ORPHAN BEAR CUBSRehabilitation And Release Guidelines
John Beecham, Ph.D.2006 Funded by The World Society for the Protection of Animals
ContentsPreface 4
Acknowledgements 5
Summary 6
RehabilitationandReleaseGuidelinesforOrphanBearCubs 9
I. Introduction 9
II. ConservationImplications 11
III. OptionsforthePlacementofOrphanedBearCubs 12
1) Leavingcubsinthewild 12
2) Placingcubsincaptivity 13
3) Raisingandreleasingcubs 13
4) Euthanizingcubs 14
IV. DecisionsabouttheSuitabilityofCubsforRehabilitationPrograms 14
V. RehabilitationFacilities 15
1) Licensing/Funding 15
2) NumberandSizeofEnclosures 15
2) ConstructionMaterials 17
4) EscapeDeterrents 17
5) VisualBarriers 18
6) HabitatEnrichment 19
7) Denning/ShadeStructures 20
VI. CharacteristicsofOrphanedBearCubs 21
VII. HandlingMethods 22
1) ContactwithCaretakers 22
2) HealthIssues 24
3) Feeding 25
4) Socializingcubs 29
5) Hibernation 29
VIII. ReleaseSiteConsiderations 31
1) ReleaseSiteApprovals 31
2) HabitatAssessment 31
3) LandUseIssues 32
4) TopographicConsiderations 33
5) Predation 34
6) Competition 34
7) Genetics 35
8) Disease/Parasites 36
9) EcologicalIssues 36
IX. ReleaseConsiderations 37
1) PublicRelations 37
2) AscertainingtheSuitabilityofaBearforRelease 39
3) ReleaseType 40
4) TimingoftheRelease 41
5) TranquilizingBears 43
6) Marking 46
7) Transportingcubs 47
8) Monitoring 48
9) Interventions 50
10) Evaluation 51
X. KeyElementsAssociatedwithSuccessfulReleases 52
APPENDIXA:DEFINITIONSUSEDINTHETEXT 54
APPENDIXB:SCIENTIFICNAMESOFREFERENCEDSPECIES 56
REFERENCES 57
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Preface
Thefollowinginformationwasdevelopedbasedontheexperienceoftheauthor
inraisingandreleasingAmericanblackbearsinIdahobetween1972andthe
present,frominformationderivedfromthescientificliteratureandfromthe
observationsandexperienceofmanybearrehabilitatorswhorespondedin
2005toasurveyofbearrehabilitationcentersaroundtheworld.TheWorld
SocietyfortheProtectionofAnimals(WSPA)fundedthesurvey.Itwassent
electronicallyto40individualswithexperienceraisingand/orreleasingorphan
bearcubs.Theywereaskedtoidentifycriticalcomponentsoftherehabilita-
tionprocessassociatedwithsuccessfulreleases.Twenty-threeindividuals
representingsevencountriesrespondedtothesurvey,providinginformationon
themethodstheyusedtoraise,releaseandmonitorthesurvivalofsixspecies
ofbears.Specifictopicsaddressedinthesurveyincludedthephysicalchar-
acteristicsoftherehabilitationfacility,handlingandcareofthecubs,funding
sourcesandreleaseandmonitoringprotocols.Ashortfollow-upsurveywas
senttoselectedindividualstogatheradditionalinformationaboutthefatesof
releasedbears.
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Acknowledgements
Severalpeoplemadesignificantcontributionstotheseguidelines.VictorWatkinswas
instrumentalindevelopingtheconceptforthedocumentandforbudgetingfundingthrough
TheWorldSocietyfortheProtectionofAnimals(WSPA).I.Souza(WSPA),O.E.Can(WSPA),
C.Isaacs,andS.Dolson(GetBearSmartSociety)providedusefulcommentsonearlydrafts
ofthedocument.Specialthanksgotoallofthewildliferehabilitatorswhowillinglyshared
theirknowledgeandexperiencewithrehabilitatingorphanedbearcubs.Theyare:
KayeBaxter SarveyWildlifeCareCenter,WA,USA
LeonardoBereczky VierPfotenRehabilitationProject,Romania
TobyCannon SantaMarthaRescueCenter,Ecuador
ArmandoCastellanos FundacionEspiritudelBosque,Ecuador
TimCochnauer WildAnimalRehabilitationofIdaho,ID,USA
SusanDieterich FriscoCreekWildlifeHospitalandRehabilitation,CO,USA
TonyGrant AspenValleyWildlifeSanctuary,Ont.,Canada
LeonaGreen HillspringWildlifeRehabilitation,BC,Canada
BrijKishorGupta CentralZooAuthority,Delhi,India
BenKilham KilhamWildlifeRehabilitation,NH,USA
AngelikaLangden NorthernLightsWildlifeRehabilitationCenter,BC,Canada
GailMartin CritterCareWildlifeSociety,BC,Canada
SallyMaughan IdahoBlackBearRehabilitation,ID,USA
MikeMcIntosh BearwithUs,Ont.,Canada
CherylMillham LakeTahoeWildlifeCare,Inc.,CA,USA
SergeyPazhetnov OrphanBearRehabilitationProject,Russia
ValentinPazhetnov OrphanBearRehabilitationProject,Russia
SvetlanaPazhetnov OrphanBearRehabilitationProject,Russia
CeciliaSanders WetMountainWildlifeRehabilitation,CO,USA
LindaSearles SouthwestWildlifeRehabilitationandEducation,AZ,USA
DanaSims KindredSpiritsWildlifeCenter,NC,USA
ClioSmeeton CochraneEcologicalInstitute,Alb.,Canada
JeanSoprano KindredKingdomsWildlifeRehabilitation,N.Y.,USA
LisaStewart AppalachiaBearCenter,TN,USA
GaryvanZuylen ThaiSocietyfortheConservationofWildAnimals,Thailand
DianeWilliams SanBernardinoMountainsWildlifeSociety,CA,USA
Theeffortsoftheseindividualshavelaidthefoundationforfuturebearreleasesthatwill
contributetothelong-termconservationpotentialforbearspeciesinmanypartsofthe
world.
6
Summary
Rehabilitation and release of bear cubs—a viable option for many cubs
Rehabilitationandreleaseprogramsoriginallywereestablishedasanal-
ternativetoeuthanizingorphanedcubsormaintainingthemincaptivityfor
theremainderoftheirnaturallives.
Bearcubsareorphanedduetoavarietyofcauses.Someofthemore
commonreasonsincludecommerciallanduseactivities,regulatedand
non-regulatedhunting,weatherevents,road/trainaccidents,abandonmentasaresultoffoodshortages,andnuisancesituations.
Fouroptionsmostfrequentlyconsideredbywildlifeofficialstoaddress
orphanedcubsare:
1.toleavethecubsinthewildtofendforthemselves;
2.tocapturethemandplacethempermanentlyinazooorresearchfacility;
3.tocapturethemandplacethemtemporarilyinarehabilitationfacility;
4.toeuthanizethem.
However,everybearhasitsownpersonality(muchlikepeople),sodeci-
sionsregardingthesuitabilityofacubforrehabilitationareprobablybest
delayeduntilthebearisreadyforrelease.
Rehabilitation facilities
Largerenclosurescontainingnaturalvegetationandhabitatenrichment
maydecreasetheprobabilitythatbearswilldevelopstereotypicbehaviors
andincreasebears’chancesofsuccessfullyadaptingtolifeinthewild.
Bearstobereleasedintowinterdensshouldbeprovidedwithdenning
structuresintheenclosurethatpermiteasyaccessbythereleaseteam,so
theanimalscanbetranquilizedwithminimaldisturbancebeforetheyare
transportedtothereleasesite.
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Duringabear’shibernationperiod,itisimportanttominimizedisturbance
arounditsenclosure.
Caring for bear cubs during rehabilitation
Cubsdonotneedtolearnsurvivalskillsfromtheirmother(ortheirhuman
caretakers).Therefore,cubsshouldbeexposedtominimalcontactwith
humansduringtherehabilitationprocess.
Allowingcubstosocializewithothercubsmaybethesinglemostimpor-
tantfactorinreducingthelevelofhabituationofcubsraisedincaptivity.
Minimizingcontactbetweenacubanditscaretakers,post-weaning,ap-
pearstobeanimportantconsiderationwhenraisingsinglecubs.
Minimizingthenumberofcaretakersandlimitingtheirfeedingandcare
interactionswiththebearsappearstobeveryimportantincreatingand
maintainingthebears’avoidancebehaviorforpeopleotherthantheircare-
taker.
Researchhasshownthataformulacomposedof24%fat,12%protein,
andveryfewcarbohydratessimulatesthecaloricqualityofbearmilkand
resultsinfastergrowthratesthanadiethighincarbohydrates.
Releasing rehabilitated bear cubs—the technique
Thefirstconsiderationinchoosingareleasesiteisitshabitat:whetherthe
potentialsiteiswithinthespecies’historicrange,iscurrentlygoodbear
habitatandislargeenoughtosupportabearpopulation.
Observationssuggestthat bearsshouldbereleasedinareas(andattimes
oftheyear)whereitisunlikelythebearswillencounterpeopleduringthe
firsttwoweeksaftertheirrelease.
Itisadvisabletoavoidreleasingorphanedbearsduringactivehunting
seasonsforbearsorotherlargemammals.
Itisimperativethatbearreleasesoccurinareaswithadequatenatural
foodresourcesandthatthereleaseteamisawareofpotentialattractants
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intheareathatcouldresultinhighmortalityratesfromhuman-bearcon-
flicts.Stepsshouldbetakentoavoidreleasingbearswherethereisahigh
probabilitytheywillbecomeinvolvedinconflictsituations.
The release of rehabilitated bear cubs—other important con-siderations
Theissueofgenetic“pollution”isnotarelevantfactorforreleasesifthe
orphanedcub’sprovenance(capturelocation)isknownandtheproposed
releaselocationiswithinthegeographicalrangeoftheorphanedcub.In
situationswherethecub’sprovenanceisunknown,genetictestingofthe
cubandtherecipientbearpopulationistheonlysafe,ethicalapproachfor
releasingthecub.
Theriskofintroducingeitherdiseaseorparasitesintowildpopulations
isunacceptable.Allbearsmustbethoroughlyexaminedandtestedfor
diseaseexposureandparasiticinfestationbyalicensedveterinarianprior
torelease.
Theabilitytoconstructorusenaturalcavitiesfordenningappearstobe
aninnatebehaviorcommontobears,regardlessoftheiragewhenthey
enterarehabilitationfacility.Thissuggeststhatprovidingthemwith
naturalorartificialdensmaybeunnecessaryinsomeinstances.However,
bearsreleasedinareaswherethegroundisfrozenwouldbenefitfrombe-
ingplacedinadenatthetimeofrelease.
Inadvanceofreleasingbearsfromarehabilitationfacility,itisadvisableto
developaninterventionplanthataddressesanyconflictsthatmaydevelop
ifareleasedbearbecomesinvolvedinanuisancesituationoractsaggres-
sivelytowardspeople.
Releasingorphanedbearsbacktothewildhasthepotentialtocreatea
greatdealofcontroversyinnearbycommunitiesunlesspublicrelationsef-
fortsareplannedandcarriedoutpriortotherelease.
Tobetterunderstandthedynamicsbetweensuccessfulandfailedrelease
efforts,rehabilitatorsneedtocooperatemoreindocumentingmethodsof
raisingandreleasingbearsandmonitoringtheirfatesafterrelease.
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Rehabilitation and Release Guidelines for Orphan Bear Cubs
I. Introduction
Bearshaveplayedanimportantculturalroleinmanyhumansocietiesforcenturies.Much
oftheirmystiqueisdueto:
Lackofknowledgeabouttheecologyoftheseshyanimals,whichtendtoavoid
encounterswithpeople;
Theirappearanceandbehaviors,whicharesimilartohumans’;
Theperceptionthatbearsarelarge,potentiallydangerousthreatstopeopleliving,
workingandrecreatinginbearhabitat.
Themystiquetendstogenerateverystrongfeelingsinhumans,rangingfromastrongdesire
tobeclosetothemtoapalpablefearofharm.Fortunately,mostpeoplerecognizethatbears
poselittlethreattothemandtheyarestrongsupportersofeffortstomaintainviablebear
populationsinthewild.
Bearcubsweighfrom225-565g(8to20oz)atbirthanddependontheirmothersfor17
to29months.Duringthistime,theyaresubjecttorelativelyhighmortalityrates,especially
iftheirmothersarekilled.Occasionally,orphanedcubsarerescuedfromthewildand
placedinwildliferehabilitationfacilities.Initialattemptstorehabilitateorphanedbearcubs
demonstratedsomesuccessandencouragedotherrehabilitatorstoattemptreleasesof
cubsbacktothewild.Theseinitialrehabilitationeffortswereandcontinuetobeananimal
welfareissueformanypeople:Theydonotwanttoseeorphanedcubsdieofstarvationor
keptincaptivityunderinhumaneconditions.
Thesuccessfulreleaseoforphanedbearstothewildhasgeneratedinterestinstarting
rehabilitationprogramsinmanycountries.In2006,programswereinplaceforsevenofthe
eightspeciesofbears.Therationaleforreleaseeffortshasshiftedtoincludethepotential
conservationbenefitsofmaintainingsmall,isolatedbearpopulationsorre-introducingbears
intopreviouslyoccupiedhabitat.Thefirstattemptatreleasingcaptive-bredpandabears
backtothewildoccurredinChinaduring2006.
Formorethanthreedecades,biologistsandrehabilitatorsintheUnitedStatesandCanada
havebeeninvolvedinreleasingorphanedAmericanblackbearcubs(refertoAppendixB
10
forscientificnames)intooccupiedbearhabitat.1,2,3,4Duringthattime,severalhundred
orphanedblackbearcubswerereturnedtothewildusingavarietyoftechniques,ranging
fromfosteringthemtolactatingfemalebearsintheirwinterdenstopen-raisingthecubs
andreleasingthematabout5monthsofage,whentheywereconsideredself-sufficientand
capableofsurvivingontheirown.1,2
InonePennsylvaniastudy,fostermothersreadilyadoptedorphanedcubsplacedindens
priortomid-April.Afterthatdate,theywerefrequentlykilledorabandonedunlessthe
femalewasdruggedandVicksVapoRubwasplacedinhernostrils,orshewasseparated
fromhernaturalcubsformorethan2hoursandthenreunitedwithhercubsandthe
orphancubs.Anotherstudy,inTennessee,evaluatedtheshort-termsurvivalof11reha-
bilitatedAmericanblackbearcubsreleasedat11to18monthsofage.5Tworadiocollars
failed,butnomortalitiesweredocumentedfortheotherninecubsthrough180daysof
monitoring.IncentralOntario,Canada,thesurvivalandmovementsof60radio-collared,
orphanedAmericanblackbearyearlingsfromthreerehabilitationcentersweremonitoredfor
twoyears.6Thesebearsdispersedanaverageof34km(21mi)fromtheirreleasesite,with
amaximumdispersaldistanceofover400km(248mi).Survivalthroughtwoyearswas
comparabletosurvivalratesexperiencedbywildyearlingblackbears.
Inthepast15years,biologistshaveexperimentedwithreleasingbrownbearsintheU.S.,
CroatiaandRomania;AsiaticblackbearsintheRussianFarEast(RFE)andSouthKorea;
sunbearsinIndonesia;andAndeanbearsinEcuador.10,11,12,13,14
Verylittleinformationisavailableonthesuccess
ofthesereleases,buttheinformationthatdoes
existsuggeststhatsomereleasesweresuccess-
ful.Othersdidnotfareaswell,resultinginthe
animalsbeingrecapturedandreturnedtocaptiv-
ity.Itisunclearwhysomeofthesereleaseswere
notsuccessful,buthandlingmethodsmaynot
havebeenideal,includingtheexposureofthe
cubstoanunknownnumberofcaretakersand
thepublicwhilethecubswereincaptivity.
Thefirstorphanedbrownbearcubreleasein
theU.S.occurredinMontanain1975,when
afemalecubwasplacedinanartificialwinter
den.7Althoughthisbearremoveditscollarin
theden,itwasobservedinthereleaseareaFigure 1.Cubsrarelystarvewhen
releasedatmorethan7monthsofage.
11
thefollowingspringandneverwasimplicatedinanynuisancesituationsafterrelease.Two
femalebrownbearcubswereear-taggedandreleasedinnorthcentralBritishColumbia
in1996.Oneofthesebrownbearcubswasobservedtwoyearsafterit’srelease,but
thesecondhasnotbeenobservedsinceitwasreleased8.Researchersinvolvedinthe
unsuccessfulreleaseofthreebrownbearcubsinCroatiaconcludedthatthemethodsused
toraisethecubs,notnutritionalfactors,causedthereleasestofail,sinceallthreecubs
wereingoodphysicalconditionwhentheywererecaptured.15Since1982,morethan130
orphanedEuropeanbrownbearshavebeenreleasedinwesternRussia.9Althoughattempts
todeterminethefatesofthesebearshavebeensporadic,noreleasedorphanswereinvolved
innuisanceactivitiesafterrelease,andfivebearswereknowntosurvive>4years.
II. Conservation Implications
Oftheeightrecognizedspeciesofbearsintheworld,sevenarethoughttobeindeclinein
allorpartsoftheirhistoricalrangeasaresultofhumanactivities.OnlytheAmericanblack
bearappearstobestable.Habitatfragmentationandlossisamajorfactorinthedecline
ofbearpopulationsthroughouttheworld.Otherhumanactivitiesthatseverelyimpact
bearsincludekillingbearstoprotectlifeandproperty,unregulatedhuntingandcommercial
exploitationforbodypartsorthepettrade.16Globalwarmingmaybeafactoraffectingpolar
bearhabitatintheArctic.
Manyhumanactivitiesresultintheorphaningofbearcubs.Rehabilitationandrelease
programsoriginallywereestablishedasanalternativetoeuthanizingthesecubsortomain-
tainingthemincaptivityfortheremainderoftheirnaturallives.Rehabilitationprograms
alsohaveprovidedpositiveeducationalandpublicrelationsvaluetogovernmentalentities
chargedwithmanagingwildbearpopulations.Rehabilitationprogramsalsoprovidewildlife
managerswithanopportunitytousereleasedanimals,assurrogatesforthreatenedbear
species,toevaluatelong-termstrategiesformanagingsmallbearpopulations,withnorisk
tothreatenedorendangeredbearpopulations.
However,releaseprogramsarenotwithoutsomecontroversywithintheconservation
community.Thesignificanceofthecontroversyrangesfromdisagreementsaboutwhatto
callattemptstoreleasebearstomoreimportantissuesregardingthesurvivalprobabilities
ofreleasedanimals,theriskofspreadingdiseaseandparasites,competitionwithresident
animalsandthepotentialforhybridizationwithintherecipientpopulation.17
TheInternationalUnionfortheConservationofNatureandNaturalResources(IUCN)
RedListincludesfourofthesixspeciesofbearsthatcurrentlyhaveactiverehabilitation
programsinplace.18Theconservationbenefitsofraisingandreleasingorphanedbearcubs
12
backtothewildhavenotbeendemonstratedinthefield.However,preliminaryresults
suggestitmaybefeasibletouseorphanbearreleaseprogramstoaugmentsmall,isolated
populationsinareaswherehumanactivitieshavecausedbearnumberstodecline,orto
reintroducebearsintoformerlyoccupiedhabitatsfromwhichtheywereextirpated.
III. Options for the Placement of Orphaned Bear Cubs
Bearcubsareorphanedduetoavarietyofcauses.Someofthemorecommonreasons
includecommerciallanduseactivities,regulatedandnon-regulatedhunting,weather
events,road/trainaccidents,abandonmentasaresultoffoodshortages,andnuisance
situations.Regardlessofthereasoncubsareorphaned,wildlifeofficialsfacedifficultdeci-
sionsinattemptingtobalancethepublic’sconcernforthewelfareofthesecubsandtheir
obligationaswildlifestewardstoprotectthewellbeingofnativebearpopulations.Thefour
optionswildlifeofficialsmostfrequentlyconsiderareto1)leavethecubsinthewildtofend
forthemselves,2)capturethemandplacethempermanentlyinazooorresearchfacility,3)
capturethemandplacethemtemporarilyinarehabilitationfacility,or4)euthanizethem.
1) Leaving cubs in the wild
Leavingacubinthewildisaviableoptionformanycubsiftheyareoldenoughtosurvive
aloneandhaveadequatefatreserves.Althoughbrownbearcubsasyoungas6months
old19areknowntohavesurvivedinthewildafterbeingorphaned,andAmericanblackbear
cubs2,20asyoungas5to7monthsofagehavesurvived,informationfromstudyingreleased
bearssuggeststhatsurvivalratesarehigherforolder,largercubs.
Bearsareinherentlyshyanimalsthataresolitaryformostoftheyear,exceptforfamily
groups.21Bearcubsdependprimarilyontheirmothersforprotectionagainstpredatorsuntil
theyareself-sufficient.Theexperiencesofmanyrehabilitatorssuggestthatthebehaviors
andskillscubsneedtosurviveinthewildareinstinctiveanddonotneedtobetaughtto
thembytheirmothers.Asaresult,thelikelihoodofcubssurvivingwithoutinterventionby
humansprobablyincreasessubstantiallyastheygrowolder,largerandlessvulnerableto
predationbyadultbearsorothercarnivores.
Thecircumstancesthatledtotheorphaningofthecubsalsomayinfluencetheirchances
forsurvivalinthewild.Cubsorphanednearhumanhabitationorinhabitatsinfluencedby
humanactivitiesmaybeatgreaterriskofbecominghabituatedornuisanceanimalsinthe
future.
Theprimaryadvantageofchoosingthisoptionisthecubsremainapartofthenaturalfauna
13
andliveatnocosttomanagementauthorities.Themaindisadvantageistheymaybeless
likelytosurvivethaniftheywereraisedinarehabilitationfacilityandreleasedwhenthey
wereolderandlargerinsize.
2) Placing cubs in captivity
Placingorphanedcubsinpermanentcaptivityistheoutcomeleastdesirabletomany
peopleinterestedinthewelfareoforphanedcubs.Bearsarelong-livedanimalsandrequire
relativelylargeenclosures.Consequently,thedemandforbearsasdisplayanimalsby
researchfacilitiesorzoologicalinstitutionsislow,sofewopportunitiesexistforplacingthem
inpermanentcaptivity.Whilethisoption,too,involveslittlecosttowildlifemanagement
authorities,thecubsarelosttothewildpopulation.
3) Raising and releasing cubs
Rehabilitationfacilitiesofferanotherviableoptionforwildlifemanagersinareaswherethey
areavailable.Thesefacilities,whenoperatedbyexperiencedpersons,havedemonstrated
thatbearscanbeexcellentcandidatesforreleasebacktothewild.Survivalratesforor-
phanedcubsdonotdiffersubstantiallyfromthoseofwildcubs,andfewanimals(lessthan
2%)becomeinvolvedinnuisancesituationswithinoneyearoftheirrelease.2,6,22
ReproductionhasbeendocumentedforAmericanblackbearsreleasedasyearlingsina
studyof19setsofcubsbyeightdifferentfemales—includingonesetofcubsproducedby
theoffspringofareleasedorphanbear.23Reproductionalsohasbeendocumentedfora
releasedAndeanbearinEcuador.12Thesedatasuggestthatconcernsaboutthesurvivability
ofreleasedcubsandtheirabilitytofunctionbehaviorallyaswildbearsarenotvalidwhen
goodrehabilitationtechniquesareusedtoraisethecubs.
Anobviousadvantageofplacinganorphanedcubinarehabilitationfacilityisthatthe
wildlifemanagerretainstheoptionofreleasingtheanimalbackintothebearpopulationifit
isdeemedasuitablecandidate.Opportunitiesforraisingandreleasingcommonbearspe-
cies(i.e.Americanblackbear)alsoallowrehabilitatorsandwildlifeauthoritiestodevelop
methodologiesthatmayproveusefulinthefuture,ifintensivemanagementofthreatenedor
endangeredbearpopulationsbecomesnecessary.
Anumberofdisadvantagesareassociatedwithplacingcubsinarehabilitationfacility,
however.Inmanycases,thecostofraisingandreleasingorphanedcubsissubstantial,
althoughfrequentlyitisbornebytherehabilitatorusingfundingfromprivatewelfare
organizations,personalfundsandgrants.Asignificantrisktowildbearpopulationsexistsif
careisnottakentoensurethatallbearsreleasedarefreefromdiseaseandparasites.Two
importantfactorsshouldbeconsideredbeforereleasingcubs:Thestatus(agestructure)of
1�
thewildbearpopulationinthereleasearea,andassurancethattheareadoesnotcontain
bearsofadifferent,distinctgenotype.
�) Euthanizing cubs
Euthanasiaisclearlyalesscostlyandsaferalternativeavailabletowildlifemanagers.
Euthanizinganorphanedcubeliminatesanyrisksassociatedwithgeneticorecological
issuesandis,bydefinition,ahumaneact.However,manypeopledonotviewthisoptionas
apositivechoice,anditcangeneratenegativepublicityforthegovernmentalentitycharged
withprotectingandmanagingbearpopulations.Choosingeuthanasiaasthepreferredalter-
nativedisregardstheabilityofwildlifemanagersandrehabilitatorstoappropriatelyaddress
disease,geneticandotherecologicalissuesduringtherehabilitationprocess.Anappropriate
protocolforraisingandreleasingbearcubsshouldtaketheseissuesintoaccountandresult
inminimalornorisktowildbearpopulations.
IV. Decisions about the Suitability of Cubs for Rehabilitation Programs
Orphanedcubsareheldincaptivityforvaryinglengthsoftimeandunderavarietyof
conditionsbeforetheyaredeliveredtoarehabilitationfacility.Thecircumstancesrangefrom
situationswherethecubsareveryyoungandexposedtoverylittlehumancontact,tocubs
heldincaptivityforseveralmonthsexperiencingdailycontactwithmanydifferentpeople.
Incaseswherethecubshavehadminimalcontactwithpeople,thedecisiontoplacethe
cubsinarehabilitationfacilityisnotdifficultforwildlifebiologistsorfortherehabilitators
whowillcareforthem.However,ifcubshavehadrelativelylong-termcontactwithpeople,
decisionscanbedifficultbecauseofconcernsabouthabituationorthepotentialforcubsto
injureorkillhumansafterrelease.
Veryyoungorbottle-fedcubswillbecomehabituatedtotheircaretakerunlessthecaretaker
makesaverydisciplinedefforttominimizeallinteractions(includingconversation)with
thecub.Itisunclear,however,whetherhabituationtoonlyoneortwohumansresultsin
alowerprobabilityofasuccessfulrelease,especiallywhencontactisreducedsignificantly
afterweaningandthecubshaveanopportunitytosocializewithothercubsduringrehabili-
tation.Experiencedrehabilitatorshavedemonstratedsuccessinreleasingcubsthathadcon-
siderablecontactwithpeoplepriortoweaningat5to6monthsold,buthadonlylimited
contactwiththeircaretakerduringpost-weaningcaptivity.Cubsthatenterarehabilitation
facilityolderthan5monthsofagealsowillreadilyhabituatetotheircaretaker,butthey
oftenremainwaryofstrangerswhenapproached,eveninthepresenceoftheircaretaker,
1�
andaregoodcandidatesforrelease.However,bearsexposedtomanydifferentindividuals
duringrehabilitation,especiallyafterweaning,maybemoredifficulttoreleasesuccessfully.
Every bear has its own personality, so decisions regarding the suitability of a cub for
rehabilitation are probably best delayed until the bear is ready for release.
Reportsofbearsattackingpeoplearerareformostbearspecies,butbearsnevertheless
haveareputationasbeingdangerous,particularlybrown/grizzly,Asiaticblackandsloth
bears.24,25,26,27Asaresult,wildlifeofficialsinseveralcountrieshaveexpressedconcerns
aboutraisingandreleasingsomespeciesofbears.Theseconcernscertainlyarevalid
andmustbeconsideredbeforereleasingcubsfromarehabilitationfacility.Nevertheless,
hundredsoforphanedbearcubs,includingmorethan130brownbearsinRussia,28have
beenreleasedfromrehabilitationfacilitiesinthelast30years,andtherearenoreportsof
releasedbearsinjuringorkillingaperson.Itisentirelypossiblethatareleasedbearcould
becomeaggressivetowardpeopleinaconflictsituation,butthesedatasuggestthattherisk
ofinjuryordeathtopeoplefromreleasedbearsislow.
V. Rehabilitation Facilities
Rehabilitationfacilitiesfocusedonraisingandreleasingbearsarelocatedinurban,rural
andwildenvironmentsthroughouttheworld.22Thelocationofthesefacilitiesdictates,in
manyways,thetypeofconstructionmaterialsthatcanbeused,thesizeandnumberof
enclosuresneededandtheappropriatetypesofescapedeterrents.
1) Licensing/Funding
Mostwildliferehabilitationfacilitiesareprivatelyownedandoperated,butallarerequired
tobelicensedbygovernmentalentitiesresponsibleformanagingwildlife.Veryfew(2out
of23)oftheindividualsrespondingtoasurveyofrehabilitationcentersreportedreceiving
fundingfromgovernmentalsources;themajorityreceivedmostoftheirfundingfromprivate
sources,includinganimalwelfareorganizationsandthegeneralpublic.22Themajorityof
rehabilitationcenteroperatorsalsoreportedusingpersonalfundstomaintainthefacilityand
careforthebears.
2) Number and Size of Enclosures
Bearsarebroughtintorehabilitationfacilitiesduringallmonthsoftheyear.Therefore,are-
habilitationfacilitythathasseveralenclosuresofvarioussizesavailableoffersconsiderably
moreflexibilityinthenumberofbearsthatcanbehousedatanygiventime.Althoughmost
16
facilitiesdonotseparatebearsbysex,theydooccasionallyseparatethembysizewhen
suchdifferencesaredeemedimportant.Injuredorsickbearsalsoneedtobeseparated
fromotherbearstofacilitatehealingandtreatmentprotocols.Incaseswheresomebears
arebeingforcedtohibernate,itmaybenecessarytohouseunderweightorunderagebears
inaseparateenclosuresotheycancontinuetobefedthroughoutthewinter.TheNational
WildlifeRehabilitatorsAssociation(NWRA)recommendsthefollowingminimum enclosure
sizesformembersoftheUrsidfamily:29
Table 1. Minimum recommended sizes for Ursid enclosures by age groupings.1*
Age Infant Nursing/Pre-weaned
W x L x H
Juvenile/Adult
(Outside)
W x L x H
Injured Adult
(Inside)
W x L x H
Size
English1*
Metric
20gallons
76litres
3x6x3
0.9x1.8x0.9
20x36x16
6x11x5
8x12x8
2.4x3.6x2.4
Infantcubs(frombirthto8weeksofage)mustbehousedseparatelyfromoldercubs
(yearlings),andtheyrequirefrequentfeedingsandawarmenvironment.Infantsmustbe
housedinaheatedroominasmallcarryingkennelorboxlinedwithdrytowels.Cubs
between8and12weeksofagecanbemovedtoasomewhatlargerenclosuretogive
themmoreroomtomoveaboutandinteractwithothercubs.Thesecubsstillcannot
surviveexposuretorainandcoldtemperatures,sotheenclosuremustofferprotectionfrom
theelements.Cubsbeyond12weeksofagecanbehousedinanoutsideenclosurethat
providessufficientshadeduringsummermonthsandshelterfromextremeweatherevents.
IndividualsrespondingtotheWSPAsurveyreportedusingenclosuresaslargeas1.2to2.0
ha(3to5acres)forlargercubs/yearlings.22
Although the NWRA has published minimum standards (Table 1) for bear enclo-
sures, larger enclosures containing natural vegetation and habitat enrichment may
decrease the probability that bears will develop stereotypic behaviors and increase
their chances of successfully adapting to life in the
wild. 30, 31
1 *Dimensionalmeasurementsareinfeet(English)andmeters(metric).
1�
3) Construction Materials
Themostcommonmaterialsusedtoconstructenclosuresforbearsareheavy-gaugewoven
wire(chainlink)ornetwire.Enclosuresalsohavebeenconstructedfrombrick,concrete
orothersolid,durablematerials,includingheavy-gaugemetaltubingandmetalsheeting.
Manyfacilitiesuseacombinationofthesematerialsfortheirenclosures.Theprimaryfactor
affectingthesuitabilityofanenclosureforbearcubsisdurability.Bearsareinquisitive
animals,andtheycanbeverydestructiveastheyexploreandtestthelimitationsoftheir
enclosure.Theflooringforallenclosuresshouldbeanaturalmaterial,suchasgrassor
dirt.29
�) Escape Deterrents
Facilitieslocatedinbearhabitatandfarfromhumanneighborsmaynotbeconcerned
aboutaccidentalreleases(escapes),whilethoseinurbanareasneedtotakespecial
precautionstoavoidaccidentallyreleasingbearsfromthefacility.Smallenclosures
typicallyarecoveredwithchainlinkornetwiretopreventbearsfromescaping.Larger
enclosuresusuallyhaveelectricfencingalongtheirverticalwallsapproximatelyone
meterabovetheground,plusseveralstrandslocatedalongthetopoftheenclosure.
Figure 2.Heavygaugeverticalmetalbars. Figure 3.Netwirewithelectricfencingaroundperimeter.
1�
Allfacilitiesuseburiedwire(wovenornetwire)orburiedconcretealongtheinsideperim-
eteroftheenclosuretopreventbearsfromdiggingholesundertheperimeterfencing.Afew
facilitiesemployadouble-entrydoorsystemtoreducetheriskofanimalsescapingviaan
entrance.Allentrancesshouldbesecuredwithcombinationorkeyedlockstopreventthe
bearsfromopeningthedoorsandtopreventunauthorizedhumanentryintotheenclosure.
�) Visual Barriers
Mostfacilitiesusenaturalorartificialmaterialstoscreenenclosures.Thisprevents
bearsfromseeinghumanactivityadjacenttotheenclosureorseeingtheircaretakers
duringfeeding.
Figure �. Heavygaugemetalsheetingmountedabovechainlink.
Figure �. Fullyenclosedandcoveredchainlinkenclosure.
Minimizingvisualcontact
betweenbearsandtheircare-
takersbyusingartificialbarriers
hassomeappealtowildlife
managersandrehabilitators.
However,becausebearsdepend
primarilyontheirsensesofsmell
andhearingtoavoidpredators
andotherdangeroussituations,
itisunlikelythatsimplevisual
barriersareeffectiveinpreventingFigure 6. Opaqueplasticsheetingusedasavisualbarrier.
1�
thebearsfromrecognizingthatpeopleareclosebyorareinvolvedinfeedingthem.Visual
barriersandsmall,darkstructures(shelters)withintheenclosuredoservethesecurity
needsofshybearsandbearsnewtotheenclosure,however,andbarriersmayprovidesome
levelofstressreliefforthoseindividuals.
Nodifferencesbetweensuccessratesforreleaseshavebeenreportedforfacilitiesusing
artificialvisualbarriersandthosethatsimplyrestrictthenumberofindividualsinvolvedin
caringforthebearsandlimittheirinteractionswiththebears.
Minimizing the number of caretakers and their interactions with bears while they
feed and care for them appears to be very important in creating and maintaining the
bears’ avoidance behavior toward people other than caretakers.
6) Habitat Enrichment
Manywildanimalsarepronetodevelopingstereotypicbehaviors(pacingorbawling)when
incaptivity,andbearsarenoexception.31,32,33,34Inanefforttominimizetheopportunity
forthesetypesofbehaviorstodevelop,rehabilitationfacilitiestypicallyplaceobjectsmeant
tostimulatethecubs(habitatenrichment)intheenclosures.Inmanycases,theseitems
simulatenaturalobjectsfoundinbearhabitat.Severalrehabilitationfacilitiesalsoprovide
human-madeobjectsforthebearstoamusethemselveswithduringcaptivity.Objects
commonlyplacedinbearenclosurestoprovideenrichmentincludewaterfeatures(streams,
poolsorlargetubs),climbingstructures,trees,logs,stumpsandtoys(balls,boxes,etc.).
Figure �.Climbingstructures. Figure �. WaterFeature
20
�) Denning/Shade Structures
Intemperateclimates, itoccasionallybecomesnecessarytoover-winterbearcubsina
rehabilitationfacilityinpreparationforalatewinterorspringrelease.Placingsmall,well-in-
sulatedstructures(boxesordens)intheenclosureprovidesthebearswithasecureenviron-
mentforhibernatingandresting.Mostdensusedbywildbearsarejustlargeenoughtohold
anadultmalebearoranadultfemaleaccompaniedbyyoung.However,inrehabilitation
facilities,onlythesizeofthedenlimitsthenumberofcubsthatwilluseit:
Figure �. Artificialdenstructurebeingusedforshade.
Largerstructuresthatcanaccommodatemorecubsareasreadilyusedassmallerstruc-
tures.Structuresplacedintheenclosurefordenningpurposescanbepartiallyorcompletely
buriedorfilledwithstrawtoincreasetheirinsulation.Buriedstructuresalsocanbeused
duringthesummertomoderatehightemperaturesinanenclosurewhereambienttempera-
turesexceed30°C(86F)forextendedperiodsoftime.
Bears that will be released into winter dens should be provided with denning structures
in the enclosure that permit easy access by the release team, so the animals can be
tranquilized with minimal disturbance before being transported to the release site.
21
VI. Characteristics of Orphaned Bear Cubs
Orphanedbearcubsarebroughtintorehabilitationfacilitiesthroughouttheyear.Eachbear
mayrequireslightlydifferenthandling,dependingonitsstageofdevelopment,habituation
historyandindividualpersonality;typeofenclosureavailable;timeofyear;andpresenceof
othercubsinthefacility.Imprintingonhumancaretakersisoftencitedasamajorconcern
forrehabilitatedbears,particularlyanimalsthatenterrehabilitationfacilitieswhenthey
areveryyoung.However,theexperienceofmanyrehabilitatorssuggeststhatimprintingis
notafactorinraisingbears.Veryearlyintheirlifecyclebears,willimprintonmovement
orrespondtospecificsounds,buttheyarenotagregariousspecies,soimprintingisnot
asdevelopedasitisinmanymoresocialspecies.Asaresult,imprintingisalessserious
considerationtorehabilitatorsthanhabituation.
Bearsquicklyhabituatetotheirhumansandoftendisplaybehaviordemonstratingacloserelationshipwiththeircaretaker.Normally,thisbehaviorevolvesasthecubsbecomeolder.Withtime,theybeginshowingmoreindependence,especiallyifothercubsareintheenclosure.Youngbearsareveryplayfulanimalsandwillreadilyminglewithothercubsintheenclosure,givingthemanopportunitytodevelopappropriatesocialskillsforinteractionswithotherbearsaftertheyhavebeenreleased.Occasionally,singlecubsreadilyinteractwiththeircaretakerthroughtheirfirstyear,butthatbehaviorusuallydiminishesaftertheyhavehiber-nated.Insituationswhereonlyonecubispresentintherehabilitationfacility,itmaybenecessarytoholditincaptivityforalongerperiodoftimebeforerelease,
toallowthenaturalseparationbetweenthecaretakerandthecubtodevelop.
Figure 10.Americanblackbearandabrownbearhousedinthesameenclosure.
Bearsaregeneticallypredisposedto
leavetheirnatalhomerange(emigrate)
withinayearoffamilybreak-up;they
donotmaintainalong-termrelationship
withtheirmotherorsiblings.
Observations of cubs’ behavior
toward their caretakers suggest
that their genetic predisposition
to emigrate and lead a relatively
solitary life likely limits the ef-
fects of habituation to humans
during the rehabilitation process.
22
Regardlessoftheiragewhentheyarriveatarehabilitationfacility,cubsdemonstratedif-
ferentpersonalities.Manyareveryshyandalwaysavoidcontactwithcaretakers;others
arenotshyandactivelyinteractwiththeircaretaker.Insomefacilities,caretakersdirectly
discourageanyinteractionfromthetimethecubentersthefacilityuntilitisreleased;others
donot.Oneindividualusesasmallsticktodiscouragecubsfromapproachingtheircare-
takerduringfeedingbytappingthecub’sfeet.Anotherpersonusesbehavioraldominance
techniquestodiscourageinteractionsbythecubswiththeircaretaker.35
Althoughcubsshowlessinterestintheircaretakersandavoidinteractionstosomeextent
astheyage,aconservativeapproachthatdiscouragesinteractionswiththecaretakermay
increasetheprobabilityofsuccessfullyreleasingmostbearstothewild.Cubsthatenter
therehabilitationfacilitywhentheyaremorethan6monthsofagewillhabituatetotheir
caretakeranddemonstratenoevidenceofexcessivestresswhilethecaretakerispresent
intheenclosure.However,theyrarelytoleratebeingapproachedbythecaretakerandwill
moveawayifgiventheopportunity.
Occasionallycubsenterarehabilitationfacilityaftertheirmotherhasbeenkilledinanui-
sancesituation.Inthesecases,itisnotunusualforwildlifeauthoritiestoexpressconcerns
aboutthelevelofhumanhabituationthecubshavebeenexposedtobeforearrivingatthe
rehabilitationfacility.However,iftherehabilitationfacilityusesprovenmethodstoraisethe
cub,thelevelofhumanhabituationofanorphancub’smotherisnotagoodpredictorof
howthatcubwillrespondtohumanswhenitisreleasedbackintothewild.
VII. Handling Methods
1) Contact with Caretakers
Rehabilitationfacilitiessurveyedin2005usedsimilarmethodsforhandlingbottle-fedcubs;
however,whenthecubswereolder(feedingfromabowl)somedifferenceswerenotedin
theamountofhumancontactwiththecubs.Forbrownbears,caretakersinonefacility
attemptedtoeliminateallconversationbyusinghandsignalstocommunicate.Theywore
cottongloveswhilefeedingveryyoungcubstopreventthecubsfrombecomingaccustomed
tohumanvoicesandpresence.Atotherfacilities,conversation(sometimeswiththebear
cubs)wasnotuncommon.Althoughitisdifficulttoargueagainsttakingaveryconserva-
tiveapproachwithregardtothepotentialnegativeeffectsofhumanconversationoncub
development,itisnotclearhowimportantthatapproachistominimizingtheattachment
betweenthecaretakersandthecubs.
23
Taking steps to minimize conversation in the presence of cubs is a more conservative
approach and worth serious consideration.
Themostdifficultsituationforcaretakersinvolvedraisingasinglecub.Muchofthedifficulty
resultedfromtheinabilityofasinglecubtosocializewithotherconspecifics,leadingthe
cubtoplacemorefocusonthecaretakerthandesirable.Onefacilityallowedsinglecubs
tointeractwithadogtodivertthecub’sattentionfromthecaretaker22.Itreportedthatthe
behavioraldevelopmentofcubsexposedtothedogevolvedinmuchthesamemanneras
thebehaviorofcubsthatonlyinteractedwithothercubsintherehabilitationprocess.Very
youngcubsraisedintheabsenceofothercubstendtoshowlonger-terminterestininteract-
ingwithcaretakers.However,thesecubswilldevelopmoreindependenceastheynearthe
timefornormalfamilybreak-upinawildbearpopulation.
Forthemostpart,minordifferencesinthewaycubsarehandledseemtomakelittledif-
ferenceintheabilityofcubstoadapttotheirwildsurroundingsafterrelease.Allfacilities
contactedinWSPA’ssurveyofrehabilitationcentersrestrictedpublicaccesstothefacility
andtothecubsinthefacility22.Mostrespondentsalsoreportedthattheyminimizedthe
numberofcaretakersinvolvedinhandlingthecubsinanefforttoreducethepotentialfor
cubstobecomehabituatedtothepresenceofhumans.However,theeffortrequiredtofeed
cubsandcleantheirenclosuresdailyresultsinfrequentcub/humancontact.
Minimizing the number of individuals the cubs are exposed to during captivity and
reducing interactions between caretakers and cubs during feeding and enclosure
cleaning may reduce the level of habituation that occurs.
Bottle-feedingveryyoungcubsrequiresfrequent,dailycub/humancontact,suggestingthat
theseanimalsmaybecomeverydependentonhumancaretakersandthereforepoorcan-
didatesforrelease.Suchcubsdoshowconsiderabledependenceontheircaretakerswhile
beingbottle-fedandforaperiodoftimeafterweaning.However,astheygrowolderthey
appeartobecomemoreindependentandshowlessinterestintheircaretakers,especially
iftheyhaveothercubstointeractwithinthefacility.Afterweaning,cubsprefertointeract
withothercubsandoftenwillignoreafamiliarcaretakerintheenclosure.Allowingcontact
betweencubsandlargenumbersofhumansdidappeartobeacommonfactorassociated
withunsuccessfulreleaseattemptsforbrownbears,however.14,36
2�
2) Health Issues
Orphanbearsoftenenterrehabilitationfacilitiessufferingfrommildmalnutritionorstarva-
tion,superficialwounds,parasiticinfections,internalinjuriesordisease.However,bearsare
particularlyresilientanimalsandwillrecoverfrommanyoftheseailmentswithappropriate
treatmentprotocols.
Thepotentialforspreadingdiseaseorparasitesshouldbeamajorconcernforindividuals
engagedinbearrehabilitationprograms.Bearsareknowntoshowexposuretoavariety
ofdiseasepathogens.Althoughactivecasesofdiseasearerareinthewild,37thepotential
existsforreleasedcubstoinfectwildbearswithdiseasepathogensorparasitestheyhave
beenexposedtopriortoorduringtherehabilitationprocess.Manyindividualsrespondingto
WSPA’ssurveyreportedthathealthissueswerenotimportantintherehabilitationprocess
becausetheytookappropriateactiontoensurethatallcubsreleasedwerehealthy.Onlyfour
individualsrespondingtotheWSPAsurveydidnotrequireaveterinariantoexaminecubs
priortorelease;13didrequireaveterinarian’sexamination;andsixreportedtheypersonally
testedallcubsfordiseasebeforerelease.22Withoutthoroughpre-releasetesting,itisimpos-
sibletoensurethatreleasedanimalsarehealthyandfreeofdisease.
Parasiticinfestationsarenotuncommoninrehabilitationfacilities.Manyorphancubsare
broughtintothefacilityinpoorphysicalconditionasaresultofinadequatecareincaptivity,
orasaresultofdehydrationormalnutrition.
Minimizing post-weaning contact between the cub and caretakers appears to be an
important consideration when raising single cubs.
Figure 11. UrsicopticmiteinfestationonanAmeri-canblackbear.
Thesecubsareverysusceptibletointer-
nalandexternalparasiticinfestations.
Internalparasitesthatmaybefoundin
orphanedbearcubsincluderound,tape
andtrichinellaworms.Orphanbearcubs
inpoorconditionalsocanbevulnerable
toexternalparasitessuchasticks,lice
andUrsicopticmites,bothinthewild
andincaptivity.Periodicandroutine
treatmentwithIvermectin,eitherorally
orbyinjection,isaneffectivemeansof
controllingmanyecto-parasitesfoundon
cubsincaptivity.
2�
Maintainingcleananddryenclosurescontributessignificantlytokeepingbearshealthy
andcontrollingthepresenceofdiseaseandparasitesinthefacility.Tominimizethetime
caretakersareindirectcontactwithcubsintheenclosure,itmaybehelpfultocoordinate
feedingandcleaningactivities.Thesizeandnumberofcubsineachenclosurewilldictate
thefrequencyandlengthofcleaningtime.Othermeasuresthatmayberequiredtoprevent
thespreadofdiseaseorparasiteswithintherehabilitationcenterincludequarantiningsick
ornewlyarrivedbearsbeforeintegratingthemintothemainenclosure,takingsanitary
precautionspreparingthecubs’food,andoccasionallydisinfectingitemsintheenclosure,
especiallyinsmallenclosureswithnon-porousflooring.
3) Feeding
a. Infants (Birth to 8 weeks)Intemperateregionsoftheworld,bearcubsusuallyareborninJanuaryorFebruarywhile
themotherbearishibernating.Thecubsarequitesmall(0.2-0.5kg;0.5-1.0lb.)and
helplesswhentheyareborn.Theyareverydependentontheirmotherstoprovideadequate
nutritionforgrowthbeforeleavingthedeninthespring.Motherbearsnursetheircubsfor
9to28months,dependingonspecies.Bearmilkhasaveryhighcaloricvalue,andthe
cubsgrowveryfastforthefirstfewmonths.38Bythetimebearcubsleavetheirnataldens
inAprilorMay,theireyeshaveopened,theyaresomewhatmobile,andtheirfurcoathas
developedtothepointthattheyhavesomeprotectionfrominclementweather.
Figure 12. Bottle-feedingEuropeanbrownbearcubsinTurkey.
Bearcubsthatrequirebottle-feedinghavespecialneedsintherehabilitationprocess.In
manyrespects,theyareverysimilartowhatahumanbabyrequires:security,sleepand
food.Theyoungestcubsneedsmallamountsofformula(15%to25%oftheirbodyweight)
26
everytwotothreehoursaroundtheclock.By30daysofage,cubsneedonlyfivetoseven
feedingsperday.After90days,thedailyquantityoffoodcanbetaperedoffto10%to20%
ofbodyweight.39
Atanearlyage,cubswillbenefitfromorderandroutineinthefeedingprocess.Theymay
showpreferencesforcertainnippletypes,thecolorofthebottlecaporthepositioninwhich
theyareheldwhilefeeding.Avarietyofhumaninfantbottlesandnippleshavebeenusedto
hand-raisepolarbearcubsinzoos.39Developingaroutineforhandlingandfeedingthecubs
providesthemwiththesenseofsecuritytheyneed,andwillcontributetotheirdevelopment
aswildbears.Veryyoungcubsthathavereceivedinadequateattentionoftentendtoshow
moredependenceontheircaretakers,andtheyhaveamoredifficulttimewithseparation,
astheygetolder.
Inearlyattemptstoraiseorphanedcubs,peopleusedevaporatedmilkandlightcream
dilutedwithwaterforbottle-feedingsmallcubs,40orsimplyusedvariousdilutionsof
evaporatedmilkandwater.41Occasionally,eggyolkswereaddedtofortifytheformula.
Whenresearchersexperimentedwithvariousformulaswhileraisingbrownbearcubsfrom
threeseparatelitters,theyconcludedthataformulacomposedof24%fat,12%proteinand
veryfewcarbohydratessimulatedthecaloricqualityofbearmilk.Itresultedinfastercub
growthratesthanartificialdietshighincarbohydrates.15Theyalsoreportedthatcubsraised
incaptivityconsumedalmosttwicetheamountoffood(asapercentoftotalbodyweight)
aswildcubsandwere1.3to2.7timesaslargeaswildcubsofanequivalentage,atmost
stagesofgrowth.42
Mostrehabilitationfacilitiesuseacommercialformulatofeednursingcubs,butsome
havedevelopedtheirowncustomrecipe.Onecommonpowderedcommercialformulaisa
combinationofEsbilacandMulti-Milkinthefollowingmixture:43
Commercial Formula: ��% Multi-Milk2*
2�% Esbilac
Mix one part powder with two parts water
One Canadian rehabilitator uses a slightly different formula consisting of: �
Powdered puppy formula mixed with warm water
1 table spoon of plain Yogurt
1 tea spoon Multi-vitamins
1 tea spoon of vegetable oil
2 *Availablefrom:UPCOP.O.Box969,St.Joseph,MO64502U.S.A. www.upco.com
2�
TheSanFranciscozoosuccessfullyraisedapolarbearcubfromtheageofonedayby
startingthecubonadilutedformulaofEsbilacandboiledwater(1:3ratio)forthefirst5
days,thengraduallyincreasingtheamountofEsbilactoa1:1ratiowithwaterbythetime
thecubwas30daysold.Theyalsoaddedpediatricvitamins(0.5ml/100gms)andKaro
syrup(4ml/100gms)totheformula.39
Tomakebasicformulamorepalatabletocubsandreducethenumberoffeedingseachday,
ingredientssuchasKarosyrup,honey,Gerber’sstrainedfruit,babycerealorGerber’sbaby
ricecerealcommonlyareadded.Techniquesforencouragingyoungcubstofeedfroma
bottlearedescribedintheIdahoBlackBearRehabilitationHandbook.43Whenanutrition-
allycompletemilkreplacerisused,itmightnotbenecessarytoaddpediatricvitaminsto
theformula.39Plainyogurthasbeenusedtoaddressproblemswithupsetstomachsand
diarrheainsmallcubs8.
InwesternRussia,thePazhetnovsbottle-feedorphanbrownbearcubsaslightlydifferent
combinationofingredients.44
Custom formula: 3 liters fresh milk 2 large spoons of dried milk
1 liter water 2 tablespoons of sugar
200 ml semolina (similac) dash salt
Asthecubsgetolderandarereadytoeatfromabowl,thePazhetnovsaddacookedbarley
mixture(1partbarleyto5partswater)totheirdiet.Oncethecubsbegintakingtheirfood
fromabowl,thePazhetnovsgivethemformulaatthemorningfeedingplusthefollowing
twiceduringtheday;inthemorningandagainintheafternoon.
Afternoon Feeding: Liquid formula listed above � tablespoons vegetable oil
� eggs Cooked barley
2 teaspoons multi-vitamins
Somecubswillbegintakingformulaofferedinabowlatanearlyage(70+days).15,42
Twoimportantfactsareassociatedwithweaningveryyoungcubsfromabottle.First,
hungrycubstendtobecomefranticorexcitedatfeedingtimeandwillturnthefeeding
bowlover,wastingfood,unlessitissecurelyanchoredinplace.Also,suckingbehavioris
geneticallydriven.Whencubsarenotallowedtosuckle,theyoftenattempttonurseontheir
footpadsortheearsofothercubs(ortheircaretaker).Bottle-fedcubsoftenexpressthis
alternativesucklingbehavior,particularlyiftheholeinthebottlenippleislargeandformula
flowsoutofthebottleveryquickly.Althoughthecubhasafullstomach,itstillneedsto
2�
suckleforaperiodoftimetosatisfythenaturalurgetosuckle.Topreventcubsfromat-
temptingtosuckletheirfootpadsortheearsofothercubs,thecaretakermayneedtouse
anipplewithasmallerholeorallowthecubtosuckleonhis/herarmafterfeeding.Using
anipplewithasmallholealsoreducestheriskofthecubaspiratingformulabecauseitis
flowingtoofast.
b. Pre-weaned cubs (9 to 20 weeks)Althoughbearcubsnurseformorethanninemonthsinthewild,theybeginfeedingon
smallamountsofsolidfoodssoonaftertheyleavethedeninthespring.Theagethat
nursingshiftsfromanutritionalfunctiontooneofsocialbondingwiththemotherbearis
notclear.Incaptivity,cubsmaycontinuetakingformulafromabottleorbowluntiltheyare
severalmonthsold,buttheycanbeintroducedtosolidfoods(cannedfruit,oatmealordry
cerealsoakedinformula)atabout9weeksofage.Cubsgenerallyweanthemselvesfrom
thebottleat5to6monthsofage,buttheycanbeforciblyweanedatamuchearlierage.
Figure 13.Troughusedtostabilizefeedingbowls.
Atweaning,theirdietconsistsprimarilyoffruits,drydogfood(fornutritionalbalance),
nuts(acorns),somevegetables,andoccasionallyfishorthecarcassesofungulatesdo-
natedbylocalhunters.Individualbearswillshowpreferencesforcertainfoodsandrefuse
toeatotherfoodsthatarereadilyacceptedbyotherbears.Solidfoodscanbepresentedto
bearsinavarietyofways(scattered,hidden,chunks,etc.)toincreasebehavioralenrich-
mentintheenclosureandencouragethebearstosearchfortheirfoodastheydointhe
wild.Supplementalfoods(i.e.grapes,raisins,peanutbutterandhoney)canbeprovided
tothebears,butshouldbevariedandshouldnotexceed3%,byweight,ofthetotaldiet
providedeachday.39
2�
�) Socializing cubs
Orphancubsraisedassinglecubstendtoremainattachedtotheircaretakersforlonger
periodsthancubsthathaveanopportunitytosocializewithothercubs.Whenhuman
contactwiththecubsisseverelyrestrictedafterweaning,cubswillshowlessinterestin
interactionswiththeircaretakers,regardlessofwhethertheyareraisedassinglesorin
thepresenceofothercubs.Thetendencyforallcubstobecomelessdependentontheir
Figure 1�. Allowingcubstosocializewithothercubsisimportanttotheirdevelopment.
humancaretakersastheyapproachdispersalagemayberelatedtogeneticpredisposition
toemigratefromtheirnatalrangeshortlyafterfamilybreakup.Allbutoneoftheindividuals
respondingtoWSPA’ssurveyindicatedthattheyallowedcubstosocializewithoneanother
intherehabilitationcenter22.However,severalindividualsalsoreportedseparatingcubs
bysizeand/oragewhentheybelievedthosedifferenceswereimportanttothesafetyofthe
smallercubs.
Allowing cubs raised in captivity to socialize with other cubs may be the
single most important factor in reducing the degree of their habituation.
�) Hibernation
Intemperateclimates,twoofthemorecommonreleasestrategiesaretoplaceorphaned
cubsintonaturalorartificialdensinwinter,ortoreleasetheminthespringwhengreen
vegetationisreadilyavailabletothem.Bothrequireholdingthecubsincaptivityforpartor
allofthewinterdenningperiodwhenwildbearsnormallywouldbehibernating.
30
Onetothreecubsinarehabilitationfacilitywillusealmostanysmall,darkshelterfor
hibernating.Insituationswithfourormorecubs,cubsoftendentogetherinarelatively
largehibernaculum(den).Mostfacilitiesprovidegrass,hayorstrawforinsulationwithinthe
denandletthecubsarrangeitastheychoose.
Cubs’physicalconditionandhealthstatusshouldbeevaluatedpriortoforcingtheminto
hibernation.Whencubshavesufficientfatreservesandarehealthy,theirfoodsupplycan
bereducedgraduallyforacoupleofweeksandthencompletelywithdrawn.Typically,cubs
willbegintoshowlethargicbehaviorinthelatefall(mid-tolateOctober)andwillnaturally
reducetheirfoodintake;however,theywillcontinuetofeedandresisthibernatingaslong
asfoodisavailable.
Figure 1�. Brownbearcubemergingfromanatu-raldendugintheenclosure.
Inmoderateclimates,bearsgenerallydenforshorterperiodsoftimeinthewinter,soreha-
bilitatorsmustusetheirjudgmentorconsultwithlocalwildlifebiologiststodeterminethe
appropriatetimetobeginwithdrawingfoodfromthecubs.Localweatherconditionsplay
animportantroleinthehibernationprocess:Mildconditionsdelaytheonsetofhibernation,
whileseverecoldmaycausethebearstodenearlier.
Regardlessofweatherconditions,itisimportanttorecognizethatbearsenterandemerge
fromadormantstategradually.Itisnotuncommonfororphancubstoremainactivefor
severalweeksaftertheirfoodhasbeencompletelywithdrawnortooccasionallyemerge
fromtheirdenforshortperiodsoftimewhenweatherconditionsmoderateforafewdays.
During the hibernation period, it is important to minimize disturbance around the
bear’s enclosure.
31
VIII. Release Site Considerations
Rehabilitationfacilitiesoftenhavelittlecontrolorinputintodecisionsaboutwheretore-
leasebears;typically,thatistheprovinceofthegovernmentalwildlifeauthorityresponsible
formanagingwildbearpopulations.Releasesitedecisionscaninfluencethesuccessof
rehabilitationefforts,however,makingitimperativethatbearrehabilitatorsestablishasolid
workingrelationshipwithwildlifebiologiststoensurethatconditionsintheproposedrelease
areaarefavorableforarelease.Severalfactorsshouldbeconsideredwhenchoosinga
releasesite.
1) Release Site Approvals
Manypotentialreleasesitesarelocatedonpubliclandorlandadministeredbygovern-
mentalauthorities,andtheirpermissionmustbeobtainedbeforecaptiveanimalscanbe
releasedbacktothewild.Insomecases,locallawsmayprohibitindividualsfromreleasing
captiveanimalstothewild,regardlessoflandownership.Alloftherehabilitatorsrespond-
ingtoWSPA’ssurveyindicatedtheyeitherworkedcloselywithgovernmentalwildlifeperson-
nelintheirreleaseefforts,ortheappropriatewildlifeauthoritiestookfullresponsibilityfor
choosingreleasetimesandlocationsandcarriedoutthereleases.22
2) Habitat Assessment
Thefirstconsiderationsinchoosingareleasesitearewhetherthepotentialsiteiswithinthe
historicrangeofthespecies,iscurrentlygoodbearhabitatandislargeenoughtosupport
abearpopulation.Dependingonthetypeofrelease(re-introduction,supplementation,
etc.),determiningthesuitabilityofanareaforsupportingaviablebearpopulationcanbe
assimpleasdocumentingthepresenceofbearsinaprescribedgeographicallocation,oras
difficultasconductinghabitatsuitabilitystudiesinthearea.45
Atthispointintime,withtheexceptionofattemptedreleasesofAsiaticblackbearsin
SouthKorea,allreleasesoforphanbearsfromrehabilitationcentersarebestdescribedas
supplementaloraugmentationreleases(seeAppendixA,IUCNdefinitions).46However,
asrehabilitationandreleasemethodologiesareperfected,morebearreleasesmayoccur
withtheintentofre-establishingpopulationsinunoccupied,butsuitable,habitat,orof
augmentingthegeneticvariabilityinsmall,isolatedpopulations.Inthemeantime,itmaybe
advisableforreleasepersonneltoestablishthatagivenareahasthehabitatcharacteristics
necessarytosupportreleasedbears.
32
Ataminimum,releaseareasshouldhaveadequatefoodandwaterresourcesforthebears
touseduringtheiractiveseason,potentialdensites(intemperateclimates),relativelylow
humandensities,andenoughsizetosupportaviablebearpopulation.Otherlanduseissues
tobeconsideredinchoosingareleasesiteincludedistancetonearesthumansettlements,
historyofhuman/bearinteractionsinthearea,presenceandtimingofhuntingseasonsfor
bearsandotheranimals,presenceandtypeoflivestockusingthearea,predominantland
useactivity(agriculture,forestry,Wilderness,etc.),andpublicattitudestowardbearsinthe
area.
3) Land Use Issues
Inmostrehabilitationfacilities,itisalmostimpossibletopreventbearcubsfrombecoming
somewhathabituatedtotheircaretakers,especiallycubsthatcomeintothefacilityatavery
youngageandarebottle-fedforsomeperiodoftime.Althoughbearcubsgraduallybecome
moreindependentoftheircaretakersduringtherehabilitationprocess,theymaycontinueto
demonstratesomelevelofhabituationuntilthedaytheyarereleased.However,experience
suggeststhat,inmostcases,bearcubsbecomeverywaryofhumans,includingindividuals
whowereresponsibleforcaringforthem,withinashorttime(10to14days)aftertheyare
released.
These observations suggest thatbears should be released in areas (and at times of the
year) where they are unlikely to encounter people during the first two weeks after their
release.
Insituationswhereitmightbeverydifficulttofindaremotereleaselocation,thetimingof
thereleasemaybecomethemoreimportantconsiderationinchoosingthesite.Biologists
intemperateclimateareashavereleasedbearssuccessfullybyplacingtheminnaturalor
artificialdensinwinter,ratherthanreleasethematothertimesoftheyearwhenpeopleare
usingforestedareasforfoodgatheringandrecreation.Winterreleasesalsoavoidproblems
whenareashaveadocumentedhistoryofhuman-bearconflictsrelatedtotheavailabilityof
anthropogenic(humanfood)foods.
Poachingandlegalhuntingactivitiesareadditionalconsiderationsthatmayinfluencethe
successofbearreleases.Althoughverylittleinformationexistsregardingtheeffectsof
poachingonreleasedbears,theyoccasionallyareshotduringlegalbearhuntingseasons,
usuallyduringthefirstyearoftheirrelease.Itisnotclearwhetherreleasedcubsaremore
vulnerabletohuntersasaresultoftherehabilitationprocessoraresimplyvulnerable
becausetheyaretravelingwidelyinsearchofapermanenthomerange,asisthecase
33
withwildsubadultbears.Regardless,theexistenceofhuntingandpoachinginapotential
releaseareashouldbeconsideredinchoosinganappropriatereleasesite.
It is advisable to avoid releasing orphaned bears during active hunting seasons for
bears or other large mammals.
Human/bearconflictsassociatedwithlivestockandapiariesarecommoninmanypartsof
theworld.Anybearcanbecomeinvolvedinaconflictsituationwhenhabitatconditions
becomelessthanoptimalduetodrought,wildfires,lossofkeyhabitatorotherenvironmen-
talfactors.Thatisespeciallytrueforbearsreleasedinareaswithinadequatenaturalfood
resources,whetherduetoenvironmentalconditionsorsimplypoor-qualityhabitat.
Alackoffamiliaritywiththelocationofhigh-qualityfoodresourcesinthereleaseareaalso
contributestothevulnerabilityofyoungbears.Insuchsituations,thesebears(aswellas
dispersingwild,subadultbears)maybetemptedtotakeadvantageofunfamiliarbutreadily
availablefooditems,resultinginhighmortalityratesfromconflictswithhumans.Asa
result,itisimperativethatbearreleasesoccurwherenaturalfoodresourcesareadequate
andthatthereleaseteamisawareofpotentialattractantsintheareathatcouldresultin
highmortalityratesfromhuman-bearconflicts.
Steps should be taken to avoid releasing bears where the probability is high that they
will become involved in conflict situations.
Otherreleasesitecharacteristicsthatmightplayanimportantroleindeterminingthe
successofreleasesincludetopographicfeatures,statusoftheresidentbearpopulation,
presenceofpotentialcompetitorsorpredators,andanyotherfactorsthatcouldacttolimit
thebearpopulation.
�) Topographic Considerations
Releasedbearsareknowntodispersefromthereleasesiteforseveralhundredkilometers.
OrphanbearsreleasedinOntariodispersedanaverageof34km(21mi)fromtherelease
site,andthemaximumdispersaldistanceobservedwasover400km(248mi).6Bears
releasedinrelativelyflatterrainorinbroadlydistributedmountainhabitatmayshowno
patternintheirdispersaldirectionfromthereleasesite.Moreover,inlinear-shapedmoun-
tainrangesorinareaswithgeographicalbarrierssuchasverylargebodiesofwaterorlarge
3�
agriculturalareasborderingthereleasearea,bearsoftenwilldispersealongtheaxisofthe
mountainrangeoralongtheborderofanareatheyarereluctanttocross.Releasedbears
alsoareknowntotraveldowndrainages.23Thesedispersalpatternsmayresultinbears
encounteringhumansettlementsshortlyaftertheyarereleased.
�) Predation
Thestatusoftheresidentbearpopulationinareleaseareaalsocaninfluencethesuccessof
releaseefforts.Manyrehabilitatorsprefertoreleasebearsinprotectedareastoreducethe
likelihoodthatbearswillbeshotbyhunters.Onthesurface,thisapproachsoundsreason-
able,butwhenconsideredinthecontextofthesocialstructureofwildbearpopulations,
itmaynotbeaseffectiveasreleasingbearsinareaswherethesocialstructureofthewild
bearpopulationisinflux(disruptedbyhuntingorotherfactors,resultinginhighmortality
ratesinthepopulation).Wildbearpopulationsthatarenothuntedorareonlylightlyhunted
tendtoreflectanold-agedpopulationstructuredominatedbylargemalesandcontaining
fewyoungbears.47Huntedpopulationsaredominatedbyyoungerbears,includingmany
dispersingsubadultmales.48Largeadultmalebearshavebeenimplicatedinthekilling
(infanticide)ofyoungbears,49suggestingthatorphanbearsreleasedinprotectedareas
dominatedbyolder-agedbearsmayexperiencehighermortalityratesduetopredationby
adultmalebears.
Inmanyareasoftheworld,bearsco-existwithotherlargecarnivoressuchastigers,
leopardsandotherbearspecies,andintheseplacespredationmaybeafactorlimitingthe
survivalratesofyoungbears.Althoughnorehabilitationfacilitieshavereportedcubmortali-
tiesasaresultofpredationbytigersorleopards,itisafactorthatshouldbetakeninto
considerationwhenchoosingareleasesitewherebearsco-existwithotherlargecarnivores.
6) Competition
Criticsofsupplementation/augmentationandre-introductionprogramshaveexpressed
concernsthatreleasedbearsmayexperience(orcauseresidentbearstoexperience)high
mortalityratesasaresultofdirectcompetitionforcriticalresourcessuchasfood,spaceor
mates.Thesocialstructureofbearsinvolvesadominancehierarchysystemwherebythe
moredominantindividualshavegreateraccesstofoodandmates.Thephysicalconditionof
allreleasedbearsrecapturedorkilledbyhunterswithinayearoftheirreleaseindicatesthey
hadnodifficultyobtainingadequatenaturalfoodresources.Thisinformationsuggeststhat
directcompetitionisnotasignificantthreattothesurvivalofreleasedorphanbearsortheir
wildcounterpartsinareaswithadequatenaturalfoodresourcesavailable.15
3�
�) Genetics
Geneticconsiderationsfrequentlyarecitedasamajorconcernregardingthereleaseof
orphanedorcaptive-bredbears.Theprimaryconcerninvolvesthelossofgeneticintegrityin
therecipientbearpopulationasaresultofhybridization.Concernsalsohavebeenexpressed
abouttheinabilityofreleasedanimalstosurvivewithoutanopportunitytolearncritical
survivalskillsfromtheirmother.
Thelevelofgeneticdiversityamongconspecificbearpopulationsvariesconsiderablyandis
areasonableindicatorofgeographicseparationovertime.Bearpopulationsthathavebeen
isolatedforcenturiesfromotherpopulationsofthatspeciesareknowntopossessdetectable
differencesingeneticmake-up,generallyresultinginalossofgeneticdiversitywithinthe
population.50,51Somebearpopulationsdohaveuniquegeneticsignatures.Thosepopula-
tionsarenotsuitablerecipientsforreleaseswithoutthoroughtestingoforphanedcubsto
ensuregeneticcompatibility.
Examiningtheissuefromanotherperspective,theremaybesomepotentialbenefitfrom
releasingorphanedbearcubsintosmall,isolatedbearpopulationsasanintrusivemanage-
mentoptiondesignedtopreventthelossofgeneticvariabilityin“atrisk”bearpopulations.
Thegeneticandbiologicalimplicationsoftherelationshipbetweenthelevelofgenetic
diversityandthe“health”ofwildbearpopulationsarecomplexandnotclearlyunderstood.
However,theissueofgenetic“pollution”isnotarelevantconcerninsituationswherethe
provenance(capturelocation)oftheorphanedcubisknownandtheproposedrelease
locationiswithinthesamegeographicalrangeofthespecies.Insituationswheretheprov-
enanceofthecubisunknown,genetictestingofthecubandtherecipientbearpopulation
istheonlysafe,ethicalapproachforreleasingthecub.
Concernsrelatedtothecapabilityoforphancubstosurviveinthewildwithoutthebenefit
oflearningcertainbehaviorsfromthemotherdonotappeartobevalid.Theresultsof
hundredsofreleasesoforphanedcubs,includingcubstakenintocaptivitybeforetheireyes
wereopen,confirmthefactthatalltheskillsbearsneedtosurviveinthewildareinnate,
notlearned.Theprimarybenefitcubsreceivefromtheirprolongedassociationwiththeir
mothersappearstobeprotectionfrompotentialpredators.Thereisnoquestionthatcubs
learncertainbehaviorswhileundertheirmother’scare,andtheycertainlybenefitfromthat
learningopportunity.Observationsofcubsthatentertherehabilitationprocesslateintheir
firstyearindicatetheyreadilyhabituatetotheirhumancaretakers,buttheyaregenerally
morewaryofhumans,andmaybelesslikelytobecomenuisanceanimalswithinayearof
theirreleasethancubstakeninshortlyaftertheywereborn.
36
The fact that cubs do not need to learn survival skills from their mother (or their hu-
man caretakers) reinforces the suggestion that the cubs be exposed to minimal con-
tact with humans during the rehabilitation process.
�) Disease/Parasites
Thepotentialforintroducingdiseaseorparasitesintoawildbearpopulationisasignificant
concernthatmustbeaddressedinanyreleaseprotocol.Diseaseandparasiticinfestations
arenotuncommoninwildbearpopulations.37However,itisraretofindactivecasesof
diseaseinwildorcaptivebears,evenifpositivetiterstoavarietyofdiseasepathogens
intheirbloodsamplesindicatetheyhavebeenexposedtodiseasepathogens.Ifbearsin
captivityhaveexternalparasites(ticks,liceoroccasionallyfleas),aveterinariancaneasily
treatthem,aswellasinternalparasiteslikeroundandtapeworms.
The risk of introducing either disease or parasites into wild bear populations is unac-
ceptable. Therefore, a licensed veterinarian must thoroughly examine all bears prior to
release and test them for disease exposure and parasitic infestation.
�) Ecological Issues
Althoughbearcubsareknowntosurviveinthewildafterbeingorphanedat5to7months
ofage,2,19,20survivalofreleasedbearsappearstobehigherforcubsthatareolderand
heavier.Bearsalsotendtobecomemoreindependentoftheircaretakersastheygetolder,
especiallyiftheyhaveanopportunitytosocializewithothercubsintherehabilitation
process.
Somerehabilitationfacilitiesadvocatereleasingcubsassoonaspossible.Theytypically
releasecubsinlatesummerorearlyfall,whenhigh-qualitybearfoodsareabundantinthe
forest.22Peopleassociatedwithotherfacilitiessuggestthattheoptimumtimeforrelease
shouldcoincidewiththetimeofnaturalfamilybreak-upinthewild.Theytypicallyover-
wintercubsbeforereleasingthemthefollowingspring,tomaximizecubsurvivalrates.
Releasing bears near the time of natural family break-up may be the more conserva-
tive approach to maximize cub survival.
3�
Bodyweightmayinfluencesurvivalandwhetherornotareleasedbearwillbeinvolvedina
nuisancesituationintheshort-termfollowingrelease.Captive-rearedcubsconsumealmost
twiceasmuchfoodeachdayaswildcubs.15Therefore,cubsraisedinarehabilitation
facilityoftenweighconsiderablymorethantheirwildcounterpartsatacomparableage.Itis
likelythatthereleasedcubs’additionalbodymasssomewhatbufferstheimpactofentering
anunfamiliarenvironment.Itmayenhancetheirinitialprospectsforsurvivalinthewildand
reducethelikelihoodthattheywillbeinvolvedinnuisancesituations.Therelationshipbe-
tweenbodyweightandsurvivalornuisanceactivitycertainlyisinfluencedbytheavailability
ofnaturalfoodsinthereleasearea,suggestingthattimingreleaseswiththeproductionof
high-qualitynaturalfoodsalsomayincreasetheprobabilityofsuccessfulreleases.
IX. Release Considerations
1) Public Relations
Publicinvolvementisanintegralpartofbearrehabilitationprograms.Itprovideswildlife
authorities,rehabilitatorsandthepublicanopportunitytoresolveorphancubissuesina
positivelight,toeducatethepublicaboutbearecology,andtoinvolvethepublicinwildlife
programs.Thepublicgenerallyhasapositiveattitudetowardwildlifeandthegovernmental
authoritieschargedwithmanagingwildlife.Infact,themajorityoffundingforrehabilitation
programscomesfromprivatedonations,indicatingthatthepublicisverysupportiveof
theseprograms.22
Wildlifeprofessionalsaretrainedtomanageatthepopulationlevel,andexceptinthecase
ofendangeredspecies,thefateofindividualanimalsrarelyaffectsthestatusofwildpopula-
tions.However,itisimportantforwildlifeauthoritiestorecognizethatthefateofindividual
animalsisimportanttomanymembersofthepublic.Thisdifferenceinperspectivehas
resultedandcontinuestoresultinunnecessaryconflictbetweenthegeneralpublic,animal
welfareorganizationsandwildlifeauthoritiesaboutthedispositionofinjuredororphaned
wildlife.
Bears,andmanyotherspecies,occasionallyareinvolvedinnuisancesituationsthatrequire
biologiststotakeunpopularactionstoremove(euthanize)adultfemalesaccompanied
byyoungoftheyear.Becausebearsareparticularlygoodcandidatesforrehabilitation
programs,raisingorphancubsforreleasebacktothewildprovidesareasonablealternative
toeuthanizingentirefamilygroupsinnuisancesituations.Placinginarehabilitationfacility
thecubsorphanedasaresultofmanagementactionsprovideswildlifeauthoritieswithan
opportunitytodemonstratetothepublicthatthefateofindividualanimalsisimportantand
3�
thatdecisionstokillnuisancebearsarenottakenlightlybyagencypersonnel.Italsogives
governmentalauthorities,rehabilitatorsandanimalwelfaregroupsanopportunitytoeducate
thegeneralpublicabouttheirroleincreatingnuisancesituationsintheircommunity,near
theirhomesandwheretheyrecreateinbearhabitat.
Thereleaseoforphancubsalsoprovidesanexcellentopportunitytoinvolveschool-age
childreninwildlifeprograms,whichcanresultinchangingthepublic’sattitudeabout
controversialspeciesandmanagementprograms.Forexample,inthelate1980stheIdaho
DepartmentofFishandGamere-introducedendangeredwoodlandcaribouintonorthern
Idaho.There-introductionwasverycontroversialbecauseoftheperceivedeconomicthreats
theseanimalsrepresentedtolocalcommunities.
Partofthepublicrelationseffortforthatprojectincludedprovidingselectedclassroomsin
thelocalschooldistrictwithcaribouradiocollarsforthechildrentodecorateandallowing
studentstonametheindividualanimalsthatwouldreceivethecollarswhencapturedand
released.Theclassroomsinvolvedindecoratingthecollarsandnamingthecaribouwere
providedweeklyupdatesonthemovementsandsurvivalof“their”caribou.Thisprogram,
calledAdopt-a-Caribou,wasahugesuccessintermsofeducatingschoolchildrenabout
theecologyofwoodlandcaribou.Thechildren’senthusiasmandsupportfortheprojectalso
appearedtoresultinreducedpublicanimosityforthere-introduction.Involvinglocalgovern-
mentandresidentsinbearrehabilitationprogramsofferssimilaropportunitiesforgaining
publicsupportforwildlifeprograms.
Thegeneralpublicrarelygetsanopportunitytoviewbearsinthewild;peoplecommonly
relyonsecond-personaccountsformuchofwhattheyknowaboutbearsandtheirhabits.
Bearsareshy,secretiveanimals,oftendifficulttoobserveinthewild.However,bearsin
general(andsomespeciesinparticular)canbeaggressiveandcauseinjuryordeathto
humans.Theyalsoarecapableofcausingsevereeconomicdamagestofarmersandranch-
erswhentheydepredateondomesticlivestock,agriculturalcropsorapiaries.
Releasing orphaned bears back to the wild has the potential to create a great deal of
controversy in nearby communities unless public relations efforts are planned and car-
ried out before the release.
Publicrelationsplansneedtoclearlyidentifythestepsthereleaseteamhastakento
preparethebearsforlivinginthewild.Theyalsomustoutlinethemonitoringprotocolthat
willbefollowedtoensurethatthebearscanberecapturedorremovedfromtheareaifthey
becomeinvolvedinnuisancesituationsordemonstrateaggressivebehaviortowardhumans.
3�
Providingreassurancetothepublicbylisteningtotheirconcernsandtakingactionsto
alleviatethemmayresultingreaterpublicacceptanceandsupportforbearreleases.
2) Ascertaining the Suitability of a Bear for Release
Priortorelease,boththephysicalandbehavioralcharacteristicsofabearshouldbe
evaluatedtodetermineifitisasuitablecandidateforrelease.Evaluatingthephysicalchar-
acteristicsisrelativelystraightforward.Itinvolvesassessingbodyandpelageconditionand
examiningthebearforexternalparasitesorinjuriesthatcouldcreateproblemsforthebear
afteritisreleased.Bearscanbecheckedforinternalparasitesbycollectingastool(fecal)
samplepriortothereleasedateandhavingitexaminedmicroscopicallybyaveterinarian.
Goodpelageconditionisparticularlyimportantforbearsthatwillbereleasedduringthelate
fallorwinter,andfatreservesshouldbeadequateforthedateoftherelease.Generalbody
conditioncanbeassessedusingtheguidelinespresentedinTable2.Thebearsshouldscore≥3.
Table 2. A visual method for estimating the body condition of bears prior to their release
to the wild.
1 2 3 � �
Pelvicandshoulderbonesprotruding;ribsveryprominentwithadeepsunkenareabetweentherumpandthelastrib;noob-viousfatundertheskin.
Easytofeelthepelvisandribs;somemuscletis-suecover-ingtheribs;thesunkenareabetweentheribsandrumpremainsobvious,butsofter.
Bodyappearstobefullyfleshedout.Obviouslayeroffatcoveringthepelvisandshoulderre-gion;sunkenareabetweentheribsandtherumpisabsent.
Bearhasablockyap-pearance;veryfull-bodiedoverallbonyareas;obviousfatovertherumpandshoulders.
Legsappearshortforthesizeofthebody;rollsoffatontheneck,shouldersandabdominalarea.
AdaptedfromStandardFieldScoringTableforpolarbears.39
Assessingbears’suitabilityforreleasefromabehavioralperspectiveisfarmoredifficult
becausesomeindividualsmayhavegreaterdifficultyadaptingtoanaturalenvironmentthan
othersthatdisplaysimilarbehaviorsintherehabilitationfacility.Mostcaptivebearsdem-
onstratesomelevelofhabituationtotheircaretaker.Habituationcanrangefromtolerating
thepresenceofthecaretakerintheenclosuretoseekingoutandattemptingtointeractwith
thecaretakerduringfeedingandcleaningactivities.Noclearcorrelationappearstoexist
betweenreleasesuccessratesforbearsshowingminimalhabituationandthosedemonstrat-
ingsignificantlevelsofhabituationtooneortwocaretakers,atleastinsituationswherethe
cubswereallowedtosocializewithothercubsintheenclosure.Habituationofsinglecubs
�0
presentsamoredifficultsituationforrehabilitators.Insuchcases,toincreasetheprobabil-
ityofasuccessfulrelease,stepsshouldbetakentoactivelydiscourageinteractionsbetween
singlecubsandtheircaretakers.
Stereotypicbehaviors(pacing,bawlingorotherbehavioralticks)arenotuncommonin
captiveanimals,particularlyinmammalsthatmaintainlargehomerangesinthewild.52,53
Bearsarenoexception.Themajorityofindividualsrespondingtoasurveyofrehabilitation
facilitiesreportedtheyaddedhabitatenrichmentfeaturestobearenclosurestominimize
theincidenceofstereotypicbehaviors.22Researchersinvolvedinonestudyofcaptivebears
reportedthatthefrequencyofstereotypicbehaviorsandtheirbehavioralpersistencetended
toincreasewithtimespentincaptivity,whichmayaffecttheabilityofbearstoadapt
behaviorallytothewildafterrelease.30
Otherresearchershavequestionedtheseresults,suggestingthatstudiesofcagedanimals
donotprovideacompletepictureofhowcaptivityaffectsthebrainandtheonsetof
stereotypicbehaviors.31Theyconcludedthatanimalsmayadapttheirbehaviortodifferent
environments,andfoundinsufficientevidencetoconcludethatstereotypymayaffectthe
survivalratesofreleasedbears.31Theyalsopointedoutthatfurtherresearchonhabitat
enrichmentprogramsmightshowthatcaptivebearsinarehabilitationfacilityaremore
likelytodemonstrateincreasedlevelsofstereotypicbehaviorsinsmallcagesthanthey
wouldinanenclosurewithmorefavorableenvironmentalconditions(largerenclosures
containingnaturalvegetation).Theseresultssuggestthateventhepresenceofstereotypic
behaviorsinorphanedcubsinarehabilitationfacilitymaynotbeagoodpredictoroftheir
abilitytoadapttothewild.
3) Release Type
Rehabilitatorsreportedthatwildlifeauthoritiesusedavarietyofreleasemethodsfor
releasingorphanedcubsbacktothewild.22Themostcommonmethodwas“hardrelease:”
simplytransportingthebeartothereleasesiteandreleasingitfromthetransportcontainer
directlyintotheforest.Thisistheleastcostlyapproach.“Softrelease,”thesecondalterna-
tive,involvedholdingthebearinanenclosureatthereleaselocationforaperiodoftimeto
allowthebeartoacclimatetoitsnewsurroundingsbeforebeingreleased.Openingthedoor
totheenclosureandallowingthebeartoleaveonitsown,withnopromptingbytherelease
team,accomplishedtheactualrelease.
Twoindividualsreportedthattheytookthebearsfordailywalksintheforestandputthem
backintheenclosureattheendoftheday.54Afteravariablelengthoftime,theenclosure
�1
doorwasleftopenandthebearswerefreetocomeandgoastheychose.Thereleaseteam
continuedprovidingfoodtothecubsaslongastheyreturnedtotheenclosure.Atoneofthe
twosoft-releasesites,inaveryremotearea,thebearshadlittleopportunitytocomeinto
contactwithpeopleaftertheypermanentlylefttheenclosure,andnosignificantbear/human
problemswerereported.Theothersoftrelease,inaruralarea,waslargelysuccessfulbut
theresultsweremixed.
Figure 16. AuthorreleasingayearlingAmericanblackbearinthespring.
Bears,particularlymales,aregeneticallyprogrammedtoemigratefromtheirnatalarea
shortlyafterfamilybreak-up.Asaresult,itisnotuncommonforreleasedbearstotravel
longdistancesfromtheiroriginalreleasesite.Movementsinexcessof200km(125mi)
fromthereleasesitehavebeenreportedforhard-releasedbears.6,55Itisunclearatthistime
whethersoft-releasedbearsmaybemoreinclinedtoremainintheimmediatevicinityofthe
releasesite.
�) Timing of the Release
Anumberoffactorsdeterminethebesttimingforreleasesinaspecificarea,includingthe
ageandweightofthebear,thepresenceofhumanactivity,snowdepths(intemperate
climates)andtheavailabilityofnaturalfoods.Allofthesefactorsarecontrollablebythe
releaseteamandpotentiallycouldinfluencesignificantlytheprobabilityofasuccessful
release.Individualsrespondingtoasurveyofrehabilitationmethodsreportedreleasingbears
successfullyduringthelatesummer/earlyfallofthecubs’firstyear;duringwinterintemper-
ateclimateswherethebearscouldbeplacedinartificialornaturaldens;andinlatespring
ofthecubs’secondyear.22
�2
Typically,latesummer/fallreleasesoccurwhenhigh-qualityfoodsareavailableintherelease
area,andthisapproachthereforemayinfluencethebears’post-releasemovements.Releases
atthistimeofyearalsoareadvantageousbecausethebearsarekeptincaptivitylesstime,
therebyreducingtheirexposuretohumansandthecostofraisingthemfortherehabilitator.
However,summer/fallreleasesoccuratatimeveryclosetotheminimumagecubsare
knowntosurviveinthewildwithouttheirmother,andthusmayresultinsurvivalrates
lowerthanthoseofbearsreleasedinwinterorduringthefollowingspringwhentheyare
yearlings.
Figure 1�.Feedingonberriesinthefall.
Winterreleasesaremoredifficultlogistically
thanotherreleases,buttheyofferanumberof
advantagesthatmaypositivelyaffectsuccess
rates.Themajoradvantageisthatcubsplaced
inwinterdenshibernatethroughoutthewinter,
withverylittleopportunityforcontactwith
humans.Thecubsusuallyemergefromtheir
densveryearlyinthespringwhenhumanuseof
theforestremainslow,allowingthecubsad-
ditionaltimetoadjusttotheirnewenvironment.
Cubsthatdonothavecontactwithhumansfor
10to14daysaftertheirreleaseappeartobe
moresuccessfulinmakingthetransitionbackto
thewildthancubsthatencounterpeopleshortly
aftertheirrelease.55
Tranquilized,orphanedbearshavebeenplacedsuccessfullyinbothnaturalandartificial
winterdens.Occasionally,bearswillabandontheirdensandmoveshortdistancesbefore
buildinganotherden;however,snowdepthsof>30cm(12in)tendtodiscourageden
abandonment.Theabilitytoconstructorusenaturalcavitiesfordenningappearstobe
aninnatebehaviorcommontobearsregardlessoftheagetheyarriveinarehabilitation
facility.Thissuggeststhatprovidingthemwithnaturalorartificialdensmaybeunneces-
saryunlessthegroundisfrozenatthetimeofrelease.
Orphancubsalsohavebeenobservedbuildingelaborateabove-grounddenningstructures
foruseduringwinter.Amajordisadvantageofwinterreleases,inadditiontothe
logisticalchallenges,involvesthenecessityoftranquilizingthecubspriortotransport
(insomefacilities),andthenagainatthereleasesitepriortoputtingthemintotheden.
�3
Tranquilizinganywildanimalinvolvessomeriskandcanbeparticularlychallengingwhen
oneormorecubsarehousedinsmalltransportcages.
Individualswhobelievesurvivalratesarehigherforbearsreleasedduringthetimeframe
whenfamilybreak-upnormallyoccursinthewildfavorspringreleases.Althoughverylittle
dataexiststosupportthisbelief,springreleasesshouldbegivenseriousconsiderationfor
severalreasons.Theprimaryadvantageisthatthecubs(nowyearlings)arelargerandpo-
tentiallylessvulnerabletopredationbylargeadultmalebearsorotherpredators(thisisone
reasoncubsremainwiththeirmothersfor1.5to2.5years).Also,logisticalconsiderations
arenotanimportantconsiderationinspring.Themajordisadvantagesofspringreleases
arethecostsassociatedwithmaintainingcubsincaptivityforalongerperiod,additional
contactwithhumansafteremergingfromhibernation,andpossiblelackofenclosurespace
duringearlyspring,whennewcubsoftenshowupatrehabilitationfacilities.
Releasetimingunquestionablyisanimportantcomponentoftherehabilitationprocess.To
date,mostbearreleaseshaveoccurredwithspeciesthatmaintainthemother-cubfamily
bondforapproximately1.5years,includingbrownbearreleasesinEurope.27InNorth
America,however,brownbearcubsnormallyremainattheirmother’ssideforapproxi-
mately2.5years.Thisraisesthequestionofwhethersuchcubs,whenorphaned,should
bereleasedasyearlings(tominimizehumancontactduringcaptivity)oras2.5-year-olds
(topotentiallyincreasesurvivalrates).ThefewreleaseattemptsmadewithNorthAmerican
brownbearcubshaveoccurredwhenthecubswereyearlings,andmostwereunsuccessful,
suggestingitmightbemoreeffectivetoholdthesecubsuntiltheyare2-or2.5-year-olds
beforereleasingthemtothewild.14
�) Tranquilizing Bears
Inmanyinstances,itwillbenecessarytotranquilizecubstoperformroutinehealthexami-
nations,treatinjuriesorplacetheminatransportboxforrelocationtoanotherenclosureor
areleasesite.Thecaretaker’sabilitytoapproachcubsintheenclosurewilldictatethemost
appropriatemethodofadministeringthedrugs.
a. Jab Stick -Ifbearcubswillallowahumantoapproachwithin2m(6ft.),ajabstick
istheidealequipmenttoadministerdrugs,becauseitdoesnot“force”drugsintomuscle
tissueunderhighpressureandresultsinlesstissuedamage.Jabstickscanbepurchased
commerciallyorbehand-madefromeasilyobtainedmaterials.Somecommercialjab
stickscanbeextendedfrom1m(3ft.)to3+m(10ft.),whileothersarefixedinlength.
Jabstickshaveasmall(12cc)syringemountedonthetipthatholdsthedrugs.Theyare
��
injectedintothemuscletissuethroughan18-16ganeedleaspressureisappliedtothe
stickagainstalargemusclemassinthecub.
Figure 1�. AuthorusingajabsticktotranquilizeanAmericanblackbearcub.
b. Blowpipe-Blowpipesalsoareeffectiveinsituationswherethecubscanbeapproached
closely.Blowpipesaretypicallyabout1m(3ft.)inlengthandcanbeusedaccuratelyat
distancesof3-4m(10-12ft.).Drugsareinjectedintoalargemusclemassbyacompressed
airdart(identicaltothoseusedincaptureguns)blownbymouthfromthepipe.Tubes
suitableforblowpipesshouldbeslightlylargerindiameterthanthedarts.Theycanbe
handmadeorpurchasedcommercially.
c. Capture Gun-Whencubswillnotallowhumanstoapproachthemclosely,adartfired
fromacapturegun(orpistol)iseffective.Apowderchargeorcompressedairfiresthedart.
Thelatteroftenispreferablebecauseitiseasytoadjustthepressuretocompensatefor
changingconditionsintheenclosureasthetargetedbearcubisapproached.Manycapture
gunsarefittedwithtelescopicsightstofacilitateaccuracy.Captureguns(andpistols)fire
compressed-airdartsthatexpelthedrugsintoalargemusclemasswhentheystrikethe
bear.Iflargedrugvolumes(>2cc)areadministered,somemusclebruisingistobeexpected
fromtheimpactofthedartandtheinjectionofthedrugsintothemuscletissue.Thisusually
isnotamajorproblem,butmayresultinaserioussituationifthedartpenetratestheskin
andcutsamajorbloodvessel,orenterstheabdominalcavity.Itisadvisabletousewell
trained,experiencedpeopletoremotelyadministerdrugsusingalltypesofcaptureequip-
ment.
d. Drugs -Thetwodrugscommonlyusedtoimmobilizebearsinordertoperformhealth
examinationsortransportthemtoreleasesitesareKetamineandTelazol.Bothare“dissocia-
tive”anestheticsthatchemicallyseparateconsciousnessfromthesensoryandmotorcontrol
��
mechanismsofthebrain.Thesedrugsproducerapidanalgesia,anesthesiaandatrance-like
state.BothKetamineandTelazolworkverywellonbearsandhavewidemarginsofsafety.
i. Ketamine/Rompun-Ketaminecausesmusclerigidityandisbestusedincombination
withRompun,asedative,whichcausesdepressionofthenervoussystem.Combining
KetamineandRompunalsohasasynergisticeffectthatreducesthevolumeofKetamine
necessarytoachievecompleteimmobilization.AdministeringYohimbinetoarecoveringbear
reversestheeffectsofRompunandresultsinthebearreturningmorequicklytophysiologi-
calnormalcy.DosageratesforthesedrugsarepresentedinTable3.
TheprimaryadvantagesofusingamixtureofKetamineandRompunarethatthesetwo
drugsareinexpensive,theyhaveawidemarginofsafetyandtheyactquickly.Theinduc-
tionperiodforblackandbrownbearsisapproximately3-5minutesor8-10minutes,
respectively,duringtheactiveseason.Thereducedmetabolismofhibernatingbearscauses
inductiontimestoincreasetoapproximately25-30minutesinthewinter.Caremustbe
usedwiththisdrugmixtureduringextremesinambientairtemperaturebecauseitinterferes
withtheanimal’sabilitytoregulateitsbodytemperature.BearsdruggedwithKetamineand
Rompunarecapableofrecoveringveryquickly,sotheymustbemonitoredcontinuously
forearlysignsofarousal(headmovements,lipandnosetwitching,increasedrespiration
orreactiontosound).Occasionally,bearswillrecoverquicklyfromthisdrugcombination
withoutshowingmanyoftheseearlysignsofrecovery.Ketaminecanbeusedtomaintain
anesthesia;multipledosesofRompunshouldnotbeusedtomaintainanesthesia.
ii. Telazol –Thisdrughasbeenusedforyearstoimmobilizebearsandit,too,hasawide
marginofsafety.Telazolcontainsatranquilizer,Zolazepam,tohelprelaxtheanimal.Bears
immobilizedwithTelazolrecovermoreslowlythanbearsdruggedwithaKetamine/Rompun
mixture.Thatcanbeamajoradvantagewhenhandlingtimesarelong.Inductiontimesfor
Telazolareshort(approximately3-8minutes)andbearsoftenremainimmobilizedupto
3hours.Theantagonist,Flumazenil,reversestheeffectsoftheZolazepamcomponentof
Telazol,butisveryexpensiveandnotoftenusedbybiologistsinthefield.Theearlysignsof
recoveryforTelazolaresimilartothosedescribedforKetamine/Rompun.Recoverygenerally
occurs20-30minutesafterthebearisabletoraiseitshead.Ketamineisthedrugofchoice
whenitisnecessarytomaintainanesthesiainabearimmobilizedwithTelazol.
iii.Diazepam(Valium)–Itisnotuncommonforimmobilizedbearstohaveseizuresifthey
areoverdosedorareparticularlysensitivetotheimmobilizingdrugsbeingused.Ifseizure
activityoccurs,administeringDiazepamwillcontrolit.AlowinitialI.V.doseofDiazepam
(0.25mg)isrecommended,followedbyanadditionaldoseafter5minutesiftheseizure
activitycontinues.
�6
Table 3. Recommended dosage rates for black and brown bears.�6
Drug Black Bear Brown Bear
Ketamine/Rompun
(100mg/ml)
Ketamine-2.0mg/lb.I.M.
Rompun–1.0mg/lb.I.M.
Ketamine–3.6mg/lb.I.M.
Rompun–1.8mg/lb.I.M.
Yohimbine
(5mg/ml)
0.05mg/1mgRompunI.V.or
I.M.
0.09mg/1mgRompunI.V.or
I.M.
Telazol
(100mg/ml)
2.0–3.0mg/lb.I.M. 2.0–3.0mg/lb.I.M.
Diazepam
(5mg/ml)
0.25–5.0mg/100lb.I.V.
(givenslowlyover5-10sec.)
0.25–5.0mg/100lb.I.V.
(givenslowlyover5-10sec.)
Figure 1�. Authorplacingaradiocollaronacubpriortorelease.
6) Marking
Applyingasemi-permanentorpermanentmarkto
individualbearsbeforereleasingthembacktothe
wildisanessentialelementofanymonitoringeffort
designedtoprovideinformationaboutmovements
andsurvivalrates.Thetypeofmarkusedtoidentify
individualbearsvarieswiththeobjectivesofthe
monitoringplan.Marksthatprovideopportunistic
data(ear-tags,PITtagsandtattooing)aretheleast
costly,buttheyresultinsporadicdatacollection.
Returnsfrombearsmarkedthuslydependlargelyon
thebearsbeingrecapturedbywildlifeauthoritiesin
researchornuisancesituations,orkilledandreported
toauthoritiesasaresultoflegalhuntingseasons,
roadaccidentsordepredationkillpermits.
Markingbearswithradiocollars(orradioimplants)isfarmorecostlybutproducesbetter
qualityinformationaboutthefateofreleasedbears.StandardVeryHighFrequency(VHF)radio
collars,includingimplants,arelessexpensivetopurchasethanGPScollars,butrequiremore
humanefforttomonitoronadailyorweeklybasis.ThecosttoobtainaVHFradiolocation
variesconsiderably,dependingonmanpowerandvehiclecosts,roadaccessinthereleasearea
andtheavailabilityofsmallaircrafttolocate“missing”collars.ThecostofmonitoringVHF
collarsonorphanedbearscanbereducedbyreleasingbearsinanareawhereotherwildlife
researchormonitoringisoccurring.Releasingorphanedbearcubswhereotheranimalsare
��
beingmonitoreddoesnotreducethehardcostsassociatedwithdruggingandradio-collaring
thecubs,butmaysubstantiallyreducemonitoringcosts.
Inmanypartsoftheworld,largeexpansesofbearhabitatexistwherethelackofroad
accessandsmallaircraftavailabilitylimittheutilityofVHFradiocollars.Intheseareas,
thebestoption—possiblytheonlyoption—formonitoringreleasedbears’movementsand
survivalmaybeGPSorGPS-Satelliteradiocollars.AlthoughGPScollarsaremoreexpensive
topurchasethanVHFcollars,thecostperlocationoftenismuchless.Also,theycanpro-
videinformationonsurvivalandmovementsinplaceswhereVHFcollarsarenotpracticalto
use.InsomeareasofEurope,GPS-GSM(GPScollar-cellphonecommunication)technology
maybeavailable,butitissomewhatexperimental,andadditionalresearchisneededto
validateitsusefulnessfortrackingbears.
Orphanedbearswerereleasedon-site(softrelease)attworehabilitationfacilitiessurveyed
in2005.22Theremainingfacilitiestransportedcubstodistantreleasesitesandwere
requiredtoaddresspotentialproblemsassociatedwithmovingbearsunderenvironmental
conditionsthatvariedfromrelativelyhot(>30°C;>85F)toverycold(<-10°C;<12F)
ambienttemperatures.
Aftercubsaretranquilized,theyshouldbemonitoredtobesuretheyhaveaclearairway,or
theteamshouldwaituntilthecubscancontroltheirheadmovementsbeforetransporting
them.
�) Transporting cubs
Transportcagesmaybeconstructedfromwoodormetalinvarioussizes,largeenoughto
holdasinglecuborseveral.Whencubswillbereleaseddirectlyfromtheirtransportcage,
itssizemaynotbecriticalifallthecubsaretobereleasedinthesamelocation.However,a
cagemustbelargeenoughtoholdcubscomfortably,especiallyiftheyaretranquilizedwhen
placedinthecage.Itisoftenmoreconvenientandsafertoplacenomorethantwocubs
inatransportcageifthecubswillbetranquilizedbeforebeingreleasedfromit(i.e.winter
denningsituations).
Transportingcubsrelativelylongdistancesduringwarmweathermaynecessitateproviding
themwithwater.Inthesesituations,blockiceisanexcellentoptionforkeepingwaterin
frontofthecubsforextendedperiodsoftime.Wrappingtransportcagesincanvasorplastic
tarpsprotectscubsfromcoldtemperaturesduringwinterreleases.Tarpsarenotrecom-
mendedforuseduringwarmweather,however,whenadequateaircirculationisimportant
��
tohelpkeepthecubscool.Extremelyhotweathermayrequiresprayingthecubsdownwith
waterduringtransporttoassisttheminmaintainingcoolbodytemperature,orevenneces-
sitatedelayingthereleaseuntiltemperaturesmoderate.
Figure 20. Metaltransportcagewithdoublelocksondoor.
�) Monitoring
Monitoringreleasedbearsrequiresasignificantinvestmentinbothtimeandmoney.Thisinflu-
encesdecisionsaboutwhetherornottomonitorbears,aswellashowoftenandhowlongto
monitorthem.Becausemanywildliferehabilitatorsdependondonationsfromanimalwelfare
groups,thepublicandoftentheirpersonalfinancialresources,theyoftenrelyongovernmen-
talwildlifepersonneltoconductmonitoring.Inthepast,throughoutmuchofNorthAmerica,
wildlifeauthoritieswerenotactivelyinvolvedinrehabilitationprogramsforbears,resultingin
sporadicmonitoringeffortsonreleasedbearsandlimitedinformationregardingthesuccessor
failureofrehabilitationprograms.
Thislackofactiveparticipationbymanywildlifeauthoritieshasledtomonitoringcriteriathat
oftenrepresenttheminimumeffortrequiredtoevaluatetheeffectivenessofrehabilitation
efforts.Simplyputtingear-tagsonbearsortattooingthemdoes,overtime,yieldinformation
onminimumsurvivalrates.However,becausebearsarelong-livedanimals(theysufferlow
mortalityrates),thesedatadonotprovidethetimelyinformationrehabilitatorsneedtoadjust
theirprogramsforincreasedreleasesuccess.Recently,wildlifeauthoritieshavebecome
moreinvolvedandareprovidingradio-collarsandpersonneltomonitorreleasedbears.This
cooperativeapproachhasresultedinbetterqualityinformationthatcanbeusedtoevaluate
methodsforreleasingbears.
Twomajormythsexpressedbybearrehabilitationcriticsarethatorphanedcubsneedto
betaughtsurvivalskillsbytheirmothersandthatthesebearswillnotbeassimilatedinto
��
wildpopulationsbecauseofbehavioraldeficiencies.Ithasbeendifficulttoaddressthese
concernsusinginformationfromindividualrehabilitationfacilitiesbecausetheylacked
intensivemonitoringdata.Asaresult,muchoftheinformationavailableonthesurvival
andproductivityofreleasedbearsisanecdotal.However,itisaccumulating,anditsuggests
promisingresultsformanybearrehabilitationprograms.Individualsrespondingtoa2005
surveyofbearrehabilitatorsreportedthatatleastsevenAmericanblackbearswereknown
tohavesurvivedfor>7years,atleastfivebrownbearshavesurvived>4years,andone
Andeanbearsurvived>10yearsinthewild.Theyalsoreportedthatfewerthan2%of576
releasedbearsfromeightfacilitieswereknowntobeinvolvedinnuisancesituationswithin
ayearoftheirrelease.22
Figure 21. IdahoFishandGamebiologistJeffRohlmanradiotrackingareleasedcub.
Althoughtheseresultsareencouraging,thelackoflargedatasetsillustratestheneedfor
bettermonitoringofreleasedbears.Severalmonitoringeffortshavebeenconductedover
shorttimeframeswithsmallsamplesizesbyeitherrelyingoncaptureandkillinformation
fromtaggedanimalsorbyfollowingradio-collaredbears(primarilyAmericanblackbears
andEuropeanbrownbears)forafewmonthsaftertheirrelease.Recently,amajorstepwas
takeningatheringsurvivalandmovementdatabymonitoringthefatesof60orphanedcubs
fromthreefacilitiesinOntario.6Todate,thatresearchprojectrepresentsthelargestsingle
efforttodirectlyexamine,overatwo-yearperiod,thesurvivalandmovementsofreleased
orphanbears.Thedatashowedsurvivalratesforthe60orphanedbearstobecomparable
tosurvivalratespublishedforwildbearsofsimilarages.6
Concernsexpressedaboutbehavioraldeficienciesinrehabilitatedbearsaremoredifficult
toaddressbecausebearsaredifficulttoobserveaftertheyarereleasedbacktothewild.
Gatheringthesedataisalsocomplicatedbythelengthoftimebearsmustbemonitoredto
�0
obtaininformationabouttheirreproductivestatus.Althoughconcernhasbeenexpressed
abouttheeffectofstereotypicbehaviorsonsurvival,30mostofthefocusappearstobeon
whetherrehabilitatedbearssuccessfullyintegrateintothewildpopulationandbecome
activebreeders.Becausefemalebearsdonotreproduceuntiltheyareatleast3or4years
old,itisoftenimpracticaltomonitorproductivityinorphanbearsexceptinaresearchenvi-
ronment.Despitethislimitation,fourindividualsopportunisticallydocumentedreproduction
byreleasedAmericanblackbears,including17setsofcubsbysevendifferentfemales,
andonesetofcubsbytheoffspringofareleasedbear.Anotherindividualhasdocumented
reproduction(twolitters)byareleasedAndeanbearinEcuador.12
Beyondfinancialconsiderations,inmanypartsoftheworldthosemonitoringthesurvival
andmovementsofreleasedbearsfaceobstaclessuchasinsufficientroadaccessintoremote
areas,fewsmallaircraftavailabletolocate“missing”bears,andthelackoftrainedperson-
neltoradio-trackthebears.Inaddition,bearpopulationsinmanycountriesarenothunted
becausetheyarethreatenedorendangered,makingtheuseofradiotelemetryessentialfor
obtaininginformationonsurvivalandmovements.Relativelynewtechnologies(GPSand
GPS/Satellitecollars)arenowavailabletoovercometheseobstacles,butinmanyrehabilita-
tionprojects,thepriceofthesecollars(severalthousanddollarseach)discouragestheiruse.
�) Interventions
Invariouspartsoftheworld,thepotentialforbearattacksonpeopleliving,workingand
recreatinginbearhabitathasgeneratedconcernsaboutreleasingsomespeciesofbears.
Often,thesefearsareexacerbatedbytheknowledgethatbearsfromrehabilitationprograms
arehabituatedtohumansatsomelevelandthathabituationmayincreasethelikelihoodof
areleasedbearattackingaperson.Althoughnoreportsareavailableofrehabilitatedbears
attackingpeopleaftertheirrelease,intensivemonitoringofreleasedbearsisappropriate
becauseitallowsthereleaseteamtointerveneinatimelymannerifareleasedbearenters
anareaoccupiedbypeopleordemonstratesaggressivebehaviortowardhumans.
Althoughfewreleasedbearsbecomeinvolvedinnuisancesituationsafterrelease,somerisk
isalwaysassociatedwithreleasingbearsthathavehabituatedtotheircaretakersduringthe
rehabilitationprocess.Mostreportsofreleasedbearsbecomingnuisanceanimalsinvolve
bearsthat,shortlyaftertheyarereleased,donotshyawayfrompeopleormovetoward
peoplewhentheyencounterthem.Inmanycasesthesebearsencounteredpeopleinthe
forest,butoccasionallyconflictsoccurredatnearbyhomesitesorinvillages.12,15
Formanyspeciesofbears,suchencountersdonotrepresentathreatofinjuryordeathto
thepeopleinvolved.However,somespeciesofbearsareknowntobeaggressivetoward
people,especiallywhentheyaresurprisedintheforestorareprotectingtheiryoungora
�1
foodresource.Asaresult,itisadvisabletodevelopaninterventionplanbeforereleasing
bearsfromarehabilitationfacility.Itshouldaddressanyconflictsthatmaydevelopifa
releasedbearbecomesinvolvedinanuisancesituationoractsaggressivelytowardpeople.
Insomecountries,locallawsmayprohibitresidentsfromkillingnuisancebearsthatare
damagingprivatepropertyorthreateninghumanlife.Intheseareas,aninterventionplan
canbeapositivepublicrelationstool,providingreassurancetoresidentsthattherelease
teamispreparedtorespondtotheirconcernsaboutanuisancebearinatimelymanner.
Theinterventionplanshouldincludeinformationthatclearlystatesthefollowing:
a. Criteriaforcompensatingforactualdamages,inareaswherecompensation
programsexist.
b. Whoisresponsibleformonitoringthemovementsandactivityofreleased
bears,includingthefrequencyanddurationofmonitoringefforts.
c. Criteriafordecidinghowtorespondtoanactualorperceivedconflictsituation
anddeterminingwhichsituationswarrantaresponse.
d. Optionsforresolvingtheconflict,includingdecisioncriteriaforeuthanizing
thebearorrelocatingit,andpotentialrelocationareas.
10) Evaluation
Periodicevaluationofreleaseprotocolsisanecessarysteptoensurethatrehabilitatorsare
usingprovenmethodstoraiseandreleasebearcubs.Asurveyofrehabilitationfacilities
indicatedthatwhilemanyofthefacilitiesusedverysimilarapproachestoraisingand
releasingorphanedbears,somemethodsdiffered.22Despitethis,mostfacilitiesreported
thatmanyoftheirreleasesweresuccessful.Asaresult,ascertainingthecriticalfactorsthat
determinethesuccessorfailureofindividualreleasesisoftendifficult.Bearsapparentlyare
geneticallyequippedtosurviveinthewildwithoutthebenefitoflearningessentialsurvival
skillsfromtheirmothers,butotherfactorsmayplayanimportantroleindeterminingthe
successorfailureofanygivenrelease.
Bears readily habituate to people. Therefore, rehabilitators need to take careful steps to
minimize contact between captive bears and people.
Biologistsandrehabilitatorsalsorecognizethatmanyhabitatvariablescaninfluencerelease
outcomes.Individualsreportingreleasefailureshavesuggestedthatexposingbearstolarge
numbersofpeople,raisingcubsinisolation(withnoopportunitytosocializewithother
cubs),andindividualbearpersonalitiesmayhavecontributedtothosefailures.Increased
cooperationamongrehabilitatorstodocumentmethodsforraisingandreleasingbears,in
�2
additiontomonitoringbears’fatesafterrelease,isneededtobetterunderstandthedynam-
icsbetweensuccessfulandfailedreleaseefforts.Evaluatingshort-andlong-termsuccess
indicatorsforallaspectsoftherehabilitationprocesswouldbehelpfulinrevisingrelease
protocolstoincreasethepotentialsuccessoffuturereleases.
X. Key Elements Associated with Successful Releases
Rehabilitatorsuseavarietyofmethodstoraiseorphanbearcubsforreleasebacktothe
wild.Inmanycasesthedifferencesarerelativelyminor,butsometimestheyaremajor.
Forexample,atleastonerehabilitationfacilitycompletelyscreenedthebearenclosureto
preventthebearsfromseeingtheircaretakersduringfeedingorotheractivitiesoccurringin
thegeneralareaoftheenclosure,whileotherfacilitiestooknostepstopreventbearsfrom
seeingtheircaretakersduringfeeding.Yetareviewofthefatesofreleasedbearsfoundno
detectabledifferenceinsuccessratesforfacilitiestakingthesetwodisparateapproaches.
Thesamewastrueforfacilitiesthatactivelydiscouragedhumancontactwithveryyoung
cubsandthosethatdidnotdiscouragecontactuntilafterweaning.Thisinformationsug-
geststhatbearsareveryflexibleintheirabilitytoadapttocaptivityforshortperiodsoftime
andstillremaingoodcandidatesforrelease.Despitesuchdifferences,manyrehabilitators
agreedsomefactorsareimportanttosuccessfullyreleasingbears.
Figure 22. RadiocollaredorphanbearwalkingthroughtheforestinIdaho.
�3
Key elements associated with successful releases include:
1) Minimizing the frequency of contact and number of caretakers, particularly after weaning.
2) Providing an opportunity for cubs to socialize with other bears while in captivity.
3) Releasing bears close to the age when family break-up occurs in the wild and with suffi-
cient fat reserves to sustain them during their initial adjustment period.
�) Releasing bears in good quality bear habitat.
�) Timing releases to coincide with the availability and abundance of natural foods.
6) Releasing bears when the probability of encountering people in the forest shortly after
their release is low.
��
APPENDIX A.
DEFINITIONS USED IN THE TEXT:
IUCN Definitions: 46
Re-introduction Anattempttoestablishaspeciesinanareathatwas
oncepartofitshistoricalrange,butfromwhichit
hasbeenextirpatedorbecomeextinct.
Re-establishment Asuccessfulre-introductionofaspecies.
Translocation Thedeliberateandmeditatedmovementofwildindi-
vidualstoanexistingpopulationofconspecifics.
Re-enforcementor Theadditionofindividualstoanexistingpopulation
ofSupplement conspecifics.
ConservationorBenign Anattempttoestablishaspecies,forthepurposesof
Introduction conservation,outsideitsrecordeddistributionarea
butwithinanappropriatehabitatoreco-geographical
area.
Definitions of Additional Terms:
WildlifeRehabilitation Treatmentandtemporarycareofinjured,diseased
and/ordisplacedindigenousanimals,andthesub-
sequentreleaseofhealthyanimalstoappropriate
habitatsinthewild.
Euthanasia Totakeawaylifeforahumanepurpose;theinduc-
tionofdeathwithminimalpain,stressoranxiety.
HardRelease Areleasemethodwherebyanimalsarereleaseddi-
rectlytothewildwithoutbenefitofacclimatizationto
thereleasearea.
��
SoftRelease Areleasemethodwherebyanimalsareconfinedin
thereleaseareaforaperiodoftimebeforerelease
intothewild.
Imprinting Alearningprocessthattakesplaceearlyinthelifeof
socialanimals,establishingabehaviorpatternsuch
asrecognitionoforattractionofconspecificsora
substitute.
Conspecific Ofthesamespecies.
Hibernate Topassthewinterinaninactiveordormantstate.
Hibernaculum Ashelteroccupiedduringthewinterbyadormant
animal.
Anthropogenic Relatingto,orresultingfrom,theinfluenceofhu-
mansonnature.
StereotypicBehaviors Behaviorsthatarerepetitive,invariantandwithout
obviousfunction.
Analgesia Insensibilitytopainwithoutlossofconsciousness
Anesthesia Absenceofnormalsensation,especiallysensitivitytopain,inducedbydrugs.
�6
APPENDIX B
SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF REFERENCED SPECIES
1. PandaBear Ailuropoda melanoleuca
2. AmericanBlackBear Ursus americanus
3. NorthAmericanBrownBear Ursus arctos horribilis
4. EuropeanBrownBear Ursus arctos arctos
5. AsiaticBlackBear Ursus thibetanus
6. SunBear Helarctos malayanus
7. AndeanBear Tremarctos ornatus
8. SlothBear Melursus ursinus
9. Tiger Panthera tigris
10.Leopard Panthera pardus
11.WoodlandCaribou Rangifer tarandus caribou
��
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Photo Credits: JohnBeecham–CoverandFigures2-6,10,11,13,20,21 EmreCan–Figures1,12 SergeyPazhetnov(IFAW)–Figures14,15,17 VictorWatkins(WSPA)–Figure8 DianeRonayne–Figures9,16,18,19,22 SallyMaughan–Figure7
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