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PERCEIVED PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL EFFECTIVENESS AND
TURNOVER INTENTION OF KNOWLEDGE WORKERS A
CONCEPTUAL MODEL
MARINA MUSTAPHA
Taylor‟s Business School Taylor‟s University
Subang Jaya Selangor Malaysia
NORMALA DAUD
Faculty of Business Management Universiti Teknologi Mara
Shah Alam Selangor Malaysia
Corresponding Author
Marina Mustapha
Taylor‟s Business School Taylor‟s University Taylor‟s Lakeside Campus No 1 Jalan
Taylor‟s 47500 Subang Jaya Selangor Darul Ehsan Malaysia
Abstract
Employees‟ turnover intention may be contingent upon an organization‟s human resource
practices The effectiveness of a performance appraisal practice that may substantially
contribute to knowledge worker turnover intention could be simply overlook and arduous
to manage This paper is based on a conceptual model that seeks to examine the effect of
perceived performance appraisal effectiveness on the intention to leave an organization
among knowledge workers An assimilated framework is employed to discuss the
multifaceted performance appraisal system and turnover issues from past literatures In
addition the role and significance of career commitment is believed to influence perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness-turnover intention relationship Career commitment is
thus included as an antecedent towards turnover intention to strengthen the model This
newly developed model could serve as a management platform in their effort to improve
or enhance their current performance appraisal practices towards effectiveness thus
retaining their knowledge workers
Keywords KNOWLEDGE WORKERS PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL PERCEIVED
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL EFFECTIVENESS CAREER COMMITMENT
TURNOVER INTENTION
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10 Introduction
The significant increase of knowledge intensive firms has been conspicuous in the era of
knowledge economy Contemporary firms are now more people-focused (Robertson et al
2003) and based on intellectual work where knowledge workers represent the largest
proportion of the workforce (Alvesson 2000 Davenport 2002) especially in advance
nations (Drucker 1999 Helton 1988) Subsequently knowledge has become an eminent
resource (Drucker 1994) for a firm‟s competitive advantage and sustainable growth both
locally and internationally (Oltra 2005) This knowledge which is sourced primarily from
the mind of knowledge workers however is not easily available Knowledge in its tacit
form could only be captured generated and utilized through formal and social interactive
and communicative measures with these workers Knowledge workers have since become
the key essence of knowledge intensive organizations Not only these organizations
encounter challenges in focusing on efficient and effective strategies to search and recruit
these qualified workers but also to uphold their employment within the organizations
(Damir et al 2008) Knowledge workers are prominent workers that are renowned as the
most mobile workforce Organizational survival and success in the knowledge era is
profoundly dependent on this brain gain The above objective could be accomplished
through organizations‟ Human Resource Management (HRM) practices One of the efforts
is to appreciate a sturdy and efficacious performance appraisal system (Michie and
Sheehan 1999 Gratton et al 2000) A robust and comprehensive appraisal system would
be able to recognize what is of significance to these intellectual workers and their vocation
(Kimiz 2005)
Issues on performance appraisal and turnover intention have been conventional and well-
explored in the field of management for many decades Discussions on performance
appraisal systems alone have received consistently much attention from a considerable
number of authors particularly pertaining to the existing divergence between research and
practice (Maroney and Buckley 1992) Despite the profusion of these literatures none
seems to distinctively relate performance appraisal and turnover intention Indeed issues
on the history evolution and effect of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness on
turnover intention have been disregarded by the researchers (Huselid 1995 Mor Barak et
al 2001 Rees and Porter 2004 St-Onge et al 2009 Yoon and Lewis 2011 Alexander
2012 Choi et al 2012) In support to the above the effects of such human resource
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practice on employees‟ behavior (Harley 2002) are usually being ignored by firms due to
the unviable belief that there exists a flaw in human organizational behavior (Pollard
2003) Besides Huselid (1995) asserts that organizational performance appraisal-turnover
relationship is not to be presumed on individual level since an employee decision to stay or
leave an organization is dependent on his or her response towards such perceived
performance appraisal practice
In the present paper results of past researches are deliberated and synthesized to establish
a conceptual framework as well as to develop an array of propositions that link perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness of knowledge workers to their career commitment and
the probable effect of this perception on their turnover intention The framework takes into
account all performance appraisal system elements as past researches only focus on one or
few performance appraisal elements Notwithstanding current studies on turnover
intention are more inclined toward organizational commitment job-related and
demographic variables However they are not being used within the performance
appraisal framework Another new contribution to the framework is the inclusion of
career commitment as a mediator between knowledge workers perceived performance
appraisal effectiveness and turnover intention Since knowledge workers are more career-
oriented than organizational-oriented workers and also affected by an organizational
Human Resource practices it is believed that career commitment could be linked to
performance appraisal and turnover intention
20 Literature Review
21 Knowledge workers of the new millennium
There exists no specific definition for knowledge workers in theory and practice
Generally they are merely workers who are highly knowledgeable within their non-
transferable field of expertise Knowledge workers are associated with ldquoknowledge workrdquo
that largely warrants for their mental strength rather than their physical strength (Karreman
et al 2002) Their intellectual contribution in its intangible nature is difficult to monitor
until the physical output becomes visible Knowledge workers are capable of creating and
transforming knowledge as and when necessary to solve intangible ambiguous and
complex tasks in vigorous and unpredictable environments (Bryan and Joyce 2005) In
order to deliver complicated results knowledge that is applicable in making decisions and
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actions will be shared with others (Dove 1998 Davenport and Prusak 2000 Davenport et
al 2002 Scott 2005 Damir et al 2008) According to another field expert this shared
knowledge that are converted from intuition into explicit knowledge can further be turned
into new opportunities for firm‟s success and growth (Paul Yeung cited in Zalina 2005)
The broader perspectives of literatures conclude that knowledge workers refer to highly-
educated and -experienced workers Drucker (1994) portrays knowledge workers as highly
educated workers with formal education who develop new products or services
Conversely other researchers (Dove 1998 Nickols 2000) affirms less importance on
formal education as knowledge could be engendered from field experiences as well as
one‟s experiences through accessibility and usage of personal organizational and external
knowledge (Nickols 2000) Ultimately anyone who uses any form of recorded knowledge
to be a more productive worker could be considered a knowledge worker (Stuhlman
Daniel 2006 Creotec 2006) regardless whether he or she is a professional or non-
professional Nevertheless what kind of a knowledge worker an individual is depends on
the type of knowledge that he or she produces or possesses (Ritter 2003 cited in Zalina
2005) Generally they are all renowned experts within their own field through the
ownership of knowledge (Davenport 2005) and their use of mental power and scientific
methods of rationalizing knowledge enables the creation of firm‟s value They are also
acknowledged for their abilities to generate manipulate and orchestrate any information
for any analytical and application purposes (Bryan and Joyce 2005 Davenport 2005
Drucker 1999 Horwitz et al 2006)
Despite having the ability to choreograph signs and conceptions knowledge workers
experience more swift skill obsolescence These competencies are fundamental for
organizations in gaining competitive advantage over competitors and have become
increasingly imperative for their long-term success (Depres and Hiltrop 1995)
Knowledge workers are workers of immense intellectual curiosity who work most
productively and creatively to satisfy their curiosity Their other typical distinctive
personality traits include considerable resentment at bureaucracies and disapproval of
administration (Root-Bernstein 1989) Besides they are multitalented accommodating
and with sturdy analytical skills they are proficient in leveraging as well as building
knowledge to engender effective action They are also versatile with high tolerance for
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uncertainty (Moi Kok Wah 2008) Furthermore knowledge workers are highly
independent and mobile workers who favor autonomy use of examples and knowledge
sharing among organizational members Their core concern is organizational productivity
rather than the process itself (Horwitz et al 2003)
Knowledge workers prefer organizations that consistently nurture and strengthen their
competencies while having job-related and leadership structures that focus on promoting
empowerment and self-management Similarly a substantial number of Research and
Development (RampD) job designs offer autonomy and desirable leadership style The job
designs that are more associated with collegial relationships information-sharing
delegation of responsibilities and stimulating upward and horizontal communication would
fulfill knowledge worker needs for autonomy achievement and personal growth Apart
from possessing strong communication skills and high intellectual attributes knowledge
workers have a strong sense of identity are self-directed and proactive (Rosenbaum 1991
Knowledge Workers Forum 2006) Complemented with self-motivation and and self
discipline they are able to make judgments organize and manage their work with success
A worker with proactive approach persistently confronts the norms that would place a
higher value on work teams and organizations Self-driven and proactive qualities
encourage active participation and work practices sharing culture among team members
As a consequence the emergence of more effective collaborative and innovative teams
results in substantial dynamic and remarkable organizational improvements
Subsequently career development is pursued in a very distinct manner among knowledge
workers as compared to conventional workers They value their self-respect and self-
satisfaction derived from a job well done (Bandura 1991) and their motivation might
relate more to the intellectual stimulation of the job than its security Hence they are more
occupationally motivated rather than organizationally motivated Heavy reliance on
symbols of personal and professional excellence make the non-monetary rewards to
become critical factors in recognizing their achievement and innovation Due to the strong
association with occupational commitment high turnover is inevitable and rampant among
these workers (Despres and Hiltrop 1995) unless their organizational values and goals
match their professional values and goals (Lee et al 2000) Other key contributing factors
to knowledge worker nomadic behavior include better salaries (Abassi and Hollman
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2000) lifestyles and new environment (Julian and Anita 2000) While craving for latest
and best designs simulation tools and measurement equipments they do have access to
the latest information or knowledge within the field of their domain and persistent
determination in the experimentation of something new and challenging Closeness with
professional peers and networks disclose opportunities to pursue their lifelong learning
interest (Despres and Hilltrop 1995 Julian and Anita 2000 Zalina 2005) and make them
highly competitive in planning to resign and find alternative employment (Mitchell et al
2001) McGregor et al (2004) further discover that these knowledge workers are
significantly independent of their employers and typically do not expect to be employed
longer than what is stipulated in their employment contract
22 Performance appraisal elements and effectiveness
Performance appraisal has increasingly becoming common and serves as a vital human
resource practice in today‟s organizations The practice that was once concentrated on
control and maintenance based approach have somehow progressed towards an approach
that is more engaged with growth motivational and developmental concerns (Dutra 2001
cited in Ubeda and Santos 2007 Obisi 2011) The effectiveness of an appraisal system
depends on how well its purposes are understood accepted and strived to be achieved by
users A favorable performance appraisal would have positive effects on employee
attitudes behaviors and organizational efficiency (Gardner 2008 Salleh et al 2013) For
example higher employee performance and productivity attainment is derived through the
performance appraisal capability in reflecting measuring and evaluating an individual
employee‟s behavior (DeVries et al 1981 Sarita 2012) collaboration teamwork
knowledge reuse and knowledge sharing competencies and accomplishments (Kimiz
2005) over a specific period of time However these positive outcomes are a function of
the employees‟ perception on the overall performance appraisal effectiveness (Benson et
al 2010) Past studies by and large separately focused on the six performance appraisal
components as the source of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness variation
among these critical organizational stakeholders
221 Performance appraisal objectives
As surveys show the general objective of performance appraisal is primarily to improve
an organizational efficiency However this efficiency is expected to be achieved through
settings of a wider range of organizational objectives (McGregor 1957 Mamoria 1995
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Atiomo 2000 cited in Obisi 2011) that reflects the source of perceived performance
appraisal variation (Scholtes 1993) Due to confusion as to the true purpose of a system
that attempts to achieve too many objectives the system has the tendency to fail in
meeting any of its objectives (Reneker and Steel 1989) This appraisal system
imperfection eventually allows the continuity of an appraisal that relies solely upon human
information processing and judgment Likewise these vast conflicting objectives of an
appraisal system has received increasing attention in HR literatures for so many years
(Strebler et al 2001) despite an orthodox appraisal that is expected to motivate
employees through well-defined objectives with provision for training and development
needs (Bach 2005) Performance appraisals exist to merely assist an organization to make
decisions on an employee rather than to help himher make personal decisions on hisher
performance By and large what is typically communicated by the management is not
what is actually rewarded
Other harsh criticisms of impediments that are inherent in the appraisal process include
mismatching of individual and organizational goals individual goals or personal
aspirations with future development that are not linked to long-term organizational goals
or business strategies (Deming 1986 Wilson and Western 2000 Freeman 2002) and
disregard for institutional goals and objectives (Edwards and Calvin 1998) By having a
performance appraisal policy on paper is no guarantee that it will be followed accordingly
(St-Onge et al 2009) Thus many of performance appraisal defects are intractable (Rees
and Porter 2004 Latham et al 2005)
222 Performance criteria
A second source of perceived performance appraisal variation originates from
organizational performance appraisal criteria which are useful variables to measure
individual work place behavior In most organizations what gets measured and rewarded
is what employees do (Evans 2003 Greene 2002) Employees need to see performance
criteria that are explicitly links to key results in their department and organization (Evans
2003) upon which ratings to be obtained Emphasis should be rested more on the quality
of job performance because it acts in an anticipated manner (Lawler 1967 Greene 2002)
Other criteria should include the particular types of behavior that are contingent upon the
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important job functions According to an earlier researcher (Grant 1955) the sufficient
number of performance criteria to be considered is somewhere around three to five factors
However researchers explicate that the vital aspects of the work performed in each
functional area and focus on the strengths and weaknesses of the individual that are due to
the changing organizational environment and nature of jobs and roles (Wiese et al 1998)
are not ldquobuilt inrdquo to the practice of performance appraisal (Ebrahim et al 2006) For
example in the era of knowledge economy demands of knowledge production frequently
place a premium on teamwork and flexibility (Wilson et al 1994) Fairness perceptions
are intensified when employees are held to performance standards that entail greater
commitment and ownership of knowledge sharing activities (Rousseau and Shperling
2003) Unfortunately the greatest emphasis of performance appraisals in organizations is
on individual responsibility for performance and least on team-based compensation system
(Ebrahim et al 2004 Zobal 1998 Abosch and Reidy 1996) Attitudes and not just
behaviors that are pivotal for ongoing knowledge creation and dissemination also need to
be an integral part of performance appraisal criteria (Liebowitz and Beckman 1998)
Attitudes that align with principles of teamwork collaboration and stakeholder
involvement should be appraised and rewarded
223 Performance measurementstandard
An effective performance appraisal exhibits the performance standard that is agreeable
between the rater and ratee (Bobko and Collela 1994) and rating scales are able to
provide descriptive and concrete definitions of the rating constructs rather than being
expressed in absolute terms (Ghorphade et al 1995 Martey 2002) Lucid precise
performance standards rather than vague or no standards will improve the overall
accuracy and effectiveness of an appraisal process (Kane and Russell 1998) Any effective
measuring instrument needs to provide relevant and sufficient measurement criteria to
accurately describe significant behaviors required for successful job performance
(Henderson 1980) These measures must be amenable to scaling and be able to be
weighted Measuring knowledge workers productivity (Bosch-Sijtsema et al 2009) is
difficult due to the complex and dynamic nature of knowledge work (Laihonen et al
2012) It all depends on the nature of jobs that vary from routine to nonroutine (Pepitone
2002 Laihonen et al 2012 Scott 2005) their organizational and contextual factors such
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as culture strategy leadership fellow workers support compensation structures and
physical surrounding (Chan 2007) and the quality of human resources that reflects skills
and competencies (Davenport 2005) Results-based measures are deficient in tapping
aspect of performance as cooperation (Ghorphade et al 1995) and less helpful for
employee development (Cardy and Dobbins 1994 Fisher et al 1996)
The ineffectiveness of performance appraisal (Becker et al 2001) in appraising workers
contributions to departmental goals (Ebrahim et al 2004) are due to irrelevant ambiguous
and undefined measuring dimensions (Green 1999 Martey 2002) and lack of a
performance appraisal system that effectively integrates all the key performance indicators
in support of the organization‟s aims and objectives Additionally many appraisal systems
are much too subjective (St-Onge et al 2009 Benson et al 2010) There has been little
progress in improving the performance rating distortion (Ilgen et al 1993 Cleveland and
Murphy 1995) Organizations intentionally allow their appraisal systems to function
ineffectively perhaps indefinitely to avoid an open conflict because of its capability in
stirring strong feelings and conflict in the organization (Rendero 1980) Often the goal of
the rater is not to evaluate the performance of the employee but to keep the employee
satisfied and not to deleteriously influence employee morale The manager also has to be
concerned about hisher own image Employees receive negative ratings reflects poorly on
the manager (Kumari 2012) It is unlikely that any managerial problem has so
successfully resisted solution than arriving at an acceptable useful and valid method of
appraising performance Organizations attempt to train the rater to improve observational
skills (Edwards and Calvin 1998 Kumari 2012) though the training efforts are usually
disappointing as their effects on appraisal accuracy dissipate over time (Latham 1988
Cleveland and Murphy 1992)
224 Sources of appraisal
Source of appraisal have consistently rely on subordinate-superior unilateral flow of
information since the immediate superior may have sufficient stance to pass judgments on
the subordinate‟s performance (Long 1986 Storey 1987 Ebrahim 2005) This trend in
today‟s matrix and flatter organizational structures has somehow moved towards multiple
sources (Fletcher and Baldry 2000 Costigan et al 2005) that may come from supervisor
subordinates peers self customers suppliers or other related sources (Byrne 1993
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McCarthy and Garavan 2001 Ebrahim et al 2003) Multi-source or 360-degree feedback
(Henderson 1980 Ebrahim 2005) along with self-appraisal is suggested for perceived
unfair appraisal practice or to correct errors from individually-based superiors‟ ratings
(Deming 1986) and teamwork assignment (Waldman 1997 Barnes 1997) Most recent
studies claim this method brings about maximum employee motivation as well as
providing the supervisor with a clear comprehensive and precise account on employees
contribution to the organization objectives (Amsler et al 2001) Likewise ratings by
unfamiliar raters are discouraged so as avoid the ldquohalo effectrdquo ((Drenth 1984)
An effective performance appraisal is believed to be the ones with informal and formal
feedback from a variety of sources However the number of appraisal sources used
depends on organizational cost-benefit appraisal analysis Managers who do not use ldquoself-
appraisalrdquo cite it as not rigorous and accurate due to employees poor objectivity and
reliability on providing information on own ability desire for self-enhancement (DeNisi
and Shaw 1977 Levine et al 1977 Ebrahim 2005) as well as appraising themselves
positively (Mohrman et al 1989) Besides they do not trust employees On the contrary
ldquoself-appraisalrdquo essential contribution towards individual developmental needs is
indisputable in numerous cases (Parry and Sinha 2005 Van Der Heijden and Nijhof
2004)
225 Performance appraisal feedback
Cleveland et al (1989) signifies that performance appraisal specifically provides quality
feedback on strengths and weaknesses in determining training needs transfers assignment
and potential for growth These could be achieved through improved communication on
three key areas pertaining to what and how observations on performance are made why
and how they are discussed and what determines the level of performance in the job
(Edmonstone 1996) Individuals want and seek timely useful and accepted feedback on
their performance that can help individual make great progress toward optimal
performance (Coens and Jenkins 2001) Regardless of the rating given the superior and
his subordinate through an open effective communication should make an effort to identify
areas where improvement can be made for effective performance (Ritter and Nunnally
2002) This informal relationship should be made common activity or as frequent as
possible so as to have a performance appraisal system that reaches valid conclusions
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In an extensive review of the literature on the application of feedback in organizations
Earley et al (1990) distinguished two types of feedback outcome feedback and process
feedback The former concentrates on providing information on specific performance
outcomes and the latter provides information on the manner in which an individual
implements a work strategy The researchers found that process feedback interacted with
goal-setting more strongly than outcome feedback in determining the quality of task
strategies developed by workers their efforts to obtain information beneficial to improving
their performance appraisal satisfaction and perceived appraisal accuracy (Lam and
Schaubroeck 1999) Despite the benefits offered by the performance appraisal feedback
there emerge another major and growing concern expressed by employees on unqualified
manager and their failures to provide complete appropriate or constructive feedback about
employee‟s job performance and improvement areas (Rao 1984 cited in Obisi 2011
Kavanagh 1997) They were not even aware of the feedback objectives and had not been
provided with guidelines and instructions on how to complete the forms (Martey 2002)
While the ideas of providing training to them are theoretically sound the evidence that the
organizations concerned are taking major corrective action to eliminate these concerns is
rather weak Practically the amount of time for this exercise is too demanding
226 Frequency of performance appraisal
A large proportion of organizations conduct appraisal on a yearly basis (Freemantle 1994
Ebrahim 2003) though most employees believe that objectives could not be realized by an
annual performance appraisal Besides both employees and supervisors might not be able
to remember what happened throughout the year due to their selective memory As studied
by Boice and Kleiner (1997) evidence strongly suggests that performance reviews should
be performed on a frequent and ongoing basis to avoid surprises at an annual review
Moreover a study by Geetha (2013) further alleges that employees are unhappy when
there is no periodical or routine feedback from their superiors Besides frequent
performance appraisal has become a common activity in exceptional organizations (Quinn
et al 1996a)
Other appraisals vary from annually with interim reviews to annually with
monthlyquarterly reviews and annually with six to eight weekly reviews Nonetheless
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Fisher (1994) explains that the frequency of performance appraisal is an arduous
dimension to argue due to the ambiguity of the distinction between an appraisal meeting
and a regular daily discussion about work between a superior and a subordinate In
general the problem of frequency has always been one of the major limitations of any
formal approach to performance appraisal Too long an interval between each appraisal
might results in its contents lose relevance and risk artificiality whereas too short an
interval might results in the process to become too time-consuming (Freemantle 1994)
Evidently the actual time period varies in different organizations and with different aims
(Boice and Kleiner 1997) However a typical frequency would be bi-monthly or
quarterly
30 Hypotheses development performance appraisal career commitment and
turnover intention
31 Perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and intention to quit
Intention to withdraw or quit an organization simply refers to an employee‟s perceived
probability of staying or leaving an employing organization Turnover intention has been
recurrently prescribed in literatures as the most immediate predictor to eventual turnover
(Allen et al 2003 Lum et al 1998) The focus of this attitudinal element of turnover
intention makes sense since it highlights the various elements of behavior and the
motivation to leave that covers many inevitable reasons for actual turnover Turnover is
costly (Mitchell et al 2001 Adhinarayanan amp Gurunathan 2011 Cascio amp Bordreau
2011) and maybe difficult to quantify when irreplaceable knowledge assets or institutional
memory are lost These costs do not stop here Each time an employee leaves the firm
productivity is presumed to drop due to the learning curve involved in understanding the
job and the organization In addition research proves that after losing key employees
organizations experienced damage reputation customer relationship had lost best
practices information and lost significant income (Warren 1999) Ultimately in most
cases the involvement of superiors included positions all the way up to and including the
Chief Executive Officer (CEO) becomes inevitable This demonstrates that turnover issues
impact the firm by utilizing the precious time of senior managers This is in addition to
other expenses including loss of training and retraining time loss of human and relational
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capital Ultimately organizational success is not viable through personnel replacement
activities (Smith and Rupp 2004)
Turnover intention has brought about the importance of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness The relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and
turnover intention has since become the most renowned issue in the field of management
research One of the common objectives of performance appraisal is to retain the topmost
performing employees through quality performance appraisal that leads to fair
compensation amounts high motivation and better career prospects (Zimmerman 2009
Abdullah et al 2011) Hence the intensity of performance appraisal effectiveness
perception is fundamental in encouraging an employee to stay within one‟s employment
(Griffeth et al 2000 Smith and Rupp 2002 Benson et al 2010) An employee with a
low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness could oppose the best
interest of an employee The employee will feel that his or her contributions are not
effectively appraised or recognized and thus will posit a negative organizational attitude
In view of being underrated the employee willingness to be in employment will weaken
Hence the following proposition is established
P1 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will be associated with
higher levels of turnover intention relative to those with high intensity of perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness
32 Performance appraisal career commitment and intention to quit
Career commitment concept that was first introduced by Blau (1985) simply refers to
one‟s inspiration to stay in one‟s chosen career (Blau 1985 1989) It focuses on a uni-
dimensional measure which involves one‟s identification and involvement in one‟s
occupation or career along with one‟s effort in the pursuit of supporting one‟s career goals
(Blau 1985 Colarelli and Bishop 1990 Goulet and Singh 2002) The conceptualization
of career commitment was later extended into a multidimensional measure of accumulated
investments and cost of pursuing another new career (ldquocontinuancerdquo) attachment to a
career (ldquoaffectiverdquo) and feelings of obligation to remain in one career (ldquonormativerdquo)
commitment (Meyer et al 1993 2006 Meyer and Herscovitch 2001) Subsequently
these measures closely concur with another alternative multidimensional concept that
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measures one‟s strong feeling of attachment to one‟s career (ldquocareer identityrdquo) one‟s
strength to withhold one‟s career against commotion (ldquocareer resiliencerdquo) and clear
understanding of one‟s career path (ldquocareer insightrdquo) (London 1983 Carson and Bedeian
1994)
Performance appraisal may be seen as a viable organizational tool that may be used to
motivate direct and develop subordinates According to Smith and Rupp (2004)
performance-based rewards and understanding work-effects linkage would successfully
engage knowledge workers Knowledge workers enjoy the most positive work
environment on all measures which include perceptions of appraisal effectiveness (HR
professional 2001) High intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
should result in extrinsic rewards such as higher salaries (Day and Allen 2004) or
advancement (Allen 2006) as well as intrinsic rewards such as self-satisfaction (Locke
and Latham 1990 Greenhaus and Parasuraman 1993) These rewards would enable
employees to direct their energies in directions appropriate to their careers With higher
levels of career commitment individuals may make significant investments in their careers
to pursue their high career goals regardless of the setbacks (Colarelli and Bishop 1990
Aryee et al 1994 Mohamad et al 2006 Connie et al 2009) They would also engage
themselves with organizational training and job enrichment programs to attain new or
higher skills and knowledge This career advancement path along with their morale and
optimism would thus negate their turnover intentions (Lobburi 2012 Abdullah et al
2012 Thwala et al 2012)
Conversely employees with low intensity of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness allege that instead being a means of measuring subordinates the appraisal
role is solely a powerful channel of managerial control (Edmonstone 1996 Weise et al
1998) The performance appraisal systems which tend not to incorporate employees
personal aspirations with their future development have been cited by several authors
(Freeman 2002 Wilson and Western 2000 Long 1986) Evidently there exist
conflicting values and goals between organizations and these professionals (Lee et al
2000) Due to the divergent needs of stakeholders the appraisal process itself is often a
source of unmet expectations (Murphy and Cleveland 1995) Usually what is articulated
by the management is not what is valued and rewarded Most often than not they feel that
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their contribution is not effectively appraised and recognized Considering perceptions of
the appraisal effectiveness may contradict employees‟ beliefs about their contributions we
would expect them not to persistently manage and pursue their career growth successfully
As a consequence employees would exhibit lower levels of career commitment (Anna
2008 Barbara 2012) and have no interest to prolong their tenure Since perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness is expected to have a positive impact on career
commitment that will negatively affect turnover intention we make the following
propositions
P2 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will tend to be
associated with lower levels of career commitment relative to those with high intensity of
perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
P3 As a consequence employee turnover intention level will be higher
PAPpa
Figure 1 Conceptual model depicting the indirect (through career commitment
components) associations of performance appraisal and turnover intention
PA Components
objectives
criteria
measurement
sources
feedback
frequency
Career
Commitment
Career
identity
Career
resilience
Career
insight
Turnover
Intention
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40 Concluding thoughts and proposals for future research
Generally there have been a tremendous number of written literatures on performance
appraisal career commitment and turnover intention This study in particular attempt to
fill the gap in the existing literatures on the direct impact of career commitment on the
relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and turnover intention
Our study takes into account the complete framework of performance appraisal system
rather than each one of its components while the focus on career commitment is split into
the strength of one‟s attachment resistant and developmentplanning towards his career or
profession There exists evidence suggesting that the intensity of perceived performance
appraisal effectiveness will somehow affect a knowledge worker general level of career
commitment through expected extrinsic and intrinsic organizational compensation
benefits and rewards Employees with high intensity of perceived performance appraisal
are therefore highly committed to their career and thus posit a low turnover intention
Thus Improving performance appraisal practices to enhance career commitment should be
an important objective for those responsible for reducing turnover intention Hence
organizations should pay more attention on how to effectively appraise and recognize their
knowledge worker contribution The conceptual model that is mapped out aspires to be
dynamic since it can be adapted across knowledge and non-knowledge-based industries
The model rest upon the employer-employee concerns expectations and perceptions in
today‟s contemporary organizational setting Indirectly the model also argues on the
challenges faced by any organizations for continuous and iterative human resource
practices on managing and retaining their knowledge workers Hence there should a fit on
the part of organizational values norms culture and beliefs towards these concerns
expectations and perceptions It is therefore crucial to recognize that businesses ultimate
success is dependent upon the attitudes and behaviors of these knowledge staff and they
are in need of strong supporting structures Although this study makes progress to increase
understanding of how perceived performance appraisal effectiveness affect directly and
interactively turnover intention future work should include moderation effects of
psychological contract and organization benefits in career-related research It is also
noteworthy to consider both organizational and career commitments concurrently for
future performance appraisal-turnover intention research The propositions set out above
will then be the starting point for developing empirical research work for further
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organizational understanding of the issues and planning of interventions It would be a
significant contribution to the field of human resource management literatures
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Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
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142-158
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10 Introduction
The significant increase of knowledge intensive firms has been conspicuous in the era of
knowledge economy Contemporary firms are now more people-focused (Robertson et al
2003) and based on intellectual work where knowledge workers represent the largest
proportion of the workforce (Alvesson 2000 Davenport 2002) especially in advance
nations (Drucker 1999 Helton 1988) Subsequently knowledge has become an eminent
resource (Drucker 1994) for a firm‟s competitive advantage and sustainable growth both
locally and internationally (Oltra 2005) This knowledge which is sourced primarily from
the mind of knowledge workers however is not easily available Knowledge in its tacit
form could only be captured generated and utilized through formal and social interactive
and communicative measures with these workers Knowledge workers have since become
the key essence of knowledge intensive organizations Not only these organizations
encounter challenges in focusing on efficient and effective strategies to search and recruit
these qualified workers but also to uphold their employment within the organizations
(Damir et al 2008) Knowledge workers are prominent workers that are renowned as the
most mobile workforce Organizational survival and success in the knowledge era is
profoundly dependent on this brain gain The above objective could be accomplished
through organizations‟ Human Resource Management (HRM) practices One of the efforts
is to appreciate a sturdy and efficacious performance appraisal system (Michie and
Sheehan 1999 Gratton et al 2000) A robust and comprehensive appraisal system would
be able to recognize what is of significance to these intellectual workers and their vocation
(Kimiz 2005)
Issues on performance appraisal and turnover intention have been conventional and well-
explored in the field of management for many decades Discussions on performance
appraisal systems alone have received consistently much attention from a considerable
number of authors particularly pertaining to the existing divergence between research and
practice (Maroney and Buckley 1992) Despite the profusion of these literatures none
seems to distinctively relate performance appraisal and turnover intention Indeed issues
on the history evolution and effect of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness on
turnover intention have been disregarded by the researchers (Huselid 1995 Mor Barak et
al 2001 Rees and Porter 2004 St-Onge et al 2009 Yoon and Lewis 2011 Alexander
2012 Choi et al 2012) In support to the above the effects of such human resource
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practice on employees‟ behavior (Harley 2002) are usually being ignored by firms due to
the unviable belief that there exists a flaw in human organizational behavior (Pollard
2003) Besides Huselid (1995) asserts that organizational performance appraisal-turnover
relationship is not to be presumed on individual level since an employee decision to stay or
leave an organization is dependent on his or her response towards such perceived
performance appraisal practice
In the present paper results of past researches are deliberated and synthesized to establish
a conceptual framework as well as to develop an array of propositions that link perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness of knowledge workers to their career commitment and
the probable effect of this perception on their turnover intention The framework takes into
account all performance appraisal system elements as past researches only focus on one or
few performance appraisal elements Notwithstanding current studies on turnover
intention are more inclined toward organizational commitment job-related and
demographic variables However they are not being used within the performance
appraisal framework Another new contribution to the framework is the inclusion of
career commitment as a mediator between knowledge workers perceived performance
appraisal effectiveness and turnover intention Since knowledge workers are more career-
oriented than organizational-oriented workers and also affected by an organizational
Human Resource practices it is believed that career commitment could be linked to
performance appraisal and turnover intention
20 Literature Review
21 Knowledge workers of the new millennium
There exists no specific definition for knowledge workers in theory and practice
Generally they are merely workers who are highly knowledgeable within their non-
transferable field of expertise Knowledge workers are associated with ldquoknowledge workrdquo
that largely warrants for their mental strength rather than their physical strength (Karreman
et al 2002) Their intellectual contribution in its intangible nature is difficult to monitor
until the physical output becomes visible Knowledge workers are capable of creating and
transforming knowledge as and when necessary to solve intangible ambiguous and
complex tasks in vigorous and unpredictable environments (Bryan and Joyce 2005) In
order to deliver complicated results knowledge that is applicable in making decisions and
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actions will be shared with others (Dove 1998 Davenport and Prusak 2000 Davenport et
al 2002 Scott 2005 Damir et al 2008) According to another field expert this shared
knowledge that are converted from intuition into explicit knowledge can further be turned
into new opportunities for firm‟s success and growth (Paul Yeung cited in Zalina 2005)
The broader perspectives of literatures conclude that knowledge workers refer to highly-
educated and -experienced workers Drucker (1994) portrays knowledge workers as highly
educated workers with formal education who develop new products or services
Conversely other researchers (Dove 1998 Nickols 2000) affirms less importance on
formal education as knowledge could be engendered from field experiences as well as
one‟s experiences through accessibility and usage of personal organizational and external
knowledge (Nickols 2000) Ultimately anyone who uses any form of recorded knowledge
to be a more productive worker could be considered a knowledge worker (Stuhlman
Daniel 2006 Creotec 2006) regardless whether he or she is a professional or non-
professional Nevertheless what kind of a knowledge worker an individual is depends on
the type of knowledge that he or she produces or possesses (Ritter 2003 cited in Zalina
2005) Generally they are all renowned experts within their own field through the
ownership of knowledge (Davenport 2005) and their use of mental power and scientific
methods of rationalizing knowledge enables the creation of firm‟s value They are also
acknowledged for their abilities to generate manipulate and orchestrate any information
for any analytical and application purposes (Bryan and Joyce 2005 Davenport 2005
Drucker 1999 Horwitz et al 2006)
Despite having the ability to choreograph signs and conceptions knowledge workers
experience more swift skill obsolescence These competencies are fundamental for
organizations in gaining competitive advantage over competitors and have become
increasingly imperative for their long-term success (Depres and Hiltrop 1995)
Knowledge workers are workers of immense intellectual curiosity who work most
productively and creatively to satisfy their curiosity Their other typical distinctive
personality traits include considerable resentment at bureaucracies and disapproval of
administration (Root-Bernstein 1989) Besides they are multitalented accommodating
and with sturdy analytical skills they are proficient in leveraging as well as building
knowledge to engender effective action They are also versatile with high tolerance for
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uncertainty (Moi Kok Wah 2008) Furthermore knowledge workers are highly
independent and mobile workers who favor autonomy use of examples and knowledge
sharing among organizational members Their core concern is organizational productivity
rather than the process itself (Horwitz et al 2003)
Knowledge workers prefer organizations that consistently nurture and strengthen their
competencies while having job-related and leadership structures that focus on promoting
empowerment and self-management Similarly a substantial number of Research and
Development (RampD) job designs offer autonomy and desirable leadership style The job
designs that are more associated with collegial relationships information-sharing
delegation of responsibilities and stimulating upward and horizontal communication would
fulfill knowledge worker needs for autonomy achievement and personal growth Apart
from possessing strong communication skills and high intellectual attributes knowledge
workers have a strong sense of identity are self-directed and proactive (Rosenbaum 1991
Knowledge Workers Forum 2006) Complemented with self-motivation and and self
discipline they are able to make judgments organize and manage their work with success
A worker with proactive approach persistently confronts the norms that would place a
higher value on work teams and organizations Self-driven and proactive qualities
encourage active participation and work practices sharing culture among team members
As a consequence the emergence of more effective collaborative and innovative teams
results in substantial dynamic and remarkable organizational improvements
Subsequently career development is pursued in a very distinct manner among knowledge
workers as compared to conventional workers They value their self-respect and self-
satisfaction derived from a job well done (Bandura 1991) and their motivation might
relate more to the intellectual stimulation of the job than its security Hence they are more
occupationally motivated rather than organizationally motivated Heavy reliance on
symbols of personal and professional excellence make the non-monetary rewards to
become critical factors in recognizing their achievement and innovation Due to the strong
association with occupational commitment high turnover is inevitable and rampant among
these workers (Despres and Hiltrop 1995) unless their organizational values and goals
match their professional values and goals (Lee et al 2000) Other key contributing factors
to knowledge worker nomadic behavior include better salaries (Abassi and Hollman
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2000) lifestyles and new environment (Julian and Anita 2000) While craving for latest
and best designs simulation tools and measurement equipments they do have access to
the latest information or knowledge within the field of their domain and persistent
determination in the experimentation of something new and challenging Closeness with
professional peers and networks disclose opportunities to pursue their lifelong learning
interest (Despres and Hilltrop 1995 Julian and Anita 2000 Zalina 2005) and make them
highly competitive in planning to resign and find alternative employment (Mitchell et al
2001) McGregor et al (2004) further discover that these knowledge workers are
significantly independent of their employers and typically do not expect to be employed
longer than what is stipulated in their employment contract
22 Performance appraisal elements and effectiveness
Performance appraisal has increasingly becoming common and serves as a vital human
resource practice in today‟s organizations The practice that was once concentrated on
control and maintenance based approach have somehow progressed towards an approach
that is more engaged with growth motivational and developmental concerns (Dutra 2001
cited in Ubeda and Santos 2007 Obisi 2011) The effectiveness of an appraisal system
depends on how well its purposes are understood accepted and strived to be achieved by
users A favorable performance appraisal would have positive effects on employee
attitudes behaviors and organizational efficiency (Gardner 2008 Salleh et al 2013) For
example higher employee performance and productivity attainment is derived through the
performance appraisal capability in reflecting measuring and evaluating an individual
employee‟s behavior (DeVries et al 1981 Sarita 2012) collaboration teamwork
knowledge reuse and knowledge sharing competencies and accomplishments (Kimiz
2005) over a specific period of time However these positive outcomes are a function of
the employees‟ perception on the overall performance appraisal effectiveness (Benson et
al 2010) Past studies by and large separately focused on the six performance appraisal
components as the source of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness variation
among these critical organizational stakeholders
221 Performance appraisal objectives
As surveys show the general objective of performance appraisal is primarily to improve
an organizational efficiency However this efficiency is expected to be achieved through
settings of a wider range of organizational objectives (McGregor 1957 Mamoria 1995
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Atiomo 2000 cited in Obisi 2011) that reflects the source of perceived performance
appraisal variation (Scholtes 1993) Due to confusion as to the true purpose of a system
that attempts to achieve too many objectives the system has the tendency to fail in
meeting any of its objectives (Reneker and Steel 1989) This appraisal system
imperfection eventually allows the continuity of an appraisal that relies solely upon human
information processing and judgment Likewise these vast conflicting objectives of an
appraisal system has received increasing attention in HR literatures for so many years
(Strebler et al 2001) despite an orthodox appraisal that is expected to motivate
employees through well-defined objectives with provision for training and development
needs (Bach 2005) Performance appraisals exist to merely assist an organization to make
decisions on an employee rather than to help himher make personal decisions on hisher
performance By and large what is typically communicated by the management is not
what is actually rewarded
Other harsh criticisms of impediments that are inherent in the appraisal process include
mismatching of individual and organizational goals individual goals or personal
aspirations with future development that are not linked to long-term organizational goals
or business strategies (Deming 1986 Wilson and Western 2000 Freeman 2002) and
disregard for institutional goals and objectives (Edwards and Calvin 1998) By having a
performance appraisal policy on paper is no guarantee that it will be followed accordingly
(St-Onge et al 2009) Thus many of performance appraisal defects are intractable (Rees
and Porter 2004 Latham et al 2005)
222 Performance criteria
A second source of perceived performance appraisal variation originates from
organizational performance appraisal criteria which are useful variables to measure
individual work place behavior In most organizations what gets measured and rewarded
is what employees do (Evans 2003 Greene 2002) Employees need to see performance
criteria that are explicitly links to key results in their department and organization (Evans
2003) upon which ratings to be obtained Emphasis should be rested more on the quality
of job performance because it acts in an anticipated manner (Lawler 1967 Greene 2002)
Other criteria should include the particular types of behavior that are contingent upon the
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important job functions According to an earlier researcher (Grant 1955) the sufficient
number of performance criteria to be considered is somewhere around three to five factors
However researchers explicate that the vital aspects of the work performed in each
functional area and focus on the strengths and weaknesses of the individual that are due to
the changing organizational environment and nature of jobs and roles (Wiese et al 1998)
are not ldquobuilt inrdquo to the practice of performance appraisal (Ebrahim et al 2006) For
example in the era of knowledge economy demands of knowledge production frequently
place a premium on teamwork and flexibility (Wilson et al 1994) Fairness perceptions
are intensified when employees are held to performance standards that entail greater
commitment and ownership of knowledge sharing activities (Rousseau and Shperling
2003) Unfortunately the greatest emphasis of performance appraisals in organizations is
on individual responsibility for performance and least on team-based compensation system
(Ebrahim et al 2004 Zobal 1998 Abosch and Reidy 1996) Attitudes and not just
behaviors that are pivotal for ongoing knowledge creation and dissemination also need to
be an integral part of performance appraisal criteria (Liebowitz and Beckman 1998)
Attitudes that align with principles of teamwork collaboration and stakeholder
involvement should be appraised and rewarded
223 Performance measurementstandard
An effective performance appraisal exhibits the performance standard that is agreeable
between the rater and ratee (Bobko and Collela 1994) and rating scales are able to
provide descriptive and concrete definitions of the rating constructs rather than being
expressed in absolute terms (Ghorphade et al 1995 Martey 2002) Lucid precise
performance standards rather than vague or no standards will improve the overall
accuracy and effectiveness of an appraisal process (Kane and Russell 1998) Any effective
measuring instrument needs to provide relevant and sufficient measurement criteria to
accurately describe significant behaviors required for successful job performance
(Henderson 1980) These measures must be amenable to scaling and be able to be
weighted Measuring knowledge workers productivity (Bosch-Sijtsema et al 2009) is
difficult due to the complex and dynamic nature of knowledge work (Laihonen et al
2012) It all depends on the nature of jobs that vary from routine to nonroutine (Pepitone
2002 Laihonen et al 2012 Scott 2005) their organizational and contextual factors such
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as culture strategy leadership fellow workers support compensation structures and
physical surrounding (Chan 2007) and the quality of human resources that reflects skills
and competencies (Davenport 2005) Results-based measures are deficient in tapping
aspect of performance as cooperation (Ghorphade et al 1995) and less helpful for
employee development (Cardy and Dobbins 1994 Fisher et al 1996)
The ineffectiveness of performance appraisal (Becker et al 2001) in appraising workers
contributions to departmental goals (Ebrahim et al 2004) are due to irrelevant ambiguous
and undefined measuring dimensions (Green 1999 Martey 2002) and lack of a
performance appraisal system that effectively integrates all the key performance indicators
in support of the organization‟s aims and objectives Additionally many appraisal systems
are much too subjective (St-Onge et al 2009 Benson et al 2010) There has been little
progress in improving the performance rating distortion (Ilgen et al 1993 Cleveland and
Murphy 1995) Organizations intentionally allow their appraisal systems to function
ineffectively perhaps indefinitely to avoid an open conflict because of its capability in
stirring strong feelings and conflict in the organization (Rendero 1980) Often the goal of
the rater is not to evaluate the performance of the employee but to keep the employee
satisfied and not to deleteriously influence employee morale The manager also has to be
concerned about hisher own image Employees receive negative ratings reflects poorly on
the manager (Kumari 2012) It is unlikely that any managerial problem has so
successfully resisted solution than arriving at an acceptable useful and valid method of
appraising performance Organizations attempt to train the rater to improve observational
skills (Edwards and Calvin 1998 Kumari 2012) though the training efforts are usually
disappointing as their effects on appraisal accuracy dissipate over time (Latham 1988
Cleveland and Murphy 1992)
224 Sources of appraisal
Source of appraisal have consistently rely on subordinate-superior unilateral flow of
information since the immediate superior may have sufficient stance to pass judgments on
the subordinate‟s performance (Long 1986 Storey 1987 Ebrahim 2005) This trend in
today‟s matrix and flatter organizational structures has somehow moved towards multiple
sources (Fletcher and Baldry 2000 Costigan et al 2005) that may come from supervisor
subordinates peers self customers suppliers or other related sources (Byrne 1993
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McCarthy and Garavan 2001 Ebrahim et al 2003) Multi-source or 360-degree feedback
(Henderson 1980 Ebrahim 2005) along with self-appraisal is suggested for perceived
unfair appraisal practice or to correct errors from individually-based superiors‟ ratings
(Deming 1986) and teamwork assignment (Waldman 1997 Barnes 1997) Most recent
studies claim this method brings about maximum employee motivation as well as
providing the supervisor with a clear comprehensive and precise account on employees
contribution to the organization objectives (Amsler et al 2001) Likewise ratings by
unfamiliar raters are discouraged so as avoid the ldquohalo effectrdquo ((Drenth 1984)
An effective performance appraisal is believed to be the ones with informal and formal
feedback from a variety of sources However the number of appraisal sources used
depends on organizational cost-benefit appraisal analysis Managers who do not use ldquoself-
appraisalrdquo cite it as not rigorous and accurate due to employees poor objectivity and
reliability on providing information on own ability desire for self-enhancement (DeNisi
and Shaw 1977 Levine et al 1977 Ebrahim 2005) as well as appraising themselves
positively (Mohrman et al 1989) Besides they do not trust employees On the contrary
ldquoself-appraisalrdquo essential contribution towards individual developmental needs is
indisputable in numerous cases (Parry and Sinha 2005 Van Der Heijden and Nijhof
2004)
225 Performance appraisal feedback
Cleveland et al (1989) signifies that performance appraisal specifically provides quality
feedback on strengths and weaknesses in determining training needs transfers assignment
and potential for growth These could be achieved through improved communication on
three key areas pertaining to what and how observations on performance are made why
and how they are discussed and what determines the level of performance in the job
(Edmonstone 1996) Individuals want and seek timely useful and accepted feedback on
their performance that can help individual make great progress toward optimal
performance (Coens and Jenkins 2001) Regardless of the rating given the superior and
his subordinate through an open effective communication should make an effort to identify
areas where improvement can be made for effective performance (Ritter and Nunnally
2002) This informal relationship should be made common activity or as frequent as
possible so as to have a performance appraisal system that reaches valid conclusions
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In an extensive review of the literature on the application of feedback in organizations
Earley et al (1990) distinguished two types of feedback outcome feedback and process
feedback The former concentrates on providing information on specific performance
outcomes and the latter provides information on the manner in which an individual
implements a work strategy The researchers found that process feedback interacted with
goal-setting more strongly than outcome feedback in determining the quality of task
strategies developed by workers their efforts to obtain information beneficial to improving
their performance appraisal satisfaction and perceived appraisal accuracy (Lam and
Schaubroeck 1999) Despite the benefits offered by the performance appraisal feedback
there emerge another major and growing concern expressed by employees on unqualified
manager and their failures to provide complete appropriate or constructive feedback about
employee‟s job performance and improvement areas (Rao 1984 cited in Obisi 2011
Kavanagh 1997) They were not even aware of the feedback objectives and had not been
provided with guidelines and instructions on how to complete the forms (Martey 2002)
While the ideas of providing training to them are theoretically sound the evidence that the
organizations concerned are taking major corrective action to eliminate these concerns is
rather weak Practically the amount of time for this exercise is too demanding
226 Frequency of performance appraisal
A large proportion of organizations conduct appraisal on a yearly basis (Freemantle 1994
Ebrahim 2003) though most employees believe that objectives could not be realized by an
annual performance appraisal Besides both employees and supervisors might not be able
to remember what happened throughout the year due to their selective memory As studied
by Boice and Kleiner (1997) evidence strongly suggests that performance reviews should
be performed on a frequent and ongoing basis to avoid surprises at an annual review
Moreover a study by Geetha (2013) further alleges that employees are unhappy when
there is no periodical or routine feedback from their superiors Besides frequent
performance appraisal has become a common activity in exceptional organizations (Quinn
et al 1996a)
Other appraisals vary from annually with interim reviews to annually with
monthlyquarterly reviews and annually with six to eight weekly reviews Nonetheless
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Fisher (1994) explains that the frequency of performance appraisal is an arduous
dimension to argue due to the ambiguity of the distinction between an appraisal meeting
and a regular daily discussion about work between a superior and a subordinate In
general the problem of frequency has always been one of the major limitations of any
formal approach to performance appraisal Too long an interval between each appraisal
might results in its contents lose relevance and risk artificiality whereas too short an
interval might results in the process to become too time-consuming (Freemantle 1994)
Evidently the actual time period varies in different organizations and with different aims
(Boice and Kleiner 1997) However a typical frequency would be bi-monthly or
quarterly
30 Hypotheses development performance appraisal career commitment and
turnover intention
31 Perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and intention to quit
Intention to withdraw or quit an organization simply refers to an employee‟s perceived
probability of staying or leaving an employing organization Turnover intention has been
recurrently prescribed in literatures as the most immediate predictor to eventual turnover
(Allen et al 2003 Lum et al 1998) The focus of this attitudinal element of turnover
intention makes sense since it highlights the various elements of behavior and the
motivation to leave that covers many inevitable reasons for actual turnover Turnover is
costly (Mitchell et al 2001 Adhinarayanan amp Gurunathan 2011 Cascio amp Bordreau
2011) and maybe difficult to quantify when irreplaceable knowledge assets or institutional
memory are lost These costs do not stop here Each time an employee leaves the firm
productivity is presumed to drop due to the learning curve involved in understanding the
job and the organization In addition research proves that after losing key employees
organizations experienced damage reputation customer relationship had lost best
practices information and lost significant income (Warren 1999) Ultimately in most
cases the involvement of superiors included positions all the way up to and including the
Chief Executive Officer (CEO) becomes inevitable This demonstrates that turnover issues
impact the firm by utilizing the precious time of senior managers This is in addition to
other expenses including loss of training and retraining time loss of human and relational
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capital Ultimately organizational success is not viable through personnel replacement
activities (Smith and Rupp 2004)
Turnover intention has brought about the importance of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness The relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and
turnover intention has since become the most renowned issue in the field of management
research One of the common objectives of performance appraisal is to retain the topmost
performing employees through quality performance appraisal that leads to fair
compensation amounts high motivation and better career prospects (Zimmerman 2009
Abdullah et al 2011) Hence the intensity of performance appraisal effectiveness
perception is fundamental in encouraging an employee to stay within one‟s employment
(Griffeth et al 2000 Smith and Rupp 2002 Benson et al 2010) An employee with a
low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness could oppose the best
interest of an employee The employee will feel that his or her contributions are not
effectively appraised or recognized and thus will posit a negative organizational attitude
In view of being underrated the employee willingness to be in employment will weaken
Hence the following proposition is established
P1 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will be associated with
higher levels of turnover intention relative to those with high intensity of perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness
32 Performance appraisal career commitment and intention to quit
Career commitment concept that was first introduced by Blau (1985) simply refers to
one‟s inspiration to stay in one‟s chosen career (Blau 1985 1989) It focuses on a uni-
dimensional measure which involves one‟s identification and involvement in one‟s
occupation or career along with one‟s effort in the pursuit of supporting one‟s career goals
(Blau 1985 Colarelli and Bishop 1990 Goulet and Singh 2002) The conceptualization
of career commitment was later extended into a multidimensional measure of accumulated
investments and cost of pursuing another new career (ldquocontinuancerdquo) attachment to a
career (ldquoaffectiverdquo) and feelings of obligation to remain in one career (ldquonormativerdquo)
commitment (Meyer et al 1993 2006 Meyer and Herscovitch 2001) Subsequently
these measures closely concur with another alternative multidimensional concept that
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measures one‟s strong feeling of attachment to one‟s career (ldquocareer identityrdquo) one‟s
strength to withhold one‟s career against commotion (ldquocareer resiliencerdquo) and clear
understanding of one‟s career path (ldquocareer insightrdquo) (London 1983 Carson and Bedeian
1994)
Performance appraisal may be seen as a viable organizational tool that may be used to
motivate direct and develop subordinates According to Smith and Rupp (2004)
performance-based rewards and understanding work-effects linkage would successfully
engage knowledge workers Knowledge workers enjoy the most positive work
environment on all measures which include perceptions of appraisal effectiveness (HR
professional 2001) High intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
should result in extrinsic rewards such as higher salaries (Day and Allen 2004) or
advancement (Allen 2006) as well as intrinsic rewards such as self-satisfaction (Locke
and Latham 1990 Greenhaus and Parasuraman 1993) These rewards would enable
employees to direct their energies in directions appropriate to their careers With higher
levels of career commitment individuals may make significant investments in their careers
to pursue their high career goals regardless of the setbacks (Colarelli and Bishop 1990
Aryee et al 1994 Mohamad et al 2006 Connie et al 2009) They would also engage
themselves with organizational training and job enrichment programs to attain new or
higher skills and knowledge This career advancement path along with their morale and
optimism would thus negate their turnover intentions (Lobburi 2012 Abdullah et al
2012 Thwala et al 2012)
Conversely employees with low intensity of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness allege that instead being a means of measuring subordinates the appraisal
role is solely a powerful channel of managerial control (Edmonstone 1996 Weise et al
1998) The performance appraisal systems which tend not to incorporate employees
personal aspirations with their future development have been cited by several authors
(Freeman 2002 Wilson and Western 2000 Long 1986) Evidently there exist
conflicting values and goals between organizations and these professionals (Lee et al
2000) Due to the divergent needs of stakeholders the appraisal process itself is often a
source of unmet expectations (Murphy and Cleveland 1995) Usually what is articulated
by the management is not what is valued and rewarded Most often than not they feel that
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their contribution is not effectively appraised and recognized Considering perceptions of
the appraisal effectiveness may contradict employees‟ beliefs about their contributions we
would expect them not to persistently manage and pursue their career growth successfully
As a consequence employees would exhibit lower levels of career commitment (Anna
2008 Barbara 2012) and have no interest to prolong their tenure Since perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness is expected to have a positive impact on career
commitment that will negatively affect turnover intention we make the following
propositions
P2 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will tend to be
associated with lower levels of career commitment relative to those with high intensity of
perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
P3 As a consequence employee turnover intention level will be higher
PAPpa
Figure 1 Conceptual model depicting the indirect (through career commitment
components) associations of performance appraisal and turnover intention
PA Components
objectives
criteria
measurement
sources
feedback
frequency
Career
Commitment
Career
identity
Career
resilience
Career
insight
Turnover
Intention
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40 Concluding thoughts and proposals for future research
Generally there have been a tremendous number of written literatures on performance
appraisal career commitment and turnover intention This study in particular attempt to
fill the gap in the existing literatures on the direct impact of career commitment on the
relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and turnover intention
Our study takes into account the complete framework of performance appraisal system
rather than each one of its components while the focus on career commitment is split into
the strength of one‟s attachment resistant and developmentplanning towards his career or
profession There exists evidence suggesting that the intensity of perceived performance
appraisal effectiveness will somehow affect a knowledge worker general level of career
commitment through expected extrinsic and intrinsic organizational compensation
benefits and rewards Employees with high intensity of perceived performance appraisal
are therefore highly committed to their career and thus posit a low turnover intention
Thus Improving performance appraisal practices to enhance career commitment should be
an important objective for those responsible for reducing turnover intention Hence
organizations should pay more attention on how to effectively appraise and recognize their
knowledge worker contribution The conceptual model that is mapped out aspires to be
dynamic since it can be adapted across knowledge and non-knowledge-based industries
The model rest upon the employer-employee concerns expectations and perceptions in
today‟s contemporary organizational setting Indirectly the model also argues on the
challenges faced by any organizations for continuous and iterative human resource
practices on managing and retaining their knowledge workers Hence there should a fit on
the part of organizational values norms culture and beliefs towards these concerns
expectations and perceptions It is therefore crucial to recognize that businesses ultimate
success is dependent upon the attitudes and behaviors of these knowledge staff and they
are in need of strong supporting structures Although this study makes progress to increase
understanding of how perceived performance appraisal effectiveness affect directly and
interactively turnover intention future work should include moderation effects of
psychological contract and organization benefits in career-related research It is also
noteworthy to consider both organizational and career commitments concurrently for
future performance appraisal-turnover intention research The propositions set out above
will then be the starting point for developing empirical research work for further
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organizational understanding of the issues and planning of interventions It would be a
significant contribution to the field of human resource management literatures
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Connie Z amp David L (2010) Organizational determinants of employee turnover for
multinational companies in Asia Asia Pacific Journal Management 27 423-443
Costigan R D Insinga R C Kranas G Ilter S S Kureshov V A amp Berman J J
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Management Update 7 (11) 3-5
Davenport T amp Prusak L (2000) Working Knowledge How Organizations Manage
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Denisi A S amp Shaw J B (1977) Investigation of the uses of self-reports of abilities
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Butterworth-Heinemann
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NOVEMBER 2013
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Geetha H (2013) Performance appraisal with reference to textile sector in Coimbatore
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Ilgen D R Barnes-Farrell J L amp McKellin D B (1993) Performance appraisal
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Julian M amp Anita D (2000) Knowledge Workers and why your e-business needs them
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Kane J S amp Russell J E A (1998) Performance appraisal and management In
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VOL 5 NO 7
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Lawler E E (1967) The mulititrait-multirater approach to measuring managerial job
performance Journal of Applied Psychology 51 369-81
Lee S Y Banker R D Potter G amp Srinivasan D (2000) An empirical analysis of
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Liebowitz J amp Beckman T J (1990) Knowledge Organizations What Every Manager
Should Know Florida Taylor and Francis
Lobburi P (2012) The Influence of Organizational and Social Support on Turnover
Intention in Collectivist Contexts Journal of Applied Business Research 28 (1) 93-104
Locke E A amp Latham G P (1990) A Theory of Goal Setting amp Task Performance
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London M (1983) Toward a theory of career motivation The Academy of Management
Review 8 (4) 620-630
Long P (1986) Performance Appraisal Revised London Institute of Personnel
Management
Lum L Kervin J Clark K Reid F amp Sirola W (1998) Explaining nursing turnover
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Organizational Behaviour 19 (3) 305-320
Mamoria C B (1995) Personnel Management New Delhi Himalaya Publishing House
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Martey A K (2002) Research paper Library Management 23 (89) 403-416
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NOVEMBER 2013
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supervisors in developing countries Journal of European Industrial Training 25 (1) 5-32
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22-28
McGregor J Tweed D amp Pech R (2004) Human capital in the new economy devils
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Meyer J P Becker T amp Van Dick R (2006) Social Identities and Commitments at
Work Toward an Integrative Model Journal of Organizational Behavior 27 665-683
Meyer J P amp Herscovitch L (2001) Commitment in workplace toward a general
model Human Resource Management Review 11 299-326
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investment evidence from the UK‟s 1990 Workplace Industrial Relations Survey (WIRS)
Industrial amp Corporate Change 8 (2) 211-234
Mitchell T R Holtom B C Lee T W amp Graske T (2001) How to keep your best
employee developing an effective retention policy The Academy of Management
Executive 15 (4) 96-109
Mohamad A H amp Aizzat M N (2006) Predicting turnover intention of hotel
employees The influence of employee development human resource management
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33- 45
Mohrman A Resnick-West S amp Lawler E (1989) Designing Performance Appraisal
Systems Aligning Appraisals and Organizational Realities San Francisco CA Jossey-
Bass
Moi Kok Wah (2008) Transforming for the Knowledge-based Economy Through the
Practice of Knowledge Management Certified Global Facilitator and Consultant JT
Frank Academy [Online] Available
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Mor Barak M E Cherin D A amp Berkman S (1998) Organizational and personal
dimensions in diversity climate Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 34 (1) 82-104
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Murphy K R amp Cleveland J N (1995) Understanding Performance Appraisal Social
Organizational and Goal-Based Perspectives Thousand Oaks CA Sage
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shift to knowledge work Butterworth-Heinemann Yearbook of Knowledge Management
(pp 1-7) [Online] Available httphomeattnetsimnickolsshiftshtm (November 4 2010)
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92-97
Oltra V (2005) Knowledge management effective factors the role of HRM Journal of
Knowledge Management 9 (4) 70-86
Parry K W amp amp Sinha P N (2005) Researching the trainability of transformational
organizational leadership Human Resource Development International 8 165-83
Pepitone J S (2002) A case for humaneering IIE Solutions 34 (5) 39-44
Pollard D (2003) The future of knowledge management Discussion paper [Online]
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httpblogssaloncom0002007imagesTheFutureofKnowledgeManagementdo
(November 4 2010)
Quinn J B Anderson P amp Finkelstein S (1996a January) Managing professional
intellect making the most of the best Harvard Business Review 74 (2) 71-80
Rendero T (1980) Performance Appraisal Practices Personnel 57 (6) 4-12
Rees W D amp Porter C (2004) Appraisal pitfalls and the training implicationsndashPart 2
Industrial and Commercial Training 36 (1) 29-34
Reneker M amp Steel V (1989) Performance Appraisal Purpose and Techniques In
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York Neal-Schuman Publishers Inc
Ritter B amp Nunnally K (2002) Formalise the feedback employee performance
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Root-Bernstein R (1989) Strategies of research (part 2) Research-Technology
Management 32 (3) 36-41
Rosenbaum B (1991) Leading todayprimes professional Research-Technology Management
34 (2) 30-35
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Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
Salleh M Amin A Muda S amp Abdul Halim M A S (2013) Fairness of Performance
Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
Sarita K (2012) A study on performance appraisal errors of telecom managers in Navi
Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
Scholtes P R (1993) Total quality or performance appraisal choose one National
Productivity Review 12 (2) 349-63
Scott P B (2005) Knowledge management Semantics Work identity Communications
Corporate Communications An International Journal 10 (3) 257-277
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2004) Knowledge workers perceptions of performance
ratings Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (3) 146 ndash 166
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
workers a resource of the firm theory view Journal of Knowledge Management 6 (3)
250ndash261
St-Onge S Morin D Bellehumeur M amp Dupuis F (2009) Managers motivation to
evaluate subordinate performance Qualitative Research in Organizations and
Management An International Journal 4 (3) 273-293
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Interim Report IRRU School of Industrial and Business Studies University of Warwick
Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No17
Strebler M T Robinson D amp Bevan S (2001) Performance review balancing
objective and content The Institute of Employment Studies Brighton Report No 370
Stuhlman D (2006) Helping you turn data into knowledge knowledge Management
Terms [Online] Available httpwwwhomeearthlinknet~ddstuhlmandefin1htm
(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
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Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
Zimmerman K (2009) The impact of job performance on employee turnover and the
voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
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practice on employees‟ behavior (Harley 2002) are usually being ignored by firms due to
the unviable belief that there exists a flaw in human organizational behavior (Pollard
2003) Besides Huselid (1995) asserts that organizational performance appraisal-turnover
relationship is not to be presumed on individual level since an employee decision to stay or
leave an organization is dependent on his or her response towards such perceived
performance appraisal practice
In the present paper results of past researches are deliberated and synthesized to establish
a conceptual framework as well as to develop an array of propositions that link perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness of knowledge workers to their career commitment and
the probable effect of this perception on their turnover intention The framework takes into
account all performance appraisal system elements as past researches only focus on one or
few performance appraisal elements Notwithstanding current studies on turnover
intention are more inclined toward organizational commitment job-related and
demographic variables However they are not being used within the performance
appraisal framework Another new contribution to the framework is the inclusion of
career commitment as a mediator between knowledge workers perceived performance
appraisal effectiveness and turnover intention Since knowledge workers are more career-
oriented than organizational-oriented workers and also affected by an organizational
Human Resource practices it is believed that career commitment could be linked to
performance appraisal and turnover intention
20 Literature Review
21 Knowledge workers of the new millennium
There exists no specific definition for knowledge workers in theory and practice
Generally they are merely workers who are highly knowledgeable within their non-
transferable field of expertise Knowledge workers are associated with ldquoknowledge workrdquo
that largely warrants for their mental strength rather than their physical strength (Karreman
et al 2002) Their intellectual contribution in its intangible nature is difficult to monitor
until the physical output becomes visible Knowledge workers are capable of creating and
transforming knowledge as and when necessary to solve intangible ambiguous and
complex tasks in vigorous and unpredictable environments (Bryan and Joyce 2005) In
order to deliver complicated results knowledge that is applicable in making decisions and
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actions will be shared with others (Dove 1998 Davenport and Prusak 2000 Davenport et
al 2002 Scott 2005 Damir et al 2008) According to another field expert this shared
knowledge that are converted from intuition into explicit knowledge can further be turned
into new opportunities for firm‟s success and growth (Paul Yeung cited in Zalina 2005)
The broader perspectives of literatures conclude that knowledge workers refer to highly-
educated and -experienced workers Drucker (1994) portrays knowledge workers as highly
educated workers with formal education who develop new products or services
Conversely other researchers (Dove 1998 Nickols 2000) affirms less importance on
formal education as knowledge could be engendered from field experiences as well as
one‟s experiences through accessibility and usage of personal organizational and external
knowledge (Nickols 2000) Ultimately anyone who uses any form of recorded knowledge
to be a more productive worker could be considered a knowledge worker (Stuhlman
Daniel 2006 Creotec 2006) regardless whether he or she is a professional or non-
professional Nevertheless what kind of a knowledge worker an individual is depends on
the type of knowledge that he or she produces or possesses (Ritter 2003 cited in Zalina
2005) Generally they are all renowned experts within their own field through the
ownership of knowledge (Davenport 2005) and their use of mental power and scientific
methods of rationalizing knowledge enables the creation of firm‟s value They are also
acknowledged for their abilities to generate manipulate and orchestrate any information
for any analytical and application purposes (Bryan and Joyce 2005 Davenport 2005
Drucker 1999 Horwitz et al 2006)
Despite having the ability to choreograph signs and conceptions knowledge workers
experience more swift skill obsolescence These competencies are fundamental for
organizations in gaining competitive advantage over competitors and have become
increasingly imperative for their long-term success (Depres and Hiltrop 1995)
Knowledge workers are workers of immense intellectual curiosity who work most
productively and creatively to satisfy their curiosity Their other typical distinctive
personality traits include considerable resentment at bureaucracies and disapproval of
administration (Root-Bernstein 1989) Besides they are multitalented accommodating
and with sturdy analytical skills they are proficient in leveraging as well as building
knowledge to engender effective action They are also versatile with high tolerance for
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uncertainty (Moi Kok Wah 2008) Furthermore knowledge workers are highly
independent and mobile workers who favor autonomy use of examples and knowledge
sharing among organizational members Their core concern is organizational productivity
rather than the process itself (Horwitz et al 2003)
Knowledge workers prefer organizations that consistently nurture and strengthen their
competencies while having job-related and leadership structures that focus on promoting
empowerment and self-management Similarly a substantial number of Research and
Development (RampD) job designs offer autonomy and desirable leadership style The job
designs that are more associated with collegial relationships information-sharing
delegation of responsibilities and stimulating upward and horizontal communication would
fulfill knowledge worker needs for autonomy achievement and personal growth Apart
from possessing strong communication skills and high intellectual attributes knowledge
workers have a strong sense of identity are self-directed and proactive (Rosenbaum 1991
Knowledge Workers Forum 2006) Complemented with self-motivation and and self
discipline they are able to make judgments organize and manage their work with success
A worker with proactive approach persistently confronts the norms that would place a
higher value on work teams and organizations Self-driven and proactive qualities
encourage active participation and work practices sharing culture among team members
As a consequence the emergence of more effective collaborative and innovative teams
results in substantial dynamic and remarkable organizational improvements
Subsequently career development is pursued in a very distinct manner among knowledge
workers as compared to conventional workers They value their self-respect and self-
satisfaction derived from a job well done (Bandura 1991) and their motivation might
relate more to the intellectual stimulation of the job than its security Hence they are more
occupationally motivated rather than organizationally motivated Heavy reliance on
symbols of personal and professional excellence make the non-monetary rewards to
become critical factors in recognizing their achievement and innovation Due to the strong
association with occupational commitment high turnover is inevitable and rampant among
these workers (Despres and Hiltrop 1995) unless their organizational values and goals
match their professional values and goals (Lee et al 2000) Other key contributing factors
to knowledge worker nomadic behavior include better salaries (Abassi and Hollman
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2000) lifestyles and new environment (Julian and Anita 2000) While craving for latest
and best designs simulation tools and measurement equipments they do have access to
the latest information or knowledge within the field of their domain and persistent
determination in the experimentation of something new and challenging Closeness with
professional peers and networks disclose opportunities to pursue their lifelong learning
interest (Despres and Hilltrop 1995 Julian and Anita 2000 Zalina 2005) and make them
highly competitive in planning to resign and find alternative employment (Mitchell et al
2001) McGregor et al (2004) further discover that these knowledge workers are
significantly independent of their employers and typically do not expect to be employed
longer than what is stipulated in their employment contract
22 Performance appraisal elements and effectiveness
Performance appraisal has increasingly becoming common and serves as a vital human
resource practice in today‟s organizations The practice that was once concentrated on
control and maintenance based approach have somehow progressed towards an approach
that is more engaged with growth motivational and developmental concerns (Dutra 2001
cited in Ubeda and Santos 2007 Obisi 2011) The effectiveness of an appraisal system
depends on how well its purposes are understood accepted and strived to be achieved by
users A favorable performance appraisal would have positive effects on employee
attitudes behaviors and organizational efficiency (Gardner 2008 Salleh et al 2013) For
example higher employee performance and productivity attainment is derived through the
performance appraisal capability in reflecting measuring and evaluating an individual
employee‟s behavior (DeVries et al 1981 Sarita 2012) collaboration teamwork
knowledge reuse and knowledge sharing competencies and accomplishments (Kimiz
2005) over a specific period of time However these positive outcomes are a function of
the employees‟ perception on the overall performance appraisal effectiveness (Benson et
al 2010) Past studies by and large separately focused on the six performance appraisal
components as the source of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness variation
among these critical organizational stakeholders
221 Performance appraisal objectives
As surveys show the general objective of performance appraisal is primarily to improve
an organizational efficiency However this efficiency is expected to be achieved through
settings of a wider range of organizational objectives (McGregor 1957 Mamoria 1995
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Atiomo 2000 cited in Obisi 2011) that reflects the source of perceived performance
appraisal variation (Scholtes 1993) Due to confusion as to the true purpose of a system
that attempts to achieve too many objectives the system has the tendency to fail in
meeting any of its objectives (Reneker and Steel 1989) This appraisal system
imperfection eventually allows the continuity of an appraisal that relies solely upon human
information processing and judgment Likewise these vast conflicting objectives of an
appraisal system has received increasing attention in HR literatures for so many years
(Strebler et al 2001) despite an orthodox appraisal that is expected to motivate
employees through well-defined objectives with provision for training and development
needs (Bach 2005) Performance appraisals exist to merely assist an organization to make
decisions on an employee rather than to help himher make personal decisions on hisher
performance By and large what is typically communicated by the management is not
what is actually rewarded
Other harsh criticisms of impediments that are inherent in the appraisal process include
mismatching of individual and organizational goals individual goals or personal
aspirations with future development that are not linked to long-term organizational goals
or business strategies (Deming 1986 Wilson and Western 2000 Freeman 2002) and
disregard for institutional goals and objectives (Edwards and Calvin 1998) By having a
performance appraisal policy on paper is no guarantee that it will be followed accordingly
(St-Onge et al 2009) Thus many of performance appraisal defects are intractable (Rees
and Porter 2004 Latham et al 2005)
222 Performance criteria
A second source of perceived performance appraisal variation originates from
organizational performance appraisal criteria which are useful variables to measure
individual work place behavior In most organizations what gets measured and rewarded
is what employees do (Evans 2003 Greene 2002) Employees need to see performance
criteria that are explicitly links to key results in their department and organization (Evans
2003) upon which ratings to be obtained Emphasis should be rested more on the quality
of job performance because it acts in an anticipated manner (Lawler 1967 Greene 2002)
Other criteria should include the particular types of behavior that are contingent upon the
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important job functions According to an earlier researcher (Grant 1955) the sufficient
number of performance criteria to be considered is somewhere around three to five factors
However researchers explicate that the vital aspects of the work performed in each
functional area and focus on the strengths and weaknesses of the individual that are due to
the changing organizational environment and nature of jobs and roles (Wiese et al 1998)
are not ldquobuilt inrdquo to the practice of performance appraisal (Ebrahim et al 2006) For
example in the era of knowledge economy demands of knowledge production frequently
place a premium on teamwork and flexibility (Wilson et al 1994) Fairness perceptions
are intensified when employees are held to performance standards that entail greater
commitment and ownership of knowledge sharing activities (Rousseau and Shperling
2003) Unfortunately the greatest emphasis of performance appraisals in organizations is
on individual responsibility for performance and least on team-based compensation system
(Ebrahim et al 2004 Zobal 1998 Abosch and Reidy 1996) Attitudes and not just
behaviors that are pivotal for ongoing knowledge creation and dissemination also need to
be an integral part of performance appraisal criteria (Liebowitz and Beckman 1998)
Attitudes that align with principles of teamwork collaboration and stakeholder
involvement should be appraised and rewarded
223 Performance measurementstandard
An effective performance appraisal exhibits the performance standard that is agreeable
between the rater and ratee (Bobko and Collela 1994) and rating scales are able to
provide descriptive and concrete definitions of the rating constructs rather than being
expressed in absolute terms (Ghorphade et al 1995 Martey 2002) Lucid precise
performance standards rather than vague or no standards will improve the overall
accuracy and effectiveness of an appraisal process (Kane and Russell 1998) Any effective
measuring instrument needs to provide relevant and sufficient measurement criteria to
accurately describe significant behaviors required for successful job performance
(Henderson 1980) These measures must be amenable to scaling and be able to be
weighted Measuring knowledge workers productivity (Bosch-Sijtsema et al 2009) is
difficult due to the complex and dynamic nature of knowledge work (Laihonen et al
2012) It all depends on the nature of jobs that vary from routine to nonroutine (Pepitone
2002 Laihonen et al 2012 Scott 2005) their organizational and contextual factors such
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as culture strategy leadership fellow workers support compensation structures and
physical surrounding (Chan 2007) and the quality of human resources that reflects skills
and competencies (Davenport 2005) Results-based measures are deficient in tapping
aspect of performance as cooperation (Ghorphade et al 1995) and less helpful for
employee development (Cardy and Dobbins 1994 Fisher et al 1996)
The ineffectiveness of performance appraisal (Becker et al 2001) in appraising workers
contributions to departmental goals (Ebrahim et al 2004) are due to irrelevant ambiguous
and undefined measuring dimensions (Green 1999 Martey 2002) and lack of a
performance appraisal system that effectively integrates all the key performance indicators
in support of the organization‟s aims and objectives Additionally many appraisal systems
are much too subjective (St-Onge et al 2009 Benson et al 2010) There has been little
progress in improving the performance rating distortion (Ilgen et al 1993 Cleveland and
Murphy 1995) Organizations intentionally allow their appraisal systems to function
ineffectively perhaps indefinitely to avoid an open conflict because of its capability in
stirring strong feelings and conflict in the organization (Rendero 1980) Often the goal of
the rater is not to evaluate the performance of the employee but to keep the employee
satisfied and not to deleteriously influence employee morale The manager also has to be
concerned about hisher own image Employees receive negative ratings reflects poorly on
the manager (Kumari 2012) It is unlikely that any managerial problem has so
successfully resisted solution than arriving at an acceptable useful and valid method of
appraising performance Organizations attempt to train the rater to improve observational
skills (Edwards and Calvin 1998 Kumari 2012) though the training efforts are usually
disappointing as their effects on appraisal accuracy dissipate over time (Latham 1988
Cleveland and Murphy 1992)
224 Sources of appraisal
Source of appraisal have consistently rely on subordinate-superior unilateral flow of
information since the immediate superior may have sufficient stance to pass judgments on
the subordinate‟s performance (Long 1986 Storey 1987 Ebrahim 2005) This trend in
today‟s matrix and flatter organizational structures has somehow moved towards multiple
sources (Fletcher and Baldry 2000 Costigan et al 2005) that may come from supervisor
subordinates peers self customers suppliers or other related sources (Byrne 1993
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McCarthy and Garavan 2001 Ebrahim et al 2003) Multi-source or 360-degree feedback
(Henderson 1980 Ebrahim 2005) along with self-appraisal is suggested for perceived
unfair appraisal practice or to correct errors from individually-based superiors‟ ratings
(Deming 1986) and teamwork assignment (Waldman 1997 Barnes 1997) Most recent
studies claim this method brings about maximum employee motivation as well as
providing the supervisor with a clear comprehensive and precise account on employees
contribution to the organization objectives (Amsler et al 2001) Likewise ratings by
unfamiliar raters are discouraged so as avoid the ldquohalo effectrdquo ((Drenth 1984)
An effective performance appraisal is believed to be the ones with informal and formal
feedback from a variety of sources However the number of appraisal sources used
depends on organizational cost-benefit appraisal analysis Managers who do not use ldquoself-
appraisalrdquo cite it as not rigorous and accurate due to employees poor objectivity and
reliability on providing information on own ability desire for self-enhancement (DeNisi
and Shaw 1977 Levine et al 1977 Ebrahim 2005) as well as appraising themselves
positively (Mohrman et al 1989) Besides they do not trust employees On the contrary
ldquoself-appraisalrdquo essential contribution towards individual developmental needs is
indisputable in numerous cases (Parry and Sinha 2005 Van Der Heijden and Nijhof
2004)
225 Performance appraisal feedback
Cleveland et al (1989) signifies that performance appraisal specifically provides quality
feedback on strengths and weaknesses in determining training needs transfers assignment
and potential for growth These could be achieved through improved communication on
three key areas pertaining to what and how observations on performance are made why
and how they are discussed and what determines the level of performance in the job
(Edmonstone 1996) Individuals want and seek timely useful and accepted feedback on
their performance that can help individual make great progress toward optimal
performance (Coens and Jenkins 2001) Regardless of the rating given the superior and
his subordinate through an open effective communication should make an effort to identify
areas where improvement can be made for effective performance (Ritter and Nunnally
2002) This informal relationship should be made common activity or as frequent as
possible so as to have a performance appraisal system that reaches valid conclusions
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In an extensive review of the literature on the application of feedback in organizations
Earley et al (1990) distinguished two types of feedback outcome feedback and process
feedback The former concentrates on providing information on specific performance
outcomes and the latter provides information on the manner in which an individual
implements a work strategy The researchers found that process feedback interacted with
goal-setting more strongly than outcome feedback in determining the quality of task
strategies developed by workers their efforts to obtain information beneficial to improving
their performance appraisal satisfaction and perceived appraisal accuracy (Lam and
Schaubroeck 1999) Despite the benefits offered by the performance appraisal feedback
there emerge another major and growing concern expressed by employees on unqualified
manager and their failures to provide complete appropriate or constructive feedback about
employee‟s job performance and improvement areas (Rao 1984 cited in Obisi 2011
Kavanagh 1997) They were not even aware of the feedback objectives and had not been
provided with guidelines and instructions on how to complete the forms (Martey 2002)
While the ideas of providing training to them are theoretically sound the evidence that the
organizations concerned are taking major corrective action to eliminate these concerns is
rather weak Practically the amount of time for this exercise is too demanding
226 Frequency of performance appraisal
A large proportion of organizations conduct appraisal on a yearly basis (Freemantle 1994
Ebrahim 2003) though most employees believe that objectives could not be realized by an
annual performance appraisal Besides both employees and supervisors might not be able
to remember what happened throughout the year due to their selective memory As studied
by Boice and Kleiner (1997) evidence strongly suggests that performance reviews should
be performed on a frequent and ongoing basis to avoid surprises at an annual review
Moreover a study by Geetha (2013) further alleges that employees are unhappy when
there is no periodical or routine feedback from their superiors Besides frequent
performance appraisal has become a common activity in exceptional organizations (Quinn
et al 1996a)
Other appraisals vary from annually with interim reviews to annually with
monthlyquarterly reviews and annually with six to eight weekly reviews Nonetheless
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Fisher (1994) explains that the frequency of performance appraisal is an arduous
dimension to argue due to the ambiguity of the distinction between an appraisal meeting
and a regular daily discussion about work between a superior and a subordinate In
general the problem of frequency has always been one of the major limitations of any
formal approach to performance appraisal Too long an interval between each appraisal
might results in its contents lose relevance and risk artificiality whereas too short an
interval might results in the process to become too time-consuming (Freemantle 1994)
Evidently the actual time period varies in different organizations and with different aims
(Boice and Kleiner 1997) However a typical frequency would be bi-monthly or
quarterly
30 Hypotheses development performance appraisal career commitment and
turnover intention
31 Perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and intention to quit
Intention to withdraw or quit an organization simply refers to an employee‟s perceived
probability of staying or leaving an employing organization Turnover intention has been
recurrently prescribed in literatures as the most immediate predictor to eventual turnover
(Allen et al 2003 Lum et al 1998) The focus of this attitudinal element of turnover
intention makes sense since it highlights the various elements of behavior and the
motivation to leave that covers many inevitable reasons for actual turnover Turnover is
costly (Mitchell et al 2001 Adhinarayanan amp Gurunathan 2011 Cascio amp Bordreau
2011) and maybe difficult to quantify when irreplaceable knowledge assets or institutional
memory are lost These costs do not stop here Each time an employee leaves the firm
productivity is presumed to drop due to the learning curve involved in understanding the
job and the organization In addition research proves that after losing key employees
organizations experienced damage reputation customer relationship had lost best
practices information and lost significant income (Warren 1999) Ultimately in most
cases the involvement of superiors included positions all the way up to and including the
Chief Executive Officer (CEO) becomes inevitable This demonstrates that turnover issues
impact the firm by utilizing the precious time of senior managers This is in addition to
other expenses including loss of training and retraining time loss of human and relational
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capital Ultimately organizational success is not viable through personnel replacement
activities (Smith and Rupp 2004)
Turnover intention has brought about the importance of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness The relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and
turnover intention has since become the most renowned issue in the field of management
research One of the common objectives of performance appraisal is to retain the topmost
performing employees through quality performance appraisal that leads to fair
compensation amounts high motivation and better career prospects (Zimmerman 2009
Abdullah et al 2011) Hence the intensity of performance appraisal effectiveness
perception is fundamental in encouraging an employee to stay within one‟s employment
(Griffeth et al 2000 Smith and Rupp 2002 Benson et al 2010) An employee with a
low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness could oppose the best
interest of an employee The employee will feel that his or her contributions are not
effectively appraised or recognized and thus will posit a negative organizational attitude
In view of being underrated the employee willingness to be in employment will weaken
Hence the following proposition is established
P1 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will be associated with
higher levels of turnover intention relative to those with high intensity of perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness
32 Performance appraisal career commitment and intention to quit
Career commitment concept that was first introduced by Blau (1985) simply refers to
one‟s inspiration to stay in one‟s chosen career (Blau 1985 1989) It focuses on a uni-
dimensional measure which involves one‟s identification and involvement in one‟s
occupation or career along with one‟s effort in the pursuit of supporting one‟s career goals
(Blau 1985 Colarelli and Bishop 1990 Goulet and Singh 2002) The conceptualization
of career commitment was later extended into a multidimensional measure of accumulated
investments and cost of pursuing another new career (ldquocontinuancerdquo) attachment to a
career (ldquoaffectiverdquo) and feelings of obligation to remain in one career (ldquonormativerdquo)
commitment (Meyer et al 1993 2006 Meyer and Herscovitch 2001) Subsequently
these measures closely concur with another alternative multidimensional concept that
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measures one‟s strong feeling of attachment to one‟s career (ldquocareer identityrdquo) one‟s
strength to withhold one‟s career against commotion (ldquocareer resiliencerdquo) and clear
understanding of one‟s career path (ldquocareer insightrdquo) (London 1983 Carson and Bedeian
1994)
Performance appraisal may be seen as a viable organizational tool that may be used to
motivate direct and develop subordinates According to Smith and Rupp (2004)
performance-based rewards and understanding work-effects linkage would successfully
engage knowledge workers Knowledge workers enjoy the most positive work
environment on all measures which include perceptions of appraisal effectiveness (HR
professional 2001) High intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
should result in extrinsic rewards such as higher salaries (Day and Allen 2004) or
advancement (Allen 2006) as well as intrinsic rewards such as self-satisfaction (Locke
and Latham 1990 Greenhaus and Parasuraman 1993) These rewards would enable
employees to direct their energies in directions appropriate to their careers With higher
levels of career commitment individuals may make significant investments in their careers
to pursue their high career goals regardless of the setbacks (Colarelli and Bishop 1990
Aryee et al 1994 Mohamad et al 2006 Connie et al 2009) They would also engage
themselves with organizational training and job enrichment programs to attain new or
higher skills and knowledge This career advancement path along with their morale and
optimism would thus negate their turnover intentions (Lobburi 2012 Abdullah et al
2012 Thwala et al 2012)
Conversely employees with low intensity of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness allege that instead being a means of measuring subordinates the appraisal
role is solely a powerful channel of managerial control (Edmonstone 1996 Weise et al
1998) The performance appraisal systems which tend not to incorporate employees
personal aspirations with their future development have been cited by several authors
(Freeman 2002 Wilson and Western 2000 Long 1986) Evidently there exist
conflicting values and goals between organizations and these professionals (Lee et al
2000) Due to the divergent needs of stakeholders the appraisal process itself is often a
source of unmet expectations (Murphy and Cleveland 1995) Usually what is articulated
by the management is not what is valued and rewarded Most often than not they feel that
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their contribution is not effectively appraised and recognized Considering perceptions of
the appraisal effectiveness may contradict employees‟ beliefs about their contributions we
would expect them not to persistently manage and pursue their career growth successfully
As a consequence employees would exhibit lower levels of career commitment (Anna
2008 Barbara 2012) and have no interest to prolong their tenure Since perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness is expected to have a positive impact on career
commitment that will negatively affect turnover intention we make the following
propositions
P2 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will tend to be
associated with lower levels of career commitment relative to those with high intensity of
perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
P3 As a consequence employee turnover intention level will be higher
PAPpa
Figure 1 Conceptual model depicting the indirect (through career commitment
components) associations of performance appraisal and turnover intention
PA Components
objectives
criteria
measurement
sources
feedback
frequency
Career
Commitment
Career
identity
Career
resilience
Career
insight
Turnover
Intention
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40 Concluding thoughts and proposals for future research
Generally there have been a tremendous number of written literatures on performance
appraisal career commitment and turnover intention This study in particular attempt to
fill the gap in the existing literatures on the direct impact of career commitment on the
relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and turnover intention
Our study takes into account the complete framework of performance appraisal system
rather than each one of its components while the focus on career commitment is split into
the strength of one‟s attachment resistant and developmentplanning towards his career or
profession There exists evidence suggesting that the intensity of perceived performance
appraisal effectiveness will somehow affect a knowledge worker general level of career
commitment through expected extrinsic and intrinsic organizational compensation
benefits and rewards Employees with high intensity of perceived performance appraisal
are therefore highly committed to their career and thus posit a low turnover intention
Thus Improving performance appraisal practices to enhance career commitment should be
an important objective for those responsible for reducing turnover intention Hence
organizations should pay more attention on how to effectively appraise and recognize their
knowledge worker contribution The conceptual model that is mapped out aspires to be
dynamic since it can be adapted across knowledge and non-knowledge-based industries
The model rest upon the employer-employee concerns expectations and perceptions in
today‟s contemporary organizational setting Indirectly the model also argues on the
challenges faced by any organizations for continuous and iterative human resource
practices on managing and retaining their knowledge workers Hence there should a fit on
the part of organizational values norms culture and beliefs towards these concerns
expectations and perceptions It is therefore crucial to recognize that businesses ultimate
success is dependent upon the attitudes and behaviors of these knowledge staff and they
are in need of strong supporting structures Although this study makes progress to increase
understanding of how perceived performance appraisal effectiveness affect directly and
interactively turnover intention future work should include moderation effects of
psychological contract and organization benefits in career-related research It is also
noteworthy to consider both organizational and career commitments concurrently for
future performance appraisal-turnover intention research The propositions set out above
will then be the starting point for developing empirical research work for further
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organizational understanding of the issues and planning of interventions It would be a
significant contribution to the field of human resource management literatures
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Karreman D Sveningsson S amp Alvesson M (2002) The return of the machine
bureaucracy Management control in the work settings of professionals International
Studies of Management amp Organization 32 (2) 70-92
Kavanagh M (1997) I simply want to know how well I am doing Group and
Organization Management 22 (2) 147-8
Kimiz D (2005) Knowledge management in theory and practice (p 21) Oxford UK
Elsevier Inc (Chapter 1)
Knowledge Worker Forum Knowledge Workers (2006) [Online] Available
httpwwwreferenceforbusinesscommanagementInt-LocKnowledge-Workershtml
(February 16 2011)
Laihonen H Jaumlaumlskelaumlinen A Loumlnnqvist A amp Ruostela J (2012) Measuring the
productivity impacts of new ways of working Journal of Facilities Management 10 (2)
102 ndash 113
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INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
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Lam S S K amp Schaubroeck J (1999) Total quality management and performance
appraisal an experimental study of process versus results and group versus individual
approaches Journal of Organisational Behaviour 20 (4) 445-57
Latham G P (1988) Human resource training and development Annual Review of
Psychology 39 545-582
Latham G P Almost J Mann S amp Moore C (2005) New developments in
performance Management Organizational Dynamics 34 (1) 77-87
Lawler E E (1967) The mulititrait-multirater approach to measuring managerial job
performance Journal of Applied Psychology 51 369-81
Lee S Y Banker R D Potter G amp Srinivasan D (2000) An empirical analysis of
continuing improvements following the implementation of a performance-based
compensation Journal of Accounting and Economics 30 (3) 315-350
Levine E L Flory A amp Ash R A (1977) Self-assessment in personnel selection
Journal of Applied Psychology 62 428-35
Liebowitz J amp Beckman T J (1990) Knowledge Organizations What Every Manager
Should Know Florida Taylor and Francis
Lobburi P (2012) The Influence of Organizational and Social Support on Turnover
Intention in Collectivist Contexts Journal of Applied Business Research 28 (1) 93-104
Locke E A amp Latham G P (1990) A Theory of Goal Setting amp Task Performance
University of Michigan Prentice Hall
London M (1983) Toward a theory of career motivation The Academy of Management
Review 8 (4) 620-630
Long P (1986) Performance Appraisal Revised London Institute of Personnel
Management
Lum L Kervin J Clark K Reid F amp Sirola W (1998) Explaining nursing turnover
intent job satisfaction pay satisfaction or organizational commitment Journal of
Organizational Behaviour 19 (3) 305-320
Mamoria C B (1995) Personnel Management New Delhi Himalaya Publishing House
Maroney B P amp Buckley M R (1992) Does research in performance appraisal
influence the practice of performance appraisal Regretfully not Public Personnel
Management Journal 21 185-195
Martey A K (2002) Research paper Library Management 23 (89) 403-416
ijcrbwebscom
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35 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
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McCarthy A M amp Garavan T N (2001) A competency-based model for construction
supervisors in developing countries Journal of European Industrial Training 25 (1) 5-32
McGregor D M (1957) The Human Side of Enterprise The Management Review 46
22-28
McGregor J Tweed D amp Pech R (2004) Human capital in the new economy devils
bargain Journal of Intellectual Capital 5 (1) 153-164
Meyer J P Allen N J amp Smith C A (1993) Commitment to organizations and
occupations 40 extension and test of a three-component conceptualization Journal of
Applied Psychology 78 (4) 538-551
Meyer J P Becker T amp Van Dick R (2006) Social Identities and Commitments at
Work Toward an Integrative Model Journal of Organizational Behavior 27 665-683
Meyer J P amp Herscovitch L (2001) Commitment in workplace toward a general
model Human Resource Management Review 11 299-326
Michie J amp Sheehan M (1999) HRM practices RampD expenditure and innovative
investment evidence from the UK‟s 1990 Workplace Industrial Relations Survey (WIRS)
Industrial amp Corporate Change 8 (2) 211-234
Mitchell T R Holtom B C Lee T W amp Graske T (2001) How to keep your best
employee developing an effective retention policy The Academy of Management
Executive 15 (4) 96-109
Mohamad A H amp Aizzat M N (2006) Predicting turnover intention of hotel
employees The influence of employee development human resource management
practices and trust in organization Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business 8 (1)
33- 45
Mohrman A Resnick-West S amp Lawler E (1989) Designing Performance Appraisal
Systems Aligning Appraisals and Organizational Realities San Francisco CA Jossey-
Bass
Moi Kok Wah (2008) Transforming for the Knowledge-based Economy Through the
Practice of Knowledge Management Certified Global Facilitator and Consultant JT
Frank Academy [Online] Available
httpwwwkmtalknetarticlephpstory=20060922021542703 (February 16 2011)
Mor Barak M E Cherin D A amp Berkman S (1998) Organizational and personal
dimensions in diversity climate Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 34 (1) 82-104
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NOVEMBER 2013
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Murphy K R amp Cleveland J N (1995) Understanding Performance Appraisal Social
Organizational and Goal-Based Perspectives Thousand Oaks CA Sage
Nickols F (2000) What is‟ in the world of work and working some implications of the
shift to knowledge work Butterworth-Heinemann Yearbook of Knowledge Management
(pp 1-7) [Online] Available httphomeattnetsimnickolsshiftshtm (November 4 2010)
Obisi C (2011) Employee performance appraisal and its implication for individual and
organizational growth Australian Journal of Business and Management Research l (9)
92-97
Oltra V (2005) Knowledge management effective factors the role of HRM Journal of
Knowledge Management 9 (4) 70-86
Parry K W amp amp Sinha P N (2005) Researching the trainability of transformational
organizational leadership Human Resource Development International 8 165-83
Pepitone J S (2002) A case for humaneering IIE Solutions 34 (5) 39-44
Pollard D (2003) The future of knowledge management Discussion paper [Online]
Available
httpblogssaloncom0002007imagesTheFutureofKnowledgeManagementdo
(November 4 2010)
Quinn J B Anderson P amp Finkelstein S (1996a January) Managing professional
intellect making the most of the best Harvard Business Review 74 (2) 71-80
Rendero T (1980) Performance Appraisal Practices Personnel 57 (6) 4-12
Rees W D amp Porter C (2004) Appraisal pitfalls and the training implicationsndashPart 2
Industrial and Commercial Training 36 (1) 29-34
Reneker M amp Steel V (1989) Performance Appraisal Purpose and Techniques In
Creth S amp Duda F (Eds) Personnel Administration in Libraries (pp 152-220) New
York Neal-Schuman Publishers Inc
Ritter B amp Nunnally K (2002) Formalise the feedback employee performance
evaluation Rural Telecommunications 21 (3) 32-6
Robertson M Scarbrough H amp Swan J (2003) Knowledge creation in professional
service firms institutional effects Organization Studies 24 (6) 831-857
Root-Bernstein R (1989) Strategies of research (part 2) Research-Technology
Management 32 (3) 36-41
Rosenbaum B (1991) Leading todayprimes professional Research-Technology Management
34 (2) 30-35
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Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
Salleh M Amin A Muda S amp Abdul Halim M A S (2013) Fairness of Performance
Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
Sarita K (2012) A study on performance appraisal errors of telecom managers in Navi
Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
Scholtes P R (1993) Total quality or performance appraisal choose one National
Productivity Review 12 (2) 349-63
Scott P B (2005) Knowledge management Semantics Work identity Communications
Corporate Communications An International Journal 10 (3) 257-277
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2004) Knowledge workers perceptions of performance
ratings Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (3) 146 ndash 166
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
workers a resource of the firm theory view Journal of Knowledge Management 6 (3)
250ndash261
St-Onge S Morin D Bellehumeur M amp Dupuis F (2009) Managers motivation to
evaluate subordinate performance Qualitative Research in Organizations and
Management An International Journal 4 (3) 273-293
Storey J (1987 November) Developments in the Management of Human Resources An
Interim Report IRRU School of Industrial and Business Studies University of Warwick
Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No17
Strebler M T Robinson D amp Bevan S (2001) Performance review balancing
objective and content The Institute of Employment Studies Brighton Report No 370
Stuhlman D (2006) Helping you turn data into knowledge knowledge Management
Terms [Online] Available httpwwwhomeearthlinknet~ddstuhlmandefin1htm
(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
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Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
Zimmerman K (2009) The impact of job performance on employee turnover and the
voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
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actions will be shared with others (Dove 1998 Davenport and Prusak 2000 Davenport et
al 2002 Scott 2005 Damir et al 2008) According to another field expert this shared
knowledge that are converted from intuition into explicit knowledge can further be turned
into new opportunities for firm‟s success and growth (Paul Yeung cited in Zalina 2005)
The broader perspectives of literatures conclude that knowledge workers refer to highly-
educated and -experienced workers Drucker (1994) portrays knowledge workers as highly
educated workers with formal education who develop new products or services
Conversely other researchers (Dove 1998 Nickols 2000) affirms less importance on
formal education as knowledge could be engendered from field experiences as well as
one‟s experiences through accessibility and usage of personal organizational and external
knowledge (Nickols 2000) Ultimately anyone who uses any form of recorded knowledge
to be a more productive worker could be considered a knowledge worker (Stuhlman
Daniel 2006 Creotec 2006) regardless whether he or she is a professional or non-
professional Nevertheless what kind of a knowledge worker an individual is depends on
the type of knowledge that he or she produces or possesses (Ritter 2003 cited in Zalina
2005) Generally they are all renowned experts within their own field through the
ownership of knowledge (Davenport 2005) and their use of mental power and scientific
methods of rationalizing knowledge enables the creation of firm‟s value They are also
acknowledged for their abilities to generate manipulate and orchestrate any information
for any analytical and application purposes (Bryan and Joyce 2005 Davenport 2005
Drucker 1999 Horwitz et al 2006)
Despite having the ability to choreograph signs and conceptions knowledge workers
experience more swift skill obsolescence These competencies are fundamental for
organizations in gaining competitive advantage over competitors and have become
increasingly imperative for their long-term success (Depres and Hiltrop 1995)
Knowledge workers are workers of immense intellectual curiosity who work most
productively and creatively to satisfy their curiosity Their other typical distinctive
personality traits include considerable resentment at bureaucracies and disapproval of
administration (Root-Bernstein 1989) Besides they are multitalented accommodating
and with sturdy analytical skills they are proficient in leveraging as well as building
knowledge to engender effective action They are also versatile with high tolerance for
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uncertainty (Moi Kok Wah 2008) Furthermore knowledge workers are highly
independent and mobile workers who favor autonomy use of examples and knowledge
sharing among organizational members Their core concern is organizational productivity
rather than the process itself (Horwitz et al 2003)
Knowledge workers prefer organizations that consistently nurture and strengthen their
competencies while having job-related and leadership structures that focus on promoting
empowerment and self-management Similarly a substantial number of Research and
Development (RampD) job designs offer autonomy and desirable leadership style The job
designs that are more associated with collegial relationships information-sharing
delegation of responsibilities and stimulating upward and horizontal communication would
fulfill knowledge worker needs for autonomy achievement and personal growth Apart
from possessing strong communication skills and high intellectual attributes knowledge
workers have a strong sense of identity are self-directed and proactive (Rosenbaum 1991
Knowledge Workers Forum 2006) Complemented with self-motivation and and self
discipline they are able to make judgments organize and manage their work with success
A worker with proactive approach persistently confronts the norms that would place a
higher value on work teams and organizations Self-driven and proactive qualities
encourage active participation and work practices sharing culture among team members
As a consequence the emergence of more effective collaborative and innovative teams
results in substantial dynamic and remarkable organizational improvements
Subsequently career development is pursued in a very distinct manner among knowledge
workers as compared to conventional workers They value their self-respect and self-
satisfaction derived from a job well done (Bandura 1991) and their motivation might
relate more to the intellectual stimulation of the job than its security Hence they are more
occupationally motivated rather than organizationally motivated Heavy reliance on
symbols of personal and professional excellence make the non-monetary rewards to
become critical factors in recognizing their achievement and innovation Due to the strong
association with occupational commitment high turnover is inevitable and rampant among
these workers (Despres and Hiltrop 1995) unless their organizational values and goals
match their professional values and goals (Lee et al 2000) Other key contributing factors
to knowledge worker nomadic behavior include better salaries (Abassi and Hollman
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2000) lifestyles and new environment (Julian and Anita 2000) While craving for latest
and best designs simulation tools and measurement equipments they do have access to
the latest information or knowledge within the field of their domain and persistent
determination in the experimentation of something new and challenging Closeness with
professional peers and networks disclose opportunities to pursue their lifelong learning
interest (Despres and Hilltrop 1995 Julian and Anita 2000 Zalina 2005) and make them
highly competitive in planning to resign and find alternative employment (Mitchell et al
2001) McGregor et al (2004) further discover that these knowledge workers are
significantly independent of their employers and typically do not expect to be employed
longer than what is stipulated in their employment contract
22 Performance appraisal elements and effectiveness
Performance appraisal has increasingly becoming common and serves as a vital human
resource practice in today‟s organizations The practice that was once concentrated on
control and maintenance based approach have somehow progressed towards an approach
that is more engaged with growth motivational and developmental concerns (Dutra 2001
cited in Ubeda and Santos 2007 Obisi 2011) The effectiveness of an appraisal system
depends on how well its purposes are understood accepted and strived to be achieved by
users A favorable performance appraisal would have positive effects on employee
attitudes behaviors and organizational efficiency (Gardner 2008 Salleh et al 2013) For
example higher employee performance and productivity attainment is derived through the
performance appraisal capability in reflecting measuring and evaluating an individual
employee‟s behavior (DeVries et al 1981 Sarita 2012) collaboration teamwork
knowledge reuse and knowledge sharing competencies and accomplishments (Kimiz
2005) over a specific period of time However these positive outcomes are a function of
the employees‟ perception on the overall performance appraisal effectiveness (Benson et
al 2010) Past studies by and large separately focused on the six performance appraisal
components as the source of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness variation
among these critical organizational stakeholders
221 Performance appraisal objectives
As surveys show the general objective of performance appraisal is primarily to improve
an organizational efficiency However this efficiency is expected to be achieved through
settings of a wider range of organizational objectives (McGregor 1957 Mamoria 1995
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Atiomo 2000 cited in Obisi 2011) that reflects the source of perceived performance
appraisal variation (Scholtes 1993) Due to confusion as to the true purpose of a system
that attempts to achieve too many objectives the system has the tendency to fail in
meeting any of its objectives (Reneker and Steel 1989) This appraisal system
imperfection eventually allows the continuity of an appraisal that relies solely upon human
information processing and judgment Likewise these vast conflicting objectives of an
appraisal system has received increasing attention in HR literatures for so many years
(Strebler et al 2001) despite an orthodox appraisal that is expected to motivate
employees through well-defined objectives with provision for training and development
needs (Bach 2005) Performance appraisals exist to merely assist an organization to make
decisions on an employee rather than to help himher make personal decisions on hisher
performance By and large what is typically communicated by the management is not
what is actually rewarded
Other harsh criticisms of impediments that are inherent in the appraisal process include
mismatching of individual and organizational goals individual goals or personal
aspirations with future development that are not linked to long-term organizational goals
or business strategies (Deming 1986 Wilson and Western 2000 Freeman 2002) and
disregard for institutional goals and objectives (Edwards and Calvin 1998) By having a
performance appraisal policy on paper is no guarantee that it will be followed accordingly
(St-Onge et al 2009) Thus many of performance appraisal defects are intractable (Rees
and Porter 2004 Latham et al 2005)
222 Performance criteria
A second source of perceived performance appraisal variation originates from
organizational performance appraisal criteria which are useful variables to measure
individual work place behavior In most organizations what gets measured and rewarded
is what employees do (Evans 2003 Greene 2002) Employees need to see performance
criteria that are explicitly links to key results in their department and organization (Evans
2003) upon which ratings to be obtained Emphasis should be rested more on the quality
of job performance because it acts in an anticipated manner (Lawler 1967 Greene 2002)
Other criteria should include the particular types of behavior that are contingent upon the
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important job functions According to an earlier researcher (Grant 1955) the sufficient
number of performance criteria to be considered is somewhere around three to five factors
However researchers explicate that the vital aspects of the work performed in each
functional area and focus on the strengths and weaknesses of the individual that are due to
the changing organizational environment and nature of jobs and roles (Wiese et al 1998)
are not ldquobuilt inrdquo to the practice of performance appraisal (Ebrahim et al 2006) For
example in the era of knowledge economy demands of knowledge production frequently
place a premium on teamwork and flexibility (Wilson et al 1994) Fairness perceptions
are intensified when employees are held to performance standards that entail greater
commitment and ownership of knowledge sharing activities (Rousseau and Shperling
2003) Unfortunately the greatest emphasis of performance appraisals in organizations is
on individual responsibility for performance and least on team-based compensation system
(Ebrahim et al 2004 Zobal 1998 Abosch and Reidy 1996) Attitudes and not just
behaviors that are pivotal for ongoing knowledge creation and dissemination also need to
be an integral part of performance appraisal criteria (Liebowitz and Beckman 1998)
Attitudes that align with principles of teamwork collaboration and stakeholder
involvement should be appraised and rewarded
223 Performance measurementstandard
An effective performance appraisal exhibits the performance standard that is agreeable
between the rater and ratee (Bobko and Collela 1994) and rating scales are able to
provide descriptive and concrete definitions of the rating constructs rather than being
expressed in absolute terms (Ghorphade et al 1995 Martey 2002) Lucid precise
performance standards rather than vague or no standards will improve the overall
accuracy and effectiveness of an appraisal process (Kane and Russell 1998) Any effective
measuring instrument needs to provide relevant and sufficient measurement criteria to
accurately describe significant behaviors required for successful job performance
(Henderson 1980) These measures must be amenable to scaling and be able to be
weighted Measuring knowledge workers productivity (Bosch-Sijtsema et al 2009) is
difficult due to the complex and dynamic nature of knowledge work (Laihonen et al
2012) It all depends on the nature of jobs that vary from routine to nonroutine (Pepitone
2002 Laihonen et al 2012 Scott 2005) their organizational and contextual factors such
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as culture strategy leadership fellow workers support compensation structures and
physical surrounding (Chan 2007) and the quality of human resources that reflects skills
and competencies (Davenport 2005) Results-based measures are deficient in tapping
aspect of performance as cooperation (Ghorphade et al 1995) and less helpful for
employee development (Cardy and Dobbins 1994 Fisher et al 1996)
The ineffectiveness of performance appraisal (Becker et al 2001) in appraising workers
contributions to departmental goals (Ebrahim et al 2004) are due to irrelevant ambiguous
and undefined measuring dimensions (Green 1999 Martey 2002) and lack of a
performance appraisal system that effectively integrates all the key performance indicators
in support of the organization‟s aims and objectives Additionally many appraisal systems
are much too subjective (St-Onge et al 2009 Benson et al 2010) There has been little
progress in improving the performance rating distortion (Ilgen et al 1993 Cleveland and
Murphy 1995) Organizations intentionally allow their appraisal systems to function
ineffectively perhaps indefinitely to avoid an open conflict because of its capability in
stirring strong feelings and conflict in the organization (Rendero 1980) Often the goal of
the rater is not to evaluate the performance of the employee but to keep the employee
satisfied and not to deleteriously influence employee morale The manager also has to be
concerned about hisher own image Employees receive negative ratings reflects poorly on
the manager (Kumari 2012) It is unlikely that any managerial problem has so
successfully resisted solution than arriving at an acceptable useful and valid method of
appraising performance Organizations attempt to train the rater to improve observational
skills (Edwards and Calvin 1998 Kumari 2012) though the training efforts are usually
disappointing as their effects on appraisal accuracy dissipate over time (Latham 1988
Cleveland and Murphy 1992)
224 Sources of appraisal
Source of appraisal have consistently rely on subordinate-superior unilateral flow of
information since the immediate superior may have sufficient stance to pass judgments on
the subordinate‟s performance (Long 1986 Storey 1987 Ebrahim 2005) This trend in
today‟s matrix and flatter organizational structures has somehow moved towards multiple
sources (Fletcher and Baldry 2000 Costigan et al 2005) that may come from supervisor
subordinates peers self customers suppliers or other related sources (Byrne 1993
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McCarthy and Garavan 2001 Ebrahim et al 2003) Multi-source or 360-degree feedback
(Henderson 1980 Ebrahim 2005) along with self-appraisal is suggested for perceived
unfair appraisal practice or to correct errors from individually-based superiors‟ ratings
(Deming 1986) and teamwork assignment (Waldman 1997 Barnes 1997) Most recent
studies claim this method brings about maximum employee motivation as well as
providing the supervisor with a clear comprehensive and precise account on employees
contribution to the organization objectives (Amsler et al 2001) Likewise ratings by
unfamiliar raters are discouraged so as avoid the ldquohalo effectrdquo ((Drenth 1984)
An effective performance appraisal is believed to be the ones with informal and formal
feedback from a variety of sources However the number of appraisal sources used
depends on organizational cost-benefit appraisal analysis Managers who do not use ldquoself-
appraisalrdquo cite it as not rigorous and accurate due to employees poor objectivity and
reliability on providing information on own ability desire for self-enhancement (DeNisi
and Shaw 1977 Levine et al 1977 Ebrahim 2005) as well as appraising themselves
positively (Mohrman et al 1989) Besides they do not trust employees On the contrary
ldquoself-appraisalrdquo essential contribution towards individual developmental needs is
indisputable in numerous cases (Parry and Sinha 2005 Van Der Heijden and Nijhof
2004)
225 Performance appraisal feedback
Cleveland et al (1989) signifies that performance appraisal specifically provides quality
feedback on strengths and weaknesses in determining training needs transfers assignment
and potential for growth These could be achieved through improved communication on
three key areas pertaining to what and how observations on performance are made why
and how they are discussed and what determines the level of performance in the job
(Edmonstone 1996) Individuals want and seek timely useful and accepted feedback on
their performance that can help individual make great progress toward optimal
performance (Coens and Jenkins 2001) Regardless of the rating given the superior and
his subordinate through an open effective communication should make an effort to identify
areas where improvement can be made for effective performance (Ritter and Nunnally
2002) This informal relationship should be made common activity or as frequent as
possible so as to have a performance appraisal system that reaches valid conclusions
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In an extensive review of the literature on the application of feedback in organizations
Earley et al (1990) distinguished two types of feedback outcome feedback and process
feedback The former concentrates on providing information on specific performance
outcomes and the latter provides information on the manner in which an individual
implements a work strategy The researchers found that process feedback interacted with
goal-setting more strongly than outcome feedback in determining the quality of task
strategies developed by workers their efforts to obtain information beneficial to improving
their performance appraisal satisfaction and perceived appraisal accuracy (Lam and
Schaubroeck 1999) Despite the benefits offered by the performance appraisal feedback
there emerge another major and growing concern expressed by employees on unqualified
manager and their failures to provide complete appropriate or constructive feedback about
employee‟s job performance and improvement areas (Rao 1984 cited in Obisi 2011
Kavanagh 1997) They were not even aware of the feedback objectives and had not been
provided with guidelines and instructions on how to complete the forms (Martey 2002)
While the ideas of providing training to them are theoretically sound the evidence that the
organizations concerned are taking major corrective action to eliminate these concerns is
rather weak Practically the amount of time for this exercise is too demanding
226 Frequency of performance appraisal
A large proportion of organizations conduct appraisal on a yearly basis (Freemantle 1994
Ebrahim 2003) though most employees believe that objectives could not be realized by an
annual performance appraisal Besides both employees and supervisors might not be able
to remember what happened throughout the year due to their selective memory As studied
by Boice and Kleiner (1997) evidence strongly suggests that performance reviews should
be performed on a frequent and ongoing basis to avoid surprises at an annual review
Moreover a study by Geetha (2013) further alleges that employees are unhappy when
there is no periodical or routine feedback from their superiors Besides frequent
performance appraisal has become a common activity in exceptional organizations (Quinn
et al 1996a)
Other appraisals vary from annually with interim reviews to annually with
monthlyquarterly reviews and annually with six to eight weekly reviews Nonetheless
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Fisher (1994) explains that the frequency of performance appraisal is an arduous
dimension to argue due to the ambiguity of the distinction between an appraisal meeting
and a regular daily discussion about work between a superior and a subordinate In
general the problem of frequency has always been one of the major limitations of any
formal approach to performance appraisal Too long an interval between each appraisal
might results in its contents lose relevance and risk artificiality whereas too short an
interval might results in the process to become too time-consuming (Freemantle 1994)
Evidently the actual time period varies in different organizations and with different aims
(Boice and Kleiner 1997) However a typical frequency would be bi-monthly or
quarterly
30 Hypotheses development performance appraisal career commitment and
turnover intention
31 Perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and intention to quit
Intention to withdraw or quit an organization simply refers to an employee‟s perceived
probability of staying or leaving an employing organization Turnover intention has been
recurrently prescribed in literatures as the most immediate predictor to eventual turnover
(Allen et al 2003 Lum et al 1998) The focus of this attitudinal element of turnover
intention makes sense since it highlights the various elements of behavior and the
motivation to leave that covers many inevitable reasons for actual turnover Turnover is
costly (Mitchell et al 2001 Adhinarayanan amp Gurunathan 2011 Cascio amp Bordreau
2011) and maybe difficult to quantify when irreplaceable knowledge assets or institutional
memory are lost These costs do not stop here Each time an employee leaves the firm
productivity is presumed to drop due to the learning curve involved in understanding the
job and the organization In addition research proves that after losing key employees
organizations experienced damage reputation customer relationship had lost best
practices information and lost significant income (Warren 1999) Ultimately in most
cases the involvement of superiors included positions all the way up to and including the
Chief Executive Officer (CEO) becomes inevitable This demonstrates that turnover issues
impact the firm by utilizing the precious time of senior managers This is in addition to
other expenses including loss of training and retraining time loss of human and relational
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capital Ultimately organizational success is not viable through personnel replacement
activities (Smith and Rupp 2004)
Turnover intention has brought about the importance of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness The relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and
turnover intention has since become the most renowned issue in the field of management
research One of the common objectives of performance appraisal is to retain the topmost
performing employees through quality performance appraisal that leads to fair
compensation amounts high motivation and better career prospects (Zimmerman 2009
Abdullah et al 2011) Hence the intensity of performance appraisal effectiveness
perception is fundamental in encouraging an employee to stay within one‟s employment
(Griffeth et al 2000 Smith and Rupp 2002 Benson et al 2010) An employee with a
low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness could oppose the best
interest of an employee The employee will feel that his or her contributions are not
effectively appraised or recognized and thus will posit a negative organizational attitude
In view of being underrated the employee willingness to be in employment will weaken
Hence the following proposition is established
P1 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will be associated with
higher levels of turnover intention relative to those with high intensity of perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness
32 Performance appraisal career commitment and intention to quit
Career commitment concept that was first introduced by Blau (1985) simply refers to
one‟s inspiration to stay in one‟s chosen career (Blau 1985 1989) It focuses on a uni-
dimensional measure which involves one‟s identification and involvement in one‟s
occupation or career along with one‟s effort in the pursuit of supporting one‟s career goals
(Blau 1985 Colarelli and Bishop 1990 Goulet and Singh 2002) The conceptualization
of career commitment was later extended into a multidimensional measure of accumulated
investments and cost of pursuing another new career (ldquocontinuancerdquo) attachment to a
career (ldquoaffectiverdquo) and feelings of obligation to remain in one career (ldquonormativerdquo)
commitment (Meyer et al 1993 2006 Meyer and Herscovitch 2001) Subsequently
these measures closely concur with another alternative multidimensional concept that
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measures one‟s strong feeling of attachment to one‟s career (ldquocareer identityrdquo) one‟s
strength to withhold one‟s career against commotion (ldquocareer resiliencerdquo) and clear
understanding of one‟s career path (ldquocareer insightrdquo) (London 1983 Carson and Bedeian
1994)
Performance appraisal may be seen as a viable organizational tool that may be used to
motivate direct and develop subordinates According to Smith and Rupp (2004)
performance-based rewards and understanding work-effects linkage would successfully
engage knowledge workers Knowledge workers enjoy the most positive work
environment on all measures which include perceptions of appraisal effectiveness (HR
professional 2001) High intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
should result in extrinsic rewards such as higher salaries (Day and Allen 2004) or
advancement (Allen 2006) as well as intrinsic rewards such as self-satisfaction (Locke
and Latham 1990 Greenhaus and Parasuraman 1993) These rewards would enable
employees to direct their energies in directions appropriate to their careers With higher
levels of career commitment individuals may make significant investments in their careers
to pursue their high career goals regardless of the setbacks (Colarelli and Bishop 1990
Aryee et al 1994 Mohamad et al 2006 Connie et al 2009) They would also engage
themselves with organizational training and job enrichment programs to attain new or
higher skills and knowledge This career advancement path along with their morale and
optimism would thus negate their turnover intentions (Lobburi 2012 Abdullah et al
2012 Thwala et al 2012)
Conversely employees with low intensity of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness allege that instead being a means of measuring subordinates the appraisal
role is solely a powerful channel of managerial control (Edmonstone 1996 Weise et al
1998) The performance appraisal systems which tend not to incorporate employees
personal aspirations with their future development have been cited by several authors
(Freeman 2002 Wilson and Western 2000 Long 1986) Evidently there exist
conflicting values and goals between organizations and these professionals (Lee et al
2000) Due to the divergent needs of stakeholders the appraisal process itself is often a
source of unmet expectations (Murphy and Cleveland 1995) Usually what is articulated
by the management is not what is valued and rewarded Most often than not they feel that
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INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
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their contribution is not effectively appraised and recognized Considering perceptions of
the appraisal effectiveness may contradict employees‟ beliefs about their contributions we
would expect them not to persistently manage and pursue their career growth successfully
As a consequence employees would exhibit lower levels of career commitment (Anna
2008 Barbara 2012) and have no interest to prolong their tenure Since perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness is expected to have a positive impact on career
commitment that will negatively affect turnover intention we make the following
propositions
P2 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will tend to be
associated with lower levels of career commitment relative to those with high intensity of
perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
P3 As a consequence employee turnover intention level will be higher
PAPpa
Figure 1 Conceptual model depicting the indirect (through career commitment
components) associations of performance appraisal and turnover intention
PA Components
objectives
criteria
measurement
sources
feedback
frequency
Career
Commitment
Career
identity
Career
resilience
Career
insight
Turnover
Intention
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40 Concluding thoughts and proposals for future research
Generally there have been a tremendous number of written literatures on performance
appraisal career commitment and turnover intention This study in particular attempt to
fill the gap in the existing literatures on the direct impact of career commitment on the
relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and turnover intention
Our study takes into account the complete framework of performance appraisal system
rather than each one of its components while the focus on career commitment is split into
the strength of one‟s attachment resistant and developmentplanning towards his career or
profession There exists evidence suggesting that the intensity of perceived performance
appraisal effectiveness will somehow affect a knowledge worker general level of career
commitment through expected extrinsic and intrinsic organizational compensation
benefits and rewards Employees with high intensity of perceived performance appraisal
are therefore highly committed to their career and thus posit a low turnover intention
Thus Improving performance appraisal practices to enhance career commitment should be
an important objective for those responsible for reducing turnover intention Hence
organizations should pay more attention on how to effectively appraise and recognize their
knowledge worker contribution The conceptual model that is mapped out aspires to be
dynamic since it can be adapted across knowledge and non-knowledge-based industries
The model rest upon the employer-employee concerns expectations and perceptions in
today‟s contemporary organizational setting Indirectly the model also argues on the
challenges faced by any organizations for continuous and iterative human resource
practices on managing and retaining their knowledge workers Hence there should a fit on
the part of organizational values norms culture and beliefs towards these concerns
expectations and perceptions It is therefore crucial to recognize that businesses ultimate
success is dependent upon the attitudes and behaviors of these knowledge staff and they
are in need of strong supporting structures Although this study makes progress to increase
understanding of how perceived performance appraisal effectiveness affect directly and
interactively turnover intention future work should include moderation effects of
psychological contract and organization benefits in career-related research It is also
noteworthy to consider both organizational and career commitments concurrently for
future performance appraisal-turnover intention research The propositions set out above
will then be the starting point for developing empirical research work for further
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organizational understanding of the issues and planning of interventions It would be a
significant contribution to the field of human resource management literatures
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
Zimmerman K (2009) The impact of job performance on employee turnover and the
voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
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uncertainty (Moi Kok Wah 2008) Furthermore knowledge workers are highly
independent and mobile workers who favor autonomy use of examples and knowledge
sharing among organizational members Their core concern is organizational productivity
rather than the process itself (Horwitz et al 2003)
Knowledge workers prefer organizations that consistently nurture and strengthen their
competencies while having job-related and leadership structures that focus on promoting
empowerment and self-management Similarly a substantial number of Research and
Development (RampD) job designs offer autonomy and desirable leadership style The job
designs that are more associated with collegial relationships information-sharing
delegation of responsibilities and stimulating upward and horizontal communication would
fulfill knowledge worker needs for autonomy achievement and personal growth Apart
from possessing strong communication skills and high intellectual attributes knowledge
workers have a strong sense of identity are self-directed and proactive (Rosenbaum 1991
Knowledge Workers Forum 2006) Complemented with self-motivation and and self
discipline they are able to make judgments organize and manage their work with success
A worker with proactive approach persistently confronts the norms that would place a
higher value on work teams and organizations Self-driven and proactive qualities
encourage active participation and work practices sharing culture among team members
As a consequence the emergence of more effective collaborative and innovative teams
results in substantial dynamic and remarkable organizational improvements
Subsequently career development is pursued in a very distinct manner among knowledge
workers as compared to conventional workers They value their self-respect and self-
satisfaction derived from a job well done (Bandura 1991) and their motivation might
relate more to the intellectual stimulation of the job than its security Hence they are more
occupationally motivated rather than organizationally motivated Heavy reliance on
symbols of personal and professional excellence make the non-monetary rewards to
become critical factors in recognizing their achievement and innovation Due to the strong
association with occupational commitment high turnover is inevitable and rampant among
these workers (Despres and Hiltrop 1995) unless their organizational values and goals
match their professional values and goals (Lee et al 2000) Other key contributing factors
to knowledge worker nomadic behavior include better salaries (Abassi and Hollman
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2000) lifestyles and new environment (Julian and Anita 2000) While craving for latest
and best designs simulation tools and measurement equipments they do have access to
the latest information or knowledge within the field of their domain and persistent
determination in the experimentation of something new and challenging Closeness with
professional peers and networks disclose opportunities to pursue their lifelong learning
interest (Despres and Hilltrop 1995 Julian and Anita 2000 Zalina 2005) and make them
highly competitive in planning to resign and find alternative employment (Mitchell et al
2001) McGregor et al (2004) further discover that these knowledge workers are
significantly independent of their employers and typically do not expect to be employed
longer than what is stipulated in their employment contract
22 Performance appraisal elements and effectiveness
Performance appraisal has increasingly becoming common and serves as a vital human
resource practice in today‟s organizations The practice that was once concentrated on
control and maintenance based approach have somehow progressed towards an approach
that is more engaged with growth motivational and developmental concerns (Dutra 2001
cited in Ubeda and Santos 2007 Obisi 2011) The effectiveness of an appraisal system
depends on how well its purposes are understood accepted and strived to be achieved by
users A favorable performance appraisal would have positive effects on employee
attitudes behaviors and organizational efficiency (Gardner 2008 Salleh et al 2013) For
example higher employee performance and productivity attainment is derived through the
performance appraisal capability in reflecting measuring and evaluating an individual
employee‟s behavior (DeVries et al 1981 Sarita 2012) collaboration teamwork
knowledge reuse and knowledge sharing competencies and accomplishments (Kimiz
2005) over a specific period of time However these positive outcomes are a function of
the employees‟ perception on the overall performance appraisal effectiveness (Benson et
al 2010) Past studies by and large separately focused on the six performance appraisal
components as the source of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness variation
among these critical organizational stakeholders
221 Performance appraisal objectives
As surveys show the general objective of performance appraisal is primarily to improve
an organizational efficiency However this efficiency is expected to be achieved through
settings of a wider range of organizational objectives (McGregor 1957 Mamoria 1995
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Atiomo 2000 cited in Obisi 2011) that reflects the source of perceived performance
appraisal variation (Scholtes 1993) Due to confusion as to the true purpose of a system
that attempts to achieve too many objectives the system has the tendency to fail in
meeting any of its objectives (Reneker and Steel 1989) This appraisal system
imperfection eventually allows the continuity of an appraisal that relies solely upon human
information processing and judgment Likewise these vast conflicting objectives of an
appraisal system has received increasing attention in HR literatures for so many years
(Strebler et al 2001) despite an orthodox appraisal that is expected to motivate
employees through well-defined objectives with provision for training and development
needs (Bach 2005) Performance appraisals exist to merely assist an organization to make
decisions on an employee rather than to help himher make personal decisions on hisher
performance By and large what is typically communicated by the management is not
what is actually rewarded
Other harsh criticisms of impediments that are inherent in the appraisal process include
mismatching of individual and organizational goals individual goals or personal
aspirations with future development that are not linked to long-term organizational goals
or business strategies (Deming 1986 Wilson and Western 2000 Freeman 2002) and
disregard for institutional goals and objectives (Edwards and Calvin 1998) By having a
performance appraisal policy on paper is no guarantee that it will be followed accordingly
(St-Onge et al 2009) Thus many of performance appraisal defects are intractable (Rees
and Porter 2004 Latham et al 2005)
222 Performance criteria
A second source of perceived performance appraisal variation originates from
organizational performance appraisal criteria which are useful variables to measure
individual work place behavior In most organizations what gets measured and rewarded
is what employees do (Evans 2003 Greene 2002) Employees need to see performance
criteria that are explicitly links to key results in their department and organization (Evans
2003) upon which ratings to be obtained Emphasis should be rested more on the quality
of job performance because it acts in an anticipated manner (Lawler 1967 Greene 2002)
Other criteria should include the particular types of behavior that are contingent upon the
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important job functions According to an earlier researcher (Grant 1955) the sufficient
number of performance criteria to be considered is somewhere around three to five factors
However researchers explicate that the vital aspects of the work performed in each
functional area and focus on the strengths and weaknesses of the individual that are due to
the changing organizational environment and nature of jobs and roles (Wiese et al 1998)
are not ldquobuilt inrdquo to the practice of performance appraisal (Ebrahim et al 2006) For
example in the era of knowledge economy demands of knowledge production frequently
place a premium on teamwork and flexibility (Wilson et al 1994) Fairness perceptions
are intensified when employees are held to performance standards that entail greater
commitment and ownership of knowledge sharing activities (Rousseau and Shperling
2003) Unfortunately the greatest emphasis of performance appraisals in organizations is
on individual responsibility for performance and least on team-based compensation system
(Ebrahim et al 2004 Zobal 1998 Abosch and Reidy 1996) Attitudes and not just
behaviors that are pivotal for ongoing knowledge creation and dissemination also need to
be an integral part of performance appraisal criteria (Liebowitz and Beckman 1998)
Attitudes that align with principles of teamwork collaboration and stakeholder
involvement should be appraised and rewarded
223 Performance measurementstandard
An effective performance appraisal exhibits the performance standard that is agreeable
between the rater and ratee (Bobko and Collela 1994) and rating scales are able to
provide descriptive and concrete definitions of the rating constructs rather than being
expressed in absolute terms (Ghorphade et al 1995 Martey 2002) Lucid precise
performance standards rather than vague or no standards will improve the overall
accuracy and effectiveness of an appraisal process (Kane and Russell 1998) Any effective
measuring instrument needs to provide relevant and sufficient measurement criteria to
accurately describe significant behaviors required for successful job performance
(Henderson 1980) These measures must be amenable to scaling and be able to be
weighted Measuring knowledge workers productivity (Bosch-Sijtsema et al 2009) is
difficult due to the complex and dynamic nature of knowledge work (Laihonen et al
2012) It all depends on the nature of jobs that vary from routine to nonroutine (Pepitone
2002 Laihonen et al 2012 Scott 2005) their organizational and contextual factors such
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as culture strategy leadership fellow workers support compensation structures and
physical surrounding (Chan 2007) and the quality of human resources that reflects skills
and competencies (Davenport 2005) Results-based measures are deficient in tapping
aspect of performance as cooperation (Ghorphade et al 1995) and less helpful for
employee development (Cardy and Dobbins 1994 Fisher et al 1996)
The ineffectiveness of performance appraisal (Becker et al 2001) in appraising workers
contributions to departmental goals (Ebrahim et al 2004) are due to irrelevant ambiguous
and undefined measuring dimensions (Green 1999 Martey 2002) and lack of a
performance appraisal system that effectively integrates all the key performance indicators
in support of the organization‟s aims and objectives Additionally many appraisal systems
are much too subjective (St-Onge et al 2009 Benson et al 2010) There has been little
progress in improving the performance rating distortion (Ilgen et al 1993 Cleveland and
Murphy 1995) Organizations intentionally allow their appraisal systems to function
ineffectively perhaps indefinitely to avoid an open conflict because of its capability in
stirring strong feelings and conflict in the organization (Rendero 1980) Often the goal of
the rater is not to evaluate the performance of the employee but to keep the employee
satisfied and not to deleteriously influence employee morale The manager also has to be
concerned about hisher own image Employees receive negative ratings reflects poorly on
the manager (Kumari 2012) It is unlikely that any managerial problem has so
successfully resisted solution than arriving at an acceptable useful and valid method of
appraising performance Organizations attempt to train the rater to improve observational
skills (Edwards and Calvin 1998 Kumari 2012) though the training efforts are usually
disappointing as their effects on appraisal accuracy dissipate over time (Latham 1988
Cleveland and Murphy 1992)
224 Sources of appraisal
Source of appraisal have consistently rely on subordinate-superior unilateral flow of
information since the immediate superior may have sufficient stance to pass judgments on
the subordinate‟s performance (Long 1986 Storey 1987 Ebrahim 2005) This trend in
today‟s matrix and flatter organizational structures has somehow moved towards multiple
sources (Fletcher and Baldry 2000 Costigan et al 2005) that may come from supervisor
subordinates peers self customers suppliers or other related sources (Byrne 1993
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McCarthy and Garavan 2001 Ebrahim et al 2003) Multi-source or 360-degree feedback
(Henderson 1980 Ebrahim 2005) along with self-appraisal is suggested for perceived
unfair appraisal practice or to correct errors from individually-based superiors‟ ratings
(Deming 1986) and teamwork assignment (Waldman 1997 Barnes 1997) Most recent
studies claim this method brings about maximum employee motivation as well as
providing the supervisor with a clear comprehensive and precise account on employees
contribution to the organization objectives (Amsler et al 2001) Likewise ratings by
unfamiliar raters are discouraged so as avoid the ldquohalo effectrdquo ((Drenth 1984)
An effective performance appraisal is believed to be the ones with informal and formal
feedback from a variety of sources However the number of appraisal sources used
depends on organizational cost-benefit appraisal analysis Managers who do not use ldquoself-
appraisalrdquo cite it as not rigorous and accurate due to employees poor objectivity and
reliability on providing information on own ability desire for self-enhancement (DeNisi
and Shaw 1977 Levine et al 1977 Ebrahim 2005) as well as appraising themselves
positively (Mohrman et al 1989) Besides they do not trust employees On the contrary
ldquoself-appraisalrdquo essential contribution towards individual developmental needs is
indisputable in numerous cases (Parry and Sinha 2005 Van Der Heijden and Nijhof
2004)
225 Performance appraisal feedback
Cleveland et al (1989) signifies that performance appraisal specifically provides quality
feedback on strengths and weaknesses in determining training needs transfers assignment
and potential for growth These could be achieved through improved communication on
three key areas pertaining to what and how observations on performance are made why
and how they are discussed and what determines the level of performance in the job
(Edmonstone 1996) Individuals want and seek timely useful and accepted feedback on
their performance that can help individual make great progress toward optimal
performance (Coens and Jenkins 2001) Regardless of the rating given the superior and
his subordinate through an open effective communication should make an effort to identify
areas where improvement can be made for effective performance (Ritter and Nunnally
2002) This informal relationship should be made common activity or as frequent as
possible so as to have a performance appraisal system that reaches valid conclusions
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In an extensive review of the literature on the application of feedback in organizations
Earley et al (1990) distinguished two types of feedback outcome feedback and process
feedback The former concentrates on providing information on specific performance
outcomes and the latter provides information on the manner in which an individual
implements a work strategy The researchers found that process feedback interacted with
goal-setting more strongly than outcome feedback in determining the quality of task
strategies developed by workers their efforts to obtain information beneficial to improving
their performance appraisal satisfaction and perceived appraisal accuracy (Lam and
Schaubroeck 1999) Despite the benefits offered by the performance appraisal feedback
there emerge another major and growing concern expressed by employees on unqualified
manager and their failures to provide complete appropriate or constructive feedback about
employee‟s job performance and improvement areas (Rao 1984 cited in Obisi 2011
Kavanagh 1997) They were not even aware of the feedback objectives and had not been
provided with guidelines and instructions on how to complete the forms (Martey 2002)
While the ideas of providing training to them are theoretically sound the evidence that the
organizations concerned are taking major corrective action to eliminate these concerns is
rather weak Practically the amount of time for this exercise is too demanding
226 Frequency of performance appraisal
A large proportion of organizations conduct appraisal on a yearly basis (Freemantle 1994
Ebrahim 2003) though most employees believe that objectives could not be realized by an
annual performance appraisal Besides both employees and supervisors might not be able
to remember what happened throughout the year due to their selective memory As studied
by Boice and Kleiner (1997) evidence strongly suggests that performance reviews should
be performed on a frequent and ongoing basis to avoid surprises at an annual review
Moreover a study by Geetha (2013) further alleges that employees are unhappy when
there is no periodical or routine feedback from their superiors Besides frequent
performance appraisal has become a common activity in exceptional organizations (Quinn
et al 1996a)
Other appraisals vary from annually with interim reviews to annually with
monthlyquarterly reviews and annually with six to eight weekly reviews Nonetheless
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Fisher (1994) explains that the frequency of performance appraisal is an arduous
dimension to argue due to the ambiguity of the distinction between an appraisal meeting
and a regular daily discussion about work between a superior and a subordinate In
general the problem of frequency has always been one of the major limitations of any
formal approach to performance appraisal Too long an interval between each appraisal
might results in its contents lose relevance and risk artificiality whereas too short an
interval might results in the process to become too time-consuming (Freemantle 1994)
Evidently the actual time period varies in different organizations and with different aims
(Boice and Kleiner 1997) However a typical frequency would be bi-monthly or
quarterly
30 Hypotheses development performance appraisal career commitment and
turnover intention
31 Perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and intention to quit
Intention to withdraw or quit an organization simply refers to an employee‟s perceived
probability of staying or leaving an employing organization Turnover intention has been
recurrently prescribed in literatures as the most immediate predictor to eventual turnover
(Allen et al 2003 Lum et al 1998) The focus of this attitudinal element of turnover
intention makes sense since it highlights the various elements of behavior and the
motivation to leave that covers many inevitable reasons for actual turnover Turnover is
costly (Mitchell et al 2001 Adhinarayanan amp Gurunathan 2011 Cascio amp Bordreau
2011) and maybe difficult to quantify when irreplaceable knowledge assets or institutional
memory are lost These costs do not stop here Each time an employee leaves the firm
productivity is presumed to drop due to the learning curve involved in understanding the
job and the organization In addition research proves that after losing key employees
organizations experienced damage reputation customer relationship had lost best
practices information and lost significant income (Warren 1999) Ultimately in most
cases the involvement of superiors included positions all the way up to and including the
Chief Executive Officer (CEO) becomes inevitable This demonstrates that turnover issues
impact the firm by utilizing the precious time of senior managers This is in addition to
other expenses including loss of training and retraining time loss of human and relational
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capital Ultimately organizational success is not viable through personnel replacement
activities (Smith and Rupp 2004)
Turnover intention has brought about the importance of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness The relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and
turnover intention has since become the most renowned issue in the field of management
research One of the common objectives of performance appraisal is to retain the topmost
performing employees through quality performance appraisal that leads to fair
compensation amounts high motivation and better career prospects (Zimmerman 2009
Abdullah et al 2011) Hence the intensity of performance appraisal effectiveness
perception is fundamental in encouraging an employee to stay within one‟s employment
(Griffeth et al 2000 Smith and Rupp 2002 Benson et al 2010) An employee with a
low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness could oppose the best
interest of an employee The employee will feel that his or her contributions are not
effectively appraised or recognized and thus will posit a negative organizational attitude
In view of being underrated the employee willingness to be in employment will weaken
Hence the following proposition is established
P1 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will be associated with
higher levels of turnover intention relative to those with high intensity of perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness
32 Performance appraisal career commitment and intention to quit
Career commitment concept that was first introduced by Blau (1985) simply refers to
one‟s inspiration to stay in one‟s chosen career (Blau 1985 1989) It focuses on a uni-
dimensional measure which involves one‟s identification and involvement in one‟s
occupation or career along with one‟s effort in the pursuit of supporting one‟s career goals
(Blau 1985 Colarelli and Bishop 1990 Goulet and Singh 2002) The conceptualization
of career commitment was later extended into a multidimensional measure of accumulated
investments and cost of pursuing another new career (ldquocontinuancerdquo) attachment to a
career (ldquoaffectiverdquo) and feelings of obligation to remain in one career (ldquonormativerdquo)
commitment (Meyer et al 1993 2006 Meyer and Herscovitch 2001) Subsequently
these measures closely concur with another alternative multidimensional concept that
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measures one‟s strong feeling of attachment to one‟s career (ldquocareer identityrdquo) one‟s
strength to withhold one‟s career against commotion (ldquocareer resiliencerdquo) and clear
understanding of one‟s career path (ldquocareer insightrdquo) (London 1983 Carson and Bedeian
1994)
Performance appraisal may be seen as a viable organizational tool that may be used to
motivate direct and develop subordinates According to Smith and Rupp (2004)
performance-based rewards and understanding work-effects linkage would successfully
engage knowledge workers Knowledge workers enjoy the most positive work
environment on all measures which include perceptions of appraisal effectiveness (HR
professional 2001) High intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
should result in extrinsic rewards such as higher salaries (Day and Allen 2004) or
advancement (Allen 2006) as well as intrinsic rewards such as self-satisfaction (Locke
and Latham 1990 Greenhaus and Parasuraman 1993) These rewards would enable
employees to direct their energies in directions appropriate to their careers With higher
levels of career commitment individuals may make significant investments in their careers
to pursue their high career goals regardless of the setbacks (Colarelli and Bishop 1990
Aryee et al 1994 Mohamad et al 2006 Connie et al 2009) They would also engage
themselves with organizational training and job enrichment programs to attain new or
higher skills and knowledge This career advancement path along with their morale and
optimism would thus negate their turnover intentions (Lobburi 2012 Abdullah et al
2012 Thwala et al 2012)
Conversely employees with low intensity of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness allege that instead being a means of measuring subordinates the appraisal
role is solely a powerful channel of managerial control (Edmonstone 1996 Weise et al
1998) The performance appraisal systems which tend not to incorporate employees
personal aspirations with their future development have been cited by several authors
(Freeman 2002 Wilson and Western 2000 Long 1986) Evidently there exist
conflicting values and goals between organizations and these professionals (Lee et al
2000) Due to the divergent needs of stakeholders the appraisal process itself is often a
source of unmet expectations (Murphy and Cleveland 1995) Usually what is articulated
by the management is not what is valued and rewarded Most often than not they feel that
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their contribution is not effectively appraised and recognized Considering perceptions of
the appraisal effectiveness may contradict employees‟ beliefs about their contributions we
would expect them not to persistently manage and pursue their career growth successfully
As a consequence employees would exhibit lower levels of career commitment (Anna
2008 Barbara 2012) and have no interest to prolong their tenure Since perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness is expected to have a positive impact on career
commitment that will negatively affect turnover intention we make the following
propositions
P2 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will tend to be
associated with lower levels of career commitment relative to those with high intensity of
perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
P3 As a consequence employee turnover intention level will be higher
PAPpa
Figure 1 Conceptual model depicting the indirect (through career commitment
components) associations of performance appraisal and turnover intention
PA Components
objectives
criteria
measurement
sources
feedback
frequency
Career
Commitment
Career
identity
Career
resilience
Career
insight
Turnover
Intention
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40 Concluding thoughts and proposals for future research
Generally there have been a tremendous number of written literatures on performance
appraisal career commitment and turnover intention This study in particular attempt to
fill the gap in the existing literatures on the direct impact of career commitment on the
relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and turnover intention
Our study takes into account the complete framework of performance appraisal system
rather than each one of its components while the focus on career commitment is split into
the strength of one‟s attachment resistant and developmentplanning towards his career or
profession There exists evidence suggesting that the intensity of perceived performance
appraisal effectiveness will somehow affect a knowledge worker general level of career
commitment through expected extrinsic and intrinsic organizational compensation
benefits and rewards Employees with high intensity of perceived performance appraisal
are therefore highly committed to their career and thus posit a low turnover intention
Thus Improving performance appraisal practices to enhance career commitment should be
an important objective for those responsible for reducing turnover intention Hence
organizations should pay more attention on how to effectively appraise and recognize their
knowledge worker contribution The conceptual model that is mapped out aspires to be
dynamic since it can be adapted across knowledge and non-knowledge-based industries
The model rest upon the employer-employee concerns expectations and perceptions in
today‟s contemporary organizational setting Indirectly the model also argues on the
challenges faced by any organizations for continuous and iterative human resource
practices on managing and retaining their knowledge workers Hence there should a fit on
the part of organizational values norms culture and beliefs towards these concerns
expectations and perceptions It is therefore crucial to recognize that businesses ultimate
success is dependent upon the attitudes and behaviors of these knowledge staff and they
are in need of strong supporting structures Although this study makes progress to increase
understanding of how perceived performance appraisal effectiveness affect directly and
interactively turnover intention future work should include moderation effects of
psychological contract and organization benefits in career-related research It is also
noteworthy to consider both organizational and career commitments concurrently for
future performance appraisal-turnover intention research The propositions set out above
will then be the starting point for developing empirical research work for further
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organizational understanding of the issues and planning of interventions It would be a
significant contribution to the field of human resource management literatures
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Costigan R D Insinga R C Kranas G Ilter S S Kureshov V A amp Berman J J
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agreement International Journal of Commerce and Management 15 205-20
Cleveland J N and Murphy K R (1992) Analyzing performance appraisal as goal
directed behaviour In Ferris G R amp Rowland K M (Eds) Research in Personnel and
Human Resources Management 10 121-185 Greenwich CT JAI Press
Cleveland J N Murphy K R amp Williams R E (1989) Multiple uses of performance
appraisal prevalence and correlates Journal of Applied Psychology 74 130-5
Coens T amp Jenkins M (2001) Focusing on performance Security Management 45 (8)
34-44
Collarelli S M amp Bishop R C (1990) Career commitment Functions correlations and
management Group and Organization Studies 15 158-176
Creotec (2006) Knowledge Creative and Passion [Online] Available
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Damir B Martin S amp Ljubica B (2008) HRM practices in managing knowledge
workers 2nd Special Focus Symposium on ICESKS Information Communication and
Economic Sciences in the Knowledge Society Zadar Nov 13-14
Davenport R (2005) Why does KM still matter T + D 59 (2) 18-23
Davenport T (2002) Can you boost knowledge works impact on the bottom line
Management Update 7 (11) 3-5
Davenport T amp Prusak L (2000) Working Knowledge How Organizations Manage
What They Know Boston MA Harvard Business School Press
Davenport T Thomas R amp Cantrell S (2002) The mysterious art and science of
knowledge-worker performance MIT Sloan Management Review 44 (1) 23-9
Day R amp Allen T D (2004) The relationship between career motivation and self-
efficacy with proteacutegeacute career success Journal of Vocational Behavior 64 72-91
Drenth P J D (1984) Performance appraisal In Drenth P J D Thierry H Willems
P J amp De Wolff C J (Eds) Handbook of Work and Organisational Psychology
New York NY John Wiley and Sons
Deming W E (1986) Out of Crisis Cambridge MA Massachusetts Institute of
Technology Centre for Advanced Engineering Study
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31 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
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Denisi A S amp Shaw J B (1977) Investigation of the uses of self-reports of abilities
Journal of Applied Psychology 62 641-4
Depress C amp Hiltrop J M (1995) Human resource management in the knowledge age
Employee Relations 17 (1) 9-23
DeVries D L Morrison A M Shullman S L amp Gerlach M L (1981) Performance
Appraisal On The Line Greensboro NC Center for Creative Leadership
Dove R (1998) The knowledge worker Automotive Manufacturing and Production 110
(6) 26-8
Drucker P (1994) Adventures of a Bystander New Brunswick NJ Transaction
Publishers
Drucker P (1999) Knowledge-worker productivity the biggest challenge California
Management Review 41 (2) 79-85
Earley P C Northcraft G B Lee C amp Lituchy T R (1990) Impact of process and
outcome feedback on the relation of goal setting to performance Academy of
Management Journal 33 (1) 87-105
Ebrahim Soltani (2003) Towards a TQM-driven HR performance evaluation an empirical
study Employee Relations 25 (4) 347-370
Ebrahim Soltani (2005) Conflict between theory and practice TQM and performance
appraisal International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management 22 (8) 796-818
Ebrahim Soltani Van Der Meer R B Gennard J amp William M T (2004) Have TQM
organisations adjusted their performance management (appraisal) systems A study of
UK-based TQM-driven organisations The TQM Magazine 16 (6) 403-417
Ebrahim Soltani Van Der Meer R B Williams M T amp Pei-chun Lai (2006) The
compatibility of performance appraisal systems with TQM principles ndash evidence from
current practice International Journal of Operations amp Production Management 26 (1)
92 ndash 112
Edmonstone J (1996) Appraising the state of performance appraisal Health Manpower
Management 22 (6) 9-13
Edwards R G amp Calvin J W (1998) Performance appraisal in academic libraries
minor changes or major renovation Library Review 47 (1) 14 ndash 19
Evans C (2003) Managing for Knowledge HRrsquos strategic role Amsterdam
Butterworth-Heinemann
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32 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Fisher C M (1994) The difference between appraisal schemes variation and
acceptability ndash part I Personnel Review 23 (8) 33-48
Fletcher C amp Baldry C (2000) A study of individual difference and self-awareness in
the context of multi-source feedback Journal of Occupational and Organizational
Psychology 73 303-19
Freeman J (2002) How to improve the effectiveness of performance management and
appraisal by overcoming the root cause of the problem The HRM Guide Network
[Online] Available httpwwwhrmguidecomperformance (December 4 2002)
Freemantle D (1994) The Performance of Performance Appraisal An Appraisal
Windsor Superboss
Fisher M M Eskew D amp Heneman R L (1996) A survey of merit pay plan
effectiveness end of the line for merit pay or hope for improvement Human Resource
Planning 19 (2) 12-19
Geetha H (2013) Performance appraisal with reference to textile sector in Coimbatore
International Refereed Research Journal 4 (1(2)) 56-63
Ghorpade J Chen M M amp Caggiano J (1995) Creating quality-driven performance
appraisal systems The Academy of Management Executive 9 (1) 32-40
Grant D L (1955) A factor analysis of managers‟ ratings Journal of Applied
Psychology 39 283-6
Gratton L (2000 September) Strategic initiative (human resources and strategy)
Personnel Today 29-31
Green F (2005) Demanding Work The paradox of Job Quality in the Affluent Economy
Princeton NJ Princeton University Press
Greene J (1999) The Inequality of Performance Measurements Evaluation 5 (2) 160-
172
Greenhaus J H amp Parasuraman S (1993) Job performance attributions and career
advancement prospects An examination of gender and race effects Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 55 273-297
Griffeth R W Johnson J T amp Griffin M (2000) Factors discriminating functional and
dysfunctional salesforce turnover Journal of Business amp Industrial Marketing 15 (6) 399
ndash 415
Harley B (2002) Employee responses to high performance work system practices an
analysis of the AWIRS95 data Journal of Industrial Relations 44 (3) 418-434
ijcrbwebscom
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Helton R (1988) The bdquobest work‟ method of knowledge worker assessment Industrial
Management 30 (5) 19-22
Horwitz F M Heng C T Quazi H A Nonkelo C Roditi D amp Van Eck P (2006)
Human resource strategies for managing knowledge workers an Afro-Asian comparative
analysis The International Journal of Human Resource Management 17 (5) 775-811
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httpwwwhrpaoorgHRPAOKnowledgeCentreHRProfessional (October 9 2011)
Huselid M A (1995) The impact of human resource management practices on turnover
productivity and corporate financial performance Academy of Management Journal
38635-72
Ilgen D R Barnes-Farrell J L amp McKellin D B (1993) Performance appraisal
process research in the 1980s what has it contributed to appraisal in use Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 54 321-368
Julian M amp Anita D (2000) Knowledge Workers and why your e-business needs them
Malaysian Technology News April 20
Kane J S amp Russell J E A (1998) Performance appraisal and management In
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Experiential Approach (pp237-72) Burr Ridge IL IrwinMcGraw-Hill
Karreman D Sveningsson S amp Alvesson M (2002) The return of the machine
bureaucracy Management control in the work settings of professionals International
Studies of Management amp Organization 32 (2) 70-92
Kavanagh M (1997) I simply want to know how well I am doing Group and
Organization Management 22 (2) 147-8
Kimiz D (2005) Knowledge management in theory and practice (p 21) Oxford UK
Elsevier Inc (Chapter 1)
Knowledge Worker Forum Knowledge Workers (2006) [Online] Available
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(February 16 2011)
Laihonen H Jaumlaumlskelaumlinen A Loumlnnqvist A amp Ruostela J (2012) Measuring the
productivity impacts of new ways of working Journal of Facilities Management 10 (2)
102 ndash 113
ijcrbwebscom
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34 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Lam S S K amp Schaubroeck J (1999) Total quality management and performance
appraisal an experimental study of process versus results and group versus individual
approaches Journal of Organisational Behaviour 20 (4) 445-57
Latham G P (1988) Human resource training and development Annual Review of
Psychology 39 545-582
Latham G P Almost J Mann S amp Moore C (2005) New developments in
performance Management Organizational Dynamics 34 (1) 77-87
Lawler E E (1967) The mulititrait-multirater approach to measuring managerial job
performance Journal of Applied Psychology 51 369-81
Lee S Y Banker R D Potter G amp Srinivasan D (2000) An empirical analysis of
continuing improvements following the implementation of a performance-based
compensation Journal of Accounting and Economics 30 (3) 315-350
Levine E L Flory A amp Ash R A (1977) Self-assessment in personnel selection
Journal of Applied Psychology 62 428-35
Liebowitz J amp Beckman T J (1990) Knowledge Organizations What Every Manager
Should Know Florida Taylor and Francis
Lobburi P (2012) The Influence of Organizational and Social Support on Turnover
Intention in Collectivist Contexts Journal of Applied Business Research 28 (1) 93-104
Locke E A amp Latham G P (1990) A Theory of Goal Setting amp Task Performance
University of Michigan Prentice Hall
London M (1983) Toward a theory of career motivation The Academy of Management
Review 8 (4) 620-630
Long P (1986) Performance Appraisal Revised London Institute of Personnel
Management
Lum L Kervin J Clark K Reid F amp Sirola W (1998) Explaining nursing turnover
intent job satisfaction pay satisfaction or organizational commitment Journal of
Organizational Behaviour 19 (3) 305-320
Mamoria C B (1995) Personnel Management New Delhi Himalaya Publishing House
Maroney B P amp Buckley M R (1992) Does research in performance appraisal
influence the practice of performance appraisal Regretfully not Public Personnel
Management Journal 21 185-195
Martey A K (2002) Research paper Library Management 23 (89) 403-416
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
35 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
McCarthy A M amp Garavan T N (2001) A competency-based model for construction
supervisors in developing countries Journal of European Industrial Training 25 (1) 5-32
McGregor D M (1957) The Human Side of Enterprise The Management Review 46
22-28
McGregor J Tweed D amp Pech R (2004) Human capital in the new economy devils
bargain Journal of Intellectual Capital 5 (1) 153-164
Meyer J P Allen N J amp Smith C A (1993) Commitment to organizations and
occupations 40 extension and test of a three-component conceptualization Journal of
Applied Psychology 78 (4) 538-551
Meyer J P Becker T amp Van Dick R (2006) Social Identities and Commitments at
Work Toward an Integrative Model Journal of Organizational Behavior 27 665-683
Meyer J P amp Herscovitch L (2001) Commitment in workplace toward a general
model Human Resource Management Review 11 299-326
Michie J amp Sheehan M (1999) HRM practices RampD expenditure and innovative
investment evidence from the UK‟s 1990 Workplace Industrial Relations Survey (WIRS)
Industrial amp Corporate Change 8 (2) 211-234
Mitchell T R Holtom B C Lee T W amp Graske T (2001) How to keep your best
employee developing an effective retention policy The Academy of Management
Executive 15 (4) 96-109
Mohamad A H amp Aizzat M N (2006) Predicting turnover intention of hotel
employees The influence of employee development human resource management
practices and trust in organization Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business 8 (1)
33- 45
Mohrman A Resnick-West S amp Lawler E (1989) Designing Performance Appraisal
Systems Aligning Appraisals and Organizational Realities San Francisco CA Jossey-
Bass
Moi Kok Wah (2008) Transforming for the Knowledge-based Economy Through the
Practice of Knowledge Management Certified Global Facilitator and Consultant JT
Frank Academy [Online] Available
httpwwwkmtalknetarticlephpstory=20060922021542703 (February 16 2011)
Mor Barak M E Cherin D A amp Berkman S (1998) Organizational and personal
dimensions in diversity climate Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 34 (1) 82-104
ijcrbwebscom
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36 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Murphy K R amp Cleveland J N (1995) Understanding Performance Appraisal Social
Organizational and Goal-Based Perspectives Thousand Oaks CA Sage
Nickols F (2000) What is‟ in the world of work and working some implications of the
shift to knowledge work Butterworth-Heinemann Yearbook of Knowledge Management
(pp 1-7) [Online] Available httphomeattnetsimnickolsshiftshtm (November 4 2010)
Obisi C (2011) Employee performance appraisal and its implication for individual and
organizational growth Australian Journal of Business and Management Research l (9)
92-97
Oltra V (2005) Knowledge management effective factors the role of HRM Journal of
Knowledge Management 9 (4) 70-86
Parry K W amp amp Sinha P N (2005) Researching the trainability of transformational
organizational leadership Human Resource Development International 8 165-83
Pepitone J S (2002) A case for humaneering IIE Solutions 34 (5) 39-44
Pollard D (2003) The future of knowledge management Discussion paper [Online]
Available
httpblogssaloncom0002007imagesTheFutureofKnowledgeManagementdo
(November 4 2010)
Quinn J B Anderson P amp Finkelstein S (1996a January) Managing professional
intellect making the most of the best Harvard Business Review 74 (2) 71-80
Rendero T (1980) Performance Appraisal Practices Personnel 57 (6) 4-12
Rees W D amp Porter C (2004) Appraisal pitfalls and the training implicationsndashPart 2
Industrial and Commercial Training 36 (1) 29-34
Reneker M amp Steel V (1989) Performance Appraisal Purpose and Techniques In
Creth S amp Duda F (Eds) Personnel Administration in Libraries (pp 152-220) New
York Neal-Schuman Publishers Inc
Ritter B amp Nunnally K (2002) Formalise the feedback employee performance
evaluation Rural Telecommunications 21 (3) 32-6
Robertson M Scarbrough H amp Swan J (2003) Knowledge creation in professional
service firms institutional effects Organization Studies 24 (6) 831-857
Root-Bernstein R (1989) Strategies of research (part 2) Research-Technology
Management 32 (3) 36-41
Rosenbaum B (1991) Leading todayprimes professional Research-Technology Management
34 (2) 30-35
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Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
Salleh M Amin A Muda S amp Abdul Halim M A S (2013) Fairness of Performance
Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
Sarita K (2012) A study on performance appraisal errors of telecom managers in Navi
Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
Scholtes P R (1993) Total quality or performance appraisal choose one National
Productivity Review 12 (2) 349-63
Scott P B (2005) Knowledge management Semantics Work identity Communications
Corporate Communications An International Journal 10 (3) 257-277
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2004) Knowledge workers perceptions of performance
ratings Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (3) 146 ndash 166
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
workers a resource of the firm theory view Journal of Knowledge Management 6 (3)
250ndash261
St-Onge S Morin D Bellehumeur M amp Dupuis F (2009) Managers motivation to
evaluate subordinate performance Qualitative Research in Organizations and
Management An International Journal 4 (3) 273-293
Storey J (1987 November) Developments in the Management of Human Resources An
Interim Report IRRU School of Industrial and Business Studies University of Warwick
Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No17
Strebler M T Robinson D amp Bevan S (2001) Performance review balancing
objective and content The Institute of Employment Studies Brighton Report No 370
Stuhlman D (2006) Helping you turn data into knowledge knowledge Management
Terms [Online] Available httpwwwhomeearthlinknet~ddstuhlmandefin1htm
(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
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Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
Zimmerman K (2009) The impact of job performance on employee turnover and the
voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
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2000) lifestyles and new environment (Julian and Anita 2000) While craving for latest
and best designs simulation tools and measurement equipments they do have access to
the latest information or knowledge within the field of their domain and persistent
determination in the experimentation of something new and challenging Closeness with
professional peers and networks disclose opportunities to pursue their lifelong learning
interest (Despres and Hilltrop 1995 Julian and Anita 2000 Zalina 2005) and make them
highly competitive in planning to resign and find alternative employment (Mitchell et al
2001) McGregor et al (2004) further discover that these knowledge workers are
significantly independent of their employers and typically do not expect to be employed
longer than what is stipulated in their employment contract
22 Performance appraisal elements and effectiveness
Performance appraisal has increasingly becoming common and serves as a vital human
resource practice in today‟s organizations The practice that was once concentrated on
control and maintenance based approach have somehow progressed towards an approach
that is more engaged with growth motivational and developmental concerns (Dutra 2001
cited in Ubeda and Santos 2007 Obisi 2011) The effectiveness of an appraisal system
depends on how well its purposes are understood accepted and strived to be achieved by
users A favorable performance appraisal would have positive effects on employee
attitudes behaviors and organizational efficiency (Gardner 2008 Salleh et al 2013) For
example higher employee performance and productivity attainment is derived through the
performance appraisal capability in reflecting measuring and evaluating an individual
employee‟s behavior (DeVries et al 1981 Sarita 2012) collaboration teamwork
knowledge reuse and knowledge sharing competencies and accomplishments (Kimiz
2005) over a specific period of time However these positive outcomes are a function of
the employees‟ perception on the overall performance appraisal effectiveness (Benson et
al 2010) Past studies by and large separately focused on the six performance appraisal
components as the source of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness variation
among these critical organizational stakeholders
221 Performance appraisal objectives
As surveys show the general objective of performance appraisal is primarily to improve
an organizational efficiency However this efficiency is expected to be achieved through
settings of a wider range of organizational objectives (McGregor 1957 Mamoria 1995
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Atiomo 2000 cited in Obisi 2011) that reflects the source of perceived performance
appraisal variation (Scholtes 1993) Due to confusion as to the true purpose of a system
that attempts to achieve too many objectives the system has the tendency to fail in
meeting any of its objectives (Reneker and Steel 1989) This appraisal system
imperfection eventually allows the continuity of an appraisal that relies solely upon human
information processing and judgment Likewise these vast conflicting objectives of an
appraisal system has received increasing attention in HR literatures for so many years
(Strebler et al 2001) despite an orthodox appraisal that is expected to motivate
employees through well-defined objectives with provision for training and development
needs (Bach 2005) Performance appraisals exist to merely assist an organization to make
decisions on an employee rather than to help himher make personal decisions on hisher
performance By and large what is typically communicated by the management is not
what is actually rewarded
Other harsh criticisms of impediments that are inherent in the appraisal process include
mismatching of individual and organizational goals individual goals or personal
aspirations with future development that are not linked to long-term organizational goals
or business strategies (Deming 1986 Wilson and Western 2000 Freeman 2002) and
disregard for institutional goals and objectives (Edwards and Calvin 1998) By having a
performance appraisal policy on paper is no guarantee that it will be followed accordingly
(St-Onge et al 2009) Thus many of performance appraisal defects are intractable (Rees
and Porter 2004 Latham et al 2005)
222 Performance criteria
A second source of perceived performance appraisal variation originates from
organizational performance appraisal criteria which are useful variables to measure
individual work place behavior In most organizations what gets measured and rewarded
is what employees do (Evans 2003 Greene 2002) Employees need to see performance
criteria that are explicitly links to key results in their department and organization (Evans
2003) upon which ratings to be obtained Emphasis should be rested more on the quality
of job performance because it acts in an anticipated manner (Lawler 1967 Greene 2002)
Other criteria should include the particular types of behavior that are contingent upon the
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important job functions According to an earlier researcher (Grant 1955) the sufficient
number of performance criteria to be considered is somewhere around three to five factors
However researchers explicate that the vital aspects of the work performed in each
functional area and focus on the strengths and weaknesses of the individual that are due to
the changing organizational environment and nature of jobs and roles (Wiese et al 1998)
are not ldquobuilt inrdquo to the practice of performance appraisal (Ebrahim et al 2006) For
example in the era of knowledge economy demands of knowledge production frequently
place a premium on teamwork and flexibility (Wilson et al 1994) Fairness perceptions
are intensified when employees are held to performance standards that entail greater
commitment and ownership of knowledge sharing activities (Rousseau and Shperling
2003) Unfortunately the greatest emphasis of performance appraisals in organizations is
on individual responsibility for performance and least on team-based compensation system
(Ebrahim et al 2004 Zobal 1998 Abosch and Reidy 1996) Attitudes and not just
behaviors that are pivotal for ongoing knowledge creation and dissemination also need to
be an integral part of performance appraisal criteria (Liebowitz and Beckman 1998)
Attitudes that align with principles of teamwork collaboration and stakeholder
involvement should be appraised and rewarded
223 Performance measurementstandard
An effective performance appraisal exhibits the performance standard that is agreeable
between the rater and ratee (Bobko and Collela 1994) and rating scales are able to
provide descriptive and concrete definitions of the rating constructs rather than being
expressed in absolute terms (Ghorphade et al 1995 Martey 2002) Lucid precise
performance standards rather than vague or no standards will improve the overall
accuracy and effectiveness of an appraisal process (Kane and Russell 1998) Any effective
measuring instrument needs to provide relevant and sufficient measurement criteria to
accurately describe significant behaviors required for successful job performance
(Henderson 1980) These measures must be amenable to scaling and be able to be
weighted Measuring knowledge workers productivity (Bosch-Sijtsema et al 2009) is
difficult due to the complex and dynamic nature of knowledge work (Laihonen et al
2012) It all depends on the nature of jobs that vary from routine to nonroutine (Pepitone
2002 Laihonen et al 2012 Scott 2005) their organizational and contextual factors such
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as culture strategy leadership fellow workers support compensation structures and
physical surrounding (Chan 2007) and the quality of human resources that reflects skills
and competencies (Davenport 2005) Results-based measures are deficient in tapping
aspect of performance as cooperation (Ghorphade et al 1995) and less helpful for
employee development (Cardy and Dobbins 1994 Fisher et al 1996)
The ineffectiveness of performance appraisal (Becker et al 2001) in appraising workers
contributions to departmental goals (Ebrahim et al 2004) are due to irrelevant ambiguous
and undefined measuring dimensions (Green 1999 Martey 2002) and lack of a
performance appraisal system that effectively integrates all the key performance indicators
in support of the organization‟s aims and objectives Additionally many appraisal systems
are much too subjective (St-Onge et al 2009 Benson et al 2010) There has been little
progress in improving the performance rating distortion (Ilgen et al 1993 Cleveland and
Murphy 1995) Organizations intentionally allow their appraisal systems to function
ineffectively perhaps indefinitely to avoid an open conflict because of its capability in
stirring strong feelings and conflict in the organization (Rendero 1980) Often the goal of
the rater is not to evaluate the performance of the employee but to keep the employee
satisfied and not to deleteriously influence employee morale The manager also has to be
concerned about hisher own image Employees receive negative ratings reflects poorly on
the manager (Kumari 2012) It is unlikely that any managerial problem has so
successfully resisted solution than arriving at an acceptable useful and valid method of
appraising performance Organizations attempt to train the rater to improve observational
skills (Edwards and Calvin 1998 Kumari 2012) though the training efforts are usually
disappointing as their effects on appraisal accuracy dissipate over time (Latham 1988
Cleveland and Murphy 1992)
224 Sources of appraisal
Source of appraisal have consistently rely on subordinate-superior unilateral flow of
information since the immediate superior may have sufficient stance to pass judgments on
the subordinate‟s performance (Long 1986 Storey 1987 Ebrahim 2005) This trend in
today‟s matrix and flatter organizational structures has somehow moved towards multiple
sources (Fletcher and Baldry 2000 Costigan et al 2005) that may come from supervisor
subordinates peers self customers suppliers or other related sources (Byrne 1993
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McCarthy and Garavan 2001 Ebrahim et al 2003) Multi-source or 360-degree feedback
(Henderson 1980 Ebrahim 2005) along with self-appraisal is suggested for perceived
unfair appraisal practice or to correct errors from individually-based superiors‟ ratings
(Deming 1986) and teamwork assignment (Waldman 1997 Barnes 1997) Most recent
studies claim this method brings about maximum employee motivation as well as
providing the supervisor with a clear comprehensive and precise account on employees
contribution to the organization objectives (Amsler et al 2001) Likewise ratings by
unfamiliar raters are discouraged so as avoid the ldquohalo effectrdquo ((Drenth 1984)
An effective performance appraisal is believed to be the ones with informal and formal
feedback from a variety of sources However the number of appraisal sources used
depends on organizational cost-benefit appraisal analysis Managers who do not use ldquoself-
appraisalrdquo cite it as not rigorous and accurate due to employees poor objectivity and
reliability on providing information on own ability desire for self-enhancement (DeNisi
and Shaw 1977 Levine et al 1977 Ebrahim 2005) as well as appraising themselves
positively (Mohrman et al 1989) Besides they do not trust employees On the contrary
ldquoself-appraisalrdquo essential contribution towards individual developmental needs is
indisputable in numerous cases (Parry and Sinha 2005 Van Der Heijden and Nijhof
2004)
225 Performance appraisal feedback
Cleveland et al (1989) signifies that performance appraisal specifically provides quality
feedback on strengths and weaknesses in determining training needs transfers assignment
and potential for growth These could be achieved through improved communication on
three key areas pertaining to what and how observations on performance are made why
and how they are discussed and what determines the level of performance in the job
(Edmonstone 1996) Individuals want and seek timely useful and accepted feedback on
their performance that can help individual make great progress toward optimal
performance (Coens and Jenkins 2001) Regardless of the rating given the superior and
his subordinate through an open effective communication should make an effort to identify
areas where improvement can be made for effective performance (Ritter and Nunnally
2002) This informal relationship should be made common activity or as frequent as
possible so as to have a performance appraisal system that reaches valid conclusions
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In an extensive review of the literature on the application of feedback in organizations
Earley et al (1990) distinguished two types of feedback outcome feedback and process
feedback The former concentrates on providing information on specific performance
outcomes and the latter provides information on the manner in which an individual
implements a work strategy The researchers found that process feedback interacted with
goal-setting more strongly than outcome feedback in determining the quality of task
strategies developed by workers their efforts to obtain information beneficial to improving
their performance appraisal satisfaction and perceived appraisal accuracy (Lam and
Schaubroeck 1999) Despite the benefits offered by the performance appraisal feedback
there emerge another major and growing concern expressed by employees on unqualified
manager and their failures to provide complete appropriate or constructive feedback about
employee‟s job performance and improvement areas (Rao 1984 cited in Obisi 2011
Kavanagh 1997) They were not even aware of the feedback objectives and had not been
provided with guidelines and instructions on how to complete the forms (Martey 2002)
While the ideas of providing training to them are theoretically sound the evidence that the
organizations concerned are taking major corrective action to eliminate these concerns is
rather weak Practically the amount of time for this exercise is too demanding
226 Frequency of performance appraisal
A large proportion of organizations conduct appraisal on a yearly basis (Freemantle 1994
Ebrahim 2003) though most employees believe that objectives could not be realized by an
annual performance appraisal Besides both employees and supervisors might not be able
to remember what happened throughout the year due to their selective memory As studied
by Boice and Kleiner (1997) evidence strongly suggests that performance reviews should
be performed on a frequent and ongoing basis to avoid surprises at an annual review
Moreover a study by Geetha (2013) further alleges that employees are unhappy when
there is no periodical or routine feedback from their superiors Besides frequent
performance appraisal has become a common activity in exceptional organizations (Quinn
et al 1996a)
Other appraisals vary from annually with interim reviews to annually with
monthlyquarterly reviews and annually with six to eight weekly reviews Nonetheless
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Fisher (1994) explains that the frequency of performance appraisal is an arduous
dimension to argue due to the ambiguity of the distinction between an appraisal meeting
and a regular daily discussion about work between a superior and a subordinate In
general the problem of frequency has always been one of the major limitations of any
formal approach to performance appraisal Too long an interval between each appraisal
might results in its contents lose relevance and risk artificiality whereas too short an
interval might results in the process to become too time-consuming (Freemantle 1994)
Evidently the actual time period varies in different organizations and with different aims
(Boice and Kleiner 1997) However a typical frequency would be bi-monthly or
quarterly
30 Hypotheses development performance appraisal career commitment and
turnover intention
31 Perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and intention to quit
Intention to withdraw or quit an organization simply refers to an employee‟s perceived
probability of staying or leaving an employing organization Turnover intention has been
recurrently prescribed in literatures as the most immediate predictor to eventual turnover
(Allen et al 2003 Lum et al 1998) The focus of this attitudinal element of turnover
intention makes sense since it highlights the various elements of behavior and the
motivation to leave that covers many inevitable reasons for actual turnover Turnover is
costly (Mitchell et al 2001 Adhinarayanan amp Gurunathan 2011 Cascio amp Bordreau
2011) and maybe difficult to quantify when irreplaceable knowledge assets or institutional
memory are lost These costs do not stop here Each time an employee leaves the firm
productivity is presumed to drop due to the learning curve involved in understanding the
job and the organization In addition research proves that after losing key employees
organizations experienced damage reputation customer relationship had lost best
practices information and lost significant income (Warren 1999) Ultimately in most
cases the involvement of superiors included positions all the way up to and including the
Chief Executive Officer (CEO) becomes inevitable This demonstrates that turnover issues
impact the firm by utilizing the precious time of senior managers This is in addition to
other expenses including loss of training and retraining time loss of human and relational
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capital Ultimately organizational success is not viable through personnel replacement
activities (Smith and Rupp 2004)
Turnover intention has brought about the importance of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness The relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and
turnover intention has since become the most renowned issue in the field of management
research One of the common objectives of performance appraisal is to retain the topmost
performing employees through quality performance appraisal that leads to fair
compensation amounts high motivation and better career prospects (Zimmerman 2009
Abdullah et al 2011) Hence the intensity of performance appraisal effectiveness
perception is fundamental in encouraging an employee to stay within one‟s employment
(Griffeth et al 2000 Smith and Rupp 2002 Benson et al 2010) An employee with a
low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness could oppose the best
interest of an employee The employee will feel that his or her contributions are not
effectively appraised or recognized and thus will posit a negative organizational attitude
In view of being underrated the employee willingness to be in employment will weaken
Hence the following proposition is established
P1 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will be associated with
higher levels of turnover intention relative to those with high intensity of perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness
32 Performance appraisal career commitment and intention to quit
Career commitment concept that was first introduced by Blau (1985) simply refers to
one‟s inspiration to stay in one‟s chosen career (Blau 1985 1989) It focuses on a uni-
dimensional measure which involves one‟s identification and involvement in one‟s
occupation or career along with one‟s effort in the pursuit of supporting one‟s career goals
(Blau 1985 Colarelli and Bishop 1990 Goulet and Singh 2002) The conceptualization
of career commitment was later extended into a multidimensional measure of accumulated
investments and cost of pursuing another new career (ldquocontinuancerdquo) attachment to a
career (ldquoaffectiverdquo) and feelings of obligation to remain in one career (ldquonormativerdquo)
commitment (Meyer et al 1993 2006 Meyer and Herscovitch 2001) Subsequently
these measures closely concur with another alternative multidimensional concept that
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measures one‟s strong feeling of attachment to one‟s career (ldquocareer identityrdquo) one‟s
strength to withhold one‟s career against commotion (ldquocareer resiliencerdquo) and clear
understanding of one‟s career path (ldquocareer insightrdquo) (London 1983 Carson and Bedeian
1994)
Performance appraisal may be seen as a viable organizational tool that may be used to
motivate direct and develop subordinates According to Smith and Rupp (2004)
performance-based rewards and understanding work-effects linkage would successfully
engage knowledge workers Knowledge workers enjoy the most positive work
environment on all measures which include perceptions of appraisal effectiveness (HR
professional 2001) High intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
should result in extrinsic rewards such as higher salaries (Day and Allen 2004) or
advancement (Allen 2006) as well as intrinsic rewards such as self-satisfaction (Locke
and Latham 1990 Greenhaus and Parasuraman 1993) These rewards would enable
employees to direct their energies in directions appropriate to their careers With higher
levels of career commitment individuals may make significant investments in their careers
to pursue their high career goals regardless of the setbacks (Colarelli and Bishop 1990
Aryee et al 1994 Mohamad et al 2006 Connie et al 2009) They would also engage
themselves with organizational training and job enrichment programs to attain new or
higher skills and knowledge This career advancement path along with their morale and
optimism would thus negate their turnover intentions (Lobburi 2012 Abdullah et al
2012 Thwala et al 2012)
Conversely employees with low intensity of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness allege that instead being a means of measuring subordinates the appraisal
role is solely a powerful channel of managerial control (Edmonstone 1996 Weise et al
1998) The performance appraisal systems which tend not to incorporate employees
personal aspirations with their future development have been cited by several authors
(Freeman 2002 Wilson and Western 2000 Long 1986) Evidently there exist
conflicting values and goals between organizations and these professionals (Lee et al
2000) Due to the divergent needs of stakeholders the appraisal process itself is often a
source of unmet expectations (Murphy and Cleveland 1995) Usually what is articulated
by the management is not what is valued and rewarded Most often than not they feel that
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their contribution is not effectively appraised and recognized Considering perceptions of
the appraisal effectiveness may contradict employees‟ beliefs about their contributions we
would expect them not to persistently manage and pursue their career growth successfully
As a consequence employees would exhibit lower levels of career commitment (Anna
2008 Barbara 2012) and have no interest to prolong their tenure Since perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness is expected to have a positive impact on career
commitment that will negatively affect turnover intention we make the following
propositions
P2 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will tend to be
associated with lower levels of career commitment relative to those with high intensity of
perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
P3 As a consequence employee turnover intention level will be higher
PAPpa
Figure 1 Conceptual model depicting the indirect (through career commitment
components) associations of performance appraisal and turnover intention
PA Components
objectives
criteria
measurement
sources
feedback
frequency
Career
Commitment
Career
identity
Career
resilience
Career
insight
Turnover
Intention
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40 Concluding thoughts and proposals for future research
Generally there have been a tremendous number of written literatures on performance
appraisal career commitment and turnover intention This study in particular attempt to
fill the gap in the existing literatures on the direct impact of career commitment on the
relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and turnover intention
Our study takes into account the complete framework of performance appraisal system
rather than each one of its components while the focus on career commitment is split into
the strength of one‟s attachment resistant and developmentplanning towards his career or
profession There exists evidence suggesting that the intensity of perceived performance
appraisal effectiveness will somehow affect a knowledge worker general level of career
commitment through expected extrinsic and intrinsic organizational compensation
benefits and rewards Employees with high intensity of perceived performance appraisal
are therefore highly committed to their career and thus posit a low turnover intention
Thus Improving performance appraisal practices to enhance career commitment should be
an important objective for those responsible for reducing turnover intention Hence
organizations should pay more attention on how to effectively appraise and recognize their
knowledge worker contribution The conceptual model that is mapped out aspires to be
dynamic since it can be adapted across knowledge and non-knowledge-based industries
The model rest upon the employer-employee concerns expectations and perceptions in
today‟s contemporary organizational setting Indirectly the model also argues on the
challenges faced by any organizations for continuous and iterative human resource
practices on managing and retaining their knowledge workers Hence there should a fit on
the part of organizational values norms culture and beliefs towards these concerns
expectations and perceptions It is therefore crucial to recognize that businesses ultimate
success is dependent upon the attitudes and behaviors of these knowledge staff and they
are in need of strong supporting structures Although this study makes progress to increase
understanding of how perceived performance appraisal effectiveness affect directly and
interactively turnover intention future work should include moderation effects of
psychological contract and organization benefits in career-related research It is also
noteworthy to consider both organizational and career commitments concurrently for
future performance appraisal-turnover intention research The propositions set out above
will then be the starting point for developing empirical research work for further
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organizational understanding of the issues and planning of interventions It would be a
significant contribution to the field of human resource management literatures
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Reneker M amp Steel V (1989) Performance Appraisal Purpose and Techniques In
Creth S amp Duda F (Eds) Personnel Administration in Libraries (pp 152-220) New
York Neal-Schuman Publishers Inc
Ritter B amp Nunnally K (2002) Formalise the feedback employee performance
evaluation Rural Telecommunications 21 (3) 32-6
Robertson M Scarbrough H amp Swan J (2003) Knowledge creation in professional
service firms institutional effects Organization Studies 24 (6) 831-857
Root-Bernstein R (1989) Strategies of research (part 2) Research-Technology
Management 32 (3) 36-41
Rosenbaum B (1991) Leading todayprimes professional Research-Technology Management
34 (2) 30-35
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Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
Salleh M Amin A Muda S amp Abdul Halim M A S (2013) Fairness of Performance
Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
Sarita K (2012) A study on performance appraisal errors of telecom managers in Navi
Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
Scholtes P R (1993) Total quality or performance appraisal choose one National
Productivity Review 12 (2) 349-63
Scott P B (2005) Knowledge management Semantics Work identity Communications
Corporate Communications An International Journal 10 (3) 257-277
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2004) Knowledge workers perceptions of performance
ratings Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (3) 146 ndash 166
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
workers a resource of the firm theory view Journal of Knowledge Management 6 (3)
250ndash261
St-Onge S Morin D Bellehumeur M amp Dupuis F (2009) Managers motivation to
evaluate subordinate performance Qualitative Research in Organizations and
Management An International Journal 4 (3) 273-293
Storey J (1987 November) Developments in the Management of Human Resources An
Interim Report IRRU School of Industrial and Business Studies University of Warwick
Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No17
Strebler M T Robinson D amp Bevan S (2001) Performance review balancing
objective and content The Institute of Employment Studies Brighton Report No 370
Stuhlman D (2006) Helping you turn data into knowledge knowledge Management
Terms [Online] Available httpwwwhomeearthlinknet~ddstuhlmandefin1htm
(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
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Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
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voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
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Atiomo 2000 cited in Obisi 2011) that reflects the source of perceived performance
appraisal variation (Scholtes 1993) Due to confusion as to the true purpose of a system
that attempts to achieve too many objectives the system has the tendency to fail in
meeting any of its objectives (Reneker and Steel 1989) This appraisal system
imperfection eventually allows the continuity of an appraisal that relies solely upon human
information processing and judgment Likewise these vast conflicting objectives of an
appraisal system has received increasing attention in HR literatures for so many years
(Strebler et al 2001) despite an orthodox appraisal that is expected to motivate
employees through well-defined objectives with provision for training and development
needs (Bach 2005) Performance appraisals exist to merely assist an organization to make
decisions on an employee rather than to help himher make personal decisions on hisher
performance By and large what is typically communicated by the management is not
what is actually rewarded
Other harsh criticisms of impediments that are inherent in the appraisal process include
mismatching of individual and organizational goals individual goals or personal
aspirations with future development that are not linked to long-term organizational goals
or business strategies (Deming 1986 Wilson and Western 2000 Freeman 2002) and
disregard for institutional goals and objectives (Edwards and Calvin 1998) By having a
performance appraisal policy on paper is no guarantee that it will be followed accordingly
(St-Onge et al 2009) Thus many of performance appraisal defects are intractable (Rees
and Porter 2004 Latham et al 2005)
222 Performance criteria
A second source of perceived performance appraisal variation originates from
organizational performance appraisal criteria which are useful variables to measure
individual work place behavior In most organizations what gets measured and rewarded
is what employees do (Evans 2003 Greene 2002) Employees need to see performance
criteria that are explicitly links to key results in their department and organization (Evans
2003) upon which ratings to be obtained Emphasis should be rested more on the quality
of job performance because it acts in an anticipated manner (Lawler 1967 Greene 2002)
Other criteria should include the particular types of behavior that are contingent upon the
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important job functions According to an earlier researcher (Grant 1955) the sufficient
number of performance criteria to be considered is somewhere around three to five factors
However researchers explicate that the vital aspects of the work performed in each
functional area and focus on the strengths and weaknesses of the individual that are due to
the changing organizational environment and nature of jobs and roles (Wiese et al 1998)
are not ldquobuilt inrdquo to the practice of performance appraisal (Ebrahim et al 2006) For
example in the era of knowledge economy demands of knowledge production frequently
place a premium on teamwork and flexibility (Wilson et al 1994) Fairness perceptions
are intensified when employees are held to performance standards that entail greater
commitment and ownership of knowledge sharing activities (Rousseau and Shperling
2003) Unfortunately the greatest emphasis of performance appraisals in organizations is
on individual responsibility for performance and least on team-based compensation system
(Ebrahim et al 2004 Zobal 1998 Abosch and Reidy 1996) Attitudes and not just
behaviors that are pivotal for ongoing knowledge creation and dissemination also need to
be an integral part of performance appraisal criteria (Liebowitz and Beckman 1998)
Attitudes that align with principles of teamwork collaboration and stakeholder
involvement should be appraised and rewarded
223 Performance measurementstandard
An effective performance appraisal exhibits the performance standard that is agreeable
between the rater and ratee (Bobko and Collela 1994) and rating scales are able to
provide descriptive and concrete definitions of the rating constructs rather than being
expressed in absolute terms (Ghorphade et al 1995 Martey 2002) Lucid precise
performance standards rather than vague or no standards will improve the overall
accuracy and effectiveness of an appraisal process (Kane and Russell 1998) Any effective
measuring instrument needs to provide relevant and sufficient measurement criteria to
accurately describe significant behaviors required for successful job performance
(Henderson 1980) These measures must be amenable to scaling and be able to be
weighted Measuring knowledge workers productivity (Bosch-Sijtsema et al 2009) is
difficult due to the complex and dynamic nature of knowledge work (Laihonen et al
2012) It all depends on the nature of jobs that vary from routine to nonroutine (Pepitone
2002 Laihonen et al 2012 Scott 2005) their organizational and contextual factors such
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as culture strategy leadership fellow workers support compensation structures and
physical surrounding (Chan 2007) and the quality of human resources that reflects skills
and competencies (Davenport 2005) Results-based measures are deficient in tapping
aspect of performance as cooperation (Ghorphade et al 1995) and less helpful for
employee development (Cardy and Dobbins 1994 Fisher et al 1996)
The ineffectiveness of performance appraisal (Becker et al 2001) in appraising workers
contributions to departmental goals (Ebrahim et al 2004) are due to irrelevant ambiguous
and undefined measuring dimensions (Green 1999 Martey 2002) and lack of a
performance appraisal system that effectively integrates all the key performance indicators
in support of the organization‟s aims and objectives Additionally many appraisal systems
are much too subjective (St-Onge et al 2009 Benson et al 2010) There has been little
progress in improving the performance rating distortion (Ilgen et al 1993 Cleveland and
Murphy 1995) Organizations intentionally allow their appraisal systems to function
ineffectively perhaps indefinitely to avoid an open conflict because of its capability in
stirring strong feelings and conflict in the organization (Rendero 1980) Often the goal of
the rater is not to evaluate the performance of the employee but to keep the employee
satisfied and not to deleteriously influence employee morale The manager also has to be
concerned about hisher own image Employees receive negative ratings reflects poorly on
the manager (Kumari 2012) It is unlikely that any managerial problem has so
successfully resisted solution than arriving at an acceptable useful and valid method of
appraising performance Organizations attempt to train the rater to improve observational
skills (Edwards and Calvin 1998 Kumari 2012) though the training efforts are usually
disappointing as their effects on appraisal accuracy dissipate over time (Latham 1988
Cleveland and Murphy 1992)
224 Sources of appraisal
Source of appraisal have consistently rely on subordinate-superior unilateral flow of
information since the immediate superior may have sufficient stance to pass judgments on
the subordinate‟s performance (Long 1986 Storey 1987 Ebrahim 2005) This trend in
today‟s matrix and flatter organizational structures has somehow moved towards multiple
sources (Fletcher and Baldry 2000 Costigan et al 2005) that may come from supervisor
subordinates peers self customers suppliers or other related sources (Byrne 1993
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McCarthy and Garavan 2001 Ebrahim et al 2003) Multi-source or 360-degree feedback
(Henderson 1980 Ebrahim 2005) along with self-appraisal is suggested for perceived
unfair appraisal practice or to correct errors from individually-based superiors‟ ratings
(Deming 1986) and teamwork assignment (Waldman 1997 Barnes 1997) Most recent
studies claim this method brings about maximum employee motivation as well as
providing the supervisor with a clear comprehensive and precise account on employees
contribution to the organization objectives (Amsler et al 2001) Likewise ratings by
unfamiliar raters are discouraged so as avoid the ldquohalo effectrdquo ((Drenth 1984)
An effective performance appraisal is believed to be the ones with informal and formal
feedback from a variety of sources However the number of appraisal sources used
depends on organizational cost-benefit appraisal analysis Managers who do not use ldquoself-
appraisalrdquo cite it as not rigorous and accurate due to employees poor objectivity and
reliability on providing information on own ability desire for self-enhancement (DeNisi
and Shaw 1977 Levine et al 1977 Ebrahim 2005) as well as appraising themselves
positively (Mohrman et al 1989) Besides they do not trust employees On the contrary
ldquoself-appraisalrdquo essential contribution towards individual developmental needs is
indisputable in numerous cases (Parry and Sinha 2005 Van Der Heijden and Nijhof
2004)
225 Performance appraisal feedback
Cleveland et al (1989) signifies that performance appraisal specifically provides quality
feedback on strengths and weaknesses in determining training needs transfers assignment
and potential for growth These could be achieved through improved communication on
three key areas pertaining to what and how observations on performance are made why
and how they are discussed and what determines the level of performance in the job
(Edmonstone 1996) Individuals want and seek timely useful and accepted feedback on
their performance that can help individual make great progress toward optimal
performance (Coens and Jenkins 2001) Regardless of the rating given the superior and
his subordinate through an open effective communication should make an effort to identify
areas where improvement can be made for effective performance (Ritter and Nunnally
2002) This informal relationship should be made common activity or as frequent as
possible so as to have a performance appraisal system that reaches valid conclusions
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In an extensive review of the literature on the application of feedback in organizations
Earley et al (1990) distinguished two types of feedback outcome feedback and process
feedback The former concentrates on providing information on specific performance
outcomes and the latter provides information on the manner in which an individual
implements a work strategy The researchers found that process feedback interacted with
goal-setting more strongly than outcome feedback in determining the quality of task
strategies developed by workers their efforts to obtain information beneficial to improving
their performance appraisal satisfaction and perceived appraisal accuracy (Lam and
Schaubroeck 1999) Despite the benefits offered by the performance appraisal feedback
there emerge another major and growing concern expressed by employees on unqualified
manager and their failures to provide complete appropriate or constructive feedback about
employee‟s job performance and improvement areas (Rao 1984 cited in Obisi 2011
Kavanagh 1997) They were not even aware of the feedback objectives and had not been
provided with guidelines and instructions on how to complete the forms (Martey 2002)
While the ideas of providing training to them are theoretically sound the evidence that the
organizations concerned are taking major corrective action to eliminate these concerns is
rather weak Practically the amount of time for this exercise is too demanding
226 Frequency of performance appraisal
A large proportion of organizations conduct appraisal on a yearly basis (Freemantle 1994
Ebrahim 2003) though most employees believe that objectives could not be realized by an
annual performance appraisal Besides both employees and supervisors might not be able
to remember what happened throughout the year due to their selective memory As studied
by Boice and Kleiner (1997) evidence strongly suggests that performance reviews should
be performed on a frequent and ongoing basis to avoid surprises at an annual review
Moreover a study by Geetha (2013) further alleges that employees are unhappy when
there is no periodical or routine feedback from their superiors Besides frequent
performance appraisal has become a common activity in exceptional organizations (Quinn
et al 1996a)
Other appraisals vary from annually with interim reviews to annually with
monthlyquarterly reviews and annually with six to eight weekly reviews Nonetheless
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Fisher (1994) explains that the frequency of performance appraisal is an arduous
dimension to argue due to the ambiguity of the distinction between an appraisal meeting
and a regular daily discussion about work between a superior and a subordinate In
general the problem of frequency has always been one of the major limitations of any
formal approach to performance appraisal Too long an interval between each appraisal
might results in its contents lose relevance and risk artificiality whereas too short an
interval might results in the process to become too time-consuming (Freemantle 1994)
Evidently the actual time period varies in different organizations and with different aims
(Boice and Kleiner 1997) However a typical frequency would be bi-monthly or
quarterly
30 Hypotheses development performance appraisal career commitment and
turnover intention
31 Perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and intention to quit
Intention to withdraw or quit an organization simply refers to an employee‟s perceived
probability of staying or leaving an employing organization Turnover intention has been
recurrently prescribed in literatures as the most immediate predictor to eventual turnover
(Allen et al 2003 Lum et al 1998) The focus of this attitudinal element of turnover
intention makes sense since it highlights the various elements of behavior and the
motivation to leave that covers many inevitable reasons for actual turnover Turnover is
costly (Mitchell et al 2001 Adhinarayanan amp Gurunathan 2011 Cascio amp Bordreau
2011) and maybe difficult to quantify when irreplaceable knowledge assets or institutional
memory are lost These costs do not stop here Each time an employee leaves the firm
productivity is presumed to drop due to the learning curve involved in understanding the
job and the organization In addition research proves that after losing key employees
organizations experienced damage reputation customer relationship had lost best
practices information and lost significant income (Warren 1999) Ultimately in most
cases the involvement of superiors included positions all the way up to and including the
Chief Executive Officer (CEO) becomes inevitable This demonstrates that turnover issues
impact the firm by utilizing the precious time of senior managers This is in addition to
other expenses including loss of training and retraining time loss of human and relational
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capital Ultimately organizational success is not viable through personnel replacement
activities (Smith and Rupp 2004)
Turnover intention has brought about the importance of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness The relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and
turnover intention has since become the most renowned issue in the field of management
research One of the common objectives of performance appraisal is to retain the topmost
performing employees through quality performance appraisal that leads to fair
compensation amounts high motivation and better career prospects (Zimmerman 2009
Abdullah et al 2011) Hence the intensity of performance appraisal effectiveness
perception is fundamental in encouraging an employee to stay within one‟s employment
(Griffeth et al 2000 Smith and Rupp 2002 Benson et al 2010) An employee with a
low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness could oppose the best
interest of an employee The employee will feel that his or her contributions are not
effectively appraised or recognized and thus will posit a negative organizational attitude
In view of being underrated the employee willingness to be in employment will weaken
Hence the following proposition is established
P1 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will be associated with
higher levels of turnover intention relative to those with high intensity of perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness
32 Performance appraisal career commitment and intention to quit
Career commitment concept that was first introduced by Blau (1985) simply refers to
one‟s inspiration to stay in one‟s chosen career (Blau 1985 1989) It focuses on a uni-
dimensional measure which involves one‟s identification and involvement in one‟s
occupation or career along with one‟s effort in the pursuit of supporting one‟s career goals
(Blau 1985 Colarelli and Bishop 1990 Goulet and Singh 2002) The conceptualization
of career commitment was later extended into a multidimensional measure of accumulated
investments and cost of pursuing another new career (ldquocontinuancerdquo) attachment to a
career (ldquoaffectiverdquo) and feelings of obligation to remain in one career (ldquonormativerdquo)
commitment (Meyer et al 1993 2006 Meyer and Herscovitch 2001) Subsequently
these measures closely concur with another alternative multidimensional concept that
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measures one‟s strong feeling of attachment to one‟s career (ldquocareer identityrdquo) one‟s
strength to withhold one‟s career against commotion (ldquocareer resiliencerdquo) and clear
understanding of one‟s career path (ldquocareer insightrdquo) (London 1983 Carson and Bedeian
1994)
Performance appraisal may be seen as a viable organizational tool that may be used to
motivate direct and develop subordinates According to Smith and Rupp (2004)
performance-based rewards and understanding work-effects linkage would successfully
engage knowledge workers Knowledge workers enjoy the most positive work
environment on all measures which include perceptions of appraisal effectiveness (HR
professional 2001) High intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
should result in extrinsic rewards such as higher salaries (Day and Allen 2004) or
advancement (Allen 2006) as well as intrinsic rewards such as self-satisfaction (Locke
and Latham 1990 Greenhaus and Parasuraman 1993) These rewards would enable
employees to direct their energies in directions appropriate to their careers With higher
levels of career commitment individuals may make significant investments in their careers
to pursue their high career goals regardless of the setbacks (Colarelli and Bishop 1990
Aryee et al 1994 Mohamad et al 2006 Connie et al 2009) They would also engage
themselves with organizational training and job enrichment programs to attain new or
higher skills and knowledge This career advancement path along with their morale and
optimism would thus negate their turnover intentions (Lobburi 2012 Abdullah et al
2012 Thwala et al 2012)
Conversely employees with low intensity of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness allege that instead being a means of measuring subordinates the appraisal
role is solely a powerful channel of managerial control (Edmonstone 1996 Weise et al
1998) The performance appraisal systems which tend not to incorporate employees
personal aspirations with their future development have been cited by several authors
(Freeman 2002 Wilson and Western 2000 Long 1986) Evidently there exist
conflicting values and goals between organizations and these professionals (Lee et al
2000) Due to the divergent needs of stakeholders the appraisal process itself is often a
source of unmet expectations (Murphy and Cleveland 1995) Usually what is articulated
by the management is not what is valued and rewarded Most often than not they feel that
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their contribution is not effectively appraised and recognized Considering perceptions of
the appraisal effectiveness may contradict employees‟ beliefs about their contributions we
would expect them not to persistently manage and pursue their career growth successfully
As a consequence employees would exhibit lower levels of career commitment (Anna
2008 Barbara 2012) and have no interest to prolong their tenure Since perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness is expected to have a positive impact on career
commitment that will negatively affect turnover intention we make the following
propositions
P2 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will tend to be
associated with lower levels of career commitment relative to those with high intensity of
perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
P3 As a consequence employee turnover intention level will be higher
PAPpa
Figure 1 Conceptual model depicting the indirect (through career commitment
components) associations of performance appraisal and turnover intention
PA Components
objectives
criteria
measurement
sources
feedback
frequency
Career
Commitment
Career
identity
Career
resilience
Career
insight
Turnover
Intention
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40 Concluding thoughts and proposals for future research
Generally there have been a tremendous number of written literatures on performance
appraisal career commitment and turnover intention This study in particular attempt to
fill the gap in the existing literatures on the direct impact of career commitment on the
relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and turnover intention
Our study takes into account the complete framework of performance appraisal system
rather than each one of its components while the focus on career commitment is split into
the strength of one‟s attachment resistant and developmentplanning towards his career or
profession There exists evidence suggesting that the intensity of perceived performance
appraisal effectiveness will somehow affect a knowledge worker general level of career
commitment through expected extrinsic and intrinsic organizational compensation
benefits and rewards Employees with high intensity of perceived performance appraisal
are therefore highly committed to their career and thus posit a low turnover intention
Thus Improving performance appraisal practices to enhance career commitment should be
an important objective for those responsible for reducing turnover intention Hence
organizations should pay more attention on how to effectively appraise and recognize their
knowledge worker contribution The conceptual model that is mapped out aspires to be
dynamic since it can be adapted across knowledge and non-knowledge-based industries
The model rest upon the employer-employee concerns expectations and perceptions in
today‟s contemporary organizational setting Indirectly the model also argues on the
challenges faced by any organizations for continuous and iterative human resource
practices on managing and retaining their knowledge workers Hence there should a fit on
the part of organizational values norms culture and beliefs towards these concerns
expectations and perceptions It is therefore crucial to recognize that businesses ultimate
success is dependent upon the attitudes and behaviors of these knowledge staff and they
are in need of strong supporting structures Although this study makes progress to increase
understanding of how perceived performance appraisal effectiveness affect directly and
interactively turnover intention future work should include moderation effects of
psychological contract and organization benefits in career-related research It is also
noteworthy to consider both organizational and career commitments concurrently for
future performance appraisal-turnover intention research The propositions set out above
will then be the starting point for developing empirical research work for further
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organizational understanding of the issues and planning of interventions It would be a
significant contribution to the field of human resource management literatures
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Becker B E Huselid M A amp Ulrich D (2001) The HR Scorecard Linking People
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Bosch-Sijtsema P M amp Ruohomaumlki V amp Vartiainen M (2009) Knowledge work
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Byrne J (1993 December) The horizontal corporation Business Week 20 76-81
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Collarelli S M amp Bishop R C (1990) Career commitment Functions correlations and
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Creotec (2006) Knowledge Creative and Passion [Online] Available
httpwwwcreoteccomindexphp (January 5 2007)
Damir B Martin S amp Ljubica B (2008) HRM practices in managing knowledge
workers 2nd Special Focus Symposium on ICESKS Information Communication and
Economic Sciences in the Knowledge Society Zadar Nov 13-14
Davenport R (2005) Why does KM still matter T + D 59 (2) 18-23
Davenport T (2002) Can you boost knowledge works impact on the bottom line
Management Update 7 (11) 3-5
Davenport T amp Prusak L (2000) Working Knowledge How Organizations Manage
What They Know Boston MA Harvard Business School Press
Davenport T Thomas R amp Cantrell S (2002) The mysterious art and science of
knowledge-worker performance MIT Sloan Management Review 44 (1) 23-9
Day R amp Allen T D (2004) The relationship between career motivation and self-
efficacy with proteacutegeacute career success Journal of Vocational Behavior 64 72-91
Drenth P J D (1984) Performance appraisal In Drenth P J D Thierry H Willems
P J amp De Wolff C J (Eds) Handbook of Work and Organisational Psychology
New York NY John Wiley and Sons
Deming W E (1986) Out of Crisis Cambridge MA Massachusetts Institute of
Technology Centre for Advanced Engineering Study
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INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
31 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Denisi A S amp Shaw J B (1977) Investigation of the uses of self-reports of abilities
Journal of Applied Psychology 62 641-4
Depress C amp Hiltrop J M (1995) Human resource management in the knowledge age
Employee Relations 17 (1) 9-23
DeVries D L Morrison A M Shullman S L amp Gerlach M L (1981) Performance
Appraisal On The Line Greensboro NC Center for Creative Leadership
Dove R (1998) The knowledge worker Automotive Manufacturing and Production 110
(6) 26-8
Drucker P (1994) Adventures of a Bystander New Brunswick NJ Transaction
Publishers
Drucker P (1999) Knowledge-worker productivity the biggest challenge California
Management Review 41 (2) 79-85
Earley P C Northcraft G B Lee C amp Lituchy T R (1990) Impact of process and
outcome feedback on the relation of goal setting to performance Academy of
Management Journal 33 (1) 87-105
Ebrahim Soltani (2003) Towards a TQM-driven HR performance evaluation an empirical
study Employee Relations 25 (4) 347-370
Ebrahim Soltani (2005) Conflict between theory and practice TQM and performance
appraisal International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management 22 (8) 796-818
Ebrahim Soltani Van Der Meer R B Gennard J amp William M T (2004) Have TQM
organisations adjusted their performance management (appraisal) systems A study of
UK-based TQM-driven organisations The TQM Magazine 16 (6) 403-417
Ebrahim Soltani Van Der Meer R B Williams M T amp Pei-chun Lai (2006) The
compatibility of performance appraisal systems with TQM principles ndash evidence from
current practice International Journal of Operations amp Production Management 26 (1)
92 ndash 112
Edmonstone J (1996) Appraising the state of performance appraisal Health Manpower
Management 22 (6) 9-13
Edwards R G amp Calvin J W (1998) Performance appraisal in academic libraries
minor changes or major renovation Library Review 47 (1) 14 ndash 19
Evans C (2003) Managing for Knowledge HRrsquos strategic role Amsterdam
Butterworth-Heinemann
ijcrbwebscom
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32 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Fisher C M (1994) The difference between appraisal schemes variation and
acceptability ndash part I Personnel Review 23 (8) 33-48
Fletcher C amp Baldry C (2000) A study of individual difference and self-awareness in
the context of multi-source feedback Journal of Occupational and Organizational
Psychology 73 303-19
Freeman J (2002) How to improve the effectiveness of performance management and
appraisal by overcoming the root cause of the problem The HRM Guide Network
[Online] Available httpwwwhrmguidecomperformance (December 4 2002)
Freemantle D (1994) The Performance of Performance Appraisal An Appraisal
Windsor Superboss
Fisher M M Eskew D amp Heneman R L (1996) A survey of merit pay plan
effectiveness end of the line for merit pay or hope for improvement Human Resource
Planning 19 (2) 12-19
Geetha H (2013) Performance appraisal with reference to textile sector in Coimbatore
International Refereed Research Journal 4 (1(2)) 56-63
Ghorpade J Chen M M amp Caggiano J (1995) Creating quality-driven performance
appraisal systems The Academy of Management Executive 9 (1) 32-40
Grant D L (1955) A factor analysis of managers‟ ratings Journal of Applied
Psychology 39 283-6
Gratton L (2000 September) Strategic initiative (human resources and strategy)
Personnel Today 29-31
Green F (2005) Demanding Work The paradox of Job Quality in the Affluent Economy
Princeton NJ Princeton University Press
Greene J (1999) The Inequality of Performance Measurements Evaluation 5 (2) 160-
172
Greenhaus J H amp Parasuraman S (1993) Job performance attributions and career
advancement prospects An examination of gender and race effects Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 55 273-297
Griffeth R W Johnson J T amp Griffin M (2000) Factors discriminating functional and
dysfunctional salesforce turnover Journal of Business amp Industrial Marketing 15 (6) 399
ndash 415
Harley B (2002) Employee responses to high performance work system practices an
analysis of the AWIRS95 data Journal of Industrial Relations 44 (3) 418-434
ijcrbwebscom
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33 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Helton R (1988) The bdquobest work‟ method of knowledge worker assessment Industrial
Management 30 (5) 19-22
Horwitz F M Heng C T Quazi H A Nonkelo C Roditi D amp Van Eck P (2006)
Human resource strategies for managing knowledge workers an Afro-Asian comparative
analysis The International Journal of Human Resource Management 17 (5) 775-811
HR professional (2001 April) [Online] Available
httpwwwhrpaoorgHRPAOKnowledgeCentreHRProfessional (October 9 2011)
Huselid M A (1995) The impact of human resource management practices on turnover
productivity and corporate financial performance Academy of Management Journal
38635-72
Ilgen D R Barnes-Farrell J L amp McKellin D B (1993) Performance appraisal
process research in the 1980s what has it contributed to appraisal in use Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 54 321-368
Julian M amp Anita D (2000) Knowledge Workers and why your e-business needs them
Malaysian Technology News April 20
Kane J S amp Russell J E A (1998) Performance appraisal and management In
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Experiential Approach (pp237-72) Burr Ridge IL IrwinMcGraw-Hill
Karreman D Sveningsson S amp Alvesson M (2002) The return of the machine
bureaucracy Management control in the work settings of professionals International
Studies of Management amp Organization 32 (2) 70-92
Kavanagh M (1997) I simply want to know how well I am doing Group and
Organization Management 22 (2) 147-8
Kimiz D (2005) Knowledge management in theory and practice (p 21) Oxford UK
Elsevier Inc (Chapter 1)
Knowledge Worker Forum Knowledge Workers (2006) [Online] Available
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(February 16 2011)
Laihonen H Jaumlaumlskelaumlinen A Loumlnnqvist A amp Ruostela J (2012) Measuring the
productivity impacts of new ways of working Journal of Facilities Management 10 (2)
102 ndash 113
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
34 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Lam S S K amp Schaubroeck J (1999) Total quality management and performance
appraisal an experimental study of process versus results and group versus individual
approaches Journal of Organisational Behaviour 20 (4) 445-57
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Psychology 39 545-582
Latham G P Almost J Mann S amp Moore C (2005) New developments in
performance Management Organizational Dynamics 34 (1) 77-87
Lawler E E (1967) The mulititrait-multirater approach to measuring managerial job
performance Journal of Applied Psychology 51 369-81
Lee S Y Banker R D Potter G amp Srinivasan D (2000) An empirical analysis of
continuing improvements following the implementation of a performance-based
compensation Journal of Accounting and Economics 30 (3) 315-350
Levine E L Flory A amp Ash R A (1977) Self-assessment in personnel selection
Journal of Applied Psychology 62 428-35
Liebowitz J amp Beckman T J (1990) Knowledge Organizations What Every Manager
Should Know Florida Taylor and Francis
Lobburi P (2012) The Influence of Organizational and Social Support on Turnover
Intention in Collectivist Contexts Journal of Applied Business Research 28 (1) 93-104
Locke E A amp Latham G P (1990) A Theory of Goal Setting amp Task Performance
University of Michigan Prentice Hall
London M (1983) Toward a theory of career motivation The Academy of Management
Review 8 (4) 620-630
Long P (1986) Performance Appraisal Revised London Institute of Personnel
Management
Lum L Kervin J Clark K Reid F amp Sirola W (1998) Explaining nursing turnover
intent job satisfaction pay satisfaction or organizational commitment Journal of
Organizational Behaviour 19 (3) 305-320
Mamoria C B (1995) Personnel Management New Delhi Himalaya Publishing House
Maroney B P amp Buckley M R (1992) Does research in performance appraisal
influence the practice of performance appraisal Regretfully not Public Personnel
Management Journal 21 185-195
Martey A K (2002) Research paper Library Management 23 (89) 403-416
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
35 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
McCarthy A M amp Garavan T N (2001) A competency-based model for construction
supervisors in developing countries Journal of European Industrial Training 25 (1) 5-32
McGregor D M (1957) The Human Side of Enterprise The Management Review 46
22-28
McGregor J Tweed D amp Pech R (2004) Human capital in the new economy devils
bargain Journal of Intellectual Capital 5 (1) 153-164
Meyer J P Allen N J amp Smith C A (1993) Commitment to organizations and
occupations 40 extension and test of a three-component conceptualization Journal of
Applied Psychology 78 (4) 538-551
Meyer J P Becker T amp Van Dick R (2006) Social Identities and Commitments at
Work Toward an Integrative Model Journal of Organizational Behavior 27 665-683
Meyer J P amp Herscovitch L (2001) Commitment in workplace toward a general
model Human Resource Management Review 11 299-326
Michie J amp Sheehan M (1999) HRM practices RampD expenditure and innovative
investment evidence from the UK‟s 1990 Workplace Industrial Relations Survey (WIRS)
Industrial amp Corporate Change 8 (2) 211-234
Mitchell T R Holtom B C Lee T W amp Graske T (2001) How to keep your best
employee developing an effective retention policy The Academy of Management
Executive 15 (4) 96-109
Mohamad A H amp Aizzat M N (2006) Predicting turnover intention of hotel
employees The influence of employee development human resource management
practices and trust in organization Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business 8 (1)
33- 45
Mohrman A Resnick-West S amp Lawler E (1989) Designing Performance Appraisal
Systems Aligning Appraisals and Organizational Realities San Francisco CA Jossey-
Bass
Moi Kok Wah (2008) Transforming for the Knowledge-based Economy Through the
Practice of Knowledge Management Certified Global Facilitator and Consultant JT
Frank Academy [Online] Available
httpwwwkmtalknetarticlephpstory=20060922021542703 (February 16 2011)
Mor Barak M E Cherin D A amp Berkman S (1998) Organizational and personal
dimensions in diversity climate Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 34 (1) 82-104
ijcrbwebscom
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36 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Murphy K R amp Cleveland J N (1995) Understanding Performance Appraisal Social
Organizational and Goal-Based Perspectives Thousand Oaks CA Sage
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shift to knowledge work Butterworth-Heinemann Yearbook of Knowledge Management
(pp 1-7) [Online] Available httphomeattnetsimnickolsshiftshtm (November 4 2010)
Obisi C (2011) Employee performance appraisal and its implication for individual and
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92-97
Oltra V (2005) Knowledge management effective factors the role of HRM Journal of
Knowledge Management 9 (4) 70-86
Parry K W amp amp Sinha P N (2005) Researching the trainability of transformational
organizational leadership Human Resource Development International 8 165-83
Pepitone J S (2002) A case for humaneering IIE Solutions 34 (5) 39-44
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Available
httpblogssaloncom0002007imagesTheFutureofKnowledgeManagementdo
(November 4 2010)
Quinn J B Anderson P amp Finkelstein S (1996a January) Managing professional
intellect making the most of the best Harvard Business Review 74 (2) 71-80
Rendero T (1980) Performance Appraisal Practices Personnel 57 (6) 4-12
Rees W D amp Porter C (2004) Appraisal pitfalls and the training implicationsndashPart 2
Industrial and Commercial Training 36 (1) 29-34
Reneker M amp Steel V (1989) Performance Appraisal Purpose and Techniques In
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York Neal-Schuman Publishers Inc
Ritter B amp Nunnally K (2002) Formalise the feedback employee performance
evaluation Rural Telecommunications 21 (3) 32-6
Robertson M Scarbrough H amp Swan J (2003) Knowledge creation in professional
service firms institutional effects Organization Studies 24 (6) 831-857
Root-Bernstein R (1989) Strategies of research (part 2) Research-Technology
Management 32 (3) 36-41
Rosenbaum B (1991) Leading todayprimes professional Research-Technology Management
34 (2) 30-35
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Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
Salleh M Amin A Muda S amp Abdul Halim M A S (2013) Fairness of Performance
Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
Sarita K (2012) A study on performance appraisal errors of telecom managers in Navi
Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
Scholtes P R (1993) Total quality or performance appraisal choose one National
Productivity Review 12 (2) 349-63
Scott P B (2005) Knowledge management Semantics Work identity Communications
Corporate Communications An International Journal 10 (3) 257-277
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2004) Knowledge workers perceptions of performance
ratings Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (3) 146 ndash 166
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
workers a resource of the firm theory view Journal of Knowledge Management 6 (3)
250ndash261
St-Onge S Morin D Bellehumeur M amp Dupuis F (2009) Managers motivation to
evaluate subordinate performance Qualitative Research in Organizations and
Management An International Journal 4 (3) 273-293
Storey J (1987 November) Developments in the Management of Human Resources An
Interim Report IRRU School of Industrial and Business Studies University of Warwick
Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No17
Strebler M T Robinson D amp Bevan S (2001) Performance review balancing
objective and content The Institute of Employment Studies Brighton Report No 370
Stuhlman D (2006) Helping you turn data into knowledge knowledge Management
Terms [Online] Available httpwwwhomeearthlinknet~ddstuhlmandefin1htm
(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
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Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
Zimmerman K (2009) The impact of job performance on employee turnover and the
voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
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important job functions According to an earlier researcher (Grant 1955) the sufficient
number of performance criteria to be considered is somewhere around three to five factors
However researchers explicate that the vital aspects of the work performed in each
functional area and focus on the strengths and weaknesses of the individual that are due to
the changing organizational environment and nature of jobs and roles (Wiese et al 1998)
are not ldquobuilt inrdquo to the practice of performance appraisal (Ebrahim et al 2006) For
example in the era of knowledge economy demands of knowledge production frequently
place a premium on teamwork and flexibility (Wilson et al 1994) Fairness perceptions
are intensified when employees are held to performance standards that entail greater
commitment and ownership of knowledge sharing activities (Rousseau and Shperling
2003) Unfortunately the greatest emphasis of performance appraisals in organizations is
on individual responsibility for performance and least on team-based compensation system
(Ebrahim et al 2004 Zobal 1998 Abosch and Reidy 1996) Attitudes and not just
behaviors that are pivotal for ongoing knowledge creation and dissemination also need to
be an integral part of performance appraisal criteria (Liebowitz and Beckman 1998)
Attitudes that align with principles of teamwork collaboration and stakeholder
involvement should be appraised and rewarded
223 Performance measurementstandard
An effective performance appraisal exhibits the performance standard that is agreeable
between the rater and ratee (Bobko and Collela 1994) and rating scales are able to
provide descriptive and concrete definitions of the rating constructs rather than being
expressed in absolute terms (Ghorphade et al 1995 Martey 2002) Lucid precise
performance standards rather than vague or no standards will improve the overall
accuracy and effectiveness of an appraisal process (Kane and Russell 1998) Any effective
measuring instrument needs to provide relevant and sufficient measurement criteria to
accurately describe significant behaviors required for successful job performance
(Henderson 1980) These measures must be amenable to scaling and be able to be
weighted Measuring knowledge workers productivity (Bosch-Sijtsema et al 2009) is
difficult due to the complex and dynamic nature of knowledge work (Laihonen et al
2012) It all depends on the nature of jobs that vary from routine to nonroutine (Pepitone
2002 Laihonen et al 2012 Scott 2005) their organizational and contextual factors such
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as culture strategy leadership fellow workers support compensation structures and
physical surrounding (Chan 2007) and the quality of human resources that reflects skills
and competencies (Davenport 2005) Results-based measures are deficient in tapping
aspect of performance as cooperation (Ghorphade et al 1995) and less helpful for
employee development (Cardy and Dobbins 1994 Fisher et al 1996)
The ineffectiveness of performance appraisal (Becker et al 2001) in appraising workers
contributions to departmental goals (Ebrahim et al 2004) are due to irrelevant ambiguous
and undefined measuring dimensions (Green 1999 Martey 2002) and lack of a
performance appraisal system that effectively integrates all the key performance indicators
in support of the organization‟s aims and objectives Additionally many appraisal systems
are much too subjective (St-Onge et al 2009 Benson et al 2010) There has been little
progress in improving the performance rating distortion (Ilgen et al 1993 Cleveland and
Murphy 1995) Organizations intentionally allow their appraisal systems to function
ineffectively perhaps indefinitely to avoid an open conflict because of its capability in
stirring strong feelings and conflict in the organization (Rendero 1980) Often the goal of
the rater is not to evaluate the performance of the employee but to keep the employee
satisfied and not to deleteriously influence employee morale The manager also has to be
concerned about hisher own image Employees receive negative ratings reflects poorly on
the manager (Kumari 2012) It is unlikely that any managerial problem has so
successfully resisted solution than arriving at an acceptable useful and valid method of
appraising performance Organizations attempt to train the rater to improve observational
skills (Edwards and Calvin 1998 Kumari 2012) though the training efforts are usually
disappointing as their effects on appraisal accuracy dissipate over time (Latham 1988
Cleveland and Murphy 1992)
224 Sources of appraisal
Source of appraisal have consistently rely on subordinate-superior unilateral flow of
information since the immediate superior may have sufficient stance to pass judgments on
the subordinate‟s performance (Long 1986 Storey 1987 Ebrahim 2005) This trend in
today‟s matrix and flatter organizational structures has somehow moved towards multiple
sources (Fletcher and Baldry 2000 Costigan et al 2005) that may come from supervisor
subordinates peers self customers suppliers or other related sources (Byrne 1993
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McCarthy and Garavan 2001 Ebrahim et al 2003) Multi-source or 360-degree feedback
(Henderson 1980 Ebrahim 2005) along with self-appraisal is suggested for perceived
unfair appraisal practice or to correct errors from individually-based superiors‟ ratings
(Deming 1986) and teamwork assignment (Waldman 1997 Barnes 1997) Most recent
studies claim this method brings about maximum employee motivation as well as
providing the supervisor with a clear comprehensive and precise account on employees
contribution to the organization objectives (Amsler et al 2001) Likewise ratings by
unfamiliar raters are discouraged so as avoid the ldquohalo effectrdquo ((Drenth 1984)
An effective performance appraisal is believed to be the ones with informal and formal
feedback from a variety of sources However the number of appraisal sources used
depends on organizational cost-benefit appraisal analysis Managers who do not use ldquoself-
appraisalrdquo cite it as not rigorous and accurate due to employees poor objectivity and
reliability on providing information on own ability desire for self-enhancement (DeNisi
and Shaw 1977 Levine et al 1977 Ebrahim 2005) as well as appraising themselves
positively (Mohrman et al 1989) Besides they do not trust employees On the contrary
ldquoself-appraisalrdquo essential contribution towards individual developmental needs is
indisputable in numerous cases (Parry and Sinha 2005 Van Der Heijden and Nijhof
2004)
225 Performance appraisal feedback
Cleveland et al (1989) signifies that performance appraisal specifically provides quality
feedback on strengths and weaknesses in determining training needs transfers assignment
and potential for growth These could be achieved through improved communication on
three key areas pertaining to what and how observations on performance are made why
and how they are discussed and what determines the level of performance in the job
(Edmonstone 1996) Individuals want and seek timely useful and accepted feedback on
their performance that can help individual make great progress toward optimal
performance (Coens and Jenkins 2001) Regardless of the rating given the superior and
his subordinate through an open effective communication should make an effort to identify
areas where improvement can be made for effective performance (Ritter and Nunnally
2002) This informal relationship should be made common activity or as frequent as
possible so as to have a performance appraisal system that reaches valid conclusions
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In an extensive review of the literature on the application of feedback in organizations
Earley et al (1990) distinguished two types of feedback outcome feedback and process
feedback The former concentrates on providing information on specific performance
outcomes and the latter provides information on the manner in which an individual
implements a work strategy The researchers found that process feedback interacted with
goal-setting more strongly than outcome feedback in determining the quality of task
strategies developed by workers their efforts to obtain information beneficial to improving
their performance appraisal satisfaction and perceived appraisal accuracy (Lam and
Schaubroeck 1999) Despite the benefits offered by the performance appraisal feedback
there emerge another major and growing concern expressed by employees on unqualified
manager and their failures to provide complete appropriate or constructive feedback about
employee‟s job performance and improvement areas (Rao 1984 cited in Obisi 2011
Kavanagh 1997) They were not even aware of the feedback objectives and had not been
provided with guidelines and instructions on how to complete the forms (Martey 2002)
While the ideas of providing training to them are theoretically sound the evidence that the
organizations concerned are taking major corrective action to eliminate these concerns is
rather weak Practically the amount of time for this exercise is too demanding
226 Frequency of performance appraisal
A large proportion of organizations conduct appraisal on a yearly basis (Freemantle 1994
Ebrahim 2003) though most employees believe that objectives could not be realized by an
annual performance appraisal Besides both employees and supervisors might not be able
to remember what happened throughout the year due to their selective memory As studied
by Boice and Kleiner (1997) evidence strongly suggests that performance reviews should
be performed on a frequent and ongoing basis to avoid surprises at an annual review
Moreover a study by Geetha (2013) further alleges that employees are unhappy when
there is no periodical or routine feedback from their superiors Besides frequent
performance appraisal has become a common activity in exceptional organizations (Quinn
et al 1996a)
Other appraisals vary from annually with interim reviews to annually with
monthlyquarterly reviews and annually with six to eight weekly reviews Nonetheless
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Fisher (1994) explains that the frequency of performance appraisal is an arduous
dimension to argue due to the ambiguity of the distinction between an appraisal meeting
and a regular daily discussion about work between a superior and a subordinate In
general the problem of frequency has always been one of the major limitations of any
formal approach to performance appraisal Too long an interval between each appraisal
might results in its contents lose relevance and risk artificiality whereas too short an
interval might results in the process to become too time-consuming (Freemantle 1994)
Evidently the actual time period varies in different organizations and with different aims
(Boice and Kleiner 1997) However a typical frequency would be bi-monthly or
quarterly
30 Hypotheses development performance appraisal career commitment and
turnover intention
31 Perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and intention to quit
Intention to withdraw or quit an organization simply refers to an employee‟s perceived
probability of staying or leaving an employing organization Turnover intention has been
recurrently prescribed in literatures as the most immediate predictor to eventual turnover
(Allen et al 2003 Lum et al 1998) The focus of this attitudinal element of turnover
intention makes sense since it highlights the various elements of behavior and the
motivation to leave that covers many inevitable reasons for actual turnover Turnover is
costly (Mitchell et al 2001 Adhinarayanan amp Gurunathan 2011 Cascio amp Bordreau
2011) and maybe difficult to quantify when irreplaceable knowledge assets or institutional
memory are lost These costs do not stop here Each time an employee leaves the firm
productivity is presumed to drop due to the learning curve involved in understanding the
job and the organization In addition research proves that after losing key employees
organizations experienced damage reputation customer relationship had lost best
practices information and lost significant income (Warren 1999) Ultimately in most
cases the involvement of superiors included positions all the way up to and including the
Chief Executive Officer (CEO) becomes inevitable This demonstrates that turnover issues
impact the firm by utilizing the precious time of senior managers This is in addition to
other expenses including loss of training and retraining time loss of human and relational
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capital Ultimately organizational success is not viable through personnel replacement
activities (Smith and Rupp 2004)
Turnover intention has brought about the importance of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness The relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and
turnover intention has since become the most renowned issue in the field of management
research One of the common objectives of performance appraisal is to retain the topmost
performing employees through quality performance appraisal that leads to fair
compensation amounts high motivation and better career prospects (Zimmerman 2009
Abdullah et al 2011) Hence the intensity of performance appraisal effectiveness
perception is fundamental in encouraging an employee to stay within one‟s employment
(Griffeth et al 2000 Smith and Rupp 2002 Benson et al 2010) An employee with a
low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness could oppose the best
interest of an employee The employee will feel that his or her contributions are not
effectively appraised or recognized and thus will posit a negative organizational attitude
In view of being underrated the employee willingness to be in employment will weaken
Hence the following proposition is established
P1 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will be associated with
higher levels of turnover intention relative to those with high intensity of perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness
32 Performance appraisal career commitment and intention to quit
Career commitment concept that was first introduced by Blau (1985) simply refers to
one‟s inspiration to stay in one‟s chosen career (Blau 1985 1989) It focuses on a uni-
dimensional measure which involves one‟s identification and involvement in one‟s
occupation or career along with one‟s effort in the pursuit of supporting one‟s career goals
(Blau 1985 Colarelli and Bishop 1990 Goulet and Singh 2002) The conceptualization
of career commitment was later extended into a multidimensional measure of accumulated
investments and cost of pursuing another new career (ldquocontinuancerdquo) attachment to a
career (ldquoaffectiverdquo) and feelings of obligation to remain in one career (ldquonormativerdquo)
commitment (Meyer et al 1993 2006 Meyer and Herscovitch 2001) Subsequently
these measures closely concur with another alternative multidimensional concept that
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measures one‟s strong feeling of attachment to one‟s career (ldquocareer identityrdquo) one‟s
strength to withhold one‟s career against commotion (ldquocareer resiliencerdquo) and clear
understanding of one‟s career path (ldquocareer insightrdquo) (London 1983 Carson and Bedeian
1994)
Performance appraisal may be seen as a viable organizational tool that may be used to
motivate direct and develop subordinates According to Smith and Rupp (2004)
performance-based rewards and understanding work-effects linkage would successfully
engage knowledge workers Knowledge workers enjoy the most positive work
environment on all measures which include perceptions of appraisal effectiveness (HR
professional 2001) High intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
should result in extrinsic rewards such as higher salaries (Day and Allen 2004) or
advancement (Allen 2006) as well as intrinsic rewards such as self-satisfaction (Locke
and Latham 1990 Greenhaus and Parasuraman 1993) These rewards would enable
employees to direct their energies in directions appropriate to their careers With higher
levels of career commitment individuals may make significant investments in their careers
to pursue their high career goals regardless of the setbacks (Colarelli and Bishop 1990
Aryee et al 1994 Mohamad et al 2006 Connie et al 2009) They would also engage
themselves with organizational training and job enrichment programs to attain new or
higher skills and knowledge This career advancement path along with their morale and
optimism would thus negate their turnover intentions (Lobburi 2012 Abdullah et al
2012 Thwala et al 2012)
Conversely employees with low intensity of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness allege that instead being a means of measuring subordinates the appraisal
role is solely a powerful channel of managerial control (Edmonstone 1996 Weise et al
1998) The performance appraisal systems which tend not to incorporate employees
personal aspirations with their future development have been cited by several authors
(Freeman 2002 Wilson and Western 2000 Long 1986) Evidently there exist
conflicting values and goals between organizations and these professionals (Lee et al
2000) Due to the divergent needs of stakeholders the appraisal process itself is often a
source of unmet expectations (Murphy and Cleveland 1995) Usually what is articulated
by the management is not what is valued and rewarded Most often than not they feel that
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their contribution is not effectively appraised and recognized Considering perceptions of
the appraisal effectiveness may contradict employees‟ beliefs about their contributions we
would expect them not to persistently manage and pursue their career growth successfully
As a consequence employees would exhibit lower levels of career commitment (Anna
2008 Barbara 2012) and have no interest to prolong their tenure Since perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness is expected to have a positive impact on career
commitment that will negatively affect turnover intention we make the following
propositions
P2 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will tend to be
associated with lower levels of career commitment relative to those with high intensity of
perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
P3 As a consequence employee turnover intention level will be higher
PAPpa
Figure 1 Conceptual model depicting the indirect (through career commitment
components) associations of performance appraisal and turnover intention
PA Components
objectives
criteria
measurement
sources
feedback
frequency
Career
Commitment
Career
identity
Career
resilience
Career
insight
Turnover
Intention
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40 Concluding thoughts and proposals for future research
Generally there have been a tremendous number of written literatures on performance
appraisal career commitment and turnover intention This study in particular attempt to
fill the gap in the existing literatures on the direct impact of career commitment on the
relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and turnover intention
Our study takes into account the complete framework of performance appraisal system
rather than each one of its components while the focus on career commitment is split into
the strength of one‟s attachment resistant and developmentplanning towards his career or
profession There exists evidence suggesting that the intensity of perceived performance
appraisal effectiveness will somehow affect a knowledge worker general level of career
commitment through expected extrinsic and intrinsic organizational compensation
benefits and rewards Employees with high intensity of perceived performance appraisal
are therefore highly committed to their career and thus posit a low turnover intention
Thus Improving performance appraisal practices to enhance career commitment should be
an important objective for those responsible for reducing turnover intention Hence
organizations should pay more attention on how to effectively appraise and recognize their
knowledge worker contribution The conceptual model that is mapped out aspires to be
dynamic since it can be adapted across knowledge and non-knowledge-based industries
The model rest upon the employer-employee concerns expectations and perceptions in
today‟s contemporary organizational setting Indirectly the model also argues on the
challenges faced by any organizations for continuous and iterative human resource
practices on managing and retaining their knowledge workers Hence there should a fit on
the part of organizational values norms culture and beliefs towards these concerns
expectations and perceptions It is therefore crucial to recognize that businesses ultimate
success is dependent upon the attitudes and behaviors of these knowledge staff and they
are in need of strong supporting structures Although this study makes progress to increase
understanding of how perceived performance appraisal effectiveness affect directly and
interactively turnover intention future work should include moderation effects of
psychological contract and organization benefits in career-related research It is also
noteworthy to consider both organizational and career commitments concurrently for
future performance appraisal-turnover intention research The propositions set out above
will then be the starting point for developing empirical research work for further
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organizational understanding of the issues and planning of interventions It would be a
significant contribution to the field of human resource management literatures
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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NOVEMBER 2013
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as culture strategy leadership fellow workers support compensation structures and
physical surrounding (Chan 2007) and the quality of human resources that reflects skills
and competencies (Davenport 2005) Results-based measures are deficient in tapping
aspect of performance as cooperation (Ghorphade et al 1995) and less helpful for
employee development (Cardy and Dobbins 1994 Fisher et al 1996)
The ineffectiveness of performance appraisal (Becker et al 2001) in appraising workers
contributions to departmental goals (Ebrahim et al 2004) are due to irrelevant ambiguous
and undefined measuring dimensions (Green 1999 Martey 2002) and lack of a
performance appraisal system that effectively integrates all the key performance indicators
in support of the organization‟s aims and objectives Additionally many appraisal systems
are much too subjective (St-Onge et al 2009 Benson et al 2010) There has been little
progress in improving the performance rating distortion (Ilgen et al 1993 Cleveland and
Murphy 1995) Organizations intentionally allow their appraisal systems to function
ineffectively perhaps indefinitely to avoid an open conflict because of its capability in
stirring strong feelings and conflict in the organization (Rendero 1980) Often the goal of
the rater is not to evaluate the performance of the employee but to keep the employee
satisfied and not to deleteriously influence employee morale The manager also has to be
concerned about hisher own image Employees receive negative ratings reflects poorly on
the manager (Kumari 2012) It is unlikely that any managerial problem has so
successfully resisted solution than arriving at an acceptable useful and valid method of
appraising performance Organizations attempt to train the rater to improve observational
skills (Edwards and Calvin 1998 Kumari 2012) though the training efforts are usually
disappointing as their effects on appraisal accuracy dissipate over time (Latham 1988
Cleveland and Murphy 1992)
224 Sources of appraisal
Source of appraisal have consistently rely on subordinate-superior unilateral flow of
information since the immediate superior may have sufficient stance to pass judgments on
the subordinate‟s performance (Long 1986 Storey 1987 Ebrahim 2005) This trend in
today‟s matrix and flatter organizational structures has somehow moved towards multiple
sources (Fletcher and Baldry 2000 Costigan et al 2005) that may come from supervisor
subordinates peers self customers suppliers or other related sources (Byrne 1993
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McCarthy and Garavan 2001 Ebrahim et al 2003) Multi-source or 360-degree feedback
(Henderson 1980 Ebrahim 2005) along with self-appraisal is suggested for perceived
unfair appraisal practice or to correct errors from individually-based superiors‟ ratings
(Deming 1986) and teamwork assignment (Waldman 1997 Barnes 1997) Most recent
studies claim this method brings about maximum employee motivation as well as
providing the supervisor with a clear comprehensive and precise account on employees
contribution to the organization objectives (Amsler et al 2001) Likewise ratings by
unfamiliar raters are discouraged so as avoid the ldquohalo effectrdquo ((Drenth 1984)
An effective performance appraisal is believed to be the ones with informal and formal
feedback from a variety of sources However the number of appraisal sources used
depends on organizational cost-benefit appraisal analysis Managers who do not use ldquoself-
appraisalrdquo cite it as not rigorous and accurate due to employees poor objectivity and
reliability on providing information on own ability desire for self-enhancement (DeNisi
and Shaw 1977 Levine et al 1977 Ebrahim 2005) as well as appraising themselves
positively (Mohrman et al 1989) Besides they do not trust employees On the contrary
ldquoself-appraisalrdquo essential contribution towards individual developmental needs is
indisputable in numerous cases (Parry and Sinha 2005 Van Der Heijden and Nijhof
2004)
225 Performance appraisal feedback
Cleveland et al (1989) signifies that performance appraisal specifically provides quality
feedback on strengths and weaknesses in determining training needs transfers assignment
and potential for growth These could be achieved through improved communication on
three key areas pertaining to what and how observations on performance are made why
and how they are discussed and what determines the level of performance in the job
(Edmonstone 1996) Individuals want and seek timely useful and accepted feedback on
their performance that can help individual make great progress toward optimal
performance (Coens and Jenkins 2001) Regardless of the rating given the superior and
his subordinate through an open effective communication should make an effort to identify
areas where improvement can be made for effective performance (Ritter and Nunnally
2002) This informal relationship should be made common activity or as frequent as
possible so as to have a performance appraisal system that reaches valid conclusions
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In an extensive review of the literature on the application of feedback in organizations
Earley et al (1990) distinguished two types of feedback outcome feedback and process
feedback The former concentrates on providing information on specific performance
outcomes and the latter provides information on the manner in which an individual
implements a work strategy The researchers found that process feedback interacted with
goal-setting more strongly than outcome feedback in determining the quality of task
strategies developed by workers their efforts to obtain information beneficial to improving
their performance appraisal satisfaction and perceived appraisal accuracy (Lam and
Schaubroeck 1999) Despite the benefits offered by the performance appraisal feedback
there emerge another major and growing concern expressed by employees on unqualified
manager and their failures to provide complete appropriate or constructive feedback about
employee‟s job performance and improvement areas (Rao 1984 cited in Obisi 2011
Kavanagh 1997) They were not even aware of the feedback objectives and had not been
provided with guidelines and instructions on how to complete the forms (Martey 2002)
While the ideas of providing training to them are theoretically sound the evidence that the
organizations concerned are taking major corrective action to eliminate these concerns is
rather weak Practically the amount of time for this exercise is too demanding
226 Frequency of performance appraisal
A large proportion of organizations conduct appraisal on a yearly basis (Freemantle 1994
Ebrahim 2003) though most employees believe that objectives could not be realized by an
annual performance appraisal Besides both employees and supervisors might not be able
to remember what happened throughout the year due to their selective memory As studied
by Boice and Kleiner (1997) evidence strongly suggests that performance reviews should
be performed on a frequent and ongoing basis to avoid surprises at an annual review
Moreover a study by Geetha (2013) further alleges that employees are unhappy when
there is no periodical or routine feedback from their superiors Besides frequent
performance appraisal has become a common activity in exceptional organizations (Quinn
et al 1996a)
Other appraisals vary from annually with interim reviews to annually with
monthlyquarterly reviews and annually with six to eight weekly reviews Nonetheless
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Fisher (1994) explains that the frequency of performance appraisal is an arduous
dimension to argue due to the ambiguity of the distinction between an appraisal meeting
and a regular daily discussion about work between a superior and a subordinate In
general the problem of frequency has always been one of the major limitations of any
formal approach to performance appraisal Too long an interval between each appraisal
might results in its contents lose relevance and risk artificiality whereas too short an
interval might results in the process to become too time-consuming (Freemantle 1994)
Evidently the actual time period varies in different organizations and with different aims
(Boice and Kleiner 1997) However a typical frequency would be bi-monthly or
quarterly
30 Hypotheses development performance appraisal career commitment and
turnover intention
31 Perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and intention to quit
Intention to withdraw or quit an organization simply refers to an employee‟s perceived
probability of staying or leaving an employing organization Turnover intention has been
recurrently prescribed in literatures as the most immediate predictor to eventual turnover
(Allen et al 2003 Lum et al 1998) The focus of this attitudinal element of turnover
intention makes sense since it highlights the various elements of behavior and the
motivation to leave that covers many inevitable reasons for actual turnover Turnover is
costly (Mitchell et al 2001 Adhinarayanan amp Gurunathan 2011 Cascio amp Bordreau
2011) and maybe difficult to quantify when irreplaceable knowledge assets or institutional
memory are lost These costs do not stop here Each time an employee leaves the firm
productivity is presumed to drop due to the learning curve involved in understanding the
job and the organization In addition research proves that after losing key employees
organizations experienced damage reputation customer relationship had lost best
practices information and lost significant income (Warren 1999) Ultimately in most
cases the involvement of superiors included positions all the way up to and including the
Chief Executive Officer (CEO) becomes inevitable This demonstrates that turnover issues
impact the firm by utilizing the precious time of senior managers This is in addition to
other expenses including loss of training and retraining time loss of human and relational
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capital Ultimately organizational success is not viable through personnel replacement
activities (Smith and Rupp 2004)
Turnover intention has brought about the importance of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness The relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and
turnover intention has since become the most renowned issue in the field of management
research One of the common objectives of performance appraisal is to retain the topmost
performing employees through quality performance appraisal that leads to fair
compensation amounts high motivation and better career prospects (Zimmerman 2009
Abdullah et al 2011) Hence the intensity of performance appraisal effectiveness
perception is fundamental in encouraging an employee to stay within one‟s employment
(Griffeth et al 2000 Smith and Rupp 2002 Benson et al 2010) An employee with a
low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness could oppose the best
interest of an employee The employee will feel that his or her contributions are not
effectively appraised or recognized and thus will posit a negative organizational attitude
In view of being underrated the employee willingness to be in employment will weaken
Hence the following proposition is established
P1 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will be associated with
higher levels of turnover intention relative to those with high intensity of perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness
32 Performance appraisal career commitment and intention to quit
Career commitment concept that was first introduced by Blau (1985) simply refers to
one‟s inspiration to stay in one‟s chosen career (Blau 1985 1989) It focuses on a uni-
dimensional measure which involves one‟s identification and involvement in one‟s
occupation or career along with one‟s effort in the pursuit of supporting one‟s career goals
(Blau 1985 Colarelli and Bishop 1990 Goulet and Singh 2002) The conceptualization
of career commitment was later extended into a multidimensional measure of accumulated
investments and cost of pursuing another new career (ldquocontinuancerdquo) attachment to a
career (ldquoaffectiverdquo) and feelings of obligation to remain in one career (ldquonormativerdquo)
commitment (Meyer et al 1993 2006 Meyer and Herscovitch 2001) Subsequently
these measures closely concur with another alternative multidimensional concept that
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measures one‟s strong feeling of attachment to one‟s career (ldquocareer identityrdquo) one‟s
strength to withhold one‟s career against commotion (ldquocareer resiliencerdquo) and clear
understanding of one‟s career path (ldquocareer insightrdquo) (London 1983 Carson and Bedeian
1994)
Performance appraisal may be seen as a viable organizational tool that may be used to
motivate direct and develop subordinates According to Smith and Rupp (2004)
performance-based rewards and understanding work-effects linkage would successfully
engage knowledge workers Knowledge workers enjoy the most positive work
environment on all measures which include perceptions of appraisal effectiveness (HR
professional 2001) High intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
should result in extrinsic rewards such as higher salaries (Day and Allen 2004) or
advancement (Allen 2006) as well as intrinsic rewards such as self-satisfaction (Locke
and Latham 1990 Greenhaus and Parasuraman 1993) These rewards would enable
employees to direct their energies in directions appropriate to their careers With higher
levels of career commitment individuals may make significant investments in their careers
to pursue their high career goals regardless of the setbacks (Colarelli and Bishop 1990
Aryee et al 1994 Mohamad et al 2006 Connie et al 2009) They would also engage
themselves with organizational training and job enrichment programs to attain new or
higher skills and knowledge This career advancement path along with their morale and
optimism would thus negate their turnover intentions (Lobburi 2012 Abdullah et al
2012 Thwala et al 2012)
Conversely employees with low intensity of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness allege that instead being a means of measuring subordinates the appraisal
role is solely a powerful channel of managerial control (Edmonstone 1996 Weise et al
1998) The performance appraisal systems which tend not to incorporate employees
personal aspirations with their future development have been cited by several authors
(Freeman 2002 Wilson and Western 2000 Long 1986) Evidently there exist
conflicting values and goals between organizations and these professionals (Lee et al
2000) Due to the divergent needs of stakeholders the appraisal process itself is often a
source of unmet expectations (Murphy and Cleveland 1995) Usually what is articulated
by the management is not what is valued and rewarded Most often than not they feel that
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their contribution is not effectively appraised and recognized Considering perceptions of
the appraisal effectiveness may contradict employees‟ beliefs about their contributions we
would expect them not to persistently manage and pursue their career growth successfully
As a consequence employees would exhibit lower levels of career commitment (Anna
2008 Barbara 2012) and have no interest to prolong their tenure Since perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness is expected to have a positive impact on career
commitment that will negatively affect turnover intention we make the following
propositions
P2 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will tend to be
associated with lower levels of career commitment relative to those with high intensity of
perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
P3 As a consequence employee turnover intention level will be higher
PAPpa
Figure 1 Conceptual model depicting the indirect (through career commitment
components) associations of performance appraisal and turnover intention
PA Components
objectives
criteria
measurement
sources
feedback
frequency
Career
Commitment
Career
identity
Career
resilience
Career
insight
Turnover
Intention
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40 Concluding thoughts and proposals for future research
Generally there have been a tremendous number of written literatures on performance
appraisal career commitment and turnover intention This study in particular attempt to
fill the gap in the existing literatures on the direct impact of career commitment on the
relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and turnover intention
Our study takes into account the complete framework of performance appraisal system
rather than each one of its components while the focus on career commitment is split into
the strength of one‟s attachment resistant and developmentplanning towards his career or
profession There exists evidence suggesting that the intensity of perceived performance
appraisal effectiveness will somehow affect a knowledge worker general level of career
commitment through expected extrinsic and intrinsic organizational compensation
benefits and rewards Employees with high intensity of perceived performance appraisal
are therefore highly committed to their career and thus posit a low turnover intention
Thus Improving performance appraisal practices to enhance career commitment should be
an important objective for those responsible for reducing turnover intention Hence
organizations should pay more attention on how to effectively appraise and recognize their
knowledge worker contribution The conceptual model that is mapped out aspires to be
dynamic since it can be adapted across knowledge and non-knowledge-based industries
The model rest upon the employer-employee concerns expectations and perceptions in
today‟s contemporary organizational setting Indirectly the model also argues on the
challenges faced by any organizations for continuous and iterative human resource
practices on managing and retaining their knowledge workers Hence there should a fit on
the part of organizational values norms culture and beliefs towards these concerns
expectations and perceptions It is therefore crucial to recognize that businesses ultimate
success is dependent upon the attitudes and behaviors of these knowledge staff and they
are in need of strong supporting structures Although this study makes progress to increase
understanding of how perceived performance appraisal effectiveness affect directly and
interactively turnover intention future work should include moderation effects of
psychological contract and organization benefits in career-related research It is also
noteworthy to consider both organizational and career commitments concurrently for
future performance appraisal-turnover intention research The propositions set out above
will then be the starting point for developing empirical research work for further
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organizational understanding of the issues and planning of interventions It would be a
significant contribution to the field of human resource management literatures
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Lobburi P (2012) The Influence of Organizational and Social Support on Turnover
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35 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
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22-28
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Meyer J P Becker T amp Van Dick R (2006) Social Identities and Commitments at
Work Toward an Integrative Model Journal of Organizational Behavior 27 665-683
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model Human Resource Management Review 11 299-326
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Industrial amp Corporate Change 8 (2) 211-234
Mitchell T R Holtom B C Lee T W amp Graske T (2001) How to keep your best
employee developing an effective retention policy The Academy of Management
Executive 15 (4) 96-109
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33- 45
Mohrman A Resnick-West S amp Lawler E (1989) Designing Performance Appraisal
Systems Aligning Appraisals and Organizational Realities San Francisco CA Jossey-
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Frank Academy [Online] Available
httpwwwkmtalknetarticlephpstory=20060922021542703 (February 16 2011)
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dimensions in diversity climate Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 34 (1) 82-104
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36 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
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httpblogssaloncom0002007imagesTheFutureofKnowledgeManagementdo
(November 4 2010)
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Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
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(November 4 2010)
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Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
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142-158
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McCarthy and Garavan 2001 Ebrahim et al 2003) Multi-source or 360-degree feedback
(Henderson 1980 Ebrahim 2005) along with self-appraisal is suggested for perceived
unfair appraisal practice or to correct errors from individually-based superiors‟ ratings
(Deming 1986) and teamwork assignment (Waldman 1997 Barnes 1997) Most recent
studies claim this method brings about maximum employee motivation as well as
providing the supervisor with a clear comprehensive and precise account on employees
contribution to the organization objectives (Amsler et al 2001) Likewise ratings by
unfamiliar raters are discouraged so as avoid the ldquohalo effectrdquo ((Drenth 1984)
An effective performance appraisal is believed to be the ones with informal and formal
feedback from a variety of sources However the number of appraisal sources used
depends on organizational cost-benefit appraisal analysis Managers who do not use ldquoself-
appraisalrdquo cite it as not rigorous and accurate due to employees poor objectivity and
reliability on providing information on own ability desire for self-enhancement (DeNisi
and Shaw 1977 Levine et al 1977 Ebrahim 2005) as well as appraising themselves
positively (Mohrman et al 1989) Besides they do not trust employees On the contrary
ldquoself-appraisalrdquo essential contribution towards individual developmental needs is
indisputable in numerous cases (Parry and Sinha 2005 Van Der Heijden and Nijhof
2004)
225 Performance appraisal feedback
Cleveland et al (1989) signifies that performance appraisal specifically provides quality
feedback on strengths and weaknesses in determining training needs transfers assignment
and potential for growth These could be achieved through improved communication on
three key areas pertaining to what and how observations on performance are made why
and how they are discussed and what determines the level of performance in the job
(Edmonstone 1996) Individuals want and seek timely useful and accepted feedback on
their performance that can help individual make great progress toward optimal
performance (Coens and Jenkins 2001) Regardless of the rating given the superior and
his subordinate through an open effective communication should make an effort to identify
areas where improvement can be made for effective performance (Ritter and Nunnally
2002) This informal relationship should be made common activity or as frequent as
possible so as to have a performance appraisal system that reaches valid conclusions
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In an extensive review of the literature on the application of feedback in organizations
Earley et al (1990) distinguished two types of feedback outcome feedback and process
feedback The former concentrates on providing information on specific performance
outcomes and the latter provides information on the manner in which an individual
implements a work strategy The researchers found that process feedback interacted with
goal-setting more strongly than outcome feedback in determining the quality of task
strategies developed by workers their efforts to obtain information beneficial to improving
their performance appraisal satisfaction and perceived appraisal accuracy (Lam and
Schaubroeck 1999) Despite the benefits offered by the performance appraisal feedback
there emerge another major and growing concern expressed by employees on unqualified
manager and their failures to provide complete appropriate or constructive feedback about
employee‟s job performance and improvement areas (Rao 1984 cited in Obisi 2011
Kavanagh 1997) They were not even aware of the feedback objectives and had not been
provided with guidelines and instructions on how to complete the forms (Martey 2002)
While the ideas of providing training to them are theoretically sound the evidence that the
organizations concerned are taking major corrective action to eliminate these concerns is
rather weak Practically the amount of time for this exercise is too demanding
226 Frequency of performance appraisal
A large proportion of organizations conduct appraisal on a yearly basis (Freemantle 1994
Ebrahim 2003) though most employees believe that objectives could not be realized by an
annual performance appraisal Besides both employees and supervisors might not be able
to remember what happened throughout the year due to their selective memory As studied
by Boice and Kleiner (1997) evidence strongly suggests that performance reviews should
be performed on a frequent and ongoing basis to avoid surprises at an annual review
Moreover a study by Geetha (2013) further alleges that employees are unhappy when
there is no periodical or routine feedback from their superiors Besides frequent
performance appraisal has become a common activity in exceptional organizations (Quinn
et al 1996a)
Other appraisals vary from annually with interim reviews to annually with
monthlyquarterly reviews and annually with six to eight weekly reviews Nonetheless
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Fisher (1994) explains that the frequency of performance appraisal is an arduous
dimension to argue due to the ambiguity of the distinction between an appraisal meeting
and a regular daily discussion about work between a superior and a subordinate In
general the problem of frequency has always been one of the major limitations of any
formal approach to performance appraisal Too long an interval between each appraisal
might results in its contents lose relevance and risk artificiality whereas too short an
interval might results in the process to become too time-consuming (Freemantle 1994)
Evidently the actual time period varies in different organizations and with different aims
(Boice and Kleiner 1997) However a typical frequency would be bi-monthly or
quarterly
30 Hypotheses development performance appraisal career commitment and
turnover intention
31 Perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and intention to quit
Intention to withdraw or quit an organization simply refers to an employee‟s perceived
probability of staying or leaving an employing organization Turnover intention has been
recurrently prescribed in literatures as the most immediate predictor to eventual turnover
(Allen et al 2003 Lum et al 1998) The focus of this attitudinal element of turnover
intention makes sense since it highlights the various elements of behavior and the
motivation to leave that covers many inevitable reasons for actual turnover Turnover is
costly (Mitchell et al 2001 Adhinarayanan amp Gurunathan 2011 Cascio amp Bordreau
2011) and maybe difficult to quantify when irreplaceable knowledge assets or institutional
memory are lost These costs do not stop here Each time an employee leaves the firm
productivity is presumed to drop due to the learning curve involved in understanding the
job and the organization In addition research proves that after losing key employees
organizations experienced damage reputation customer relationship had lost best
practices information and lost significant income (Warren 1999) Ultimately in most
cases the involvement of superiors included positions all the way up to and including the
Chief Executive Officer (CEO) becomes inevitable This demonstrates that turnover issues
impact the firm by utilizing the precious time of senior managers This is in addition to
other expenses including loss of training and retraining time loss of human and relational
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capital Ultimately organizational success is not viable through personnel replacement
activities (Smith and Rupp 2004)
Turnover intention has brought about the importance of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness The relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and
turnover intention has since become the most renowned issue in the field of management
research One of the common objectives of performance appraisal is to retain the topmost
performing employees through quality performance appraisal that leads to fair
compensation amounts high motivation and better career prospects (Zimmerman 2009
Abdullah et al 2011) Hence the intensity of performance appraisal effectiveness
perception is fundamental in encouraging an employee to stay within one‟s employment
(Griffeth et al 2000 Smith and Rupp 2002 Benson et al 2010) An employee with a
low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness could oppose the best
interest of an employee The employee will feel that his or her contributions are not
effectively appraised or recognized and thus will posit a negative organizational attitude
In view of being underrated the employee willingness to be in employment will weaken
Hence the following proposition is established
P1 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will be associated with
higher levels of turnover intention relative to those with high intensity of perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness
32 Performance appraisal career commitment and intention to quit
Career commitment concept that was first introduced by Blau (1985) simply refers to
one‟s inspiration to stay in one‟s chosen career (Blau 1985 1989) It focuses on a uni-
dimensional measure which involves one‟s identification and involvement in one‟s
occupation or career along with one‟s effort in the pursuit of supporting one‟s career goals
(Blau 1985 Colarelli and Bishop 1990 Goulet and Singh 2002) The conceptualization
of career commitment was later extended into a multidimensional measure of accumulated
investments and cost of pursuing another new career (ldquocontinuancerdquo) attachment to a
career (ldquoaffectiverdquo) and feelings of obligation to remain in one career (ldquonormativerdquo)
commitment (Meyer et al 1993 2006 Meyer and Herscovitch 2001) Subsequently
these measures closely concur with another alternative multidimensional concept that
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measures one‟s strong feeling of attachment to one‟s career (ldquocareer identityrdquo) one‟s
strength to withhold one‟s career against commotion (ldquocareer resiliencerdquo) and clear
understanding of one‟s career path (ldquocareer insightrdquo) (London 1983 Carson and Bedeian
1994)
Performance appraisal may be seen as a viable organizational tool that may be used to
motivate direct and develop subordinates According to Smith and Rupp (2004)
performance-based rewards and understanding work-effects linkage would successfully
engage knowledge workers Knowledge workers enjoy the most positive work
environment on all measures which include perceptions of appraisal effectiveness (HR
professional 2001) High intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
should result in extrinsic rewards such as higher salaries (Day and Allen 2004) or
advancement (Allen 2006) as well as intrinsic rewards such as self-satisfaction (Locke
and Latham 1990 Greenhaus and Parasuraman 1993) These rewards would enable
employees to direct their energies in directions appropriate to their careers With higher
levels of career commitment individuals may make significant investments in their careers
to pursue their high career goals regardless of the setbacks (Colarelli and Bishop 1990
Aryee et al 1994 Mohamad et al 2006 Connie et al 2009) They would also engage
themselves with organizational training and job enrichment programs to attain new or
higher skills and knowledge This career advancement path along with their morale and
optimism would thus negate their turnover intentions (Lobburi 2012 Abdullah et al
2012 Thwala et al 2012)
Conversely employees with low intensity of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness allege that instead being a means of measuring subordinates the appraisal
role is solely a powerful channel of managerial control (Edmonstone 1996 Weise et al
1998) The performance appraisal systems which tend not to incorporate employees
personal aspirations with their future development have been cited by several authors
(Freeman 2002 Wilson and Western 2000 Long 1986) Evidently there exist
conflicting values and goals between organizations and these professionals (Lee et al
2000) Due to the divergent needs of stakeholders the appraisal process itself is often a
source of unmet expectations (Murphy and Cleveland 1995) Usually what is articulated
by the management is not what is valued and rewarded Most often than not they feel that
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their contribution is not effectively appraised and recognized Considering perceptions of
the appraisal effectiveness may contradict employees‟ beliefs about their contributions we
would expect them not to persistently manage and pursue their career growth successfully
As a consequence employees would exhibit lower levels of career commitment (Anna
2008 Barbara 2012) and have no interest to prolong their tenure Since perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness is expected to have a positive impact on career
commitment that will negatively affect turnover intention we make the following
propositions
P2 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will tend to be
associated with lower levels of career commitment relative to those with high intensity of
perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
P3 As a consequence employee turnover intention level will be higher
PAPpa
Figure 1 Conceptual model depicting the indirect (through career commitment
components) associations of performance appraisal and turnover intention
PA Components
objectives
criteria
measurement
sources
feedback
frequency
Career
Commitment
Career
identity
Career
resilience
Career
insight
Turnover
Intention
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40 Concluding thoughts and proposals for future research
Generally there have been a tremendous number of written literatures on performance
appraisal career commitment and turnover intention This study in particular attempt to
fill the gap in the existing literatures on the direct impact of career commitment on the
relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and turnover intention
Our study takes into account the complete framework of performance appraisal system
rather than each one of its components while the focus on career commitment is split into
the strength of one‟s attachment resistant and developmentplanning towards his career or
profession There exists evidence suggesting that the intensity of perceived performance
appraisal effectiveness will somehow affect a knowledge worker general level of career
commitment through expected extrinsic and intrinsic organizational compensation
benefits and rewards Employees with high intensity of perceived performance appraisal
are therefore highly committed to their career and thus posit a low turnover intention
Thus Improving performance appraisal practices to enhance career commitment should be
an important objective for those responsible for reducing turnover intention Hence
organizations should pay more attention on how to effectively appraise and recognize their
knowledge worker contribution The conceptual model that is mapped out aspires to be
dynamic since it can be adapted across knowledge and non-knowledge-based industries
The model rest upon the employer-employee concerns expectations and perceptions in
today‟s contemporary organizational setting Indirectly the model also argues on the
challenges faced by any organizations for continuous and iterative human resource
practices on managing and retaining their knowledge workers Hence there should a fit on
the part of organizational values norms culture and beliefs towards these concerns
expectations and perceptions It is therefore crucial to recognize that businesses ultimate
success is dependent upon the attitudes and behaviors of these knowledge staff and they
are in need of strong supporting structures Although this study makes progress to increase
understanding of how perceived performance appraisal effectiveness affect directly and
interactively turnover intention future work should include moderation effects of
psychological contract and organization benefits in career-related research It is also
noteworthy to consider both organizational and career commitments concurrently for
future performance appraisal-turnover intention research The propositions set out above
will then be the starting point for developing empirical research work for further
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organizational understanding of the issues and planning of interventions It would be a
significant contribution to the field of human resource management literatures
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Denisi A S amp Shaw J B (1977) Investigation of the uses of self-reports of abilities
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Depress C amp Hiltrop J M (1995) Human resource management in the knowledge age
Employee Relations 17 (1) 9-23
DeVries D L Morrison A M Shullman S L amp Gerlach M L (1981) Performance
Appraisal On The Line Greensboro NC Center for Creative Leadership
Dove R (1998) The knowledge worker Automotive Manufacturing and Production 110
(6) 26-8
Drucker P (1994) Adventures of a Bystander New Brunswick NJ Transaction
Publishers
Drucker P (1999) Knowledge-worker productivity the biggest challenge California
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Earley P C Northcraft G B Lee C amp Lituchy T R (1990) Impact of process and
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Ebrahim Soltani (2005) Conflict between theory and practice TQM and performance
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UK-based TQM-driven organisations The TQM Magazine 16 (6) 403-417
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current practice International Journal of Operations amp Production Management 26 (1)
92 ndash 112
Edmonstone J (1996) Appraising the state of performance appraisal Health Manpower
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Butterworth-Heinemann
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Fisher C M (1994) The difference between appraisal schemes variation and
acceptability ndash part I Personnel Review 23 (8) 33-48
Fletcher C amp Baldry C (2000) A study of individual difference and self-awareness in
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Freemantle D (1994) The Performance of Performance Appraisal An Appraisal
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Planning 19 (2) 12-19
Geetha H (2013) Performance appraisal with reference to textile sector in Coimbatore
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Ilgen D R Barnes-Farrell J L amp McKellin D B (1993) Performance appraisal
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Behavior and Human Decision Processes 54 321-368
Julian M amp Anita D (2000) Knowledge Workers and why your e-business needs them
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22-28
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Executive 15 (4) 96-109
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dimensions in diversity climate Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 34 (1) 82-104
ijcrbwebscom
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36 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
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Murphy K R amp Cleveland J N (1995) Understanding Performance Appraisal Social
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Oltra V (2005) Knowledge management effective factors the role of HRM Journal of
Knowledge Management 9 (4) 70-86
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organizational leadership Human Resource Development International 8 165-83
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(November 4 2010)
Quinn J B Anderson P amp Finkelstein S (1996a January) Managing professional
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Rendero T (1980) Performance Appraisal Practices Personnel 57 (6) 4-12
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Creth S amp Duda F (Eds) Personnel Administration in Libraries (pp 152-220) New
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Ritter B amp Nunnally K (2002) Formalise the feedback employee performance
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Management 32 (3) 36-41
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34 (2) 30-35
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Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
Salleh M Amin A Muda S amp Abdul Halim M A S (2013) Fairness of Performance
Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
Sarita K (2012) A study on performance appraisal errors of telecom managers in Navi
Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
Scholtes P R (1993) Total quality or performance appraisal choose one National
Productivity Review 12 (2) 349-63
Scott P B (2005) Knowledge management Semantics Work identity Communications
Corporate Communications An International Journal 10 (3) 257-277
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2004) Knowledge workers perceptions of performance
ratings Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (3) 146 ndash 166
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
workers a resource of the firm theory view Journal of Knowledge Management 6 (3)
250ndash261
St-Onge S Morin D Bellehumeur M amp Dupuis F (2009) Managers motivation to
evaluate subordinate performance Qualitative Research in Organizations and
Management An International Journal 4 (3) 273-293
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Interim Report IRRU School of Industrial and Business Studies University of Warwick
Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No17
Strebler M T Robinson D amp Bevan S (2001) Performance review balancing
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Stuhlman D (2006) Helping you turn data into knowledge knowledge Management
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(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
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Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
Zimmerman K (2009) The impact of job performance on employee turnover and the
voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
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In an extensive review of the literature on the application of feedback in organizations
Earley et al (1990) distinguished two types of feedback outcome feedback and process
feedback The former concentrates on providing information on specific performance
outcomes and the latter provides information on the manner in which an individual
implements a work strategy The researchers found that process feedback interacted with
goal-setting more strongly than outcome feedback in determining the quality of task
strategies developed by workers their efforts to obtain information beneficial to improving
their performance appraisal satisfaction and perceived appraisal accuracy (Lam and
Schaubroeck 1999) Despite the benefits offered by the performance appraisal feedback
there emerge another major and growing concern expressed by employees on unqualified
manager and their failures to provide complete appropriate or constructive feedback about
employee‟s job performance and improvement areas (Rao 1984 cited in Obisi 2011
Kavanagh 1997) They were not even aware of the feedback objectives and had not been
provided with guidelines and instructions on how to complete the forms (Martey 2002)
While the ideas of providing training to them are theoretically sound the evidence that the
organizations concerned are taking major corrective action to eliminate these concerns is
rather weak Practically the amount of time for this exercise is too demanding
226 Frequency of performance appraisal
A large proportion of organizations conduct appraisal on a yearly basis (Freemantle 1994
Ebrahim 2003) though most employees believe that objectives could not be realized by an
annual performance appraisal Besides both employees and supervisors might not be able
to remember what happened throughout the year due to their selective memory As studied
by Boice and Kleiner (1997) evidence strongly suggests that performance reviews should
be performed on a frequent and ongoing basis to avoid surprises at an annual review
Moreover a study by Geetha (2013) further alleges that employees are unhappy when
there is no periodical or routine feedback from their superiors Besides frequent
performance appraisal has become a common activity in exceptional organizations (Quinn
et al 1996a)
Other appraisals vary from annually with interim reviews to annually with
monthlyquarterly reviews and annually with six to eight weekly reviews Nonetheless
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Fisher (1994) explains that the frequency of performance appraisal is an arduous
dimension to argue due to the ambiguity of the distinction between an appraisal meeting
and a regular daily discussion about work between a superior and a subordinate In
general the problem of frequency has always been one of the major limitations of any
formal approach to performance appraisal Too long an interval between each appraisal
might results in its contents lose relevance and risk artificiality whereas too short an
interval might results in the process to become too time-consuming (Freemantle 1994)
Evidently the actual time period varies in different organizations and with different aims
(Boice and Kleiner 1997) However a typical frequency would be bi-monthly or
quarterly
30 Hypotheses development performance appraisal career commitment and
turnover intention
31 Perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and intention to quit
Intention to withdraw or quit an organization simply refers to an employee‟s perceived
probability of staying or leaving an employing organization Turnover intention has been
recurrently prescribed in literatures as the most immediate predictor to eventual turnover
(Allen et al 2003 Lum et al 1998) The focus of this attitudinal element of turnover
intention makes sense since it highlights the various elements of behavior and the
motivation to leave that covers many inevitable reasons for actual turnover Turnover is
costly (Mitchell et al 2001 Adhinarayanan amp Gurunathan 2011 Cascio amp Bordreau
2011) and maybe difficult to quantify when irreplaceable knowledge assets or institutional
memory are lost These costs do not stop here Each time an employee leaves the firm
productivity is presumed to drop due to the learning curve involved in understanding the
job and the organization In addition research proves that after losing key employees
organizations experienced damage reputation customer relationship had lost best
practices information and lost significant income (Warren 1999) Ultimately in most
cases the involvement of superiors included positions all the way up to and including the
Chief Executive Officer (CEO) becomes inevitable This demonstrates that turnover issues
impact the firm by utilizing the precious time of senior managers This is in addition to
other expenses including loss of training and retraining time loss of human and relational
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capital Ultimately organizational success is not viable through personnel replacement
activities (Smith and Rupp 2004)
Turnover intention has brought about the importance of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness The relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and
turnover intention has since become the most renowned issue in the field of management
research One of the common objectives of performance appraisal is to retain the topmost
performing employees through quality performance appraisal that leads to fair
compensation amounts high motivation and better career prospects (Zimmerman 2009
Abdullah et al 2011) Hence the intensity of performance appraisal effectiveness
perception is fundamental in encouraging an employee to stay within one‟s employment
(Griffeth et al 2000 Smith and Rupp 2002 Benson et al 2010) An employee with a
low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness could oppose the best
interest of an employee The employee will feel that his or her contributions are not
effectively appraised or recognized and thus will posit a negative organizational attitude
In view of being underrated the employee willingness to be in employment will weaken
Hence the following proposition is established
P1 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will be associated with
higher levels of turnover intention relative to those with high intensity of perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness
32 Performance appraisal career commitment and intention to quit
Career commitment concept that was first introduced by Blau (1985) simply refers to
one‟s inspiration to stay in one‟s chosen career (Blau 1985 1989) It focuses on a uni-
dimensional measure which involves one‟s identification and involvement in one‟s
occupation or career along with one‟s effort in the pursuit of supporting one‟s career goals
(Blau 1985 Colarelli and Bishop 1990 Goulet and Singh 2002) The conceptualization
of career commitment was later extended into a multidimensional measure of accumulated
investments and cost of pursuing another new career (ldquocontinuancerdquo) attachment to a
career (ldquoaffectiverdquo) and feelings of obligation to remain in one career (ldquonormativerdquo)
commitment (Meyer et al 1993 2006 Meyer and Herscovitch 2001) Subsequently
these measures closely concur with another alternative multidimensional concept that
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measures one‟s strong feeling of attachment to one‟s career (ldquocareer identityrdquo) one‟s
strength to withhold one‟s career against commotion (ldquocareer resiliencerdquo) and clear
understanding of one‟s career path (ldquocareer insightrdquo) (London 1983 Carson and Bedeian
1994)
Performance appraisal may be seen as a viable organizational tool that may be used to
motivate direct and develop subordinates According to Smith and Rupp (2004)
performance-based rewards and understanding work-effects linkage would successfully
engage knowledge workers Knowledge workers enjoy the most positive work
environment on all measures which include perceptions of appraisal effectiveness (HR
professional 2001) High intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
should result in extrinsic rewards such as higher salaries (Day and Allen 2004) or
advancement (Allen 2006) as well as intrinsic rewards such as self-satisfaction (Locke
and Latham 1990 Greenhaus and Parasuraman 1993) These rewards would enable
employees to direct their energies in directions appropriate to their careers With higher
levels of career commitment individuals may make significant investments in their careers
to pursue their high career goals regardless of the setbacks (Colarelli and Bishop 1990
Aryee et al 1994 Mohamad et al 2006 Connie et al 2009) They would also engage
themselves with organizational training and job enrichment programs to attain new or
higher skills and knowledge This career advancement path along with their morale and
optimism would thus negate their turnover intentions (Lobburi 2012 Abdullah et al
2012 Thwala et al 2012)
Conversely employees with low intensity of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness allege that instead being a means of measuring subordinates the appraisal
role is solely a powerful channel of managerial control (Edmonstone 1996 Weise et al
1998) The performance appraisal systems which tend not to incorporate employees
personal aspirations with their future development have been cited by several authors
(Freeman 2002 Wilson and Western 2000 Long 1986) Evidently there exist
conflicting values and goals between organizations and these professionals (Lee et al
2000) Due to the divergent needs of stakeholders the appraisal process itself is often a
source of unmet expectations (Murphy and Cleveland 1995) Usually what is articulated
by the management is not what is valued and rewarded Most often than not they feel that
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their contribution is not effectively appraised and recognized Considering perceptions of
the appraisal effectiveness may contradict employees‟ beliefs about their contributions we
would expect them not to persistently manage and pursue their career growth successfully
As a consequence employees would exhibit lower levels of career commitment (Anna
2008 Barbara 2012) and have no interest to prolong their tenure Since perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness is expected to have a positive impact on career
commitment that will negatively affect turnover intention we make the following
propositions
P2 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will tend to be
associated with lower levels of career commitment relative to those with high intensity of
perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
P3 As a consequence employee turnover intention level will be higher
PAPpa
Figure 1 Conceptual model depicting the indirect (through career commitment
components) associations of performance appraisal and turnover intention
PA Components
objectives
criteria
measurement
sources
feedback
frequency
Career
Commitment
Career
identity
Career
resilience
Career
insight
Turnover
Intention
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40 Concluding thoughts and proposals for future research
Generally there have been a tremendous number of written literatures on performance
appraisal career commitment and turnover intention This study in particular attempt to
fill the gap in the existing literatures on the direct impact of career commitment on the
relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and turnover intention
Our study takes into account the complete framework of performance appraisal system
rather than each one of its components while the focus on career commitment is split into
the strength of one‟s attachment resistant and developmentplanning towards his career or
profession There exists evidence suggesting that the intensity of perceived performance
appraisal effectiveness will somehow affect a knowledge worker general level of career
commitment through expected extrinsic and intrinsic organizational compensation
benefits and rewards Employees with high intensity of perceived performance appraisal
are therefore highly committed to their career and thus posit a low turnover intention
Thus Improving performance appraisal practices to enhance career commitment should be
an important objective for those responsible for reducing turnover intention Hence
organizations should pay more attention on how to effectively appraise and recognize their
knowledge worker contribution The conceptual model that is mapped out aspires to be
dynamic since it can be adapted across knowledge and non-knowledge-based industries
The model rest upon the employer-employee concerns expectations and perceptions in
today‟s contemporary organizational setting Indirectly the model also argues on the
challenges faced by any organizations for continuous and iterative human resource
practices on managing and retaining their knowledge workers Hence there should a fit on
the part of organizational values norms culture and beliefs towards these concerns
expectations and perceptions It is therefore crucial to recognize that businesses ultimate
success is dependent upon the attitudes and behaviors of these knowledge staff and they
are in need of strong supporting structures Although this study makes progress to increase
understanding of how perceived performance appraisal effectiveness affect directly and
interactively turnover intention future work should include moderation effects of
psychological contract and organization benefits in career-related research It is also
noteworthy to consider both organizational and career commitments concurrently for
future performance appraisal-turnover intention research The propositions set out above
will then be the starting point for developing empirical research work for further
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organizational understanding of the issues and planning of interventions It would be a
significant contribution to the field of human resource management literatures
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3 5-13
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30 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Connie Z amp David L (2010) Organizational determinants of employee turnover for
multinational companies in Asia Asia Pacific Journal Management 27 423-443
Costigan R D Insinga R C Kranas G Ilter S S Kureshov V A amp Berman J J
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directed behaviour In Ferris G R amp Rowland K M (Eds) Research in Personnel and
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34-44
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Management Update 7 (11) 3-5
Davenport T amp Prusak L (2000) Working Knowledge How Organizations Manage
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Denisi A S amp Shaw J B (1977) Investigation of the uses of self-reports of abilities
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compatibility of performance appraisal systems with TQM principles ndash evidence from
current practice International Journal of Operations amp Production Management 26 (1)
92 ndash 112
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Edwards R G amp Calvin J W (1998) Performance appraisal in academic libraries
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Butterworth-Heinemann
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32 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
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Planning 19 (2) 12-19
Geetha H (2013) Performance appraisal with reference to textile sector in Coimbatore
International Refereed Research Journal 4 (1(2)) 56-63
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Behavior and Human Decision Processes 55 273-297
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ndash 415
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INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Helton R (1988) The bdquobest work‟ method of knowledge worker assessment Industrial
Management 30 (5) 19-22
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38635-72
Ilgen D R Barnes-Farrell J L amp McKellin D B (1993) Performance appraisal
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Behavior and Human Decision Processes 54 321-368
Julian M amp Anita D (2000) Knowledge Workers and why your e-business needs them
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Kane J S amp Russell J E A (1998) Performance appraisal and management In
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Karreman D Sveningsson S amp Alvesson M (2002) The return of the machine
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Organization Management 22 (2) 147-8
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102 ndash 113
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INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
34 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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Lawler E E (1967) The mulititrait-multirater approach to measuring managerial job
performance Journal of Applied Psychology 51 369-81
Lee S Y Banker R D Potter G amp Srinivasan D (2000) An empirical analysis of
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compensation Journal of Accounting and Economics 30 (3) 315-350
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Lobburi P (2012) The Influence of Organizational and Social Support on Turnover
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London M (1983) Toward a theory of career motivation The Academy of Management
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Management
Lum L Kervin J Clark K Reid F amp Sirola W (1998) Explaining nursing turnover
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Organizational Behaviour 19 (3) 305-320
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Martey A K (2002) Research paper Library Management 23 (89) 403-416
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
35 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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22-28
McGregor J Tweed D amp Pech R (2004) Human capital in the new economy devils
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Meyer J P Allen N J amp Smith C A (1993) Commitment to organizations and
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Meyer J P Becker T amp Van Dick R (2006) Social Identities and Commitments at
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model Human Resource Management Review 11 299-326
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Mitchell T R Holtom B C Lee T W amp Graske T (2001) How to keep your best
employee developing an effective retention policy The Academy of Management
Executive 15 (4) 96-109
Mohamad A H amp Aizzat M N (2006) Predicting turnover intention of hotel
employees The influence of employee development human resource management
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33- 45
Mohrman A Resnick-West S amp Lawler E (1989) Designing Performance Appraisal
Systems Aligning Appraisals and Organizational Realities San Francisco CA Jossey-
Bass
Moi Kok Wah (2008) Transforming for the Knowledge-based Economy Through the
Practice of Knowledge Management Certified Global Facilitator and Consultant JT
Frank Academy [Online] Available
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dimensions in diversity climate Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 34 (1) 82-104
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
36 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Murphy K R amp Cleveland J N (1995) Understanding Performance Appraisal Social
Organizational and Goal-Based Perspectives Thousand Oaks CA Sage
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Oltra V (2005) Knowledge management effective factors the role of HRM Journal of
Knowledge Management 9 (4) 70-86
Parry K W amp amp Sinha P N (2005) Researching the trainability of transformational
organizational leadership Human Resource Development International 8 165-83
Pepitone J S (2002) A case for humaneering IIE Solutions 34 (5) 39-44
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httpblogssaloncom0002007imagesTheFutureofKnowledgeManagementdo
(November 4 2010)
Quinn J B Anderson P amp Finkelstein S (1996a January) Managing professional
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Rendero T (1980) Performance Appraisal Practices Personnel 57 (6) 4-12
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Reneker M amp Steel V (1989) Performance Appraisal Purpose and Techniques In
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York Neal-Schuman Publishers Inc
Ritter B amp Nunnally K (2002) Formalise the feedback employee performance
evaluation Rural Telecommunications 21 (3) 32-6
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service firms institutional effects Organization Studies 24 (6) 831-857
Root-Bernstein R (1989) Strategies of research (part 2) Research-Technology
Management 32 (3) 36-41
Rosenbaum B (1991) Leading todayprimes professional Research-Technology Management
34 (2) 30-35
ijcrbwebscom
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NOVEMBER 2013
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Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
Salleh M Amin A Muda S amp Abdul Halim M A S (2013) Fairness of Performance
Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
Sarita K (2012) A study on performance appraisal errors of telecom managers in Navi
Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
Scholtes P R (1993) Total quality or performance appraisal choose one National
Productivity Review 12 (2) 349-63
Scott P B (2005) Knowledge management Semantics Work identity Communications
Corporate Communications An International Journal 10 (3) 257-277
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2004) Knowledge workers perceptions of performance
ratings Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (3) 146 ndash 166
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
workers a resource of the firm theory view Journal of Knowledge Management 6 (3)
250ndash261
St-Onge S Morin D Bellehumeur M amp Dupuis F (2009) Managers motivation to
evaluate subordinate performance Qualitative Research in Organizations and
Management An International Journal 4 (3) 273-293
Storey J (1987 November) Developments in the Management of Human Resources An
Interim Report IRRU School of Industrial and Business Studies University of Warwick
Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No17
Strebler M T Robinson D amp Bevan S (2001) Performance review balancing
objective and content The Institute of Employment Studies Brighton Report No 370
Stuhlman D (2006) Helping you turn data into knowledge knowledge Management
Terms [Online] Available httpwwwhomeearthlinknet~ddstuhlmandefin1htm
(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
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Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
Zimmerman K (2009) The impact of job performance on employee turnover and the
voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
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Fisher (1994) explains that the frequency of performance appraisal is an arduous
dimension to argue due to the ambiguity of the distinction between an appraisal meeting
and a regular daily discussion about work between a superior and a subordinate In
general the problem of frequency has always been one of the major limitations of any
formal approach to performance appraisal Too long an interval between each appraisal
might results in its contents lose relevance and risk artificiality whereas too short an
interval might results in the process to become too time-consuming (Freemantle 1994)
Evidently the actual time period varies in different organizations and with different aims
(Boice and Kleiner 1997) However a typical frequency would be bi-monthly or
quarterly
30 Hypotheses development performance appraisal career commitment and
turnover intention
31 Perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and intention to quit
Intention to withdraw or quit an organization simply refers to an employee‟s perceived
probability of staying or leaving an employing organization Turnover intention has been
recurrently prescribed in literatures as the most immediate predictor to eventual turnover
(Allen et al 2003 Lum et al 1998) The focus of this attitudinal element of turnover
intention makes sense since it highlights the various elements of behavior and the
motivation to leave that covers many inevitable reasons for actual turnover Turnover is
costly (Mitchell et al 2001 Adhinarayanan amp Gurunathan 2011 Cascio amp Bordreau
2011) and maybe difficult to quantify when irreplaceable knowledge assets or institutional
memory are lost These costs do not stop here Each time an employee leaves the firm
productivity is presumed to drop due to the learning curve involved in understanding the
job and the organization In addition research proves that after losing key employees
organizations experienced damage reputation customer relationship had lost best
practices information and lost significant income (Warren 1999) Ultimately in most
cases the involvement of superiors included positions all the way up to and including the
Chief Executive Officer (CEO) becomes inevitable This demonstrates that turnover issues
impact the firm by utilizing the precious time of senior managers This is in addition to
other expenses including loss of training and retraining time loss of human and relational
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capital Ultimately organizational success is not viable through personnel replacement
activities (Smith and Rupp 2004)
Turnover intention has brought about the importance of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness The relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and
turnover intention has since become the most renowned issue in the field of management
research One of the common objectives of performance appraisal is to retain the topmost
performing employees through quality performance appraisal that leads to fair
compensation amounts high motivation and better career prospects (Zimmerman 2009
Abdullah et al 2011) Hence the intensity of performance appraisal effectiveness
perception is fundamental in encouraging an employee to stay within one‟s employment
(Griffeth et al 2000 Smith and Rupp 2002 Benson et al 2010) An employee with a
low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness could oppose the best
interest of an employee The employee will feel that his or her contributions are not
effectively appraised or recognized and thus will posit a negative organizational attitude
In view of being underrated the employee willingness to be in employment will weaken
Hence the following proposition is established
P1 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will be associated with
higher levels of turnover intention relative to those with high intensity of perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness
32 Performance appraisal career commitment and intention to quit
Career commitment concept that was first introduced by Blau (1985) simply refers to
one‟s inspiration to stay in one‟s chosen career (Blau 1985 1989) It focuses on a uni-
dimensional measure which involves one‟s identification and involvement in one‟s
occupation or career along with one‟s effort in the pursuit of supporting one‟s career goals
(Blau 1985 Colarelli and Bishop 1990 Goulet and Singh 2002) The conceptualization
of career commitment was later extended into a multidimensional measure of accumulated
investments and cost of pursuing another new career (ldquocontinuancerdquo) attachment to a
career (ldquoaffectiverdquo) and feelings of obligation to remain in one career (ldquonormativerdquo)
commitment (Meyer et al 1993 2006 Meyer and Herscovitch 2001) Subsequently
these measures closely concur with another alternative multidimensional concept that
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measures one‟s strong feeling of attachment to one‟s career (ldquocareer identityrdquo) one‟s
strength to withhold one‟s career against commotion (ldquocareer resiliencerdquo) and clear
understanding of one‟s career path (ldquocareer insightrdquo) (London 1983 Carson and Bedeian
1994)
Performance appraisal may be seen as a viable organizational tool that may be used to
motivate direct and develop subordinates According to Smith and Rupp (2004)
performance-based rewards and understanding work-effects linkage would successfully
engage knowledge workers Knowledge workers enjoy the most positive work
environment on all measures which include perceptions of appraisal effectiveness (HR
professional 2001) High intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
should result in extrinsic rewards such as higher salaries (Day and Allen 2004) or
advancement (Allen 2006) as well as intrinsic rewards such as self-satisfaction (Locke
and Latham 1990 Greenhaus and Parasuraman 1993) These rewards would enable
employees to direct their energies in directions appropriate to their careers With higher
levels of career commitment individuals may make significant investments in their careers
to pursue their high career goals regardless of the setbacks (Colarelli and Bishop 1990
Aryee et al 1994 Mohamad et al 2006 Connie et al 2009) They would also engage
themselves with organizational training and job enrichment programs to attain new or
higher skills and knowledge This career advancement path along with their morale and
optimism would thus negate their turnover intentions (Lobburi 2012 Abdullah et al
2012 Thwala et al 2012)
Conversely employees with low intensity of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness allege that instead being a means of measuring subordinates the appraisal
role is solely a powerful channel of managerial control (Edmonstone 1996 Weise et al
1998) The performance appraisal systems which tend not to incorporate employees
personal aspirations with their future development have been cited by several authors
(Freeman 2002 Wilson and Western 2000 Long 1986) Evidently there exist
conflicting values and goals between organizations and these professionals (Lee et al
2000) Due to the divergent needs of stakeholders the appraisal process itself is often a
source of unmet expectations (Murphy and Cleveland 1995) Usually what is articulated
by the management is not what is valued and rewarded Most often than not they feel that
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their contribution is not effectively appraised and recognized Considering perceptions of
the appraisal effectiveness may contradict employees‟ beliefs about their contributions we
would expect them not to persistently manage and pursue their career growth successfully
As a consequence employees would exhibit lower levels of career commitment (Anna
2008 Barbara 2012) and have no interest to prolong their tenure Since perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness is expected to have a positive impact on career
commitment that will negatively affect turnover intention we make the following
propositions
P2 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will tend to be
associated with lower levels of career commitment relative to those with high intensity of
perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
P3 As a consequence employee turnover intention level will be higher
PAPpa
Figure 1 Conceptual model depicting the indirect (through career commitment
components) associations of performance appraisal and turnover intention
PA Components
objectives
criteria
measurement
sources
feedback
frequency
Career
Commitment
Career
identity
Career
resilience
Career
insight
Turnover
Intention
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40 Concluding thoughts and proposals for future research
Generally there have been a tremendous number of written literatures on performance
appraisal career commitment and turnover intention This study in particular attempt to
fill the gap in the existing literatures on the direct impact of career commitment on the
relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and turnover intention
Our study takes into account the complete framework of performance appraisal system
rather than each one of its components while the focus on career commitment is split into
the strength of one‟s attachment resistant and developmentplanning towards his career or
profession There exists evidence suggesting that the intensity of perceived performance
appraisal effectiveness will somehow affect a knowledge worker general level of career
commitment through expected extrinsic and intrinsic organizational compensation
benefits and rewards Employees with high intensity of perceived performance appraisal
are therefore highly committed to their career and thus posit a low turnover intention
Thus Improving performance appraisal practices to enhance career commitment should be
an important objective for those responsible for reducing turnover intention Hence
organizations should pay more attention on how to effectively appraise and recognize their
knowledge worker contribution The conceptual model that is mapped out aspires to be
dynamic since it can be adapted across knowledge and non-knowledge-based industries
The model rest upon the employer-employee concerns expectations and perceptions in
today‟s contemporary organizational setting Indirectly the model also argues on the
challenges faced by any organizations for continuous and iterative human resource
practices on managing and retaining their knowledge workers Hence there should a fit on
the part of organizational values norms culture and beliefs towards these concerns
expectations and perceptions It is therefore crucial to recognize that businesses ultimate
success is dependent upon the attitudes and behaviors of these knowledge staff and they
are in need of strong supporting structures Although this study makes progress to increase
understanding of how perceived performance appraisal effectiveness affect directly and
interactively turnover intention future work should include moderation effects of
psychological contract and organization benefits in career-related research It is also
noteworthy to consider both organizational and career commitments concurrently for
future performance appraisal-turnover intention research The propositions set out above
will then be the starting point for developing empirical research work for further
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organizational understanding of the issues and planning of interventions It would be a
significant contribution to the field of human resource management literatures
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VOL 5 NO 7
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INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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Management 30 (5) 19-22
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process research in the 1980s what has it contributed to appraisal in use Organizational
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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22-28
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Mohrman A Resnick-West S amp Lawler E (1989) Designing Performance Appraisal
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dimensions in diversity climate Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 34 (1) 82-104
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INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
36 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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Knowledge Management 9 (4) 70-86
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37 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
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Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
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Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
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Scott P B (2005) Knowledge management Semantics Work identity Communications
Corporate Communications An International Journal 10 (3) 257-277
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2004) Knowledge workers perceptions of performance
ratings Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (3) 146 ndash 166
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
workers a resource of the firm theory view Journal of Knowledge Management 6 (3)
250ndash261
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evaluate subordinate performance Qualitative Research in Organizations and
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Interim Report IRRU School of Industrial and Business Studies University of Warwick
Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No17
Strebler M T Robinson D amp Bevan S (2001) Performance review balancing
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(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
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based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
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appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
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voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
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capital Ultimately organizational success is not viable through personnel replacement
activities (Smith and Rupp 2004)
Turnover intention has brought about the importance of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness The relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and
turnover intention has since become the most renowned issue in the field of management
research One of the common objectives of performance appraisal is to retain the topmost
performing employees through quality performance appraisal that leads to fair
compensation amounts high motivation and better career prospects (Zimmerman 2009
Abdullah et al 2011) Hence the intensity of performance appraisal effectiveness
perception is fundamental in encouraging an employee to stay within one‟s employment
(Griffeth et al 2000 Smith and Rupp 2002 Benson et al 2010) An employee with a
low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness could oppose the best
interest of an employee The employee will feel that his or her contributions are not
effectively appraised or recognized and thus will posit a negative organizational attitude
In view of being underrated the employee willingness to be in employment will weaken
Hence the following proposition is established
P1 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will be associated with
higher levels of turnover intention relative to those with high intensity of perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness
32 Performance appraisal career commitment and intention to quit
Career commitment concept that was first introduced by Blau (1985) simply refers to
one‟s inspiration to stay in one‟s chosen career (Blau 1985 1989) It focuses on a uni-
dimensional measure which involves one‟s identification and involvement in one‟s
occupation or career along with one‟s effort in the pursuit of supporting one‟s career goals
(Blau 1985 Colarelli and Bishop 1990 Goulet and Singh 2002) The conceptualization
of career commitment was later extended into a multidimensional measure of accumulated
investments and cost of pursuing another new career (ldquocontinuancerdquo) attachment to a
career (ldquoaffectiverdquo) and feelings of obligation to remain in one career (ldquonormativerdquo)
commitment (Meyer et al 1993 2006 Meyer and Herscovitch 2001) Subsequently
these measures closely concur with another alternative multidimensional concept that
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measures one‟s strong feeling of attachment to one‟s career (ldquocareer identityrdquo) one‟s
strength to withhold one‟s career against commotion (ldquocareer resiliencerdquo) and clear
understanding of one‟s career path (ldquocareer insightrdquo) (London 1983 Carson and Bedeian
1994)
Performance appraisal may be seen as a viable organizational tool that may be used to
motivate direct and develop subordinates According to Smith and Rupp (2004)
performance-based rewards and understanding work-effects linkage would successfully
engage knowledge workers Knowledge workers enjoy the most positive work
environment on all measures which include perceptions of appraisal effectiveness (HR
professional 2001) High intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
should result in extrinsic rewards such as higher salaries (Day and Allen 2004) or
advancement (Allen 2006) as well as intrinsic rewards such as self-satisfaction (Locke
and Latham 1990 Greenhaus and Parasuraman 1993) These rewards would enable
employees to direct their energies in directions appropriate to their careers With higher
levels of career commitment individuals may make significant investments in their careers
to pursue their high career goals regardless of the setbacks (Colarelli and Bishop 1990
Aryee et al 1994 Mohamad et al 2006 Connie et al 2009) They would also engage
themselves with organizational training and job enrichment programs to attain new or
higher skills and knowledge This career advancement path along with their morale and
optimism would thus negate their turnover intentions (Lobburi 2012 Abdullah et al
2012 Thwala et al 2012)
Conversely employees with low intensity of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness allege that instead being a means of measuring subordinates the appraisal
role is solely a powerful channel of managerial control (Edmonstone 1996 Weise et al
1998) The performance appraisal systems which tend not to incorporate employees
personal aspirations with their future development have been cited by several authors
(Freeman 2002 Wilson and Western 2000 Long 1986) Evidently there exist
conflicting values and goals between organizations and these professionals (Lee et al
2000) Due to the divergent needs of stakeholders the appraisal process itself is often a
source of unmet expectations (Murphy and Cleveland 1995) Usually what is articulated
by the management is not what is valued and rewarded Most often than not they feel that
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INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
their contribution is not effectively appraised and recognized Considering perceptions of
the appraisal effectiveness may contradict employees‟ beliefs about their contributions we
would expect them not to persistently manage and pursue their career growth successfully
As a consequence employees would exhibit lower levels of career commitment (Anna
2008 Barbara 2012) and have no interest to prolong their tenure Since perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness is expected to have a positive impact on career
commitment that will negatively affect turnover intention we make the following
propositions
P2 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will tend to be
associated with lower levels of career commitment relative to those with high intensity of
perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
P3 As a consequence employee turnover intention level will be higher
PAPpa
Figure 1 Conceptual model depicting the indirect (through career commitment
components) associations of performance appraisal and turnover intention
PA Components
objectives
criteria
measurement
sources
feedback
frequency
Career
Commitment
Career
identity
Career
resilience
Career
insight
Turnover
Intention
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40 Concluding thoughts and proposals for future research
Generally there have been a tremendous number of written literatures on performance
appraisal career commitment and turnover intention This study in particular attempt to
fill the gap in the existing literatures on the direct impact of career commitment on the
relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and turnover intention
Our study takes into account the complete framework of performance appraisal system
rather than each one of its components while the focus on career commitment is split into
the strength of one‟s attachment resistant and developmentplanning towards his career or
profession There exists evidence suggesting that the intensity of perceived performance
appraisal effectiveness will somehow affect a knowledge worker general level of career
commitment through expected extrinsic and intrinsic organizational compensation
benefits and rewards Employees with high intensity of perceived performance appraisal
are therefore highly committed to their career and thus posit a low turnover intention
Thus Improving performance appraisal practices to enhance career commitment should be
an important objective for those responsible for reducing turnover intention Hence
organizations should pay more attention on how to effectively appraise and recognize their
knowledge worker contribution The conceptual model that is mapped out aspires to be
dynamic since it can be adapted across knowledge and non-knowledge-based industries
The model rest upon the employer-employee concerns expectations and perceptions in
today‟s contemporary organizational setting Indirectly the model also argues on the
challenges faced by any organizations for continuous and iterative human resource
practices on managing and retaining their knowledge workers Hence there should a fit on
the part of organizational values norms culture and beliefs towards these concerns
expectations and perceptions It is therefore crucial to recognize that businesses ultimate
success is dependent upon the attitudes and behaviors of these knowledge staff and they
are in need of strong supporting structures Although this study makes progress to increase
understanding of how perceived performance appraisal effectiveness affect directly and
interactively turnover intention future work should include moderation effects of
psychological contract and organization benefits in career-related research It is also
noteworthy to consider both organizational and career commitments concurrently for
future performance appraisal-turnover intention research The propositions set out above
will then be the starting point for developing empirical research work for further
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VOL 5 NO 7
organizational understanding of the issues and planning of interventions It would be a
significant contribution to the field of human resource management literatures
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VOL 5 NO 7
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VOL 5 NO 7
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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NOVEMBER 2013
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Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
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Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
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Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
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Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
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Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
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appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
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142-158
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measures one‟s strong feeling of attachment to one‟s career (ldquocareer identityrdquo) one‟s
strength to withhold one‟s career against commotion (ldquocareer resiliencerdquo) and clear
understanding of one‟s career path (ldquocareer insightrdquo) (London 1983 Carson and Bedeian
1994)
Performance appraisal may be seen as a viable organizational tool that may be used to
motivate direct and develop subordinates According to Smith and Rupp (2004)
performance-based rewards and understanding work-effects linkage would successfully
engage knowledge workers Knowledge workers enjoy the most positive work
environment on all measures which include perceptions of appraisal effectiveness (HR
professional 2001) High intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
should result in extrinsic rewards such as higher salaries (Day and Allen 2004) or
advancement (Allen 2006) as well as intrinsic rewards such as self-satisfaction (Locke
and Latham 1990 Greenhaus and Parasuraman 1993) These rewards would enable
employees to direct their energies in directions appropriate to their careers With higher
levels of career commitment individuals may make significant investments in their careers
to pursue their high career goals regardless of the setbacks (Colarelli and Bishop 1990
Aryee et al 1994 Mohamad et al 2006 Connie et al 2009) They would also engage
themselves with organizational training and job enrichment programs to attain new or
higher skills and knowledge This career advancement path along with their morale and
optimism would thus negate their turnover intentions (Lobburi 2012 Abdullah et al
2012 Thwala et al 2012)
Conversely employees with low intensity of perceived performance appraisal
effectiveness allege that instead being a means of measuring subordinates the appraisal
role is solely a powerful channel of managerial control (Edmonstone 1996 Weise et al
1998) The performance appraisal systems which tend not to incorporate employees
personal aspirations with their future development have been cited by several authors
(Freeman 2002 Wilson and Western 2000 Long 1986) Evidently there exist
conflicting values and goals between organizations and these professionals (Lee et al
2000) Due to the divergent needs of stakeholders the appraisal process itself is often a
source of unmet expectations (Murphy and Cleveland 1995) Usually what is articulated
by the management is not what is valued and rewarded Most often than not they feel that
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VOL 5 NO 7
their contribution is not effectively appraised and recognized Considering perceptions of
the appraisal effectiveness may contradict employees‟ beliefs about their contributions we
would expect them not to persistently manage and pursue their career growth successfully
As a consequence employees would exhibit lower levels of career commitment (Anna
2008 Barbara 2012) and have no interest to prolong their tenure Since perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness is expected to have a positive impact on career
commitment that will negatively affect turnover intention we make the following
propositions
P2 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will tend to be
associated with lower levels of career commitment relative to those with high intensity of
perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
P3 As a consequence employee turnover intention level will be higher
PAPpa
Figure 1 Conceptual model depicting the indirect (through career commitment
components) associations of performance appraisal and turnover intention
PA Components
objectives
criteria
measurement
sources
feedback
frequency
Career
Commitment
Career
identity
Career
resilience
Career
insight
Turnover
Intention
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
40 Concluding thoughts and proposals for future research
Generally there have been a tremendous number of written literatures on performance
appraisal career commitment and turnover intention This study in particular attempt to
fill the gap in the existing literatures on the direct impact of career commitment on the
relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and turnover intention
Our study takes into account the complete framework of performance appraisal system
rather than each one of its components while the focus on career commitment is split into
the strength of one‟s attachment resistant and developmentplanning towards his career or
profession There exists evidence suggesting that the intensity of perceived performance
appraisal effectiveness will somehow affect a knowledge worker general level of career
commitment through expected extrinsic and intrinsic organizational compensation
benefits and rewards Employees with high intensity of perceived performance appraisal
are therefore highly committed to their career and thus posit a low turnover intention
Thus Improving performance appraisal practices to enhance career commitment should be
an important objective for those responsible for reducing turnover intention Hence
organizations should pay more attention on how to effectively appraise and recognize their
knowledge worker contribution The conceptual model that is mapped out aspires to be
dynamic since it can be adapted across knowledge and non-knowledge-based industries
The model rest upon the employer-employee concerns expectations and perceptions in
today‟s contemporary organizational setting Indirectly the model also argues on the
challenges faced by any organizations for continuous and iterative human resource
practices on managing and retaining their knowledge workers Hence there should a fit on
the part of organizational values norms culture and beliefs towards these concerns
expectations and perceptions It is therefore crucial to recognize that businesses ultimate
success is dependent upon the attitudes and behaviors of these knowledge staff and they
are in need of strong supporting structures Although this study makes progress to increase
understanding of how perceived performance appraisal effectiveness affect directly and
interactively turnover intention future work should include moderation effects of
psychological contract and organization benefits in career-related research It is also
noteworthy to consider both organizational and career commitments concurrently for
future performance appraisal-turnover intention research The propositions set out above
will then be the starting point for developing empirical research work for further
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
organizational understanding of the issues and planning of interventions It would be a
significant contribution to the field of human resource management literatures
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References
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29 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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30 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
34 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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36 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
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Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
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Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
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142-158
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their contribution is not effectively appraised and recognized Considering perceptions of
the appraisal effectiveness may contradict employees‟ beliefs about their contributions we
would expect them not to persistently manage and pursue their career growth successfully
As a consequence employees would exhibit lower levels of career commitment (Anna
2008 Barbara 2012) and have no interest to prolong their tenure Since perceived
performance appraisal effectiveness is expected to have a positive impact on career
commitment that will negatively affect turnover intention we make the following
propositions
P2 Low intensity of perceived performance appraisal effectiveness will tend to be
associated with lower levels of career commitment relative to those with high intensity of
perceived performance appraisal effectiveness
P3 As a consequence employee turnover intention level will be higher
PAPpa
Figure 1 Conceptual model depicting the indirect (through career commitment
components) associations of performance appraisal and turnover intention
PA Components
objectives
criteria
measurement
sources
feedback
frequency
Career
Commitment
Career
identity
Career
resilience
Career
insight
Turnover
Intention
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40 Concluding thoughts and proposals for future research
Generally there have been a tremendous number of written literatures on performance
appraisal career commitment and turnover intention This study in particular attempt to
fill the gap in the existing literatures on the direct impact of career commitment on the
relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and turnover intention
Our study takes into account the complete framework of performance appraisal system
rather than each one of its components while the focus on career commitment is split into
the strength of one‟s attachment resistant and developmentplanning towards his career or
profession There exists evidence suggesting that the intensity of perceived performance
appraisal effectiveness will somehow affect a knowledge worker general level of career
commitment through expected extrinsic and intrinsic organizational compensation
benefits and rewards Employees with high intensity of perceived performance appraisal
are therefore highly committed to their career and thus posit a low turnover intention
Thus Improving performance appraisal practices to enhance career commitment should be
an important objective for those responsible for reducing turnover intention Hence
organizations should pay more attention on how to effectively appraise and recognize their
knowledge worker contribution The conceptual model that is mapped out aspires to be
dynamic since it can be adapted across knowledge and non-knowledge-based industries
The model rest upon the employer-employee concerns expectations and perceptions in
today‟s contemporary organizational setting Indirectly the model also argues on the
challenges faced by any organizations for continuous and iterative human resource
practices on managing and retaining their knowledge workers Hence there should a fit on
the part of organizational values norms culture and beliefs towards these concerns
expectations and perceptions It is therefore crucial to recognize that businesses ultimate
success is dependent upon the attitudes and behaviors of these knowledge staff and they
are in need of strong supporting structures Although this study makes progress to increase
understanding of how perceived performance appraisal effectiveness affect directly and
interactively turnover intention future work should include moderation effects of
psychological contract and organization benefits in career-related research It is also
noteworthy to consider both organizational and career commitments concurrently for
future performance appraisal-turnover intention research The propositions set out above
will then be the starting point for developing empirical research work for further
ijcrbwebscom
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
organizational understanding of the issues and planning of interventions It would be a
significant contribution to the field of human resource management literatures
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References
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Abdullah A Bilau A A Enegbuma W I Ajagbe A M amp Ali K N (2011)
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Construction Firms in Nigeria Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on
Construction and Project Management Singapore 2011 Singapore IPEDR
Abdullah A Bilau A A Enegbuma W I Ajagbe A M Ali K N amp Bustani S A
(2012) Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms Job Satisfaction and Evaluation in
Nigeria International Journal of Social Science and Humanity 2 (1) 35-40
Abosch K S amp Reidy D B (1996) Supporting teams through reward systems
American Compensation Association Journal 5 (4) 72-81
Adhinarayanan B amp Gurunathan K B (2011) Causes of Attrition Rate in Information
Technology and IT‟s Enabled Service Sector International Journal of Strategic
Organization and Behavioral Science 1 (1) 3-14
Allen D G Shore L M amp Griffeth R W (2003) The role of perceived organizational
support and supportive human resource practices in the turnover process Journal of
Management 29 (1) 99-118
Allen T D (2006) Rewarding good citizens The relationship between citizenship
behavior gender and organizational rewards Journal of Applied Social Psychology 36
120-143
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for the modern workplace Supervision 62 (10) 3-9
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of Haifa
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of career commitment in three career stages Journal of Vocational Behavior 44 1-16
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ijcrbwebscom
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Barbara B (2012) Organizational socialization career aspirations and turnover intention
among design engineers Leadership and Organization Development Journal 26 22-30
Barnes P (1997) Making appraisal work in the new millennium Management Services
41 (7) 14-16
Becker B E Huselid M A amp Ulrich D (2001) The HR Scorecard Linking People
Strategy and Performance Boston MA Harvard Business School Publishing
Benson J Brown M amp Hyatt D (2010) Consequences of the performance appraisal
experience Personnel Review 39 (3) 375-396
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Occupational Psychology 58 277-288
Blau G (1989) Testing the generalizability of a career commitment measure and its
impact on
employee turnover Journal of Vocational Behavior 35 88-103
Boice D F amp Kleiner B H (1997) Designing effective performance appraisal system
Work Study 46 (6) 197-201
Bobko P amp Collela A (1994) Employee reactions to performance standards a review
and research propositions Personnel Psychology 47 (10) 1-29
Bosch-Sijtsema P M amp Ruohomaumlki V amp Vartiainen M (2009) Knowledge work
productivity in distributed teams Journal of Knowledge Management 13 (6) 533 ndash 546
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3 5-13
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Alternative Perspectives Cincinnati OH South-Western
Carson K D amp Bedeian A G (1994) Career commitment construction of a measure
and examination of its psychometric properties Journal of Vocational Behavior 44 237-
262
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ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Pearson Education Inc
Cennamo L amp Gardner D (2008) Generational differences in work values outcomes
and person-organisation values fit Journal of Managerial Psychology 23 (8) 891-906
Chan C A (2007) The Future of Human Resource Management Leadership amp
Organization Development Journal 28 (1) 94 ndash 96
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
30 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Connie Z amp David L (2010) Organizational determinants of employee turnover for
multinational companies in Asia Asia Pacific Journal Management 27 423-443
Costigan R D Insinga R C Kranas G Ilter S S Kureshov V A amp Berman J J
(2005) A study of Russian Polish and US self- and peer raters moderators of rating
agreement International Journal of Commerce and Management 15 205-20
Cleveland J N and Murphy K R (1992) Analyzing performance appraisal as goal
directed behaviour In Ferris G R amp Rowland K M (Eds) Research in Personnel and
Human Resources Management 10 121-185 Greenwich CT JAI Press
Cleveland J N Murphy K R amp Williams R E (1989) Multiple uses of performance
appraisal prevalence and correlates Journal of Applied Psychology 74 130-5
Coens T amp Jenkins M (2001) Focusing on performance Security Management 45 (8)
34-44
Collarelli S M amp Bishop R C (1990) Career commitment Functions correlations and
management Group and Organization Studies 15 158-176
Creotec (2006) Knowledge Creative and Passion [Online] Available
httpwwwcreoteccomindexphp (January 5 2007)
Damir B Martin S amp Ljubica B (2008) HRM practices in managing knowledge
workers 2nd Special Focus Symposium on ICESKS Information Communication and
Economic Sciences in the Knowledge Society Zadar Nov 13-14
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Management Update 7 (11) 3-5
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What They Know Boston MA Harvard Business School Press
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Technology Centre for Advanced Engineering Study
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31 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Denisi A S amp Shaw J B (1977) Investigation of the uses of self-reports of abilities
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compatibility of performance appraisal systems with TQM principles ndash evidence from
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92 ndash 112
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Butterworth-Heinemann
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32 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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VOL 5 NO 7
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34 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
36 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
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Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
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(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
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Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
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Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
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Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
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Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
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[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
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Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
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142-158
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40 Concluding thoughts and proposals for future research
Generally there have been a tremendous number of written literatures on performance
appraisal career commitment and turnover intention This study in particular attempt to
fill the gap in the existing literatures on the direct impact of career commitment on the
relationship between perceived performance appraisal effectiveness and turnover intention
Our study takes into account the complete framework of performance appraisal system
rather than each one of its components while the focus on career commitment is split into
the strength of one‟s attachment resistant and developmentplanning towards his career or
profession There exists evidence suggesting that the intensity of perceived performance
appraisal effectiveness will somehow affect a knowledge worker general level of career
commitment through expected extrinsic and intrinsic organizational compensation
benefits and rewards Employees with high intensity of perceived performance appraisal
are therefore highly committed to their career and thus posit a low turnover intention
Thus Improving performance appraisal practices to enhance career commitment should be
an important objective for those responsible for reducing turnover intention Hence
organizations should pay more attention on how to effectively appraise and recognize their
knowledge worker contribution The conceptual model that is mapped out aspires to be
dynamic since it can be adapted across knowledge and non-knowledge-based industries
The model rest upon the employer-employee concerns expectations and perceptions in
today‟s contemporary organizational setting Indirectly the model also argues on the
challenges faced by any organizations for continuous and iterative human resource
practices on managing and retaining their knowledge workers Hence there should a fit on
the part of organizational values norms culture and beliefs towards these concerns
expectations and perceptions It is therefore crucial to recognize that businesses ultimate
success is dependent upon the attitudes and behaviors of these knowledge staff and they
are in need of strong supporting structures Although this study makes progress to increase
understanding of how perceived performance appraisal effectiveness affect directly and
interactively turnover intention future work should include moderation effects of
psychological contract and organization benefits in career-related research It is also
noteworthy to consider both organizational and career commitments concurrently for
future performance appraisal-turnover intention research The propositions set out above
will then be the starting point for developing empirical research work for further
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organizational understanding of the issues and planning of interventions It would be a
significant contribution to the field of human resource management literatures
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References
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Construction and Project Management Singapore 2011 Singapore IPEDR
Abdullah A Bilau A A Enegbuma W I Ajagbe A M Ali K N amp Bustani S A
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Abosch K S amp Reidy D B (1996) Supporting teams through reward systems
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Management 29 (1) 99-118
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behavior gender and organizational rewards Journal of Applied Social Psychology 36
120-143
Alvesson M (2000) Social identity and the problem of loyalty in knowledge-intensive
companies Journal of Management Studies 37 (8) 1101-1103
Amsler G M Findley H M amp Ingram E (2001) Performance monitoring guidance
for the modern workplace Supervision 62 (10) 3-9
Anna F (2008) Turnover intention among welfare workers (pp 5-21) Israel University
of Haifa
Aryee S Yue W C amp Chew J (1994) An investigation of the predictors and outcomes
of career commitment in three career stages Journal of Vocational Behavior 44 1-16
Bach S (2005) New directions in performance management In Bach S (Eds)
Managing Human Resources Personnel Management in Transition Oxford Blackwell
Bandura A (1991) Social cognitive theory of self-regulation Organizational Behavior
and Human Decision Processes 50 (2) 248-87
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
29 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Barbara B (2012) Organizational socialization career aspirations and turnover intention
among design engineers Leadership and Organization Development Journal 26 22-30
Barnes P (1997) Making appraisal work in the new millennium Management Services
41 (7) 14-16
Becker B E Huselid M A amp Ulrich D (2001) The HR Scorecard Linking People
Strategy and Performance Boston MA Harvard Business School Publishing
Benson J Brown M amp Hyatt D (2010) Consequences of the performance appraisal
experience Personnel Review 39 (3) 375-396
Blau G (1985) The measurement and prediction of career commitment Journal of
Occupational Psychology 58 277-288
Blau G (1989) Testing the generalizability of a career commitment measure and its
impact on
employee turnover Journal of Vocational Behavior 35 88-103
Boice D F amp Kleiner B H (1997) Designing effective performance appraisal system
Work Study 46 (6) 197-201
Bobko P amp Collela A (1994) Employee reactions to performance standards a review
and research propositions Personnel Psychology 47 (10) 1-29
Bosch-Sijtsema P M amp Ruohomaumlki V amp Vartiainen M (2009) Knowledge work
productivity in distributed teams Journal of Knowledge Management 13 (6) 533 ndash 546
Bryan L L amp Joyce C (2005) The 21st-century organization The McKinsey Quarterly
3 5-13
Byrne J (1993 December) The horizontal corporation Business Week 20 76-81
Cardy R L amp Dobbins G H (1994) Performance Appraisal A Consideration of
Alternative Perspectives Cincinnati OH South-Western
Carson K D amp Bedeian A G (1994) Career commitment construction of a measure
and examination of its psychometric properties Journal of Vocational Behavior 44 237-
262
Cascio W amp Bordreau J (2011) Financial Impact of Human Resource Initiatives (2nd
ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Pearson Education Inc
Cennamo L amp Gardner D (2008) Generational differences in work values outcomes
and person-organisation values fit Journal of Managerial Psychology 23 (8) 891-906
Chan C A (2007) The Future of Human Resource Management Leadership amp
Organization Development Journal 28 (1) 94 ndash 96
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
30 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Connie Z amp David L (2010) Organizational determinants of employee turnover for
multinational companies in Asia Asia Pacific Journal Management 27 423-443
Costigan R D Insinga R C Kranas G Ilter S S Kureshov V A amp Berman J J
(2005) A study of Russian Polish and US self- and peer raters moderators of rating
agreement International Journal of Commerce and Management 15 205-20
Cleveland J N and Murphy K R (1992) Analyzing performance appraisal as goal
directed behaviour In Ferris G R amp Rowland K M (Eds) Research in Personnel and
Human Resources Management 10 121-185 Greenwich CT JAI Press
Cleveland J N Murphy K R amp Williams R E (1989) Multiple uses of performance
appraisal prevalence and correlates Journal of Applied Psychology 74 130-5
Coens T amp Jenkins M (2001) Focusing on performance Security Management 45 (8)
34-44
Collarelli S M amp Bishop R C (1990) Career commitment Functions correlations and
management Group and Organization Studies 15 158-176
Creotec (2006) Knowledge Creative and Passion [Online] Available
httpwwwcreoteccomindexphp (January 5 2007)
Damir B Martin S amp Ljubica B (2008) HRM practices in managing knowledge
workers 2nd Special Focus Symposium on ICESKS Information Communication and
Economic Sciences in the Knowledge Society Zadar Nov 13-14
Davenport R (2005) Why does KM still matter T + D 59 (2) 18-23
Davenport T (2002) Can you boost knowledge works impact on the bottom line
Management Update 7 (11) 3-5
Davenport T amp Prusak L (2000) Working Knowledge How Organizations Manage
What They Know Boston MA Harvard Business School Press
Davenport T Thomas R amp Cantrell S (2002) The mysterious art and science of
knowledge-worker performance MIT Sloan Management Review 44 (1) 23-9
Day R amp Allen T D (2004) The relationship between career motivation and self-
efficacy with proteacutegeacute career success Journal of Vocational Behavior 64 72-91
Drenth P J D (1984) Performance appraisal In Drenth P J D Thierry H Willems
P J amp De Wolff C J (Eds) Handbook of Work and Organisational Psychology
New York NY John Wiley and Sons
Deming W E (1986) Out of Crisis Cambridge MA Massachusetts Institute of
Technology Centre for Advanced Engineering Study
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
31 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Denisi A S amp Shaw J B (1977) Investigation of the uses of self-reports of abilities
Journal of Applied Psychology 62 641-4
Depress C amp Hiltrop J M (1995) Human resource management in the knowledge age
Employee Relations 17 (1) 9-23
DeVries D L Morrison A M Shullman S L amp Gerlach M L (1981) Performance
Appraisal On The Line Greensboro NC Center for Creative Leadership
Dove R (1998) The knowledge worker Automotive Manufacturing and Production 110
(6) 26-8
Drucker P (1994) Adventures of a Bystander New Brunswick NJ Transaction
Publishers
Drucker P (1999) Knowledge-worker productivity the biggest challenge California
Management Review 41 (2) 79-85
Earley P C Northcraft G B Lee C amp Lituchy T R (1990) Impact of process and
outcome feedback on the relation of goal setting to performance Academy of
Management Journal 33 (1) 87-105
Ebrahim Soltani (2003) Towards a TQM-driven HR performance evaluation an empirical
study Employee Relations 25 (4) 347-370
Ebrahim Soltani (2005) Conflict between theory and practice TQM and performance
appraisal International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management 22 (8) 796-818
Ebrahim Soltani Van Der Meer R B Gennard J amp William M T (2004) Have TQM
organisations adjusted their performance management (appraisal) systems A study of
UK-based TQM-driven organisations The TQM Magazine 16 (6) 403-417
Ebrahim Soltani Van Der Meer R B Williams M T amp Pei-chun Lai (2006) The
compatibility of performance appraisal systems with TQM principles ndash evidence from
current practice International Journal of Operations amp Production Management 26 (1)
92 ndash 112
Edmonstone J (1996) Appraising the state of performance appraisal Health Manpower
Management 22 (6) 9-13
Edwards R G amp Calvin J W (1998) Performance appraisal in academic libraries
minor changes or major renovation Library Review 47 (1) 14 ndash 19
Evans C (2003) Managing for Knowledge HRrsquos strategic role Amsterdam
Butterworth-Heinemann
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
32 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Fisher C M (1994) The difference between appraisal schemes variation and
acceptability ndash part I Personnel Review 23 (8) 33-48
Fletcher C amp Baldry C (2000) A study of individual difference and self-awareness in
the context of multi-source feedback Journal of Occupational and Organizational
Psychology 73 303-19
Freeman J (2002) How to improve the effectiveness of performance management and
appraisal by overcoming the root cause of the problem The HRM Guide Network
[Online] Available httpwwwhrmguidecomperformance (December 4 2002)
Freemantle D (1994) The Performance of Performance Appraisal An Appraisal
Windsor Superboss
Fisher M M Eskew D amp Heneman R L (1996) A survey of merit pay plan
effectiveness end of the line for merit pay or hope for improvement Human Resource
Planning 19 (2) 12-19
Geetha H (2013) Performance appraisal with reference to textile sector in Coimbatore
International Refereed Research Journal 4 (1(2)) 56-63
Ghorpade J Chen M M amp Caggiano J (1995) Creating quality-driven performance
appraisal systems The Academy of Management Executive 9 (1) 32-40
Grant D L (1955) A factor analysis of managers‟ ratings Journal of Applied
Psychology 39 283-6
Gratton L (2000 September) Strategic initiative (human resources and strategy)
Personnel Today 29-31
Green F (2005) Demanding Work The paradox of Job Quality in the Affluent Economy
Princeton NJ Princeton University Press
Greene J (1999) The Inequality of Performance Measurements Evaluation 5 (2) 160-
172
Greenhaus J H amp Parasuraman S (1993) Job performance attributions and career
advancement prospects An examination of gender and race effects Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 55 273-297
Griffeth R W Johnson J T amp Griffin M (2000) Factors discriminating functional and
dysfunctional salesforce turnover Journal of Business amp Industrial Marketing 15 (6) 399
ndash 415
Harley B (2002) Employee responses to high performance work system practices an
analysis of the AWIRS95 data Journal of Industrial Relations 44 (3) 418-434
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
33 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Helton R (1988) The bdquobest work‟ method of knowledge worker assessment Industrial
Management 30 (5) 19-22
Horwitz F M Heng C T Quazi H A Nonkelo C Roditi D amp Van Eck P (2006)
Human resource strategies for managing knowledge workers an Afro-Asian comparative
analysis The International Journal of Human Resource Management 17 (5) 775-811
HR professional (2001 April) [Online] Available
httpwwwhrpaoorgHRPAOKnowledgeCentreHRProfessional (October 9 2011)
Huselid M A (1995) The impact of human resource management practices on turnover
productivity and corporate financial performance Academy of Management Journal
38635-72
Ilgen D R Barnes-Farrell J L amp McKellin D B (1993) Performance appraisal
process research in the 1980s what has it contributed to appraisal in use Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 54 321-368
Julian M amp Anita D (2000) Knowledge Workers and why your e-business needs them
Malaysian Technology News April 20
Kane J S amp Russell J E A (1998) Performance appraisal and management In
Bernardin H J amp Russell J E A (Eds) Human Resource Management An
Experiential Approach (pp237-72) Burr Ridge IL IrwinMcGraw-Hill
Karreman D Sveningsson S amp Alvesson M (2002) The return of the machine
bureaucracy Management control in the work settings of professionals International
Studies of Management amp Organization 32 (2) 70-92
Kavanagh M (1997) I simply want to know how well I am doing Group and
Organization Management 22 (2) 147-8
Kimiz D (2005) Knowledge management in theory and practice (p 21) Oxford UK
Elsevier Inc (Chapter 1)
Knowledge Worker Forum Knowledge Workers (2006) [Online] Available
httpwwwreferenceforbusinesscommanagementInt-LocKnowledge-Workershtml
(February 16 2011)
Laihonen H Jaumlaumlskelaumlinen A Loumlnnqvist A amp Ruostela J (2012) Measuring the
productivity impacts of new ways of working Journal of Facilities Management 10 (2)
102 ndash 113
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
34 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Lam S S K amp Schaubroeck J (1999) Total quality management and performance
appraisal an experimental study of process versus results and group versus individual
approaches Journal of Organisational Behaviour 20 (4) 445-57
Latham G P (1988) Human resource training and development Annual Review of
Psychology 39 545-582
Latham G P Almost J Mann S amp Moore C (2005) New developments in
performance Management Organizational Dynamics 34 (1) 77-87
Lawler E E (1967) The mulititrait-multirater approach to measuring managerial job
performance Journal of Applied Psychology 51 369-81
Lee S Y Banker R D Potter G amp Srinivasan D (2000) An empirical analysis of
continuing improvements following the implementation of a performance-based
compensation Journal of Accounting and Economics 30 (3) 315-350
Levine E L Flory A amp Ash R A (1977) Self-assessment in personnel selection
Journal of Applied Psychology 62 428-35
Liebowitz J amp Beckman T J (1990) Knowledge Organizations What Every Manager
Should Know Florida Taylor and Francis
Lobburi P (2012) The Influence of Organizational and Social Support on Turnover
Intention in Collectivist Contexts Journal of Applied Business Research 28 (1) 93-104
Locke E A amp Latham G P (1990) A Theory of Goal Setting amp Task Performance
University of Michigan Prentice Hall
London M (1983) Toward a theory of career motivation The Academy of Management
Review 8 (4) 620-630
Long P (1986) Performance Appraisal Revised London Institute of Personnel
Management
Lum L Kervin J Clark K Reid F amp Sirola W (1998) Explaining nursing turnover
intent job satisfaction pay satisfaction or organizational commitment Journal of
Organizational Behaviour 19 (3) 305-320
Mamoria C B (1995) Personnel Management New Delhi Himalaya Publishing House
Maroney B P amp Buckley M R (1992) Does research in performance appraisal
influence the practice of performance appraisal Regretfully not Public Personnel
Management Journal 21 185-195
Martey A K (2002) Research paper Library Management 23 (89) 403-416
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
35 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
McCarthy A M amp Garavan T N (2001) A competency-based model for construction
supervisors in developing countries Journal of European Industrial Training 25 (1) 5-32
McGregor D M (1957) The Human Side of Enterprise The Management Review 46
22-28
McGregor J Tweed D amp Pech R (2004) Human capital in the new economy devils
bargain Journal of Intellectual Capital 5 (1) 153-164
Meyer J P Allen N J amp Smith C A (1993) Commitment to organizations and
occupations 40 extension and test of a three-component conceptualization Journal of
Applied Psychology 78 (4) 538-551
Meyer J P Becker T amp Van Dick R (2006) Social Identities and Commitments at
Work Toward an Integrative Model Journal of Organizational Behavior 27 665-683
Meyer J P amp Herscovitch L (2001) Commitment in workplace toward a general
model Human Resource Management Review 11 299-326
Michie J amp Sheehan M (1999) HRM practices RampD expenditure and innovative
investment evidence from the UK‟s 1990 Workplace Industrial Relations Survey (WIRS)
Industrial amp Corporate Change 8 (2) 211-234
Mitchell T R Holtom B C Lee T W amp Graske T (2001) How to keep your best
employee developing an effective retention policy The Academy of Management
Executive 15 (4) 96-109
Mohamad A H amp Aizzat M N (2006) Predicting turnover intention of hotel
employees The influence of employee development human resource management
practices and trust in organization Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business 8 (1)
33- 45
Mohrman A Resnick-West S amp Lawler E (1989) Designing Performance Appraisal
Systems Aligning Appraisals and Organizational Realities San Francisco CA Jossey-
Bass
Moi Kok Wah (2008) Transforming for the Knowledge-based Economy Through the
Practice of Knowledge Management Certified Global Facilitator and Consultant JT
Frank Academy [Online] Available
httpwwwkmtalknetarticlephpstory=20060922021542703 (February 16 2011)
Mor Barak M E Cherin D A amp Berkman S (1998) Organizational and personal
dimensions in diversity climate Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 34 (1) 82-104
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
36 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Murphy K R amp Cleveland J N (1995) Understanding Performance Appraisal Social
Organizational and Goal-Based Perspectives Thousand Oaks CA Sage
Nickols F (2000) What is‟ in the world of work and working some implications of the
shift to knowledge work Butterworth-Heinemann Yearbook of Knowledge Management
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92-97
Oltra V (2005) Knowledge management effective factors the role of HRM Journal of
Knowledge Management 9 (4) 70-86
Parry K W amp amp Sinha P N (2005) Researching the trainability of transformational
organizational leadership Human Resource Development International 8 165-83
Pepitone J S (2002) A case for humaneering IIE Solutions 34 (5) 39-44
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Available
httpblogssaloncom0002007imagesTheFutureofKnowledgeManagementdo
(November 4 2010)
Quinn J B Anderson P amp Finkelstein S (1996a January) Managing professional
intellect making the most of the best Harvard Business Review 74 (2) 71-80
Rendero T (1980) Performance Appraisal Practices Personnel 57 (6) 4-12
Rees W D amp Porter C (2004) Appraisal pitfalls and the training implicationsndashPart 2
Industrial and Commercial Training 36 (1) 29-34
Reneker M amp Steel V (1989) Performance Appraisal Purpose and Techniques In
Creth S amp Duda F (Eds) Personnel Administration in Libraries (pp 152-220) New
York Neal-Schuman Publishers Inc
Ritter B amp Nunnally K (2002) Formalise the feedback employee performance
evaluation Rural Telecommunications 21 (3) 32-6
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service firms institutional effects Organization Studies 24 (6) 831-857
Root-Bernstein R (1989) Strategies of research (part 2) Research-Technology
Management 32 (3) 36-41
Rosenbaum B (1991) Leading todayprimes professional Research-Technology Management
34 (2) 30-35
ijcrbwebscom
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37 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
Salleh M Amin A Muda S amp Abdul Halim M A S (2013) Fairness of Performance
Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
Sarita K (2012) A study on performance appraisal errors of telecom managers in Navi
Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
Scholtes P R (1993) Total quality or performance appraisal choose one National
Productivity Review 12 (2) 349-63
Scott P B (2005) Knowledge management Semantics Work identity Communications
Corporate Communications An International Journal 10 (3) 257-277
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2004) Knowledge workers perceptions of performance
ratings Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (3) 146 ndash 166
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
workers a resource of the firm theory view Journal of Knowledge Management 6 (3)
250ndash261
St-Onge S Morin D Bellehumeur M amp Dupuis F (2009) Managers motivation to
evaluate subordinate performance Qualitative Research in Organizations and
Management An International Journal 4 (3) 273-293
Storey J (1987 November) Developments in the Management of Human Resources An
Interim Report IRRU School of Industrial and Business Studies University of Warwick
Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No17
Strebler M T Robinson D amp Bevan S (2001) Performance review balancing
objective and content The Institute of Employment Studies Brighton Report No 370
Stuhlman D (2006) Helping you turn data into knowledge knowledge Management
Terms [Online] Available httpwwwhomeearthlinknet~ddstuhlmandefin1htm
(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
ijcrbwebscom
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38 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
Zimmerman K (2009) The impact of job performance on employee turnover and the
voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
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NOVEMBER 2013
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organizational understanding of the issues and planning of interventions It would be a
significant contribution to the field of human resource management literatures
ijcrbwebscom
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28 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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Construction and Project Management Singapore 2011 Singapore IPEDR
Abdullah A Bilau A A Enegbuma W I Ajagbe A M Ali K N amp Bustani S A
(2012) Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms Job Satisfaction and Evaluation in
Nigeria International Journal of Social Science and Humanity 2 (1) 35-40
Abosch K S amp Reidy D B (1996) Supporting teams through reward systems
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Adhinarayanan B amp Gurunathan K B (2011) Causes of Attrition Rate in Information
Technology and IT‟s Enabled Service Sector International Journal of Strategic
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Management 29 (1) 99-118
Allen T D (2006) Rewarding good citizens The relationship between citizenship
behavior gender and organizational rewards Journal of Applied Social Psychology 36
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Alvesson M (2000) Social identity and the problem of loyalty in knowledge-intensive
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Amsler G M Findley H M amp Ingram E (2001) Performance monitoring guidance
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Anna F (2008) Turnover intention among welfare workers (pp 5-21) Israel University
of Haifa
Aryee S Yue W C amp Chew J (1994) An investigation of the predictors and outcomes
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Bach S (2005) New directions in performance management In Bach S (Eds)
Managing Human Resources Personnel Management in Transition Oxford Blackwell
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NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Barbara B (2012) Organizational socialization career aspirations and turnover intention
among design engineers Leadership and Organization Development Journal 26 22-30
Barnes P (1997) Making appraisal work in the new millennium Management Services
41 (7) 14-16
Becker B E Huselid M A amp Ulrich D (2001) The HR Scorecard Linking People
Strategy and Performance Boston MA Harvard Business School Publishing
Benson J Brown M amp Hyatt D (2010) Consequences of the performance appraisal
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Blau G (1985) The measurement and prediction of career commitment Journal of
Occupational Psychology 58 277-288
Blau G (1989) Testing the generalizability of a career commitment measure and its
impact on
employee turnover Journal of Vocational Behavior 35 88-103
Boice D F amp Kleiner B H (1997) Designing effective performance appraisal system
Work Study 46 (6) 197-201
Bobko P amp Collela A (1994) Employee reactions to performance standards a review
and research propositions Personnel Psychology 47 (10) 1-29
Bosch-Sijtsema P M amp Ruohomaumlki V amp Vartiainen M (2009) Knowledge work
productivity in distributed teams Journal of Knowledge Management 13 (6) 533 ndash 546
Bryan L L amp Joyce C (2005) The 21st-century organization The McKinsey Quarterly
3 5-13
Byrne J (1993 December) The horizontal corporation Business Week 20 76-81
Cardy R L amp Dobbins G H (1994) Performance Appraisal A Consideration of
Alternative Perspectives Cincinnati OH South-Western
Carson K D amp Bedeian A G (1994) Career commitment construction of a measure
and examination of its psychometric properties Journal of Vocational Behavior 44 237-
262
Cascio W amp Bordreau J (2011) Financial Impact of Human Resource Initiatives (2nd
ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Pearson Education Inc
Cennamo L amp Gardner D (2008) Generational differences in work values outcomes
and person-organisation values fit Journal of Managerial Psychology 23 (8) 891-906
Chan C A (2007) The Future of Human Resource Management Leadership amp
Organization Development Journal 28 (1) 94 ndash 96
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
30 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Connie Z amp David L (2010) Organizational determinants of employee turnover for
multinational companies in Asia Asia Pacific Journal Management 27 423-443
Costigan R D Insinga R C Kranas G Ilter S S Kureshov V A amp Berman J J
(2005) A study of Russian Polish and US self- and peer raters moderators of rating
agreement International Journal of Commerce and Management 15 205-20
Cleveland J N and Murphy K R (1992) Analyzing performance appraisal as goal
directed behaviour In Ferris G R amp Rowland K M (Eds) Research in Personnel and
Human Resources Management 10 121-185 Greenwich CT JAI Press
Cleveland J N Murphy K R amp Williams R E (1989) Multiple uses of performance
appraisal prevalence and correlates Journal of Applied Psychology 74 130-5
Coens T amp Jenkins M (2001) Focusing on performance Security Management 45 (8)
34-44
Collarelli S M amp Bishop R C (1990) Career commitment Functions correlations and
management Group and Organization Studies 15 158-176
Creotec (2006) Knowledge Creative and Passion [Online] Available
httpwwwcreoteccomindexphp (January 5 2007)
Damir B Martin S amp Ljubica B (2008) HRM practices in managing knowledge
workers 2nd Special Focus Symposium on ICESKS Information Communication and
Economic Sciences in the Knowledge Society Zadar Nov 13-14
Davenport R (2005) Why does KM still matter T + D 59 (2) 18-23
Davenport T (2002) Can you boost knowledge works impact on the bottom line
Management Update 7 (11) 3-5
Davenport T amp Prusak L (2000) Working Knowledge How Organizations Manage
What They Know Boston MA Harvard Business School Press
Davenport T Thomas R amp Cantrell S (2002) The mysterious art and science of
knowledge-worker performance MIT Sloan Management Review 44 (1) 23-9
Day R amp Allen T D (2004) The relationship between career motivation and self-
efficacy with proteacutegeacute career success Journal of Vocational Behavior 64 72-91
Drenth P J D (1984) Performance appraisal In Drenth P J D Thierry H Willems
P J amp De Wolff C J (Eds) Handbook of Work and Organisational Psychology
New York NY John Wiley and Sons
Deming W E (1986) Out of Crisis Cambridge MA Massachusetts Institute of
Technology Centre for Advanced Engineering Study
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
31 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Denisi A S amp Shaw J B (1977) Investigation of the uses of self-reports of abilities
Journal of Applied Psychology 62 641-4
Depress C amp Hiltrop J M (1995) Human resource management in the knowledge age
Employee Relations 17 (1) 9-23
DeVries D L Morrison A M Shullman S L amp Gerlach M L (1981) Performance
Appraisal On The Line Greensboro NC Center for Creative Leadership
Dove R (1998) The knowledge worker Automotive Manufacturing and Production 110
(6) 26-8
Drucker P (1994) Adventures of a Bystander New Brunswick NJ Transaction
Publishers
Drucker P (1999) Knowledge-worker productivity the biggest challenge California
Management Review 41 (2) 79-85
Earley P C Northcraft G B Lee C amp Lituchy T R (1990) Impact of process and
outcome feedback on the relation of goal setting to performance Academy of
Management Journal 33 (1) 87-105
Ebrahim Soltani (2003) Towards a TQM-driven HR performance evaluation an empirical
study Employee Relations 25 (4) 347-370
Ebrahim Soltani (2005) Conflict between theory and practice TQM and performance
appraisal International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management 22 (8) 796-818
Ebrahim Soltani Van Der Meer R B Gennard J amp William M T (2004) Have TQM
organisations adjusted their performance management (appraisal) systems A study of
UK-based TQM-driven organisations The TQM Magazine 16 (6) 403-417
Ebrahim Soltani Van Der Meer R B Williams M T amp Pei-chun Lai (2006) The
compatibility of performance appraisal systems with TQM principles ndash evidence from
current practice International Journal of Operations amp Production Management 26 (1)
92 ndash 112
Edmonstone J (1996) Appraising the state of performance appraisal Health Manpower
Management 22 (6) 9-13
Edwards R G amp Calvin J W (1998) Performance appraisal in academic libraries
minor changes or major renovation Library Review 47 (1) 14 ndash 19
Evans C (2003) Managing for Knowledge HRrsquos strategic role Amsterdam
Butterworth-Heinemann
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
32 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Fisher C M (1994) The difference between appraisal schemes variation and
acceptability ndash part I Personnel Review 23 (8) 33-48
Fletcher C amp Baldry C (2000) A study of individual difference and self-awareness in
the context of multi-source feedback Journal of Occupational and Organizational
Psychology 73 303-19
Freeman J (2002) How to improve the effectiveness of performance management and
appraisal by overcoming the root cause of the problem The HRM Guide Network
[Online] Available httpwwwhrmguidecomperformance (December 4 2002)
Freemantle D (1994) The Performance of Performance Appraisal An Appraisal
Windsor Superboss
Fisher M M Eskew D amp Heneman R L (1996) A survey of merit pay plan
effectiveness end of the line for merit pay or hope for improvement Human Resource
Planning 19 (2) 12-19
Geetha H (2013) Performance appraisal with reference to textile sector in Coimbatore
International Refereed Research Journal 4 (1(2)) 56-63
Ghorpade J Chen M M amp Caggiano J (1995) Creating quality-driven performance
appraisal systems The Academy of Management Executive 9 (1) 32-40
Grant D L (1955) A factor analysis of managers‟ ratings Journal of Applied
Psychology 39 283-6
Gratton L (2000 September) Strategic initiative (human resources and strategy)
Personnel Today 29-31
Green F (2005) Demanding Work The paradox of Job Quality in the Affluent Economy
Princeton NJ Princeton University Press
Greene J (1999) The Inequality of Performance Measurements Evaluation 5 (2) 160-
172
Greenhaus J H amp Parasuraman S (1993) Job performance attributions and career
advancement prospects An examination of gender and race effects Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 55 273-297
Griffeth R W Johnson J T amp Griffin M (2000) Factors discriminating functional and
dysfunctional salesforce turnover Journal of Business amp Industrial Marketing 15 (6) 399
ndash 415
Harley B (2002) Employee responses to high performance work system practices an
analysis of the AWIRS95 data Journal of Industrial Relations 44 (3) 418-434
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
33 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Helton R (1988) The bdquobest work‟ method of knowledge worker assessment Industrial
Management 30 (5) 19-22
Horwitz F M Heng C T Quazi H A Nonkelo C Roditi D amp Van Eck P (2006)
Human resource strategies for managing knowledge workers an Afro-Asian comparative
analysis The International Journal of Human Resource Management 17 (5) 775-811
HR professional (2001 April) [Online] Available
httpwwwhrpaoorgHRPAOKnowledgeCentreHRProfessional (October 9 2011)
Huselid M A (1995) The impact of human resource management practices on turnover
productivity and corporate financial performance Academy of Management Journal
38635-72
Ilgen D R Barnes-Farrell J L amp McKellin D B (1993) Performance appraisal
process research in the 1980s what has it contributed to appraisal in use Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 54 321-368
Julian M amp Anita D (2000) Knowledge Workers and why your e-business needs them
Malaysian Technology News April 20
Kane J S amp Russell J E A (1998) Performance appraisal and management In
Bernardin H J amp Russell J E A (Eds) Human Resource Management An
Experiential Approach (pp237-72) Burr Ridge IL IrwinMcGraw-Hill
Karreman D Sveningsson S amp Alvesson M (2002) The return of the machine
bureaucracy Management control in the work settings of professionals International
Studies of Management amp Organization 32 (2) 70-92
Kavanagh M (1997) I simply want to know how well I am doing Group and
Organization Management 22 (2) 147-8
Kimiz D (2005) Knowledge management in theory and practice (p 21) Oxford UK
Elsevier Inc (Chapter 1)
Knowledge Worker Forum Knowledge Workers (2006) [Online] Available
httpwwwreferenceforbusinesscommanagementInt-LocKnowledge-Workershtml
(February 16 2011)
Laihonen H Jaumlaumlskelaumlinen A Loumlnnqvist A amp Ruostela J (2012) Measuring the
productivity impacts of new ways of working Journal of Facilities Management 10 (2)
102 ndash 113
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
34 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Lam S S K amp Schaubroeck J (1999) Total quality management and performance
appraisal an experimental study of process versus results and group versus individual
approaches Journal of Organisational Behaviour 20 (4) 445-57
Latham G P (1988) Human resource training and development Annual Review of
Psychology 39 545-582
Latham G P Almost J Mann S amp Moore C (2005) New developments in
performance Management Organizational Dynamics 34 (1) 77-87
Lawler E E (1967) The mulititrait-multirater approach to measuring managerial job
performance Journal of Applied Psychology 51 369-81
Lee S Y Banker R D Potter G amp Srinivasan D (2000) An empirical analysis of
continuing improvements following the implementation of a performance-based
compensation Journal of Accounting and Economics 30 (3) 315-350
Levine E L Flory A amp Ash R A (1977) Self-assessment in personnel selection
Journal of Applied Psychology 62 428-35
Liebowitz J amp Beckman T J (1990) Knowledge Organizations What Every Manager
Should Know Florida Taylor and Francis
Lobburi P (2012) The Influence of Organizational and Social Support on Turnover
Intention in Collectivist Contexts Journal of Applied Business Research 28 (1) 93-104
Locke E A amp Latham G P (1990) A Theory of Goal Setting amp Task Performance
University of Michigan Prentice Hall
London M (1983) Toward a theory of career motivation The Academy of Management
Review 8 (4) 620-630
Long P (1986) Performance Appraisal Revised London Institute of Personnel
Management
Lum L Kervin J Clark K Reid F amp Sirola W (1998) Explaining nursing turnover
intent job satisfaction pay satisfaction or organizational commitment Journal of
Organizational Behaviour 19 (3) 305-320
Mamoria C B (1995) Personnel Management New Delhi Himalaya Publishing House
Maroney B P amp Buckley M R (1992) Does research in performance appraisal
influence the practice of performance appraisal Regretfully not Public Personnel
Management Journal 21 185-195
Martey A K (2002) Research paper Library Management 23 (89) 403-416
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
35 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
McCarthy A M amp Garavan T N (2001) A competency-based model for construction
supervisors in developing countries Journal of European Industrial Training 25 (1) 5-32
McGregor D M (1957) The Human Side of Enterprise The Management Review 46
22-28
McGregor J Tweed D amp Pech R (2004) Human capital in the new economy devils
bargain Journal of Intellectual Capital 5 (1) 153-164
Meyer J P Allen N J amp Smith C A (1993) Commitment to organizations and
occupations 40 extension and test of a three-component conceptualization Journal of
Applied Psychology 78 (4) 538-551
Meyer J P Becker T amp Van Dick R (2006) Social Identities and Commitments at
Work Toward an Integrative Model Journal of Organizational Behavior 27 665-683
Meyer J P amp Herscovitch L (2001) Commitment in workplace toward a general
model Human Resource Management Review 11 299-326
Michie J amp Sheehan M (1999) HRM practices RampD expenditure and innovative
investment evidence from the UK‟s 1990 Workplace Industrial Relations Survey (WIRS)
Industrial amp Corporate Change 8 (2) 211-234
Mitchell T R Holtom B C Lee T W amp Graske T (2001) How to keep your best
employee developing an effective retention policy The Academy of Management
Executive 15 (4) 96-109
Mohamad A H amp Aizzat M N (2006) Predicting turnover intention of hotel
employees The influence of employee development human resource management
practices and trust in organization Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business 8 (1)
33- 45
Mohrman A Resnick-West S amp Lawler E (1989) Designing Performance Appraisal
Systems Aligning Appraisals and Organizational Realities San Francisco CA Jossey-
Bass
Moi Kok Wah (2008) Transforming for the Knowledge-based Economy Through the
Practice of Knowledge Management Certified Global Facilitator and Consultant JT
Frank Academy [Online] Available
httpwwwkmtalknetarticlephpstory=20060922021542703 (February 16 2011)
Mor Barak M E Cherin D A amp Berkman S (1998) Organizational and personal
dimensions in diversity climate Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 34 (1) 82-104
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
36 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Murphy K R amp Cleveland J N (1995) Understanding Performance Appraisal Social
Organizational and Goal-Based Perspectives Thousand Oaks CA Sage
Nickols F (2000) What is‟ in the world of work and working some implications of the
shift to knowledge work Butterworth-Heinemann Yearbook of Knowledge Management
(pp 1-7) [Online] Available httphomeattnetsimnickolsshiftshtm (November 4 2010)
Obisi C (2011) Employee performance appraisal and its implication for individual and
organizational growth Australian Journal of Business and Management Research l (9)
92-97
Oltra V (2005) Knowledge management effective factors the role of HRM Journal of
Knowledge Management 9 (4) 70-86
Parry K W amp amp Sinha P N (2005) Researching the trainability of transformational
organizational leadership Human Resource Development International 8 165-83
Pepitone J S (2002) A case for humaneering IIE Solutions 34 (5) 39-44
Pollard D (2003) The future of knowledge management Discussion paper [Online]
Available
httpblogssaloncom0002007imagesTheFutureofKnowledgeManagementdo
(November 4 2010)
Quinn J B Anderson P amp Finkelstein S (1996a January) Managing professional
intellect making the most of the best Harvard Business Review 74 (2) 71-80
Rendero T (1980) Performance Appraisal Practices Personnel 57 (6) 4-12
Rees W D amp Porter C (2004) Appraisal pitfalls and the training implicationsndashPart 2
Industrial and Commercial Training 36 (1) 29-34
Reneker M amp Steel V (1989) Performance Appraisal Purpose and Techniques In
Creth S amp Duda F (Eds) Personnel Administration in Libraries (pp 152-220) New
York Neal-Schuman Publishers Inc
Ritter B amp Nunnally K (2002) Formalise the feedback employee performance
evaluation Rural Telecommunications 21 (3) 32-6
Robertson M Scarbrough H amp Swan J (2003) Knowledge creation in professional
service firms institutional effects Organization Studies 24 (6) 831-857
Root-Bernstein R (1989) Strategies of research (part 2) Research-Technology
Management 32 (3) 36-41
Rosenbaum B (1991) Leading todayprimes professional Research-Technology Management
34 (2) 30-35
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
37 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
Salleh M Amin A Muda S amp Abdul Halim M A S (2013) Fairness of Performance
Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
Sarita K (2012) A study on performance appraisal errors of telecom managers in Navi
Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
Scholtes P R (1993) Total quality or performance appraisal choose one National
Productivity Review 12 (2) 349-63
Scott P B (2005) Knowledge management Semantics Work identity Communications
Corporate Communications An International Journal 10 (3) 257-277
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2004) Knowledge workers perceptions of performance
ratings Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (3) 146 ndash 166
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
workers a resource of the firm theory view Journal of Knowledge Management 6 (3)
250ndash261
St-Onge S Morin D Bellehumeur M amp Dupuis F (2009) Managers motivation to
evaluate subordinate performance Qualitative Research in Organizations and
Management An International Journal 4 (3) 273-293
Storey J (1987 November) Developments in the Management of Human Resources An
Interim Report IRRU School of Industrial and Business Studies University of Warwick
Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No17
Strebler M T Robinson D amp Bevan S (2001) Performance review balancing
objective and content The Institute of Employment Studies Brighton Report No 370
Stuhlman D (2006) Helping you turn data into knowledge knowledge Management
Terms [Online] Available httpwwwhomeearthlinknet~ddstuhlmandefin1htm
(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
38 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
Zimmerman K (2009) The impact of job performance on employee turnover and the
voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
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28 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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30 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
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Davenport T amp Prusak L (2000) Working Knowledge How Organizations Manage
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Deming W E (1986) Out of Crisis Cambridge MA Massachusetts Institute of
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INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
31 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
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Journal of Applied Psychology 62 641-4
Depress C amp Hiltrop J M (1995) Human resource management in the knowledge age
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Dove R (1998) The knowledge worker Automotive Manufacturing and Production 110
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Drucker P (1994) Adventures of a Bystander New Brunswick NJ Transaction
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Drucker P (1999) Knowledge-worker productivity the biggest challenge California
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Earley P C Northcraft G B Lee C amp Lituchy T R (1990) Impact of process and
outcome feedback on the relation of goal setting to performance Academy of
Management Journal 33 (1) 87-105
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Ebrahim Soltani (2005) Conflict between theory and practice TQM and performance
appraisal International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management 22 (8) 796-818
Ebrahim Soltani Van Der Meer R B Gennard J amp William M T (2004) Have TQM
organisations adjusted their performance management (appraisal) systems A study of
UK-based TQM-driven organisations The TQM Magazine 16 (6) 403-417
Ebrahim Soltani Van Der Meer R B Williams M T amp Pei-chun Lai (2006) The
compatibility of performance appraisal systems with TQM principles ndash evidence from
current practice International Journal of Operations amp Production Management 26 (1)
92 ndash 112
Edmonstone J (1996) Appraising the state of performance appraisal Health Manpower
Management 22 (6) 9-13
Edwards R G amp Calvin J W (1998) Performance appraisal in academic libraries
minor changes or major renovation Library Review 47 (1) 14 ndash 19
Evans C (2003) Managing for Knowledge HRrsquos strategic role Amsterdam
Butterworth-Heinemann
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INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
32 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Fisher C M (1994) The difference between appraisal schemes variation and
acceptability ndash part I Personnel Review 23 (8) 33-48
Fletcher C amp Baldry C (2000) A study of individual difference and self-awareness in
the context of multi-source feedback Journal of Occupational and Organizational
Psychology 73 303-19
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appraisal by overcoming the root cause of the problem The HRM Guide Network
[Online] Available httpwwwhrmguidecomperformance (December 4 2002)
Freemantle D (1994) The Performance of Performance Appraisal An Appraisal
Windsor Superboss
Fisher M M Eskew D amp Heneman R L (1996) A survey of merit pay plan
effectiveness end of the line for merit pay or hope for improvement Human Resource
Planning 19 (2) 12-19
Geetha H (2013) Performance appraisal with reference to textile sector in Coimbatore
International Refereed Research Journal 4 (1(2)) 56-63
Ghorpade J Chen M M amp Caggiano J (1995) Creating quality-driven performance
appraisal systems The Academy of Management Executive 9 (1) 32-40
Grant D L (1955) A factor analysis of managers‟ ratings Journal of Applied
Psychology 39 283-6
Gratton L (2000 September) Strategic initiative (human resources and strategy)
Personnel Today 29-31
Green F (2005) Demanding Work The paradox of Job Quality in the Affluent Economy
Princeton NJ Princeton University Press
Greene J (1999) The Inequality of Performance Measurements Evaluation 5 (2) 160-
172
Greenhaus J H amp Parasuraman S (1993) Job performance attributions and career
advancement prospects An examination of gender and race effects Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 55 273-297
Griffeth R W Johnson J T amp Griffin M (2000) Factors discriminating functional and
dysfunctional salesforce turnover Journal of Business amp Industrial Marketing 15 (6) 399
ndash 415
Harley B (2002) Employee responses to high performance work system practices an
analysis of the AWIRS95 data Journal of Industrial Relations 44 (3) 418-434
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
33 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Helton R (1988) The bdquobest work‟ method of knowledge worker assessment Industrial
Management 30 (5) 19-22
Horwitz F M Heng C T Quazi H A Nonkelo C Roditi D amp Van Eck P (2006)
Human resource strategies for managing knowledge workers an Afro-Asian comparative
analysis The International Journal of Human Resource Management 17 (5) 775-811
HR professional (2001 April) [Online] Available
httpwwwhrpaoorgHRPAOKnowledgeCentreHRProfessional (October 9 2011)
Huselid M A (1995) The impact of human resource management practices on turnover
productivity and corporate financial performance Academy of Management Journal
38635-72
Ilgen D R Barnes-Farrell J L amp McKellin D B (1993) Performance appraisal
process research in the 1980s what has it contributed to appraisal in use Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 54 321-368
Julian M amp Anita D (2000) Knowledge Workers and why your e-business needs them
Malaysian Technology News April 20
Kane J S amp Russell J E A (1998) Performance appraisal and management In
Bernardin H J amp Russell J E A (Eds) Human Resource Management An
Experiential Approach (pp237-72) Burr Ridge IL IrwinMcGraw-Hill
Karreman D Sveningsson S amp Alvesson M (2002) The return of the machine
bureaucracy Management control in the work settings of professionals International
Studies of Management amp Organization 32 (2) 70-92
Kavanagh M (1997) I simply want to know how well I am doing Group and
Organization Management 22 (2) 147-8
Kimiz D (2005) Knowledge management in theory and practice (p 21) Oxford UK
Elsevier Inc (Chapter 1)
Knowledge Worker Forum Knowledge Workers (2006) [Online] Available
httpwwwreferenceforbusinesscommanagementInt-LocKnowledge-Workershtml
(February 16 2011)
Laihonen H Jaumlaumlskelaumlinen A Loumlnnqvist A amp Ruostela J (2012) Measuring the
productivity impacts of new ways of working Journal of Facilities Management 10 (2)
102 ndash 113
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
34 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Lam S S K amp Schaubroeck J (1999) Total quality management and performance
appraisal an experimental study of process versus results and group versus individual
approaches Journal of Organisational Behaviour 20 (4) 445-57
Latham G P (1988) Human resource training and development Annual Review of
Psychology 39 545-582
Latham G P Almost J Mann S amp Moore C (2005) New developments in
performance Management Organizational Dynamics 34 (1) 77-87
Lawler E E (1967) The mulititrait-multirater approach to measuring managerial job
performance Journal of Applied Psychology 51 369-81
Lee S Y Banker R D Potter G amp Srinivasan D (2000) An empirical analysis of
continuing improvements following the implementation of a performance-based
compensation Journal of Accounting and Economics 30 (3) 315-350
Levine E L Flory A amp Ash R A (1977) Self-assessment in personnel selection
Journal of Applied Psychology 62 428-35
Liebowitz J amp Beckman T J (1990) Knowledge Organizations What Every Manager
Should Know Florida Taylor and Francis
Lobburi P (2012) The Influence of Organizational and Social Support on Turnover
Intention in Collectivist Contexts Journal of Applied Business Research 28 (1) 93-104
Locke E A amp Latham G P (1990) A Theory of Goal Setting amp Task Performance
University of Michigan Prentice Hall
London M (1983) Toward a theory of career motivation The Academy of Management
Review 8 (4) 620-630
Long P (1986) Performance Appraisal Revised London Institute of Personnel
Management
Lum L Kervin J Clark K Reid F amp Sirola W (1998) Explaining nursing turnover
intent job satisfaction pay satisfaction or organizational commitment Journal of
Organizational Behaviour 19 (3) 305-320
Mamoria C B (1995) Personnel Management New Delhi Himalaya Publishing House
Maroney B P amp Buckley M R (1992) Does research in performance appraisal
influence the practice of performance appraisal Regretfully not Public Personnel
Management Journal 21 185-195
Martey A K (2002) Research paper Library Management 23 (89) 403-416
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
35 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
McCarthy A M amp Garavan T N (2001) A competency-based model for construction
supervisors in developing countries Journal of European Industrial Training 25 (1) 5-32
McGregor D M (1957) The Human Side of Enterprise The Management Review 46
22-28
McGregor J Tweed D amp Pech R (2004) Human capital in the new economy devils
bargain Journal of Intellectual Capital 5 (1) 153-164
Meyer J P Allen N J amp Smith C A (1993) Commitment to organizations and
occupations 40 extension and test of a three-component conceptualization Journal of
Applied Psychology 78 (4) 538-551
Meyer J P Becker T amp Van Dick R (2006) Social Identities and Commitments at
Work Toward an Integrative Model Journal of Organizational Behavior 27 665-683
Meyer J P amp Herscovitch L (2001) Commitment in workplace toward a general
model Human Resource Management Review 11 299-326
Michie J amp Sheehan M (1999) HRM practices RampD expenditure and innovative
investment evidence from the UK‟s 1990 Workplace Industrial Relations Survey (WIRS)
Industrial amp Corporate Change 8 (2) 211-234
Mitchell T R Holtom B C Lee T W amp Graske T (2001) How to keep your best
employee developing an effective retention policy The Academy of Management
Executive 15 (4) 96-109
Mohamad A H amp Aizzat M N (2006) Predicting turnover intention of hotel
employees The influence of employee development human resource management
practices and trust in organization Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business 8 (1)
33- 45
Mohrman A Resnick-West S amp Lawler E (1989) Designing Performance Appraisal
Systems Aligning Appraisals and Organizational Realities San Francisco CA Jossey-
Bass
Moi Kok Wah (2008) Transforming for the Knowledge-based Economy Through the
Practice of Knowledge Management Certified Global Facilitator and Consultant JT
Frank Academy [Online] Available
httpwwwkmtalknetarticlephpstory=20060922021542703 (February 16 2011)
Mor Barak M E Cherin D A amp Berkman S (1998) Organizational and personal
dimensions in diversity climate Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 34 (1) 82-104
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
36 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Murphy K R amp Cleveland J N (1995) Understanding Performance Appraisal Social
Organizational and Goal-Based Perspectives Thousand Oaks CA Sage
Nickols F (2000) What is‟ in the world of work and working some implications of the
shift to knowledge work Butterworth-Heinemann Yearbook of Knowledge Management
(pp 1-7) [Online] Available httphomeattnetsimnickolsshiftshtm (November 4 2010)
Obisi C (2011) Employee performance appraisal and its implication for individual and
organizational growth Australian Journal of Business and Management Research l (9)
92-97
Oltra V (2005) Knowledge management effective factors the role of HRM Journal of
Knowledge Management 9 (4) 70-86
Parry K W amp amp Sinha P N (2005) Researching the trainability of transformational
organizational leadership Human Resource Development International 8 165-83
Pepitone J S (2002) A case for humaneering IIE Solutions 34 (5) 39-44
Pollard D (2003) The future of knowledge management Discussion paper [Online]
Available
httpblogssaloncom0002007imagesTheFutureofKnowledgeManagementdo
(November 4 2010)
Quinn J B Anderson P amp Finkelstein S (1996a January) Managing professional
intellect making the most of the best Harvard Business Review 74 (2) 71-80
Rendero T (1980) Performance Appraisal Practices Personnel 57 (6) 4-12
Rees W D amp Porter C (2004) Appraisal pitfalls and the training implicationsndashPart 2
Industrial and Commercial Training 36 (1) 29-34
Reneker M amp Steel V (1989) Performance Appraisal Purpose and Techniques In
Creth S amp Duda F (Eds) Personnel Administration in Libraries (pp 152-220) New
York Neal-Schuman Publishers Inc
Ritter B amp Nunnally K (2002) Formalise the feedback employee performance
evaluation Rural Telecommunications 21 (3) 32-6
Robertson M Scarbrough H amp Swan J (2003) Knowledge creation in professional
service firms institutional effects Organization Studies 24 (6) 831-857
Root-Bernstein R (1989) Strategies of research (part 2) Research-Technology
Management 32 (3) 36-41
Rosenbaum B (1991) Leading todayprimes professional Research-Technology Management
34 (2) 30-35
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
37 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
Salleh M Amin A Muda S amp Abdul Halim M A S (2013) Fairness of Performance
Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
Sarita K (2012) A study on performance appraisal errors of telecom managers in Navi
Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
Scholtes P R (1993) Total quality or performance appraisal choose one National
Productivity Review 12 (2) 349-63
Scott P B (2005) Knowledge management Semantics Work identity Communications
Corporate Communications An International Journal 10 (3) 257-277
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2004) Knowledge workers perceptions of performance
ratings Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (3) 146 ndash 166
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
workers a resource of the firm theory view Journal of Knowledge Management 6 (3)
250ndash261
St-Onge S Morin D Bellehumeur M amp Dupuis F (2009) Managers motivation to
evaluate subordinate performance Qualitative Research in Organizations and
Management An International Journal 4 (3) 273-293
Storey J (1987 November) Developments in the Management of Human Resources An
Interim Report IRRU School of Industrial and Business Studies University of Warwick
Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No17
Strebler M T Robinson D amp Bevan S (2001) Performance review balancing
objective and content The Institute of Employment Studies Brighton Report No 370
Stuhlman D (2006) Helping you turn data into knowledge knowledge Management
Terms [Online] Available httpwwwhomeearthlinknet~ddstuhlmandefin1htm
(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
38 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
Zimmerman K (2009) The impact of job performance on employee turnover and the
voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
29 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Barbara B (2012) Organizational socialization career aspirations and turnover intention
among design engineers Leadership and Organization Development Journal 26 22-30
Barnes P (1997) Making appraisal work in the new millennium Management Services
41 (7) 14-16
Becker B E Huselid M A amp Ulrich D (2001) The HR Scorecard Linking People
Strategy and Performance Boston MA Harvard Business School Publishing
Benson J Brown M amp Hyatt D (2010) Consequences of the performance appraisal
experience Personnel Review 39 (3) 375-396
Blau G (1985) The measurement and prediction of career commitment Journal of
Occupational Psychology 58 277-288
Blau G (1989) Testing the generalizability of a career commitment measure and its
impact on
employee turnover Journal of Vocational Behavior 35 88-103
Boice D F amp Kleiner B H (1997) Designing effective performance appraisal system
Work Study 46 (6) 197-201
Bobko P amp Collela A (1994) Employee reactions to performance standards a review
and research propositions Personnel Psychology 47 (10) 1-29
Bosch-Sijtsema P M amp Ruohomaumlki V amp Vartiainen M (2009) Knowledge work
productivity in distributed teams Journal of Knowledge Management 13 (6) 533 ndash 546
Bryan L L amp Joyce C (2005) The 21st-century organization The McKinsey Quarterly
3 5-13
Byrne J (1993 December) The horizontal corporation Business Week 20 76-81
Cardy R L amp Dobbins G H (1994) Performance Appraisal A Consideration of
Alternative Perspectives Cincinnati OH South-Western
Carson K D amp Bedeian A G (1994) Career commitment construction of a measure
and examination of its psychometric properties Journal of Vocational Behavior 44 237-
262
Cascio W amp Bordreau J (2011) Financial Impact of Human Resource Initiatives (2nd
ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Pearson Education Inc
Cennamo L amp Gardner D (2008) Generational differences in work values outcomes
and person-organisation values fit Journal of Managerial Psychology 23 (8) 891-906
Chan C A (2007) The Future of Human Resource Management Leadership amp
Organization Development Journal 28 (1) 94 ndash 96
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
30 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Connie Z amp David L (2010) Organizational determinants of employee turnover for
multinational companies in Asia Asia Pacific Journal Management 27 423-443
Costigan R D Insinga R C Kranas G Ilter S S Kureshov V A amp Berman J J
(2005) A study of Russian Polish and US self- and peer raters moderators of rating
agreement International Journal of Commerce and Management 15 205-20
Cleveland J N and Murphy K R (1992) Analyzing performance appraisal as goal
directed behaviour In Ferris G R amp Rowland K M (Eds) Research in Personnel and
Human Resources Management 10 121-185 Greenwich CT JAI Press
Cleveland J N Murphy K R amp Williams R E (1989) Multiple uses of performance
appraisal prevalence and correlates Journal of Applied Psychology 74 130-5
Coens T amp Jenkins M (2001) Focusing on performance Security Management 45 (8)
34-44
Collarelli S M amp Bishop R C (1990) Career commitment Functions correlations and
management Group and Organization Studies 15 158-176
Creotec (2006) Knowledge Creative and Passion [Online] Available
httpwwwcreoteccomindexphp (January 5 2007)
Damir B Martin S amp Ljubica B (2008) HRM practices in managing knowledge
workers 2nd Special Focus Symposium on ICESKS Information Communication and
Economic Sciences in the Knowledge Society Zadar Nov 13-14
Davenport R (2005) Why does KM still matter T + D 59 (2) 18-23
Davenport T (2002) Can you boost knowledge works impact on the bottom line
Management Update 7 (11) 3-5
Davenport T amp Prusak L (2000) Working Knowledge How Organizations Manage
What They Know Boston MA Harvard Business School Press
Davenport T Thomas R amp Cantrell S (2002) The mysterious art and science of
knowledge-worker performance MIT Sloan Management Review 44 (1) 23-9
Day R amp Allen T D (2004) The relationship between career motivation and self-
efficacy with proteacutegeacute career success Journal of Vocational Behavior 64 72-91
Drenth P J D (1984) Performance appraisal In Drenth P J D Thierry H Willems
P J amp De Wolff C J (Eds) Handbook of Work and Organisational Psychology
New York NY John Wiley and Sons
Deming W E (1986) Out of Crisis Cambridge MA Massachusetts Institute of
Technology Centre for Advanced Engineering Study
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
31 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Denisi A S amp Shaw J B (1977) Investigation of the uses of self-reports of abilities
Journal of Applied Psychology 62 641-4
Depress C amp Hiltrop J M (1995) Human resource management in the knowledge age
Employee Relations 17 (1) 9-23
DeVries D L Morrison A M Shullman S L amp Gerlach M L (1981) Performance
Appraisal On The Line Greensboro NC Center for Creative Leadership
Dove R (1998) The knowledge worker Automotive Manufacturing and Production 110
(6) 26-8
Drucker P (1994) Adventures of a Bystander New Brunswick NJ Transaction
Publishers
Drucker P (1999) Knowledge-worker productivity the biggest challenge California
Management Review 41 (2) 79-85
Earley P C Northcraft G B Lee C amp Lituchy T R (1990) Impact of process and
outcome feedback on the relation of goal setting to performance Academy of
Management Journal 33 (1) 87-105
Ebrahim Soltani (2003) Towards a TQM-driven HR performance evaluation an empirical
study Employee Relations 25 (4) 347-370
Ebrahim Soltani (2005) Conflict between theory and practice TQM and performance
appraisal International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management 22 (8) 796-818
Ebrahim Soltani Van Der Meer R B Gennard J amp William M T (2004) Have TQM
organisations adjusted their performance management (appraisal) systems A study of
UK-based TQM-driven organisations The TQM Magazine 16 (6) 403-417
Ebrahim Soltani Van Der Meer R B Williams M T amp Pei-chun Lai (2006) The
compatibility of performance appraisal systems with TQM principles ndash evidence from
current practice International Journal of Operations amp Production Management 26 (1)
92 ndash 112
Edmonstone J (1996) Appraising the state of performance appraisal Health Manpower
Management 22 (6) 9-13
Edwards R G amp Calvin J W (1998) Performance appraisal in academic libraries
minor changes or major renovation Library Review 47 (1) 14 ndash 19
Evans C (2003) Managing for Knowledge HRrsquos strategic role Amsterdam
Butterworth-Heinemann
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
32 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Fisher C M (1994) The difference between appraisal schemes variation and
acceptability ndash part I Personnel Review 23 (8) 33-48
Fletcher C amp Baldry C (2000) A study of individual difference and self-awareness in
the context of multi-source feedback Journal of Occupational and Organizational
Psychology 73 303-19
Freeman J (2002) How to improve the effectiveness of performance management and
appraisal by overcoming the root cause of the problem The HRM Guide Network
[Online] Available httpwwwhrmguidecomperformance (December 4 2002)
Freemantle D (1994) The Performance of Performance Appraisal An Appraisal
Windsor Superboss
Fisher M M Eskew D amp Heneman R L (1996) A survey of merit pay plan
effectiveness end of the line for merit pay or hope for improvement Human Resource
Planning 19 (2) 12-19
Geetha H (2013) Performance appraisal with reference to textile sector in Coimbatore
International Refereed Research Journal 4 (1(2)) 56-63
Ghorpade J Chen M M amp Caggiano J (1995) Creating quality-driven performance
appraisal systems The Academy of Management Executive 9 (1) 32-40
Grant D L (1955) A factor analysis of managers‟ ratings Journal of Applied
Psychology 39 283-6
Gratton L (2000 September) Strategic initiative (human resources and strategy)
Personnel Today 29-31
Green F (2005) Demanding Work The paradox of Job Quality in the Affluent Economy
Princeton NJ Princeton University Press
Greene J (1999) The Inequality of Performance Measurements Evaluation 5 (2) 160-
172
Greenhaus J H amp Parasuraman S (1993) Job performance attributions and career
advancement prospects An examination of gender and race effects Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 55 273-297
Griffeth R W Johnson J T amp Griffin M (2000) Factors discriminating functional and
dysfunctional salesforce turnover Journal of Business amp Industrial Marketing 15 (6) 399
ndash 415
Harley B (2002) Employee responses to high performance work system practices an
analysis of the AWIRS95 data Journal of Industrial Relations 44 (3) 418-434
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
33 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Helton R (1988) The bdquobest work‟ method of knowledge worker assessment Industrial
Management 30 (5) 19-22
Horwitz F M Heng C T Quazi H A Nonkelo C Roditi D amp Van Eck P (2006)
Human resource strategies for managing knowledge workers an Afro-Asian comparative
analysis The International Journal of Human Resource Management 17 (5) 775-811
HR professional (2001 April) [Online] Available
httpwwwhrpaoorgHRPAOKnowledgeCentreHRProfessional (October 9 2011)
Huselid M A (1995) The impact of human resource management practices on turnover
productivity and corporate financial performance Academy of Management Journal
38635-72
Ilgen D R Barnes-Farrell J L amp McKellin D B (1993) Performance appraisal
process research in the 1980s what has it contributed to appraisal in use Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 54 321-368
Julian M amp Anita D (2000) Knowledge Workers and why your e-business needs them
Malaysian Technology News April 20
Kane J S amp Russell J E A (1998) Performance appraisal and management In
Bernardin H J amp Russell J E A (Eds) Human Resource Management An
Experiential Approach (pp237-72) Burr Ridge IL IrwinMcGraw-Hill
Karreman D Sveningsson S amp Alvesson M (2002) The return of the machine
bureaucracy Management control in the work settings of professionals International
Studies of Management amp Organization 32 (2) 70-92
Kavanagh M (1997) I simply want to know how well I am doing Group and
Organization Management 22 (2) 147-8
Kimiz D (2005) Knowledge management in theory and practice (p 21) Oxford UK
Elsevier Inc (Chapter 1)
Knowledge Worker Forum Knowledge Workers (2006) [Online] Available
httpwwwreferenceforbusinesscommanagementInt-LocKnowledge-Workershtml
(February 16 2011)
Laihonen H Jaumlaumlskelaumlinen A Loumlnnqvist A amp Ruostela J (2012) Measuring the
productivity impacts of new ways of working Journal of Facilities Management 10 (2)
102 ndash 113
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
34 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Lam S S K amp Schaubroeck J (1999) Total quality management and performance
appraisal an experimental study of process versus results and group versus individual
approaches Journal of Organisational Behaviour 20 (4) 445-57
Latham G P (1988) Human resource training and development Annual Review of
Psychology 39 545-582
Latham G P Almost J Mann S amp Moore C (2005) New developments in
performance Management Organizational Dynamics 34 (1) 77-87
Lawler E E (1967) The mulititrait-multirater approach to measuring managerial job
performance Journal of Applied Psychology 51 369-81
Lee S Y Banker R D Potter G amp Srinivasan D (2000) An empirical analysis of
continuing improvements following the implementation of a performance-based
compensation Journal of Accounting and Economics 30 (3) 315-350
Levine E L Flory A amp Ash R A (1977) Self-assessment in personnel selection
Journal of Applied Psychology 62 428-35
Liebowitz J amp Beckman T J (1990) Knowledge Organizations What Every Manager
Should Know Florida Taylor and Francis
Lobburi P (2012) The Influence of Organizational and Social Support on Turnover
Intention in Collectivist Contexts Journal of Applied Business Research 28 (1) 93-104
Locke E A amp Latham G P (1990) A Theory of Goal Setting amp Task Performance
University of Michigan Prentice Hall
London M (1983) Toward a theory of career motivation The Academy of Management
Review 8 (4) 620-630
Long P (1986) Performance Appraisal Revised London Institute of Personnel
Management
Lum L Kervin J Clark K Reid F amp Sirola W (1998) Explaining nursing turnover
intent job satisfaction pay satisfaction or organizational commitment Journal of
Organizational Behaviour 19 (3) 305-320
Mamoria C B (1995) Personnel Management New Delhi Himalaya Publishing House
Maroney B P amp Buckley M R (1992) Does research in performance appraisal
influence the practice of performance appraisal Regretfully not Public Personnel
Management Journal 21 185-195
Martey A K (2002) Research paper Library Management 23 (89) 403-416
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
35 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
McCarthy A M amp Garavan T N (2001) A competency-based model for construction
supervisors in developing countries Journal of European Industrial Training 25 (1) 5-32
McGregor D M (1957) The Human Side of Enterprise The Management Review 46
22-28
McGregor J Tweed D amp Pech R (2004) Human capital in the new economy devils
bargain Journal of Intellectual Capital 5 (1) 153-164
Meyer J P Allen N J amp Smith C A (1993) Commitment to organizations and
occupations 40 extension and test of a three-component conceptualization Journal of
Applied Psychology 78 (4) 538-551
Meyer J P Becker T amp Van Dick R (2006) Social Identities and Commitments at
Work Toward an Integrative Model Journal of Organizational Behavior 27 665-683
Meyer J P amp Herscovitch L (2001) Commitment in workplace toward a general
model Human Resource Management Review 11 299-326
Michie J amp Sheehan M (1999) HRM practices RampD expenditure and innovative
investment evidence from the UK‟s 1990 Workplace Industrial Relations Survey (WIRS)
Industrial amp Corporate Change 8 (2) 211-234
Mitchell T R Holtom B C Lee T W amp Graske T (2001) How to keep your best
employee developing an effective retention policy The Academy of Management
Executive 15 (4) 96-109
Mohamad A H amp Aizzat M N (2006) Predicting turnover intention of hotel
employees The influence of employee development human resource management
practices and trust in organization Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business 8 (1)
33- 45
Mohrman A Resnick-West S amp Lawler E (1989) Designing Performance Appraisal
Systems Aligning Appraisals and Organizational Realities San Francisco CA Jossey-
Bass
Moi Kok Wah (2008) Transforming for the Knowledge-based Economy Through the
Practice of Knowledge Management Certified Global Facilitator and Consultant JT
Frank Academy [Online] Available
httpwwwkmtalknetarticlephpstory=20060922021542703 (February 16 2011)
Mor Barak M E Cherin D A amp Berkman S (1998) Organizational and personal
dimensions in diversity climate Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 34 (1) 82-104
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
36 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Murphy K R amp Cleveland J N (1995) Understanding Performance Appraisal Social
Organizational and Goal-Based Perspectives Thousand Oaks CA Sage
Nickols F (2000) What is‟ in the world of work and working some implications of the
shift to knowledge work Butterworth-Heinemann Yearbook of Knowledge Management
(pp 1-7) [Online] Available httphomeattnetsimnickolsshiftshtm (November 4 2010)
Obisi C (2011) Employee performance appraisal and its implication for individual and
organizational growth Australian Journal of Business and Management Research l (9)
92-97
Oltra V (2005) Knowledge management effective factors the role of HRM Journal of
Knowledge Management 9 (4) 70-86
Parry K W amp amp Sinha P N (2005) Researching the trainability of transformational
organizational leadership Human Resource Development International 8 165-83
Pepitone J S (2002) A case for humaneering IIE Solutions 34 (5) 39-44
Pollard D (2003) The future of knowledge management Discussion paper [Online]
Available
httpblogssaloncom0002007imagesTheFutureofKnowledgeManagementdo
(November 4 2010)
Quinn J B Anderson P amp Finkelstein S (1996a January) Managing professional
intellect making the most of the best Harvard Business Review 74 (2) 71-80
Rendero T (1980) Performance Appraisal Practices Personnel 57 (6) 4-12
Rees W D amp Porter C (2004) Appraisal pitfalls and the training implicationsndashPart 2
Industrial and Commercial Training 36 (1) 29-34
Reneker M amp Steel V (1989) Performance Appraisal Purpose and Techniques In
Creth S amp Duda F (Eds) Personnel Administration in Libraries (pp 152-220) New
York Neal-Schuman Publishers Inc
Ritter B amp Nunnally K (2002) Formalise the feedback employee performance
evaluation Rural Telecommunications 21 (3) 32-6
Robertson M Scarbrough H amp Swan J (2003) Knowledge creation in professional
service firms institutional effects Organization Studies 24 (6) 831-857
Root-Bernstein R (1989) Strategies of research (part 2) Research-Technology
Management 32 (3) 36-41
Rosenbaum B (1991) Leading todayprimes professional Research-Technology Management
34 (2) 30-35
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
37 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
Salleh M Amin A Muda S amp Abdul Halim M A S (2013) Fairness of Performance
Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
Sarita K (2012) A study on performance appraisal errors of telecom managers in Navi
Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
Scholtes P R (1993) Total quality or performance appraisal choose one National
Productivity Review 12 (2) 349-63
Scott P B (2005) Knowledge management Semantics Work identity Communications
Corporate Communications An International Journal 10 (3) 257-277
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2004) Knowledge workers perceptions of performance
ratings Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (3) 146 ndash 166
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
workers a resource of the firm theory view Journal of Knowledge Management 6 (3)
250ndash261
St-Onge S Morin D Bellehumeur M amp Dupuis F (2009) Managers motivation to
evaluate subordinate performance Qualitative Research in Organizations and
Management An International Journal 4 (3) 273-293
Storey J (1987 November) Developments in the Management of Human Resources An
Interim Report IRRU School of Industrial and Business Studies University of Warwick
Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No17
Strebler M T Robinson D amp Bevan S (2001) Performance review balancing
objective and content The Institute of Employment Studies Brighton Report No 370
Stuhlman D (2006) Helping you turn data into knowledge knowledge Management
Terms [Online] Available httpwwwhomeearthlinknet~ddstuhlmandefin1htm
(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
38 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
Zimmerman K (2009) The impact of job performance on employee turnover and the
voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
30 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Connie Z amp David L (2010) Organizational determinants of employee turnover for
multinational companies in Asia Asia Pacific Journal Management 27 423-443
Costigan R D Insinga R C Kranas G Ilter S S Kureshov V A amp Berman J J
(2005) A study of Russian Polish and US self- and peer raters moderators of rating
agreement International Journal of Commerce and Management 15 205-20
Cleveland J N and Murphy K R (1992) Analyzing performance appraisal as goal
directed behaviour In Ferris G R amp Rowland K M (Eds) Research in Personnel and
Human Resources Management 10 121-185 Greenwich CT JAI Press
Cleveland J N Murphy K R amp Williams R E (1989) Multiple uses of performance
appraisal prevalence and correlates Journal of Applied Psychology 74 130-5
Coens T amp Jenkins M (2001) Focusing on performance Security Management 45 (8)
34-44
Collarelli S M amp Bishop R C (1990) Career commitment Functions correlations and
management Group and Organization Studies 15 158-176
Creotec (2006) Knowledge Creative and Passion [Online] Available
httpwwwcreoteccomindexphp (January 5 2007)
Damir B Martin S amp Ljubica B (2008) HRM practices in managing knowledge
workers 2nd Special Focus Symposium on ICESKS Information Communication and
Economic Sciences in the Knowledge Society Zadar Nov 13-14
Davenport R (2005) Why does KM still matter T + D 59 (2) 18-23
Davenport T (2002) Can you boost knowledge works impact on the bottom line
Management Update 7 (11) 3-5
Davenport T amp Prusak L (2000) Working Knowledge How Organizations Manage
What They Know Boston MA Harvard Business School Press
Davenport T Thomas R amp Cantrell S (2002) The mysterious art and science of
knowledge-worker performance MIT Sloan Management Review 44 (1) 23-9
Day R amp Allen T D (2004) The relationship between career motivation and self-
efficacy with proteacutegeacute career success Journal of Vocational Behavior 64 72-91
Drenth P J D (1984) Performance appraisal In Drenth P J D Thierry H Willems
P J amp De Wolff C J (Eds) Handbook of Work and Organisational Psychology
New York NY John Wiley and Sons
Deming W E (1986) Out of Crisis Cambridge MA Massachusetts Institute of
Technology Centre for Advanced Engineering Study
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
31 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Denisi A S amp Shaw J B (1977) Investigation of the uses of self-reports of abilities
Journal of Applied Psychology 62 641-4
Depress C amp Hiltrop J M (1995) Human resource management in the knowledge age
Employee Relations 17 (1) 9-23
DeVries D L Morrison A M Shullman S L amp Gerlach M L (1981) Performance
Appraisal On The Line Greensboro NC Center for Creative Leadership
Dove R (1998) The knowledge worker Automotive Manufacturing and Production 110
(6) 26-8
Drucker P (1994) Adventures of a Bystander New Brunswick NJ Transaction
Publishers
Drucker P (1999) Knowledge-worker productivity the biggest challenge California
Management Review 41 (2) 79-85
Earley P C Northcraft G B Lee C amp Lituchy T R (1990) Impact of process and
outcome feedback on the relation of goal setting to performance Academy of
Management Journal 33 (1) 87-105
Ebrahim Soltani (2003) Towards a TQM-driven HR performance evaluation an empirical
study Employee Relations 25 (4) 347-370
Ebrahim Soltani (2005) Conflict between theory and practice TQM and performance
appraisal International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management 22 (8) 796-818
Ebrahim Soltani Van Der Meer R B Gennard J amp William M T (2004) Have TQM
organisations adjusted their performance management (appraisal) systems A study of
UK-based TQM-driven organisations The TQM Magazine 16 (6) 403-417
Ebrahim Soltani Van Der Meer R B Williams M T amp Pei-chun Lai (2006) The
compatibility of performance appraisal systems with TQM principles ndash evidence from
current practice International Journal of Operations amp Production Management 26 (1)
92 ndash 112
Edmonstone J (1996) Appraising the state of performance appraisal Health Manpower
Management 22 (6) 9-13
Edwards R G amp Calvin J W (1998) Performance appraisal in academic libraries
minor changes or major renovation Library Review 47 (1) 14 ndash 19
Evans C (2003) Managing for Knowledge HRrsquos strategic role Amsterdam
Butterworth-Heinemann
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
32 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Fisher C M (1994) The difference between appraisal schemes variation and
acceptability ndash part I Personnel Review 23 (8) 33-48
Fletcher C amp Baldry C (2000) A study of individual difference and self-awareness in
the context of multi-source feedback Journal of Occupational and Organizational
Psychology 73 303-19
Freeman J (2002) How to improve the effectiveness of performance management and
appraisal by overcoming the root cause of the problem The HRM Guide Network
[Online] Available httpwwwhrmguidecomperformance (December 4 2002)
Freemantle D (1994) The Performance of Performance Appraisal An Appraisal
Windsor Superboss
Fisher M M Eskew D amp Heneman R L (1996) A survey of merit pay plan
effectiveness end of the line for merit pay or hope for improvement Human Resource
Planning 19 (2) 12-19
Geetha H (2013) Performance appraisal with reference to textile sector in Coimbatore
International Refereed Research Journal 4 (1(2)) 56-63
Ghorpade J Chen M M amp Caggiano J (1995) Creating quality-driven performance
appraisal systems The Academy of Management Executive 9 (1) 32-40
Grant D L (1955) A factor analysis of managers‟ ratings Journal of Applied
Psychology 39 283-6
Gratton L (2000 September) Strategic initiative (human resources and strategy)
Personnel Today 29-31
Green F (2005) Demanding Work The paradox of Job Quality in the Affluent Economy
Princeton NJ Princeton University Press
Greene J (1999) The Inequality of Performance Measurements Evaluation 5 (2) 160-
172
Greenhaus J H amp Parasuraman S (1993) Job performance attributions and career
advancement prospects An examination of gender and race effects Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 55 273-297
Griffeth R W Johnson J T amp Griffin M (2000) Factors discriminating functional and
dysfunctional salesforce turnover Journal of Business amp Industrial Marketing 15 (6) 399
ndash 415
Harley B (2002) Employee responses to high performance work system practices an
analysis of the AWIRS95 data Journal of Industrial Relations 44 (3) 418-434
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
33 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Helton R (1988) The bdquobest work‟ method of knowledge worker assessment Industrial
Management 30 (5) 19-22
Horwitz F M Heng C T Quazi H A Nonkelo C Roditi D amp Van Eck P (2006)
Human resource strategies for managing knowledge workers an Afro-Asian comparative
analysis The International Journal of Human Resource Management 17 (5) 775-811
HR professional (2001 April) [Online] Available
httpwwwhrpaoorgHRPAOKnowledgeCentreHRProfessional (October 9 2011)
Huselid M A (1995) The impact of human resource management practices on turnover
productivity and corporate financial performance Academy of Management Journal
38635-72
Ilgen D R Barnes-Farrell J L amp McKellin D B (1993) Performance appraisal
process research in the 1980s what has it contributed to appraisal in use Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 54 321-368
Julian M amp Anita D (2000) Knowledge Workers and why your e-business needs them
Malaysian Technology News April 20
Kane J S amp Russell J E A (1998) Performance appraisal and management In
Bernardin H J amp Russell J E A (Eds) Human Resource Management An
Experiential Approach (pp237-72) Burr Ridge IL IrwinMcGraw-Hill
Karreman D Sveningsson S amp Alvesson M (2002) The return of the machine
bureaucracy Management control in the work settings of professionals International
Studies of Management amp Organization 32 (2) 70-92
Kavanagh M (1997) I simply want to know how well I am doing Group and
Organization Management 22 (2) 147-8
Kimiz D (2005) Knowledge management in theory and practice (p 21) Oxford UK
Elsevier Inc (Chapter 1)
Knowledge Worker Forum Knowledge Workers (2006) [Online] Available
httpwwwreferenceforbusinesscommanagementInt-LocKnowledge-Workershtml
(February 16 2011)
Laihonen H Jaumlaumlskelaumlinen A Loumlnnqvist A amp Ruostela J (2012) Measuring the
productivity impacts of new ways of working Journal of Facilities Management 10 (2)
102 ndash 113
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
34 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Lam S S K amp Schaubroeck J (1999) Total quality management and performance
appraisal an experimental study of process versus results and group versus individual
approaches Journal of Organisational Behaviour 20 (4) 445-57
Latham G P (1988) Human resource training and development Annual Review of
Psychology 39 545-582
Latham G P Almost J Mann S amp Moore C (2005) New developments in
performance Management Organizational Dynamics 34 (1) 77-87
Lawler E E (1967) The mulititrait-multirater approach to measuring managerial job
performance Journal of Applied Psychology 51 369-81
Lee S Y Banker R D Potter G amp Srinivasan D (2000) An empirical analysis of
continuing improvements following the implementation of a performance-based
compensation Journal of Accounting and Economics 30 (3) 315-350
Levine E L Flory A amp Ash R A (1977) Self-assessment in personnel selection
Journal of Applied Psychology 62 428-35
Liebowitz J amp Beckman T J (1990) Knowledge Organizations What Every Manager
Should Know Florida Taylor and Francis
Lobburi P (2012) The Influence of Organizational and Social Support on Turnover
Intention in Collectivist Contexts Journal of Applied Business Research 28 (1) 93-104
Locke E A amp Latham G P (1990) A Theory of Goal Setting amp Task Performance
University of Michigan Prentice Hall
London M (1983) Toward a theory of career motivation The Academy of Management
Review 8 (4) 620-630
Long P (1986) Performance Appraisal Revised London Institute of Personnel
Management
Lum L Kervin J Clark K Reid F amp Sirola W (1998) Explaining nursing turnover
intent job satisfaction pay satisfaction or organizational commitment Journal of
Organizational Behaviour 19 (3) 305-320
Mamoria C B (1995) Personnel Management New Delhi Himalaya Publishing House
Maroney B P amp Buckley M R (1992) Does research in performance appraisal
influence the practice of performance appraisal Regretfully not Public Personnel
Management Journal 21 185-195
Martey A K (2002) Research paper Library Management 23 (89) 403-416
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
35 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
McCarthy A M amp Garavan T N (2001) A competency-based model for construction
supervisors in developing countries Journal of European Industrial Training 25 (1) 5-32
McGregor D M (1957) The Human Side of Enterprise The Management Review 46
22-28
McGregor J Tweed D amp Pech R (2004) Human capital in the new economy devils
bargain Journal of Intellectual Capital 5 (1) 153-164
Meyer J P Allen N J amp Smith C A (1993) Commitment to organizations and
occupations 40 extension and test of a three-component conceptualization Journal of
Applied Psychology 78 (4) 538-551
Meyer J P Becker T amp Van Dick R (2006) Social Identities and Commitments at
Work Toward an Integrative Model Journal of Organizational Behavior 27 665-683
Meyer J P amp Herscovitch L (2001) Commitment in workplace toward a general
model Human Resource Management Review 11 299-326
Michie J amp Sheehan M (1999) HRM practices RampD expenditure and innovative
investment evidence from the UK‟s 1990 Workplace Industrial Relations Survey (WIRS)
Industrial amp Corporate Change 8 (2) 211-234
Mitchell T R Holtom B C Lee T W amp Graske T (2001) How to keep your best
employee developing an effective retention policy The Academy of Management
Executive 15 (4) 96-109
Mohamad A H amp Aizzat M N (2006) Predicting turnover intention of hotel
employees The influence of employee development human resource management
practices and trust in organization Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business 8 (1)
33- 45
Mohrman A Resnick-West S amp Lawler E (1989) Designing Performance Appraisal
Systems Aligning Appraisals and Organizational Realities San Francisco CA Jossey-
Bass
Moi Kok Wah (2008) Transforming for the Knowledge-based Economy Through the
Practice of Knowledge Management Certified Global Facilitator and Consultant JT
Frank Academy [Online] Available
httpwwwkmtalknetarticlephpstory=20060922021542703 (February 16 2011)
Mor Barak M E Cherin D A amp Berkman S (1998) Organizational and personal
dimensions in diversity climate Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 34 (1) 82-104
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
36 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Murphy K R amp Cleveland J N (1995) Understanding Performance Appraisal Social
Organizational and Goal-Based Perspectives Thousand Oaks CA Sage
Nickols F (2000) What is‟ in the world of work and working some implications of the
shift to knowledge work Butterworth-Heinemann Yearbook of Knowledge Management
(pp 1-7) [Online] Available httphomeattnetsimnickolsshiftshtm (November 4 2010)
Obisi C (2011) Employee performance appraisal and its implication for individual and
organizational growth Australian Journal of Business and Management Research l (9)
92-97
Oltra V (2005) Knowledge management effective factors the role of HRM Journal of
Knowledge Management 9 (4) 70-86
Parry K W amp amp Sinha P N (2005) Researching the trainability of transformational
organizational leadership Human Resource Development International 8 165-83
Pepitone J S (2002) A case for humaneering IIE Solutions 34 (5) 39-44
Pollard D (2003) The future of knowledge management Discussion paper [Online]
Available
httpblogssaloncom0002007imagesTheFutureofKnowledgeManagementdo
(November 4 2010)
Quinn J B Anderson P amp Finkelstein S (1996a January) Managing professional
intellect making the most of the best Harvard Business Review 74 (2) 71-80
Rendero T (1980) Performance Appraisal Practices Personnel 57 (6) 4-12
Rees W D amp Porter C (2004) Appraisal pitfalls and the training implicationsndashPart 2
Industrial and Commercial Training 36 (1) 29-34
Reneker M amp Steel V (1989) Performance Appraisal Purpose and Techniques In
Creth S amp Duda F (Eds) Personnel Administration in Libraries (pp 152-220) New
York Neal-Schuman Publishers Inc
Ritter B amp Nunnally K (2002) Formalise the feedback employee performance
evaluation Rural Telecommunications 21 (3) 32-6
Robertson M Scarbrough H amp Swan J (2003) Knowledge creation in professional
service firms institutional effects Organization Studies 24 (6) 831-857
Root-Bernstein R (1989) Strategies of research (part 2) Research-Technology
Management 32 (3) 36-41
Rosenbaum B (1991) Leading todayprimes professional Research-Technology Management
34 (2) 30-35
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
37 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
Salleh M Amin A Muda S amp Abdul Halim M A S (2013) Fairness of Performance
Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
Sarita K (2012) A study on performance appraisal errors of telecom managers in Navi
Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
Scholtes P R (1993) Total quality or performance appraisal choose one National
Productivity Review 12 (2) 349-63
Scott P B (2005) Knowledge management Semantics Work identity Communications
Corporate Communications An International Journal 10 (3) 257-277
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2004) Knowledge workers perceptions of performance
ratings Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (3) 146 ndash 166
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
workers a resource of the firm theory view Journal of Knowledge Management 6 (3)
250ndash261
St-Onge S Morin D Bellehumeur M amp Dupuis F (2009) Managers motivation to
evaluate subordinate performance Qualitative Research in Organizations and
Management An International Journal 4 (3) 273-293
Storey J (1987 November) Developments in the Management of Human Resources An
Interim Report IRRU School of Industrial and Business Studies University of Warwick
Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No17
Strebler M T Robinson D amp Bevan S (2001) Performance review balancing
objective and content The Institute of Employment Studies Brighton Report No 370
Stuhlman D (2006) Helping you turn data into knowledge knowledge Management
Terms [Online] Available httpwwwhomeearthlinknet~ddstuhlmandefin1htm
(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
38 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
Zimmerman K (2009) The impact of job performance on employee turnover and the
voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
31 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Denisi A S amp Shaw J B (1977) Investigation of the uses of self-reports of abilities
Journal of Applied Psychology 62 641-4
Depress C amp Hiltrop J M (1995) Human resource management in the knowledge age
Employee Relations 17 (1) 9-23
DeVries D L Morrison A M Shullman S L amp Gerlach M L (1981) Performance
Appraisal On The Line Greensboro NC Center for Creative Leadership
Dove R (1998) The knowledge worker Automotive Manufacturing and Production 110
(6) 26-8
Drucker P (1994) Adventures of a Bystander New Brunswick NJ Transaction
Publishers
Drucker P (1999) Knowledge-worker productivity the biggest challenge California
Management Review 41 (2) 79-85
Earley P C Northcraft G B Lee C amp Lituchy T R (1990) Impact of process and
outcome feedback on the relation of goal setting to performance Academy of
Management Journal 33 (1) 87-105
Ebrahim Soltani (2003) Towards a TQM-driven HR performance evaluation an empirical
study Employee Relations 25 (4) 347-370
Ebrahim Soltani (2005) Conflict between theory and practice TQM and performance
appraisal International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management 22 (8) 796-818
Ebrahim Soltani Van Der Meer R B Gennard J amp William M T (2004) Have TQM
organisations adjusted their performance management (appraisal) systems A study of
UK-based TQM-driven organisations The TQM Magazine 16 (6) 403-417
Ebrahim Soltani Van Der Meer R B Williams M T amp Pei-chun Lai (2006) The
compatibility of performance appraisal systems with TQM principles ndash evidence from
current practice International Journal of Operations amp Production Management 26 (1)
92 ndash 112
Edmonstone J (1996) Appraising the state of performance appraisal Health Manpower
Management 22 (6) 9-13
Edwards R G amp Calvin J W (1998) Performance appraisal in academic libraries
minor changes or major renovation Library Review 47 (1) 14 ndash 19
Evans C (2003) Managing for Knowledge HRrsquos strategic role Amsterdam
Butterworth-Heinemann
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
32 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Fisher C M (1994) The difference between appraisal schemes variation and
acceptability ndash part I Personnel Review 23 (8) 33-48
Fletcher C amp Baldry C (2000) A study of individual difference and self-awareness in
the context of multi-source feedback Journal of Occupational and Organizational
Psychology 73 303-19
Freeman J (2002) How to improve the effectiveness of performance management and
appraisal by overcoming the root cause of the problem The HRM Guide Network
[Online] Available httpwwwhrmguidecomperformance (December 4 2002)
Freemantle D (1994) The Performance of Performance Appraisal An Appraisal
Windsor Superboss
Fisher M M Eskew D amp Heneman R L (1996) A survey of merit pay plan
effectiveness end of the line for merit pay or hope for improvement Human Resource
Planning 19 (2) 12-19
Geetha H (2013) Performance appraisal with reference to textile sector in Coimbatore
International Refereed Research Journal 4 (1(2)) 56-63
Ghorpade J Chen M M amp Caggiano J (1995) Creating quality-driven performance
appraisal systems The Academy of Management Executive 9 (1) 32-40
Grant D L (1955) A factor analysis of managers‟ ratings Journal of Applied
Psychology 39 283-6
Gratton L (2000 September) Strategic initiative (human resources and strategy)
Personnel Today 29-31
Green F (2005) Demanding Work The paradox of Job Quality in the Affluent Economy
Princeton NJ Princeton University Press
Greene J (1999) The Inequality of Performance Measurements Evaluation 5 (2) 160-
172
Greenhaus J H amp Parasuraman S (1993) Job performance attributions and career
advancement prospects An examination of gender and race effects Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 55 273-297
Griffeth R W Johnson J T amp Griffin M (2000) Factors discriminating functional and
dysfunctional salesforce turnover Journal of Business amp Industrial Marketing 15 (6) 399
ndash 415
Harley B (2002) Employee responses to high performance work system practices an
analysis of the AWIRS95 data Journal of Industrial Relations 44 (3) 418-434
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
33 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Helton R (1988) The bdquobest work‟ method of knowledge worker assessment Industrial
Management 30 (5) 19-22
Horwitz F M Heng C T Quazi H A Nonkelo C Roditi D amp Van Eck P (2006)
Human resource strategies for managing knowledge workers an Afro-Asian comparative
analysis The International Journal of Human Resource Management 17 (5) 775-811
HR professional (2001 April) [Online] Available
httpwwwhrpaoorgHRPAOKnowledgeCentreHRProfessional (October 9 2011)
Huselid M A (1995) The impact of human resource management practices on turnover
productivity and corporate financial performance Academy of Management Journal
38635-72
Ilgen D R Barnes-Farrell J L amp McKellin D B (1993) Performance appraisal
process research in the 1980s what has it contributed to appraisal in use Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 54 321-368
Julian M amp Anita D (2000) Knowledge Workers and why your e-business needs them
Malaysian Technology News April 20
Kane J S amp Russell J E A (1998) Performance appraisal and management In
Bernardin H J amp Russell J E A (Eds) Human Resource Management An
Experiential Approach (pp237-72) Burr Ridge IL IrwinMcGraw-Hill
Karreman D Sveningsson S amp Alvesson M (2002) The return of the machine
bureaucracy Management control in the work settings of professionals International
Studies of Management amp Organization 32 (2) 70-92
Kavanagh M (1997) I simply want to know how well I am doing Group and
Organization Management 22 (2) 147-8
Kimiz D (2005) Knowledge management in theory and practice (p 21) Oxford UK
Elsevier Inc (Chapter 1)
Knowledge Worker Forum Knowledge Workers (2006) [Online] Available
httpwwwreferenceforbusinesscommanagementInt-LocKnowledge-Workershtml
(February 16 2011)
Laihonen H Jaumlaumlskelaumlinen A Loumlnnqvist A amp Ruostela J (2012) Measuring the
productivity impacts of new ways of working Journal of Facilities Management 10 (2)
102 ndash 113
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
34 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Lam S S K amp Schaubroeck J (1999) Total quality management and performance
appraisal an experimental study of process versus results and group versus individual
approaches Journal of Organisational Behaviour 20 (4) 445-57
Latham G P (1988) Human resource training and development Annual Review of
Psychology 39 545-582
Latham G P Almost J Mann S amp Moore C (2005) New developments in
performance Management Organizational Dynamics 34 (1) 77-87
Lawler E E (1967) The mulititrait-multirater approach to measuring managerial job
performance Journal of Applied Psychology 51 369-81
Lee S Y Banker R D Potter G amp Srinivasan D (2000) An empirical analysis of
continuing improvements following the implementation of a performance-based
compensation Journal of Accounting and Economics 30 (3) 315-350
Levine E L Flory A amp Ash R A (1977) Self-assessment in personnel selection
Journal of Applied Psychology 62 428-35
Liebowitz J amp Beckman T J (1990) Knowledge Organizations What Every Manager
Should Know Florida Taylor and Francis
Lobburi P (2012) The Influence of Organizational and Social Support on Turnover
Intention in Collectivist Contexts Journal of Applied Business Research 28 (1) 93-104
Locke E A amp Latham G P (1990) A Theory of Goal Setting amp Task Performance
University of Michigan Prentice Hall
London M (1983) Toward a theory of career motivation The Academy of Management
Review 8 (4) 620-630
Long P (1986) Performance Appraisal Revised London Institute of Personnel
Management
Lum L Kervin J Clark K Reid F amp Sirola W (1998) Explaining nursing turnover
intent job satisfaction pay satisfaction or organizational commitment Journal of
Organizational Behaviour 19 (3) 305-320
Mamoria C B (1995) Personnel Management New Delhi Himalaya Publishing House
Maroney B P amp Buckley M R (1992) Does research in performance appraisal
influence the practice of performance appraisal Regretfully not Public Personnel
Management Journal 21 185-195
Martey A K (2002) Research paper Library Management 23 (89) 403-416
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
35 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
McCarthy A M amp Garavan T N (2001) A competency-based model for construction
supervisors in developing countries Journal of European Industrial Training 25 (1) 5-32
McGregor D M (1957) The Human Side of Enterprise The Management Review 46
22-28
McGregor J Tweed D amp Pech R (2004) Human capital in the new economy devils
bargain Journal of Intellectual Capital 5 (1) 153-164
Meyer J P Allen N J amp Smith C A (1993) Commitment to organizations and
occupations 40 extension and test of a three-component conceptualization Journal of
Applied Psychology 78 (4) 538-551
Meyer J P Becker T amp Van Dick R (2006) Social Identities and Commitments at
Work Toward an Integrative Model Journal of Organizational Behavior 27 665-683
Meyer J P amp Herscovitch L (2001) Commitment in workplace toward a general
model Human Resource Management Review 11 299-326
Michie J amp Sheehan M (1999) HRM practices RampD expenditure and innovative
investment evidence from the UK‟s 1990 Workplace Industrial Relations Survey (WIRS)
Industrial amp Corporate Change 8 (2) 211-234
Mitchell T R Holtom B C Lee T W amp Graske T (2001) How to keep your best
employee developing an effective retention policy The Academy of Management
Executive 15 (4) 96-109
Mohamad A H amp Aizzat M N (2006) Predicting turnover intention of hotel
employees The influence of employee development human resource management
practices and trust in organization Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business 8 (1)
33- 45
Mohrman A Resnick-West S amp Lawler E (1989) Designing Performance Appraisal
Systems Aligning Appraisals and Organizational Realities San Francisco CA Jossey-
Bass
Moi Kok Wah (2008) Transforming for the Knowledge-based Economy Through the
Practice of Knowledge Management Certified Global Facilitator and Consultant JT
Frank Academy [Online] Available
httpwwwkmtalknetarticlephpstory=20060922021542703 (February 16 2011)
Mor Barak M E Cherin D A amp Berkman S (1998) Organizational and personal
dimensions in diversity climate Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 34 (1) 82-104
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
36 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Murphy K R amp Cleveland J N (1995) Understanding Performance Appraisal Social
Organizational and Goal-Based Perspectives Thousand Oaks CA Sage
Nickols F (2000) What is‟ in the world of work and working some implications of the
shift to knowledge work Butterworth-Heinemann Yearbook of Knowledge Management
(pp 1-7) [Online] Available httphomeattnetsimnickolsshiftshtm (November 4 2010)
Obisi C (2011) Employee performance appraisal and its implication for individual and
organizational growth Australian Journal of Business and Management Research l (9)
92-97
Oltra V (2005) Knowledge management effective factors the role of HRM Journal of
Knowledge Management 9 (4) 70-86
Parry K W amp amp Sinha P N (2005) Researching the trainability of transformational
organizational leadership Human Resource Development International 8 165-83
Pepitone J S (2002) A case for humaneering IIE Solutions 34 (5) 39-44
Pollard D (2003) The future of knowledge management Discussion paper [Online]
Available
httpblogssaloncom0002007imagesTheFutureofKnowledgeManagementdo
(November 4 2010)
Quinn J B Anderson P amp Finkelstein S (1996a January) Managing professional
intellect making the most of the best Harvard Business Review 74 (2) 71-80
Rendero T (1980) Performance Appraisal Practices Personnel 57 (6) 4-12
Rees W D amp Porter C (2004) Appraisal pitfalls and the training implicationsndashPart 2
Industrial and Commercial Training 36 (1) 29-34
Reneker M amp Steel V (1989) Performance Appraisal Purpose and Techniques In
Creth S amp Duda F (Eds) Personnel Administration in Libraries (pp 152-220) New
York Neal-Schuman Publishers Inc
Ritter B amp Nunnally K (2002) Formalise the feedback employee performance
evaluation Rural Telecommunications 21 (3) 32-6
Robertson M Scarbrough H amp Swan J (2003) Knowledge creation in professional
service firms institutional effects Organization Studies 24 (6) 831-857
Root-Bernstein R (1989) Strategies of research (part 2) Research-Technology
Management 32 (3) 36-41
Rosenbaum B (1991) Leading todayprimes professional Research-Technology Management
34 (2) 30-35
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
37 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
Salleh M Amin A Muda S amp Abdul Halim M A S (2013) Fairness of Performance
Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
Sarita K (2012) A study on performance appraisal errors of telecom managers in Navi
Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
Scholtes P R (1993) Total quality or performance appraisal choose one National
Productivity Review 12 (2) 349-63
Scott P B (2005) Knowledge management Semantics Work identity Communications
Corporate Communications An International Journal 10 (3) 257-277
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2004) Knowledge workers perceptions of performance
ratings Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (3) 146 ndash 166
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
workers a resource of the firm theory view Journal of Knowledge Management 6 (3)
250ndash261
St-Onge S Morin D Bellehumeur M amp Dupuis F (2009) Managers motivation to
evaluate subordinate performance Qualitative Research in Organizations and
Management An International Journal 4 (3) 273-293
Storey J (1987 November) Developments in the Management of Human Resources An
Interim Report IRRU School of Industrial and Business Studies University of Warwick
Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No17
Strebler M T Robinson D amp Bevan S (2001) Performance review balancing
objective and content The Institute of Employment Studies Brighton Report No 370
Stuhlman D (2006) Helping you turn data into knowledge knowledge Management
Terms [Online] Available httpwwwhomeearthlinknet~ddstuhlmandefin1htm
(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
38 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
Zimmerman K (2009) The impact of job performance on employee turnover and the
voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
32 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Fisher C M (1994) The difference between appraisal schemes variation and
acceptability ndash part I Personnel Review 23 (8) 33-48
Fletcher C amp Baldry C (2000) A study of individual difference and self-awareness in
the context of multi-source feedback Journal of Occupational and Organizational
Psychology 73 303-19
Freeman J (2002) How to improve the effectiveness of performance management and
appraisal by overcoming the root cause of the problem The HRM Guide Network
[Online] Available httpwwwhrmguidecomperformance (December 4 2002)
Freemantle D (1994) The Performance of Performance Appraisal An Appraisal
Windsor Superboss
Fisher M M Eskew D amp Heneman R L (1996) A survey of merit pay plan
effectiveness end of the line for merit pay or hope for improvement Human Resource
Planning 19 (2) 12-19
Geetha H (2013) Performance appraisal with reference to textile sector in Coimbatore
International Refereed Research Journal 4 (1(2)) 56-63
Ghorpade J Chen M M amp Caggiano J (1995) Creating quality-driven performance
appraisal systems The Academy of Management Executive 9 (1) 32-40
Grant D L (1955) A factor analysis of managers‟ ratings Journal of Applied
Psychology 39 283-6
Gratton L (2000 September) Strategic initiative (human resources and strategy)
Personnel Today 29-31
Green F (2005) Demanding Work The paradox of Job Quality in the Affluent Economy
Princeton NJ Princeton University Press
Greene J (1999) The Inequality of Performance Measurements Evaluation 5 (2) 160-
172
Greenhaus J H amp Parasuraman S (1993) Job performance attributions and career
advancement prospects An examination of gender and race effects Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 55 273-297
Griffeth R W Johnson J T amp Griffin M (2000) Factors discriminating functional and
dysfunctional salesforce turnover Journal of Business amp Industrial Marketing 15 (6) 399
ndash 415
Harley B (2002) Employee responses to high performance work system practices an
analysis of the AWIRS95 data Journal of Industrial Relations 44 (3) 418-434
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
33 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Helton R (1988) The bdquobest work‟ method of knowledge worker assessment Industrial
Management 30 (5) 19-22
Horwitz F M Heng C T Quazi H A Nonkelo C Roditi D amp Van Eck P (2006)
Human resource strategies for managing knowledge workers an Afro-Asian comparative
analysis The International Journal of Human Resource Management 17 (5) 775-811
HR professional (2001 April) [Online] Available
httpwwwhrpaoorgHRPAOKnowledgeCentreHRProfessional (October 9 2011)
Huselid M A (1995) The impact of human resource management practices on turnover
productivity and corporate financial performance Academy of Management Journal
38635-72
Ilgen D R Barnes-Farrell J L amp McKellin D B (1993) Performance appraisal
process research in the 1980s what has it contributed to appraisal in use Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 54 321-368
Julian M amp Anita D (2000) Knowledge Workers and why your e-business needs them
Malaysian Technology News April 20
Kane J S amp Russell J E A (1998) Performance appraisal and management In
Bernardin H J amp Russell J E A (Eds) Human Resource Management An
Experiential Approach (pp237-72) Burr Ridge IL IrwinMcGraw-Hill
Karreman D Sveningsson S amp Alvesson M (2002) The return of the machine
bureaucracy Management control in the work settings of professionals International
Studies of Management amp Organization 32 (2) 70-92
Kavanagh M (1997) I simply want to know how well I am doing Group and
Organization Management 22 (2) 147-8
Kimiz D (2005) Knowledge management in theory and practice (p 21) Oxford UK
Elsevier Inc (Chapter 1)
Knowledge Worker Forum Knowledge Workers (2006) [Online] Available
httpwwwreferenceforbusinesscommanagementInt-LocKnowledge-Workershtml
(February 16 2011)
Laihonen H Jaumlaumlskelaumlinen A Loumlnnqvist A amp Ruostela J (2012) Measuring the
productivity impacts of new ways of working Journal of Facilities Management 10 (2)
102 ndash 113
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
34 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Lam S S K amp Schaubroeck J (1999) Total quality management and performance
appraisal an experimental study of process versus results and group versus individual
approaches Journal of Organisational Behaviour 20 (4) 445-57
Latham G P (1988) Human resource training and development Annual Review of
Psychology 39 545-582
Latham G P Almost J Mann S amp Moore C (2005) New developments in
performance Management Organizational Dynamics 34 (1) 77-87
Lawler E E (1967) The mulititrait-multirater approach to measuring managerial job
performance Journal of Applied Psychology 51 369-81
Lee S Y Banker R D Potter G amp Srinivasan D (2000) An empirical analysis of
continuing improvements following the implementation of a performance-based
compensation Journal of Accounting and Economics 30 (3) 315-350
Levine E L Flory A amp Ash R A (1977) Self-assessment in personnel selection
Journal of Applied Psychology 62 428-35
Liebowitz J amp Beckman T J (1990) Knowledge Organizations What Every Manager
Should Know Florida Taylor and Francis
Lobburi P (2012) The Influence of Organizational and Social Support on Turnover
Intention in Collectivist Contexts Journal of Applied Business Research 28 (1) 93-104
Locke E A amp Latham G P (1990) A Theory of Goal Setting amp Task Performance
University of Michigan Prentice Hall
London M (1983) Toward a theory of career motivation The Academy of Management
Review 8 (4) 620-630
Long P (1986) Performance Appraisal Revised London Institute of Personnel
Management
Lum L Kervin J Clark K Reid F amp Sirola W (1998) Explaining nursing turnover
intent job satisfaction pay satisfaction or organizational commitment Journal of
Organizational Behaviour 19 (3) 305-320
Mamoria C B (1995) Personnel Management New Delhi Himalaya Publishing House
Maroney B P amp Buckley M R (1992) Does research in performance appraisal
influence the practice of performance appraisal Regretfully not Public Personnel
Management Journal 21 185-195
Martey A K (2002) Research paper Library Management 23 (89) 403-416
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
35 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
McCarthy A M amp Garavan T N (2001) A competency-based model for construction
supervisors in developing countries Journal of European Industrial Training 25 (1) 5-32
McGregor D M (1957) The Human Side of Enterprise The Management Review 46
22-28
McGregor J Tweed D amp Pech R (2004) Human capital in the new economy devils
bargain Journal of Intellectual Capital 5 (1) 153-164
Meyer J P Allen N J amp Smith C A (1993) Commitment to organizations and
occupations 40 extension and test of a three-component conceptualization Journal of
Applied Psychology 78 (4) 538-551
Meyer J P Becker T amp Van Dick R (2006) Social Identities and Commitments at
Work Toward an Integrative Model Journal of Organizational Behavior 27 665-683
Meyer J P amp Herscovitch L (2001) Commitment in workplace toward a general
model Human Resource Management Review 11 299-326
Michie J amp Sheehan M (1999) HRM practices RampD expenditure and innovative
investment evidence from the UK‟s 1990 Workplace Industrial Relations Survey (WIRS)
Industrial amp Corporate Change 8 (2) 211-234
Mitchell T R Holtom B C Lee T W amp Graske T (2001) How to keep your best
employee developing an effective retention policy The Academy of Management
Executive 15 (4) 96-109
Mohamad A H amp Aizzat M N (2006) Predicting turnover intention of hotel
employees The influence of employee development human resource management
practices and trust in organization Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business 8 (1)
33- 45
Mohrman A Resnick-West S amp Lawler E (1989) Designing Performance Appraisal
Systems Aligning Appraisals and Organizational Realities San Francisco CA Jossey-
Bass
Moi Kok Wah (2008) Transforming for the Knowledge-based Economy Through the
Practice of Knowledge Management Certified Global Facilitator and Consultant JT
Frank Academy [Online] Available
httpwwwkmtalknetarticlephpstory=20060922021542703 (February 16 2011)
Mor Barak M E Cherin D A amp Berkman S (1998) Organizational and personal
dimensions in diversity climate Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 34 (1) 82-104
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
36 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Murphy K R amp Cleveland J N (1995) Understanding Performance Appraisal Social
Organizational and Goal-Based Perspectives Thousand Oaks CA Sage
Nickols F (2000) What is‟ in the world of work and working some implications of the
shift to knowledge work Butterworth-Heinemann Yearbook of Knowledge Management
(pp 1-7) [Online] Available httphomeattnetsimnickolsshiftshtm (November 4 2010)
Obisi C (2011) Employee performance appraisal and its implication for individual and
organizational growth Australian Journal of Business and Management Research l (9)
92-97
Oltra V (2005) Knowledge management effective factors the role of HRM Journal of
Knowledge Management 9 (4) 70-86
Parry K W amp amp Sinha P N (2005) Researching the trainability of transformational
organizational leadership Human Resource Development International 8 165-83
Pepitone J S (2002) A case for humaneering IIE Solutions 34 (5) 39-44
Pollard D (2003) The future of knowledge management Discussion paper [Online]
Available
httpblogssaloncom0002007imagesTheFutureofKnowledgeManagementdo
(November 4 2010)
Quinn J B Anderson P amp Finkelstein S (1996a January) Managing professional
intellect making the most of the best Harvard Business Review 74 (2) 71-80
Rendero T (1980) Performance Appraisal Practices Personnel 57 (6) 4-12
Rees W D amp Porter C (2004) Appraisal pitfalls and the training implicationsndashPart 2
Industrial and Commercial Training 36 (1) 29-34
Reneker M amp Steel V (1989) Performance Appraisal Purpose and Techniques In
Creth S amp Duda F (Eds) Personnel Administration in Libraries (pp 152-220) New
York Neal-Schuman Publishers Inc
Ritter B amp Nunnally K (2002) Formalise the feedback employee performance
evaluation Rural Telecommunications 21 (3) 32-6
Robertson M Scarbrough H amp Swan J (2003) Knowledge creation in professional
service firms institutional effects Organization Studies 24 (6) 831-857
Root-Bernstein R (1989) Strategies of research (part 2) Research-Technology
Management 32 (3) 36-41
Rosenbaum B (1991) Leading todayprimes professional Research-Technology Management
34 (2) 30-35
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
37 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
Salleh M Amin A Muda S amp Abdul Halim M A S (2013) Fairness of Performance
Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
Sarita K (2012) A study on performance appraisal errors of telecom managers in Navi
Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
Scholtes P R (1993) Total quality or performance appraisal choose one National
Productivity Review 12 (2) 349-63
Scott P B (2005) Knowledge management Semantics Work identity Communications
Corporate Communications An International Journal 10 (3) 257-277
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2004) Knowledge workers perceptions of performance
ratings Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (3) 146 ndash 166
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
workers a resource of the firm theory view Journal of Knowledge Management 6 (3)
250ndash261
St-Onge S Morin D Bellehumeur M amp Dupuis F (2009) Managers motivation to
evaluate subordinate performance Qualitative Research in Organizations and
Management An International Journal 4 (3) 273-293
Storey J (1987 November) Developments in the Management of Human Resources An
Interim Report IRRU School of Industrial and Business Studies University of Warwick
Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No17
Strebler M T Robinson D amp Bevan S (2001) Performance review balancing
objective and content The Institute of Employment Studies Brighton Report No 370
Stuhlman D (2006) Helping you turn data into knowledge knowledge Management
Terms [Online] Available httpwwwhomeearthlinknet~ddstuhlmandefin1htm
(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
38 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
Zimmerman K (2009) The impact of job performance on employee turnover and the
voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
33 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Helton R (1988) The bdquobest work‟ method of knowledge worker assessment Industrial
Management 30 (5) 19-22
Horwitz F M Heng C T Quazi H A Nonkelo C Roditi D amp Van Eck P (2006)
Human resource strategies for managing knowledge workers an Afro-Asian comparative
analysis The International Journal of Human Resource Management 17 (5) 775-811
HR professional (2001 April) [Online] Available
httpwwwhrpaoorgHRPAOKnowledgeCentreHRProfessional (October 9 2011)
Huselid M A (1995) The impact of human resource management practices on turnover
productivity and corporate financial performance Academy of Management Journal
38635-72
Ilgen D R Barnes-Farrell J L amp McKellin D B (1993) Performance appraisal
process research in the 1980s what has it contributed to appraisal in use Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 54 321-368
Julian M amp Anita D (2000) Knowledge Workers and why your e-business needs them
Malaysian Technology News April 20
Kane J S amp Russell J E A (1998) Performance appraisal and management In
Bernardin H J amp Russell J E A (Eds) Human Resource Management An
Experiential Approach (pp237-72) Burr Ridge IL IrwinMcGraw-Hill
Karreman D Sveningsson S amp Alvesson M (2002) The return of the machine
bureaucracy Management control in the work settings of professionals International
Studies of Management amp Organization 32 (2) 70-92
Kavanagh M (1997) I simply want to know how well I am doing Group and
Organization Management 22 (2) 147-8
Kimiz D (2005) Knowledge management in theory and practice (p 21) Oxford UK
Elsevier Inc (Chapter 1)
Knowledge Worker Forum Knowledge Workers (2006) [Online] Available
httpwwwreferenceforbusinesscommanagementInt-LocKnowledge-Workershtml
(February 16 2011)
Laihonen H Jaumlaumlskelaumlinen A Loumlnnqvist A amp Ruostela J (2012) Measuring the
productivity impacts of new ways of working Journal of Facilities Management 10 (2)
102 ndash 113
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
34 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Lam S S K amp Schaubroeck J (1999) Total quality management and performance
appraisal an experimental study of process versus results and group versus individual
approaches Journal of Organisational Behaviour 20 (4) 445-57
Latham G P (1988) Human resource training and development Annual Review of
Psychology 39 545-582
Latham G P Almost J Mann S amp Moore C (2005) New developments in
performance Management Organizational Dynamics 34 (1) 77-87
Lawler E E (1967) The mulititrait-multirater approach to measuring managerial job
performance Journal of Applied Psychology 51 369-81
Lee S Y Banker R D Potter G amp Srinivasan D (2000) An empirical analysis of
continuing improvements following the implementation of a performance-based
compensation Journal of Accounting and Economics 30 (3) 315-350
Levine E L Flory A amp Ash R A (1977) Self-assessment in personnel selection
Journal of Applied Psychology 62 428-35
Liebowitz J amp Beckman T J (1990) Knowledge Organizations What Every Manager
Should Know Florida Taylor and Francis
Lobburi P (2012) The Influence of Organizational and Social Support on Turnover
Intention in Collectivist Contexts Journal of Applied Business Research 28 (1) 93-104
Locke E A amp Latham G P (1990) A Theory of Goal Setting amp Task Performance
University of Michigan Prentice Hall
London M (1983) Toward a theory of career motivation The Academy of Management
Review 8 (4) 620-630
Long P (1986) Performance Appraisal Revised London Institute of Personnel
Management
Lum L Kervin J Clark K Reid F amp Sirola W (1998) Explaining nursing turnover
intent job satisfaction pay satisfaction or organizational commitment Journal of
Organizational Behaviour 19 (3) 305-320
Mamoria C B (1995) Personnel Management New Delhi Himalaya Publishing House
Maroney B P amp Buckley M R (1992) Does research in performance appraisal
influence the practice of performance appraisal Regretfully not Public Personnel
Management Journal 21 185-195
Martey A K (2002) Research paper Library Management 23 (89) 403-416
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
35 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
McCarthy A M amp Garavan T N (2001) A competency-based model for construction
supervisors in developing countries Journal of European Industrial Training 25 (1) 5-32
McGregor D M (1957) The Human Side of Enterprise The Management Review 46
22-28
McGregor J Tweed D amp Pech R (2004) Human capital in the new economy devils
bargain Journal of Intellectual Capital 5 (1) 153-164
Meyer J P Allen N J amp Smith C A (1993) Commitment to organizations and
occupations 40 extension and test of a three-component conceptualization Journal of
Applied Psychology 78 (4) 538-551
Meyer J P Becker T amp Van Dick R (2006) Social Identities and Commitments at
Work Toward an Integrative Model Journal of Organizational Behavior 27 665-683
Meyer J P amp Herscovitch L (2001) Commitment in workplace toward a general
model Human Resource Management Review 11 299-326
Michie J amp Sheehan M (1999) HRM practices RampD expenditure and innovative
investment evidence from the UK‟s 1990 Workplace Industrial Relations Survey (WIRS)
Industrial amp Corporate Change 8 (2) 211-234
Mitchell T R Holtom B C Lee T W amp Graske T (2001) How to keep your best
employee developing an effective retention policy The Academy of Management
Executive 15 (4) 96-109
Mohamad A H amp Aizzat M N (2006) Predicting turnover intention of hotel
employees The influence of employee development human resource management
practices and trust in organization Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business 8 (1)
33- 45
Mohrman A Resnick-West S amp Lawler E (1989) Designing Performance Appraisal
Systems Aligning Appraisals and Organizational Realities San Francisco CA Jossey-
Bass
Moi Kok Wah (2008) Transforming for the Knowledge-based Economy Through the
Practice of Knowledge Management Certified Global Facilitator and Consultant JT
Frank Academy [Online] Available
httpwwwkmtalknetarticlephpstory=20060922021542703 (February 16 2011)
Mor Barak M E Cherin D A amp Berkman S (1998) Organizational and personal
dimensions in diversity climate Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 34 (1) 82-104
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
36 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Murphy K R amp Cleveland J N (1995) Understanding Performance Appraisal Social
Organizational and Goal-Based Perspectives Thousand Oaks CA Sage
Nickols F (2000) What is‟ in the world of work and working some implications of the
shift to knowledge work Butterworth-Heinemann Yearbook of Knowledge Management
(pp 1-7) [Online] Available httphomeattnetsimnickolsshiftshtm (November 4 2010)
Obisi C (2011) Employee performance appraisal and its implication for individual and
organizational growth Australian Journal of Business and Management Research l (9)
92-97
Oltra V (2005) Knowledge management effective factors the role of HRM Journal of
Knowledge Management 9 (4) 70-86
Parry K W amp amp Sinha P N (2005) Researching the trainability of transformational
organizational leadership Human Resource Development International 8 165-83
Pepitone J S (2002) A case for humaneering IIE Solutions 34 (5) 39-44
Pollard D (2003) The future of knowledge management Discussion paper [Online]
Available
httpblogssaloncom0002007imagesTheFutureofKnowledgeManagementdo
(November 4 2010)
Quinn J B Anderson P amp Finkelstein S (1996a January) Managing professional
intellect making the most of the best Harvard Business Review 74 (2) 71-80
Rendero T (1980) Performance Appraisal Practices Personnel 57 (6) 4-12
Rees W D amp Porter C (2004) Appraisal pitfalls and the training implicationsndashPart 2
Industrial and Commercial Training 36 (1) 29-34
Reneker M amp Steel V (1989) Performance Appraisal Purpose and Techniques In
Creth S amp Duda F (Eds) Personnel Administration in Libraries (pp 152-220) New
York Neal-Schuman Publishers Inc
Ritter B amp Nunnally K (2002) Formalise the feedback employee performance
evaluation Rural Telecommunications 21 (3) 32-6
Robertson M Scarbrough H amp Swan J (2003) Knowledge creation in professional
service firms institutional effects Organization Studies 24 (6) 831-857
Root-Bernstein R (1989) Strategies of research (part 2) Research-Technology
Management 32 (3) 36-41
Rosenbaum B (1991) Leading todayprimes professional Research-Technology Management
34 (2) 30-35
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
37 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
Salleh M Amin A Muda S amp Abdul Halim M A S (2013) Fairness of Performance
Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
Sarita K (2012) A study on performance appraisal errors of telecom managers in Navi
Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
Scholtes P R (1993) Total quality or performance appraisal choose one National
Productivity Review 12 (2) 349-63
Scott P B (2005) Knowledge management Semantics Work identity Communications
Corporate Communications An International Journal 10 (3) 257-277
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2004) Knowledge workers perceptions of performance
ratings Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (3) 146 ndash 166
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
workers a resource of the firm theory view Journal of Knowledge Management 6 (3)
250ndash261
St-Onge S Morin D Bellehumeur M amp Dupuis F (2009) Managers motivation to
evaluate subordinate performance Qualitative Research in Organizations and
Management An International Journal 4 (3) 273-293
Storey J (1987 November) Developments in the Management of Human Resources An
Interim Report IRRU School of Industrial and Business Studies University of Warwick
Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No17
Strebler M T Robinson D amp Bevan S (2001) Performance review balancing
objective and content The Institute of Employment Studies Brighton Report No 370
Stuhlman D (2006) Helping you turn data into knowledge knowledge Management
Terms [Online] Available httpwwwhomeearthlinknet~ddstuhlmandefin1htm
(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
38 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
Zimmerman K (2009) The impact of job performance on employee turnover and the
voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
34 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Lam S S K amp Schaubroeck J (1999) Total quality management and performance
appraisal an experimental study of process versus results and group versus individual
approaches Journal of Organisational Behaviour 20 (4) 445-57
Latham G P (1988) Human resource training and development Annual Review of
Psychology 39 545-582
Latham G P Almost J Mann S amp Moore C (2005) New developments in
performance Management Organizational Dynamics 34 (1) 77-87
Lawler E E (1967) The mulititrait-multirater approach to measuring managerial job
performance Journal of Applied Psychology 51 369-81
Lee S Y Banker R D Potter G amp Srinivasan D (2000) An empirical analysis of
continuing improvements following the implementation of a performance-based
compensation Journal of Accounting and Economics 30 (3) 315-350
Levine E L Flory A amp Ash R A (1977) Self-assessment in personnel selection
Journal of Applied Psychology 62 428-35
Liebowitz J amp Beckman T J (1990) Knowledge Organizations What Every Manager
Should Know Florida Taylor and Francis
Lobburi P (2012) The Influence of Organizational and Social Support on Turnover
Intention in Collectivist Contexts Journal of Applied Business Research 28 (1) 93-104
Locke E A amp Latham G P (1990) A Theory of Goal Setting amp Task Performance
University of Michigan Prentice Hall
London M (1983) Toward a theory of career motivation The Academy of Management
Review 8 (4) 620-630
Long P (1986) Performance Appraisal Revised London Institute of Personnel
Management
Lum L Kervin J Clark K Reid F amp Sirola W (1998) Explaining nursing turnover
intent job satisfaction pay satisfaction or organizational commitment Journal of
Organizational Behaviour 19 (3) 305-320
Mamoria C B (1995) Personnel Management New Delhi Himalaya Publishing House
Maroney B P amp Buckley M R (1992) Does research in performance appraisal
influence the practice of performance appraisal Regretfully not Public Personnel
Management Journal 21 185-195
Martey A K (2002) Research paper Library Management 23 (89) 403-416
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
35 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
McCarthy A M amp Garavan T N (2001) A competency-based model for construction
supervisors in developing countries Journal of European Industrial Training 25 (1) 5-32
McGregor D M (1957) The Human Side of Enterprise The Management Review 46
22-28
McGregor J Tweed D amp Pech R (2004) Human capital in the new economy devils
bargain Journal of Intellectual Capital 5 (1) 153-164
Meyer J P Allen N J amp Smith C A (1993) Commitment to organizations and
occupations 40 extension and test of a three-component conceptualization Journal of
Applied Psychology 78 (4) 538-551
Meyer J P Becker T amp Van Dick R (2006) Social Identities and Commitments at
Work Toward an Integrative Model Journal of Organizational Behavior 27 665-683
Meyer J P amp Herscovitch L (2001) Commitment in workplace toward a general
model Human Resource Management Review 11 299-326
Michie J amp Sheehan M (1999) HRM practices RampD expenditure and innovative
investment evidence from the UK‟s 1990 Workplace Industrial Relations Survey (WIRS)
Industrial amp Corporate Change 8 (2) 211-234
Mitchell T R Holtom B C Lee T W amp Graske T (2001) How to keep your best
employee developing an effective retention policy The Academy of Management
Executive 15 (4) 96-109
Mohamad A H amp Aizzat M N (2006) Predicting turnover intention of hotel
employees The influence of employee development human resource management
practices and trust in organization Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business 8 (1)
33- 45
Mohrman A Resnick-West S amp Lawler E (1989) Designing Performance Appraisal
Systems Aligning Appraisals and Organizational Realities San Francisco CA Jossey-
Bass
Moi Kok Wah (2008) Transforming for the Knowledge-based Economy Through the
Practice of Knowledge Management Certified Global Facilitator and Consultant JT
Frank Academy [Online] Available
httpwwwkmtalknetarticlephpstory=20060922021542703 (February 16 2011)
Mor Barak M E Cherin D A amp Berkman S (1998) Organizational and personal
dimensions in diversity climate Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 34 (1) 82-104
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
36 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Murphy K R amp Cleveland J N (1995) Understanding Performance Appraisal Social
Organizational and Goal-Based Perspectives Thousand Oaks CA Sage
Nickols F (2000) What is‟ in the world of work and working some implications of the
shift to knowledge work Butterworth-Heinemann Yearbook of Knowledge Management
(pp 1-7) [Online] Available httphomeattnetsimnickolsshiftshtm (November 4 2010)
Obisi C (2011) Employee performance appraisal and its implication for individual and
organizational growth Australian Journal of Business and Management Research l (9)
92-97
Oltra V (2005) Knowledge management effective factors the role of HRM Journal of
Knowledge Management 9 (4) 70-86
Parry K W amp amp Sinha P N (2005) Researching the trainability of transformational
organizational leadership Human Resource Development International 8 165-83
Pepitone J S (2002) A case for humaneering IIE Solutions 34 (5) 39-44
Pollard D (2003) The future of knowledge management Discussion paper [Online]
Available
httpblogssaloncom0002007imagesTheFutureofKnowledgeManagementdo
(November 4 2010)
Quinn J B Anderson P amp Finkelstein S (1996a January) Managing professional
intellect making the most of the best Harvard Business Review 74 (2) 71-80
Rendero T (1980) Performance Appraisal Practices Personnel 57 (6) 4-12
Rees W D amp Porter C (2004) Appraisal pitfalls and the training implicationsndashPart 2
Industrial and Commercial Training 36 (1) 29-34
Reneker M amp Steel V (1989) Performance Appraisal Purpose and Techniques In
Creth S amp Duda F (Eds) Personnel Administration in Libraries (pp 152-220) New
York Neal-Schuman Publishers Inc
Ritter B amp Nunnally K (2002) Formalise the feedback employee performance
evaluation Rural Telecommunications 21 (3) 32-6
Robertson M Scarbrough H amp Swan J (2003) Knowledge creation in professional
service firms institutional effects Organization Studies 24 (6) 831-857
Root-Bernstein R (1989) Strategies of research (part 2) Research-Technology
Management 32 (3) 36-41
Rosenbaum B (1991) Leading todayprimes professional Research-Technology Management
34 (2) 30-35
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
37 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
Salleh M Amin A Muda S amp Abdul Halim M A S (2013) Fairness of Performance
Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
Sarita K (2012) A study on performance appraisal errors of telecom managers in Navi
Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
Scholtes P R (1993) Total quality or performance appraisal choose one National
Productivity Review 12 (2) 349-63
Scott P B (2005) Knowledge management Semantics Work identity Communications
Corporate Communications An International Journal 10 (3) 257-277
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2004) Knowledge workers perceptions of performance
ratings Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (3) 146 ndash 166
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
workers a resource of the firm theory view Journal of Knowledge Management 6 (3)
250ndash261
St-Onge S Morin D Bellehumeur M amp Dupuis F (2009) Managers motivation to
evaluate subordinate performance Qualitative Research in Organizations and
Management An International Journal 4 (3) 273-293
Storey J (1987 November) Developments in the Management of Human Resources An
Interim Report IRRU School of Industrial and Business Studies University of Warwick
Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No17
Strebler M T Robinson D amp Bevan S (2001) Performance review balancing
objective and content The Institute of Employment Studies Brighton Report No 370
Stuhlman D (2006) Helping you turn data into knowledge knowledge Management
Terms [Online] Available httpwwwhomeearthlinknet~ddstuhlmandefin1htm
(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
38 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
Zimmerman K (2009) The impact of job performance on employee turnover and the
voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
35 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
McCarthy A M amp Garavan T N (2001) A competency-based model for construction
supervisors in developing countries Journal of European Industrial Training 25 (1) 5-32
McGregor D M (1957) The Human Side of Enterprise The Management Review 46
22-28
McGregor J Tweed D amp Pech R (2004) Human capital in the new economy devils
bargain Journal of Intellectual Capital 5 (1) 153-164
Meyer J P Allen N J amp Smith C A (1993) Commitment to organizations and
occupations 40 extension and test of a three-component conceptualization Journal of
Applied Psychology 78 (4) 538-551
Meyer J P Becker T amp Van Dick R (2006) Social Identities and Commitments at
Work Toward an Integrative Model Journal of Organizational Behavior 27 665-683
Meyer J P amp Herscovitch L (2001) Commitment in workplace toward a general
model Human Resource Management Review 11 299-326
Michie J amp Sheehan M (1999) HRM practices RampD expenditure and innovative
investment evidence from the UK‟s 1990 Workplace Industrial Relations Survey (WIRS)
Industrial amp Corporate Change 8 (2) 211-234
Mitchell T R Holtom B C Lee T W amp Graske T (2001) How to keep your best
employee developing an effective retention policy The Academy of Management
Executive 15 (4) 96-109
Mohamad A H amp Aizzat M N (2006) Predicting turnover intention of hotel
employees The influence of employee development human resource management
practices and trust in organization Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business 8 (1)
33- 45
Mohrman A Resnick-West S amp Lawler E (1989) Designing Performance Appraisal
Systems Aligning Appraisals and Organizational Realities San Francisco CA Jossey-
Bass
Moi Kok Wah (2008) Transforming for the Knowledge-based Economy Through the
Practice of Knowledge Management Certified Global Facilitator and Consultant JT
Frank Academy [Online] Available
httpwwwkmtalknetarticlephpstory=20060922021542703 (February 16 2011)
Mor Barak M E Cherin D A amp Berkman S (1998) Organizational and personal
dimensions in diversity climate Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 34 (1) 82-104
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
36 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Murphy K R amp Cleveland J N (1995) Understanding Performance Appraisal Social
Organizational and Goal-Based Perspectives Thousand Oaks CA Sage
Nickols F (2000) What is‟ in the world of work and working some implications of the
shift to knowledge work Butterworth-Heinemann Yearbook of Knowledge Management
(pp 1-7) [Online] Available httphomeattnetsimnickolsshiftshtm (November 4 2010)
Obisi C (2011) Employee performance appraisal and its implication for individual and
organizational growth Australian Journal of Business and Management Research l (9)
92-97
Oltra V (2005) Knowledge management effective factors the role of HRM Journal of
Knowledge Management 9 (4) 70-86
Parry K W amp amp Sinha P N (2005) Researching the trainability of transformational
organizational leadership Human Resource Development International 8 165-83
Pepitone J S (2002) A case for humaneering IIE Solutions 34 (5) 39-44
Pollard D (2003) The future of knowledge management Discussion paper [Online]
Available
httpblogssaloncom0002007imagesTheFutureofKnowledgeManagementdo
(November 4 2010)
Quinn J B Anderson P amp Finkelstein S (1996a January) Managing professional
intellect making the most of the best Harvard Business Review 74 (2) 71-80
Rendero T (1980) Performance Appraisal Practices Personnel 57 (6) 4-12
Rees W D amp Porter C (2004) Appraisal pitfalls and the training implicationsndashPart 2
Industrial and Commercial Training 36 (1) 29-34
Reneker M amp Steel V (1989) Performance Appraisal Purpose and Techniques In
Creth S amp Duda F (Eds) Personnel Administration in Libraries (pp 152-220) New
York Neal-Schuman Publishers Inc
Ritter B amp Nunnally K (2002) Formalise the feedback employee performance
evaluation Rural Telecommunications 21 (3) 32-6
Robertson M Scarbrough H amp Swan J (2003) Knowledge creation in professional
service firms institutional effects Organization Studies 24 (6) 831-857
Root-Bernstein R (1989) Strategies of research (part 2) Research-Technology
Management 32 (3) 36-41
Rosenbaum B (1991) Leading todayprimes professional Research-Technology Management
34 (2) 30-35
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
37 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
Salleh M Amin A Muda S amp Abdul Halim M A S (2013) Fairness of Performance
Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
Sarita K (2012) A study on performance appraisal errors of telecom managers in Navi
Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
Scholtes P R (1993) Total quality or performance appraisal choose one National
Productivity Review 12 (2) 349-63
Scott P B (2005) Knowledge management Semantics Work identity Communications
Corporate Communications An International Journal 10 (3) 257-277
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2004) Knowledge workers perceptions of performance
ratings Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (3) 146 ndash 166
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
workers a resource of the firm theory view Journal of Knowledge Management 6 (3)
250ndash261
St-Onge S Morin D Bellehumeur M amp Dupuis F (2009) Managers motivation to
evaluate subordinate performance Qualitative Research in Organizations and
Management An International Journal 4 (3) 273-293
Storey J (1987 November) Developments in the Management of Human Resources An
Interim Report IRRU School of Industrial and Business Studies University of Warwick
Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No17
Strebler M T Robinson D amp Bevan S (2001) Performance review balancing
objective and content The Institute of Employment Studies Brighton Report No 370
Stuhlman D (2006) Helping you turn data into knowledge knowledge Management
Terms [Online] Available httpwwwhomeearthlinknet~ddstuhlmandefin1htm
(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
38 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
Zimmerman K (2009) The impact of job performance on employee turnover and the
voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
36 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Murphy K R amp Cleveland J N (1995) Understanding Performance Appraisal Social
Organizational and Goal-Based Perspectives Thousand Oaks CA Sage
Nickols F (2000) What is‟ in the world of work and working some implications of the
shift to knowledge work Butterworth-Heinemann Yearbook of Knowledge Management
(pp 1-7) [Online] Available httphomeattnetsimnickolsshiftshtm (November 4 2010)
Obisi C (2011) Employee performance appraisal and its implication for individual and
organizational growth Australian Journal of Business and Management Research l (9)
92-97
Oltra V (2005) Knowledge management effective factors the role of HRM Journal of
Knowledge Management 9 (4) 70-86
Parry K W amp amp Sinha P N (2005) Researching the trainability of transformational
organizational leadership Human Resource Development International 8 165-83
Pepitone J S (2002) A case for humaneering IIE Solutions 34 (5) 39-44
Pollard D (2003) The future of knowledge management Discussion paper [Online]
Available
httpblogssaloncom0002007imagesTheFutureofKnowledgeManagementdo
(November 4 2010)
Quinn J B Anderson P amp Finkelstein S (1996a January) Managing professional
intellect making the most of the best Harvard Business Review 74 (2) 71-80
Rendero T (1980) Performance Appraisal Practices Personnel 57 (6) 4-12
Rees W D amp Porter C (2004) Appraisal pitfalls and the training implicationsndashPart 2
Industrial and Commercial Training 36 (1) 29-34
Reneker M amp Steel V (1989) Performance Appraisal Purpose and Techniques In
Creth S amp Duda F (Eds) Personnel Administration in Libraries (pp 152-220) New
York Neal-Schuman Publishers Inc
Ritter B amp Nunnally K (2002) Formalise the feedback employee performance
evaluation Rural Telecommunications 21 (3) 32-6
Robertson M Scarbrough H amp Swan J (2003) Knowledge creation in professional
service firms institutional effects Organization Studies 24 (6) 831-857
Root-Bernstein R (1989) Strategies of research (part 2) Research-Technology
Management 32 (3) 36-41
Rosenbaum B (1991) Leading todayprimes professional Research-Technology Management
34 (2) 30-35
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
37 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
Salleh M Amin A Muda S amp Abdul Halim M A S (2013) Fairness of Performance
Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
Sarita K (2012) A study on performance appraisal errors of telecom managers in Navi
Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
Scholtes P R (1993) Total quality or performance appraisal choose one National
Productivity Review 12 (2) 349-63
Scott P B (2005) Knowledge management Semantics Work identity Communications
Corporate Communications An International Journal 10 (3) 257-277
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2004) Knowledge workers perceptions of performance
ratings Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (3) 146 ndash 166
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
workers a resource of the firm theory view Journal of Knowledge Management 6 (3)
250ndash261
St-Onge S Morin D Bellehumeur M amp Dupuis F (2009) Managers motivation to
evaluate subordinate performance Qualitative Research in Organizations and
Management An International Journal 4 (3) 273-293
Storey J (1987 November) Developments in the Management of Human Resources An
Interim Report IRRU School of Industrial and Business Studies University of Warwick
Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No17
Strebler M T Robinson D amp Bevan S (2001) Performance review balancing
objective and content The Institute of Employment Studies Brighton Report No 370
Stuhlman D (2006) Helping you turn data into knowledge knowledge Management
Terms [Online] Available httpwwwhomeearthlinknet~ddstuhlmandefin1htm
(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
38 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
Zimmerman K (2009) The impact of job performance on employee turnover and the
voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
37 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Rousseau D M amp Shperling Z (2003) Pieces of the actionownership and the changing
employment relationship The Academy of Management Review 28 (4) 553-570
Salleh M Amin A Muda S amp Abdul Halim M A S (2013) Fairness of Performance
Appraisal and Organizational Commitment Asian Social Science 9 (2) 121-128
Sarita K (2012) A study on performance appraisal errors of telecom managers in Navi
Mumbai region SIES Journal of Management 2012 8 (2) 3-13
Scholtes P R (1993) Total quality or performance appraisal choose one National
Productivity Review 12 (2) 349-63
Scott P B (2005) Knowledge management Semantics Work identity Communications
Corporate Communications An International Journal 10 (3) 257-277
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2004) Knowledge workers perceptions of performance
ratings Journal of Workplace Learning 16 (3) 146 ndash 166
Smith A D amp Rupp W T (2002) Communication and loyalty among knowledge
workers a resource of the firm theory view Journal of Knowledge Management 6 (3)
250ndash261
St-Onge S Morin D Bellehumeur M amp Dupuis F (2009) Managers motivation to
evaluate subordinate performance Qualitative Research in Organizations and
Management An International Journal 4 (3) 273-293
Storey J (1987 November) Developments in the Management of Human Resources An
Interim Report IRRU School of Industrial and Business Studies University of Warwick
Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No17
Strebler M T Robinson D amp Bevan S (2001) Performance review balancing
objective and content The Institute of Employment Studies Brighton Report No 370
Stuhlman D (2006) Helping you turn data into knowledge knowledge Management
Terms [Online] Available httpwwwhomeearthlinknet~ddstuhlmandefin1htm
(November 4 2010)
Thwala D W Ajagbe A M Long C S Bilau A A amp Enegbuma W I (2012)
Sudanese Small and Medium Sized Construction Firms An Empirical Survey of Job
Turnover Journal of Basic Applied Social Research In press
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
38 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
Zimmerman K (2009) The impact of job performance on employee turnover and the
voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
ijcrbwebscom
INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
38 COPY RIGHT copy 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
NOVEMBER 2013
VOL 5 NO 7
Ubeda C L amp Santos F C A (2007) Staff Development and Performance in a
Brazilian Research Centre European Journal Of Innovation Management 10 (1) 109-
125
Van Der Heijden B I J M amp Nijhof A H J (2004) The value of subjectivity
problems and prospects for 360-degree appraisal systems International Journal of Human
Resource Management 15 493-511
Waldman D A (1997) Predictors of employee performance for multi-rater and group-
based performance appraisal Group and Organization Management 22 (2) 264-87
Warren L (1999) Knowledge management just another office in the executive suite
Accountancy Ireland 31 (6) 20-22
Wiese D S Buckley M R amp Price M F (1998) Case study Journal of Management
History 4 (3) 233-249
Wilson D Mueser R amp Raelin J (1994 July-August) New look at performance
appraisal for scientists and engineers Research-Technology Management 51-5
Wilson J P amp Western S (2000) Performance appraisal an obstacle to training and
development Journal of European Industrial Training 24 (7) 384-91
Zalina A (2005) Knowledge workers in Asia An overview Adecco Asia Pasific
[Online] Available httpadeccocom (November 4 2010)
Zobal C (1998) The ideal team compensation system ndash an overview part I Team
Performance Measurement 4 (5) 235-49
Zimmerman K (2009) The impact of job performance on employee turnover and the
voluntary turnover process a Meta-analysis and path model Personnel Review 38 (2)
142-158
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