, questionnaire/pilot study-ecological validity, quantitative data, counterbalancing
Weakness Ethnocentrism/Generalisation of samplePET + MRIs, ethicsUsefulness Supports animal research and case studies, brain and memory
Dematte, 2007Olfactory cuesPhysiological
Body relevant/non relevant plesant (Geranium, male fragrance) and unpleasant (rubber and body odour) smells olfactometer Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) Olfactory
Halo dumping Cross modal Labelled Magnitude Scale (LMS) mate selection and evolution Clean air- control/neutral
Sample and technique
16 untrained female participants from the University of Oxford, mean age 26yrs (ranging from 20-34years)
Opportunity Method and
designLaboratory experimentRepeated measures
Strengths Pilot study, procedure/controls/apparatus, counterbalancing, ethics, a 9-point visual rating scale- quantitative data, nature debate, 40 photos/faces used from a previous study- reliability
Weakness Ecological validity? Ethnocentric- gender bias/CAE/geranium?, only quantitative data, reductionist
Usefulness Cross modality of senses- nature debate/evolution and mate selection
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Schachter and Singer, 1962Emotion
Physiological
Four experimental conditions state of arousal and a cognition/two factor theory 3 aims injection of ‘Suproxin’ (made up name) Adrenalin Ignorant Adrenalin Informed Adrenalin Misinformed
Control Group – Placebo euphoria condition or the anger condition epinephrine/adrenaline
Sample and technique
184 male college students, taking classes in introductory psychology at Minnesota University. 90% of which received two extra points on their final exam for every hour they served as subjectsOpportunity/volunteer?
Method and design Laboratory experiment- observation, self-reportIndependent measures
Strength One way mirror, controls/procedureWeakness Ethnocentrism of sample/generalisation, ecological validity, ethics 11 of the
participants results discardedUsefulness Development of theory of emotion
Dement & Kleitman (1957)Sleep and Dreaming
Physiological
REM Non-REM Dream content 3 aims REM Rebound electroencephalogram(EEG) EOGStages of sleep
Sample and technique
9 adults, 7 males. 5 studied intensively.Opportunity/volunteer?
Method and design
Laboratory experimentRepeated measures
Strengths Controls self report, EEG, quantitativeWeakness Sample- ethnocentric/generalisation, ecological validity, self report, ethics?
Correlation dataUsefulness Relationship between dreaming and sleep
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Mann et al, 2002High stake liars
Cognitive
Veracity, high stake liar, high stake truth, 6 behaviours (blink, pause), Pinocchio, coding motivational impairment effect single blind micro-expressions cognitive load behavioural control
Sample and technique 16 suspects, 13 male, 3 female. 4 juveniles (3 aged 13yrs and the other aged 15yrs). 15 Caucasian (English first language), 1 Asian (first language Punjabi but also fluent in English).Opportunity
Methodology and design Quasi/natural experiment, observation, content analysisIndependent
Strengths Inter-rater reliability-coding, single blind, ecological validity- previous studies tend to be Lab experiments
Weaknesses Sample size (16), use of video footage, sensitive topic, Usefulness Complexity of lying: no obvious universal signs
Loftus and Pickrell, 1995False memories
Cognitive
Rating scales (clarity for event 1-10, confidence 1-5) self report- mailedEthnocentric- sampling and generalization ethics Hansel and Gretel
Ecologically valid- based on relatives retrospective data to construct the story (false memory)Retroactive proactive false memory Trojan horse
Sample and technique
3 males, 21 femalesOpportunity (university of Washington students)
Methodology and design
Quasi/natural experimentRepeated measures (2 interviews)
Strengths Controls for events/stories, interviews, ethics, quantitative data- coding/scales clarity and confidence, ecological valid stories
Weaknesses Materials used, ethnocentric, ethics, results of only 5 used, coding/scalesUsefulness Criminal court: possible problems of Eye Witness Accounts
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Baron-Cohen, 2001Revised Reading the Eyes Test
Cognitive
Asperger Syndrome (AS)/ High Functioning Autism (HFA)Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) Theory of Mind Attribution theory Normal distribution
Forced choice Phenotype Ceiling effect Basic emotionsGaze direction Semantic opposites (concerned/unconcerned) Social intelligence
Sample and technique
Group 1 - (HFA/AS) N=14 ALL Male, mean 21.9 Volunteer/self- selectedGroup 2 -General population males- 26, females 26.4 OpportunityGroup 3- Students, males 27.3 and females 28.6OpportunityGroup 4-IQ matched controls 30.9 Random??
Methodology and design
Psychometric test (self-report questionnaire/test)Independent Measures
Strengths Reliable and valid, quantitative data, quick/easy, sensitive/subtle individual differences, improvement on 1997 test, normal distribution
Weaknesses Ecological validity-Static pictures, computer reaction times?Usefulness Autism spectrum, Children’s Eyes Test, Eyes test has been used during fMRI,
valid test for social intelligence, brain-damaged patients following amygdalectomy.
Held and Hein, 1963PerceptionCognitive
Deprivation plasticity Sensorimotor coordination Neck yoke/body clamp Tests -Visual Cliff (Gibson and Walk), Blink response, visually guided paw placement Kitten Carousel (exposure apparatus)
Bottom-up (Gibson, nature), Top-down (Gregory, nurture) Other tests-Pupillary reflex/size, Tactual placing response, Visual pursuit of a moving object Nature/Nativist versus Nurture/Empirist
Sample and technique
Ten pairs of kittens were used, each pair from a different litterOpportunity sample?
Methodology and design
Laboratory Experiment and ObservationRepeated Measures
Strengths Controls (exposure apparatus/kitten carousel) Animal, nature/nature Weakness Ethics (deprived or modified?), use of animals-sample and generalisation to
humans?Usefulness Nature/nurture debate for perception- transaction/interaction
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Milgram (1963)Obedience
Social psychology
Obedience Legitimate authorityWWII Genocide Electric shock generator
$4.50 Agentic stateBuffers 1 hour
Gradual commitment ProdsSample and technique
40 males aged between 20 and 50 years. A wide range of occupations, including postal clerks, high-school teachers, salesmen, engineers and labourers. Paid $4.50 Volunteer
Method and design
Laboratory experiment? no control condition (i.e. all of the participants took place in the same experimental procedure)Independent
Strength Situational/individual, internal validity, external/ecological validity(variations of studies), control/procedure
Weakness Ethics, Ecological validity, Ethnocentrism/generalisability, reductionistUsefulness Genocide Holocaust/WWII obedience/disobedience Importance of the situation,
nurture not nature
Zimbardo, 1973
Stanford Prison StudySocial
Conformity to role DehumanizationPrison simulation Pathological prisoner syndromeNumber of days Emasculation
Uniforms- stereotypes of roles Warden Mundane RealismDeindividuation Maslach ‘outsider role’
Sample and technique
24 normal, healthy male college students who were predominantly middle class and white.Volunteer
Method and design Field experimentindependent
Strength Situational and individual, Ecological validity, controls, mundane realismWeakness Ethics, Ecological validity, Ethnocentric/generalisability, reductionistUsefulness Prison reform importance of the situation, nurture not nature
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Piliavin et al (1969)Subway Samaritans
Social
Diffusion of responsibility Arousal-cost reward theory Kitty GenovesePluralistic ignorance Altruism Helping BehaviourVictim characteristics Inter-rater reliability New York Subway
Critical areaSample and technique
4450 men and women travelling on a particular stretch of the New York underground system between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m. on weekdays during the period of April 15th to June 26th, 1968 45% black and 55% whiteOpportunity
Method and design
Field experiment (snapshot)Independent
Strengths Large Sample, ecological validity, quantitative data- inter- rater reliability, qualitative data
weakness Ethics, lack of control, neglects to look at the behaviour of the murderer/focuses on audience,
Usefulness Explanation for why people do and don’t help, selfish gene?
Tajfel, 1970Discrimination
Social
Discrimination Sherif- real conflict theoryIn-group and out-group Jane Elliot- Brown eyes, Blue eyes
Prejudice Exp 1- over and under estimatorsMaximum joint profit/differences Social identity Theory (S.I.T)
Authoritarian personality Minimal group effectSample and technique
Study 1- subjects were 64 boys, 14 and 15 years old from a comprehensive school in a suburb of Bristol.Study 2- 48 new boys were used as subjects and all the subjects knew each other well.Opportunity
Method and design
2 Laboratory Experiment Independent
Strengths Controls/procedure, Weakness Ethnocentrism-CAGE, Ethics, demand characteristics (groups-competition),
ecological validityUsefulness Reductionism
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Veale and Riley, 2001 Billington et al, 2007 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) Cognitive style
Individual differences Individual differences
Sample 40 males (ages 20 – 50)
Sample 252 children from UK
Ecological Validity
37 Ecological Validity
52
Ethics 11 Ethics 26Usefulness 94 Usefulness 75Difficulty 56 Difficulty 90
Rosenhan (1973) Thigpen & Cleckley (1954)Sane in Insane Places Multiple Personality DisorderIndividual Differences Individual Differences
Sample Staff in hospital but 8 pseudo patients
Sample 1 – case study
Ecological Validity
94 Ecological validity 98
Ethics 32 Ethics 65Usefulness 90 Usefulness 15Difficulty 61 Difficulty 72
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