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WD@RŶDJ
[UH@ 2
^HCAPAăID IDRPD KURH^K A WUAJKPD FKĞ[RDPOHL ^KRAH@D 0
OD[ID 4>
Eazaidcok zodohsta, fdtkfdtaid a chlaid 4>
Bahchlajd a tkhrajd lkod 42
Eachzheajd a mufdoastaĆik oduik 40
PKMOAID 4<
Ihfuoaidgajk, ſkcjkzoagd, gavacod dvajdgajd a duthfhbacsid ao`ustrajd 41
I[CP[RD 24
Od`rkdcazdf 2;
Iojaſkvohst a iucturd Whvjktsihl Wdvkzd 25
Iucturd ojkfdĆihl odrh`d u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u 21
Odgahodcod iucturd Wjk`aojkoam @rſdvd 7>
Eacf 70
[FJKPOHWP 0>
Drmatkiturd 07
OjkfdĆid ufjktohst a drmatkiturd u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u 0;
W^HRP 0<
Cjktok a zafsik Hcafpajsik alrk fkĔurdtohl pkrah`d 0<
Wvjktsid prvkostvd u eu`bdcu fkĔurdtohl pkrah`d ;4
ZDICJ[ăDI ;7
CAPKRDP[RD ;;
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[UH@
^krah` azfkĔu `vd svjktsid rdtd jk ph fohlh Ćkfu h`rk`ah a odlhvjkstah gavacazdgaju u
ihjhj `dods ſavafh. Ukcaia brhj masthraĆdrd astaĆk phtrkbu zd okprkstdoaf hsvrtdojkf idih od
`hldĔdjk ihja su hbacjkſaca hvdj brkfkoata pkrah`, tdih a od ojamhvk phcataĆik, kihohfsik,iucturok, vhjok a `rulk afpcaidgajk. Ukzk a zdihoathsta ihjk sk pra thfk uhĆdvdju h` vkcaihl su
zodĆdjd zd rdzufjkvdojk Ćhvjkihvhl odprktid a ojklhvam aotkozavoam h`ohsd u prhŤchsta,
okphsrk`oh h`rkĔujuČa ojklhvu pkrgkpgaju bu`uČohsta. Iucturod masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd
okazhstdvdo jk `ah tk scdldcagk jkr praidzujk Ćhvjkihv odphr `d smvdta skbk u svajktu a vrkfkou
u ihjkf ſava, `d rdzufajk rdzchlk svhld phsthjdojd a `d sk u thf ihotkistu h`rk`a idh cju`sih
baČk. OduĆod, tkmoaĆid, iucturod a sphrtsid `hstalouČd su svhjkvrsoh svjk`hĆdostvh, dca a
srk`stvh u thf Ćhvjkihvhf odsthjdoju. Hvdj rd` sk odfjkroh hlrdoaĆdvd od hsvjktcjdvdojk thldspkitd masthrajk fkĔurdtohl pkrah`d, d svk u odfjkra `d phscuſa idh svhjkvrstdo praidz
Ćhvjkihvhl smvdtdojd cju`sihl rh`d, `ruŤtvd, iucturk a prhŤchsta. [ catkrdtura ihju sdf ihrastah
pra azrd`a hvhl `a pchfsihl rd`d prkhvcd`dvd prk`stdvcjdojk masthrajk iucturohl a oduĆohl
rdzvhjd ĆhvjkĆdostvd idh prhgksd u ihfk su Ćaojkoagk svrstdok u h`rkĔkoa phrk`di u h`ohsu od
jk`do ‟uoavkrzdcoa–, hcaĆko u iuctura zkfdcjd Zdpd`ok Kvrhpk ihjk skbk va`k idh ohsahgk vkcaik
cabkrdcok trd`agajk, odscajkĔkok h` stdram Lrid prkih rkoksdosk. Hvdj prastup jk odjhĆataja u Ćktara
iojalk 5. svksid Masthrajk ĆhvjkĆdostvd ‗ Iucturoa a oduĆoa rdzvhj Ťtdfpdok ph` phirhvatkcjsthf
[OKWGH-d. H iuctura a ufjktohsta Kvrhpk fkĔurdtohl pkrah`d, idh a h caĆohstafd ihjk su ld
hbacjkſack, paŤk Do`rkj FatrhvaČ u svhjhj odlrdĔavdohj a vrajk`ohj iojaza Urkfk oktrpkcjavam ‗
^hcataĆid asthrajd vkcaiam `rſdvd Kvrhpk 4141-4171. FatrhvaČ jk oduĆoaf prastuphf tkſah
hbjkitavohsta a hschbdĔdoju h` a`khchlajk ihjd jk prkhvcd`dvdcd u `htd`dŤojhj julhschvkosihj
masthrajhlrdeaja. ăk`hfar ^hphv u svhf `jkcu H` Ukrsdjd `h @dogald vaŤk pdſojk phicdojd
kihohfsiaf, pravrk`oaf, phcataĆiaf a `kfhlrdesiaf Ćaoahgafd fkĔurdtohl pkrah`d,
uhĆdvdjuČa u ojafd uzrhĆoaik @rulhl svjktsihl rdtd. Wva ta edithra su u `arkitohj vkza sd
Ćhvjkihvaf iucturoaf a oduĆoaf strkfcjkojafd. Pmk Pafks hvajkst svajktd jk`oh jk h` odjbhcjam
acustrhvdoam phvjksta svajktd hbjdvcjkoh od jkzagafd odrh`d rklahod. Wd`rſa masthrajsik Ćaojkoagk,
acustrdgajk a ehthlrdeajk, lrdeaihok, dca a gatdtk irkdthrd phcataĆihl a iucturohl ſavhtd, d ihja
`hpraohsk bhcjkf rdzufjkvdoju umd a suŤtaok vrkfkod. Asthrajd ufjktohsta h` Mhrst \dc`kfdr
Jdoshod mrhohchŤia hbrdĔujk ufjktohst h` prdasthrajsik `h fh`krok, dca sd odlcdsihf od
ufjktohst Zdpd`d. Iojald ^hvajkst OjkfdĆik h` [ce @arcfkakr d jk praidz ojkfdĆik phvajksta
h` srk`ojkl vajkid `h sd`dŤojhsta. Hvd iojald, adih sk suhĆdvd a sd tdfoaf strdodfd ojkfdĆik
phvajksta, jk utkfkcjkod od prkfasa `d jk phvajkst, u aotkckitudcohf sfascu, prajk svkld
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svjk`hĆdostvh h vrkfkou u ihjkf odstdjk. [ce @arcfkakr, siupd sd `rulafd duthrafd ihja su
rd`aca od hvhj iojaza, irataĆia rdzfaŤcjd prkaspatujuČa okik vkČ ustdcjkok prktphstdvik. Iojald
Asthrajd Ůpdoajk duthrd Ek Bdjh Dcvdrksd a Asthrajd Rusajk duthrd Facjuihvd su zodĆdjok jkr
pruſdju `h`dtok aoehrfdgajk h `hldĔdjafd a pracaidfd u hvaf zkfcjdfd, d ihja afdju svhjk
afpcaidgajk od kvrhpsiu ruŤtvkoh- phcataĆiu rkdcohst u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u. @vajk iojalk ihjk
trktardju masthraju W jk`aojkoam @rſdvd, d ihjk sdf ihrastah pra azrd`a hvhl rd`d, su Asthrajd
Wjk`aojkoam DfkraĆiam @rſdvd h` Mkory Bkfehr` drisd a Asthrajd Wjk`aojkoam @rſdvd h` macap
Jkoiaosd. Hvd `ruld jk phskboh zodĆdjod zd hvdj rd` jkr u puoh vkČh j fjkra hscaidvd `umhvoa
dspkit a odĆao ſavhtd Dfkraidogd phsfdtrdo irhz prazfu vrkfkod a `hldĔdjd ihja su hbacjkſaca
asthraju Wjk`aojkoam @rſdvd. Iojald rva svjktsia rdt a phscajkrdtod Kurhpd (4140-4175) h` Koragh
Grdvktth jk azuzktoh vrajk`oh a hbafoh `jkch ihjk `h u `ktdcjk hpasujk `hldĔdjk h` 4140. `h
4175. lh`aok dodcazardjuČa ojamhvk uzrhik a phscjk`agk u masthrajsih- phcataĆihf sfascu. Iojald
@ſhod Rhbkrtsd, Kvrhpd 4==>-410; jk, adih ok sd`rſk `hvhcjoh aoehrfdgajd h oduĆoaf a
iucturoaf irktdojafd u fkĔurdohf pkrah`u, azuzktoh zodĆdjod zd rdzufjkvdojk pracaid a
vrkfkod azfkĔu `vd svjktsid rdtd. Asthrajd eacfd 4, duthrd @kjva`d D. Iuid hbrdĔujk eacf h`
ojklhvam odstdodid h @rulhl svjktsihl rdtd a th sd masthrajsihl a tkhrktsihl dspkitd, h`vdjdjuČa
kvrhpsik odgahodcok eacfsik ao`ustrajk a dfkraĆiu eacfsiu ao`ustraju. PdihĔkr sdf ihrastah a
`jkcd: HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK u 7 thfd a Iojaſkvohst h` @r. Pvrtid ăubkcaČd, idh a
okihcaih struĆoam aotkrokt strdoagd od kolcksihf jkzaiu. Zd phlcdvcjk Wphrt azfkĔu vd svjktsid
rdtd ihrastah sdf sk `vjkfd iojaldfd Fdrajdod BhrŤaČd, H` Dtkok h Dtkok a Alrk soajkld a ck`d,
idh a iojalu Wd hcafpajsiam bhr acaŤtd duthrd Bhrk IrdlujkvaČd, ihjd jk phskboh zodĆdjod jkr
sd`rſa hsvrt od dotaĆik phĆktik hcafpajsiam aldrd, idh a brhjok, fdojk phzodtk hihcohsta ihjk
prdtk hcafpajsid tdifaĆkojd.
Rd` sdf ph`jkcah u pkt h`vhjkoam gjkcaod a th: oduid, tkmoaid, iucturd, ufjktohst a sphrt,
az`vdjdjuČa u ojafd hoh Ťth sk sdfh odfkČk idh odjzodĆdjoajk hbrdĔujuČa ld ph` phskboaf
ph`odschvhf. PdihĔk sdf az`vhjah a hoh Ťth jk idrditkrastaid iucturok asthrajk h`rkĔkoam odrh`d
a `ajkchvd svajktd, d Ťth jk hstdvach phskbdo pkĆdt h`rkĔujuČa tdih `dcja rdzvhj ĆhvjkĆdostvd a
phvajksta. Gacj fhl apchfsihl rd`d jk `d praidſk lcdvod oduĆod, tkmoaĆid, iucturod, ufjktoaĆid
a sphrtsid `hstalouČd u pkrah`u azfkĔu `vd svjktsid rdtd, hsvjktcjdvdjuČa u fjkra u ihjhj jk th
fhluČk u apchfsihf rd`u, idih prhŤchst tdih a bu`uČohst az ulcd td`dŤojkl Ćhvjkid. IhrastkČa
saotkzu idh a mrhohchŤia prastup tru`ah sdf sk praidzdta oduĆod a iucturod strkfcjkojd, idh a
vazaju ĆhvjkĆdostvd u hvhf vrkfkosia irdtihf, dca ph odprktiu a hldĔdjafd bhldthf pkrah`u
Ćhvjkihvk asthrajk.
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^HCAPAăID IDRPD KURH^K A WUAJKPD FKĞ[RDPOHL KRAH@D
Okiho ‟Ukcaihl rdtd– kvrhpsih `hbd jk ustupach fjksth `hbu svjktsik gavacazdgajk.
DfkraĆid hbjdvd rdtd 414<. lh`aok prktvhracd jk kvrhpsia suihb u svjktsia rdt, `hi jk bhcjŤkvaĆid
rkvhcugajd u Rusaja ph`jkcacd svajkt od vd a`khchŤia suprhstdvcjkod tdbhrd. ăktr`kskt lh`aod prajk^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd rdzvajd sk fkĔuodrh`od trlhvaod a prhthi idpatdcd, Ťth jk prdČkoh
falrdgajdfd. ^hfhrsia putkva a tkcklrdesik ſagk su phvkzdck ihotaokotk, d ſkcjkzoagk
uoutrdŤojhst s cuidfd. OhvĆdod srk`stvd az Kvrhpk a Wjk`aojkoam @rſdvd, phskboh trlhvaod
Ukcaik Bratdoajk, Erdogusik, Bkclajk a Mhcdo`ajk sd ojamhvaf ihchoajdfd, utaĆu od kihohfsia
odprk`di. Ojamhva prheata su baca kohrfoa, d u zdvasoaf ihchoajdfd jk uoaŤtkod prhazvh`ojd zbhl
uvhzd. Ukcaid Bratdoajd jk `h phĆktid ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd afdcd vh`kČu uchlu u svjktsihj
kihohfaja, d Cho`ho jk bah eaodosajsia gkotdr svajktd.4
Zkfcjk sjkvkrok a srk`ojk Kvrhpk, idhodjvdſoajk ao`ustrajsih ph`ruĆjk td`dŤojk kphmk, su prk` rva svjktsia rdt `rſdck prafdt u h`ohsu
od Wjk`aojkok @rſdvk u phlck`u oavhd ao`ustrajsik prhazvh`ojk.2 Rusajd jk vcd`dcd hlrhfoaf
prhstrdostvhf gkotrdcok, sjkvkrok a sjkvkrhasthĆok Dzajk. FkĔutaf, Rusih gdrstvh sk rdspdch
odiho rkvhcugajk u ekbrudru 414<. lh`aok a db`aidgajk gdrd Oaihck AA. 7 Cabkrdca a ufjkrkoa
shgajdc-`kfhi rdta su phiuŤdvdca usphstdvata pdrcdfkotdr azdf, dca su u hithbru Ckojaohva
bhcjŤkvaga usphstdvaca aitdturu, ihjd jk prkſavjkcd vhjou aotkrvkogaju, lrdĔdosia rdt a kihohfsiu
irazu, tk stvhraca prvu svjktsiu ihfuoastaĆiu rſdvu Whvjktsia Wdvkz. BhcjŤkvaga su baca uvjkrkoa
`d Čk ojamhvd rkvhcugajd phirkouta htphr strdohf afpkrajdcastaĆihf phrktiu Ťarhf Kvrhpk, tk d
Čk gajkca svajkt, ok sdfh Rusajd, irkouta ohvaf prdvgkf.0 Whvjktsia Wdvkz jk stvhrko ph`
vhĔstvhf bhcjŤkvaid 4122. lh`aok a uicjuĆavdh jk svk ohvhodstdck sdfhstdcok ihfuoastaĆik
`rſdvk od asthiu hsaf Fholhcajk. [ OjkfdĆihj jk rkvhcugajd u ohvkfbru 414=. lh`aok stvhracd
4 [cdldojd Ukcaik Bratdoajk su bacd vhstruih vkČd h` ucdldojd odjbcaſkl ihoiurkotd Erdogusik, d pkt putd vkČd h`ucdldojd Wjk`aojkoam @rſdvd. Lkheerky Bdrrdgchulm ‗ Ragmdr` Hvkry, Pmk Pafks ^hvajkst svajktd, MKOD GHF,
Zdlrkb 2>>2., 2;;.2
OjkfdĆid, Ukcaid Bratdoajd a Erdogusid su phsjk`hvdck <>% uiupoam ao`ustrajsiam idpdgatktd stdrhl ihotaokotd.^rhazvh`ack su hih =>% svjktsik prhazvh`ojk Ćkcaid, fdŤaod a mkfaidcajd, tk 17% prhazvh`ojk ulcjd. Ph af jkhfhluČach a `hfaodgaju u phlck`u svjktsik trlhvaok. OdjvkČd ihchoajdcod bhldtstvd afdcd jk Ukcaid Bratdoajd Ćaja
phsjk` jk bah zd 40> putd vkČa h` fktrhphck. Bklajd jk afdcd ihchoajdcoh bhldtsvh ihjk jk bach => putd vkČk h`ojkok tkrathrajk. ^hsjk` Mhcdo`ajk jk bah 5> putd, d Erdogusik 2> putd vkČa h` ojamhvk tkrathrajk. ăk`hfar ^hphv,H` Ukrsdjd `h @dogald, Ohcat, Bkhlrd` 41<5., 4;.7 ^dvck Facjuihv ‗ Ů. Wkojhbhs ‗ C. Kzkofdo, Asthrajd Rusajk, Odrh`od iucturd, Bkhlrd` 4171., 174.0 AfpkrajdcastaĆia std`aj idpatdcazfd jk kphmd u ihjkf su svk afpkrajdcastaĆik zkfcjk prhŤck irhz ao`ustrajsiurkvhcugaju a zdphĆkck pravrk`oa prkhbrdſdj ihja okia asthraĆdra odzavdju `rulhf ao`ustrajsihf rkvhcugajhf. ^rvd jk
hzodĆacd uvhĔkojk fdŤaok u prhazvh`oju, d `ruld uvhĔkojk ohvam phlhosiam fdtkrajdcd: odetd, bkozao a kckitragatkt,
idh a uvhĔkojk fhthrd sd uoutrdŤojaf sdlhrajkvdojkf. Ckojao jk afpkrajdcazdf hzodĆah idh ‟odjvaŤa std`ajidpatdcazfd–. FkĔutaf, `hbd afpkrajdcazfd, ihjk ph okiafd trdjk h` schfd Bazfdrihvhl sastkfd fkĔuodrh`oamh`ohsd pd `h ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd, afd `ubcjk ihrjkok. Hoa sk fhlu trdſata a u prhfhvasdoju afpkrajdcastaĆik
tkfdtaik u iuctura a hbaĆdjafd, id`d jk u Ťtdfpa a iojaſkvohsta uprdvcjdojk ‟okgavacazhvdoaf– odrh`afd prk`stdvcjdoh u odjbhcjkf svjktcu. Koragh Grdvktth, hvajkst 45: rva svjktsia rdt a phscajkrdtod Kurhpd (4140-4175),
Jutdroja cast, Zdlrkb 2>>=., 7>.
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prktphstdvik zd `kfhirdtsih urkĔkojk a stvdrdojk Udjfdrsik rkpubcaik, odiho Ťth su prhpdca
phiuŤdja vcd`k a Gdrd Uacmkcfd AA `d uvk`u pdrcdfkotdrou fhodrmaju.; Rkvhcugajd, ihjd jk
phĆkcd u Iakcu prhŤaracd sk u gajkchj OjkfdĆihj, d u Faomkou a Brkcaou jk phtdicd stvdrdojk
rkvhcugahodroam phirktd, hsoavdo jk rd`oaĆiam a vhjoaĆiam vajkČd, tk lkokrdcoa Ťtrdji.5 Odrh` jk
strdmhvdh h` prktvdrdojd phirktd u irvdva rd`aidcoa prkvrdt, afdjuČa prk` hĆafd pracaik u
Rusaja.< ^drcdfkotdroa azbhra 41. jdoudrd 4141. lh`aok, idh a hohŤkojk Udjfdrsihl ustdvd 74.
jucd 4141. lh`aok, su sprajkĆaca hpŤta mdhs u OjkfdĆihj.=
Ukcaid Bratdoajd a Erdogusid su uĆvr stack svh j phchſdj ihchoajdcoam sacd stagdojkf ohvam
bcasihasthĆoam tkrathrajd a kispdozajhf u Deraga. Ph af jk hfhluČacd Cald odrh`d ihjd jk u hbcaiu
fdo`dtd rdz`jkcacd bavŤk ojkfdĆik a hsfdosik phsjk`k phbjk`oaĆiaf sacdfd. Ph jk azdzvdch
vkcaih okzd`hvhcjstvh u Hsfdosihf gdrstvu ihjk jk ubrzh prkrdsch u htphr prhtav hiupdgahoamsodld, dca a prhtav suctdohvd rkſafd. Od Ćkcu phirktd baca su vhjoa irulhva a ojamhv vhĔd Fustded
Ikfdc, ihja su hsohvdca odgahodcou vcd`u. Wuihb jk phtrdjdh h 4127. lh`aok id`d jk ohvd vcd`d
azbhracd azfjkou Ukrsdjsihl farhvohl ulhvhrd phvrdtavŤa Pursihj ihotrhcu od` fhrsiaf
prhcdzafd Bhsehrhf a @dr`dokcafd, gajkchf Fdchf Dzajhf a asthĆohf Prdiajhf. Okihcaih
fjkskga idsoajk jk sruŤko suctdodt a prhlcdŤkod Rkpubcaid Pursid. Klapdt jk phstdh okzdvasdo
4122. lh`aok, odiho Ťth jk 4141. lh`aok strdoid ‟\de`– hrldoazhvdcd hpŤtkodrh`oa ustdodi.
FkĔutaf, Ukcaid Bratdoajd jk apdi zd`rſdcd vkcaia utagdj a vhjou vcdst u Klaptu. [ ^dckstaoa su
Bratdoga hbkČdca phfhČ u stvdrdoju ſa`hvsik `rſdvk. Odiho `hcdsid Matckrd od vcdst u
OjkfdĆihj, ſa`hvsih odskcjdvdojk jk `hvkch `h sodſoam dotabratdosiam okrk`d ihja Čk
iucfaoardta hpŤtaf drdpsiaf ustdoihf 4175-4171 lh`aok. [ Waraja a Cabdou ustdoaga su u `vd
odvrdtd astagdca zdmtjkvk zd okzdvasohŤČu h` Erdogusik, a th 412;-412< a 4107-410;. [ `rulaf
kvrhpsiaf ihchoajdfd vd`ksktk lh`aok 2>. sthcjkČd oasu back tdih okfarok. [ ihchoajdfd ihjk
su afdck sdfhuprdvu, d back su vkČaohf odskcjkok bajkcgafd, h` 4141. lh`aok odlch jdĆd
; ^hiuŤdja vcd`k a Gdrd Uacmkcfd AA, phĆkvŤa h` 414<. lh`aok, a`u u prdvgu uvhĔko jd pdrcdfkotdrohl sastkfd
vcd`dojd u gdrstvu. FkĔutaf, td hbkČdojd su `hŤcd prkidsoh, idh a `hohŤkojk h`rk`bk h uvhĔkoju pdrcdfkotdrok
fhodrmajk 2=. hithbrd 414=. (hithbdrsik rkehrfk). @rſdvoa idogkcdr praog Fdisafacajdo Bd`kosia, ihja sk odcdzah
od Ćkcu faoastdrsihl vajkČd, jk s ojkfdĆik strdok phscdh phou`u Uacshou zd prafarjk a sicdpdojk fard, prasacah
hicajkvdjuČkl Uacmkcfd AA `d h`stupa, tk jk idh phscjk`oja scuſbkoa Ćao 1. ohvkfbrd 414=. svhju `uſohst `rſdvohlidogkcdrd prkoah od Era`ramd Kbkrtd. [ce @arcfkakr , ^hvajkst OjkfdĆik, BDRBDP, ZDLRKB 4111., 2>5. 5 Ihfdo`d fhrodragk, ihjd jk farhvdcd u Iakcu, jk odfjkrdvdcd prhvksta ulh vrkfkod sfaŤcjdoa pcdo vrŤkČa sodſdo
prh`hr, idi h ba u zd`ojaf trkougafd rdtd phbhcjŤdcd ojkfdĆiu phzagaju. hsd`k su sk phbuoack odzavdjuČa ph`umvdt putkf u sfrt. Wdoigajk prkfd fhrodrafd zbhl phbuok su vaŤk zdhŤtrdvdck satudgaju, Ťth jk `hvkch `h svkhpŤtkl
prkvrdtd u gdrstvu. [ce @arcfkakr, ^hvajkst OjkfdĆik, 2>5. < OjkfdĆid ihfuoastaĆid pdrtajd I^@ jk odstdcd az Wdvkzd Wpdrtdi irdjkf 414=. lh`aok d ihja sk zdcdldh zd
rkpubcaiu sdvjktd ph` pdrhchf ‟svd vcdst sdvjktafd–. Asth, 2>1.
= Wuihba u Bkrcaou, Wdishoaja, Parcaolaja a rursihj hbcdsta 4141/2>. su caĆaca od lrdĔdosia rdt, d phiuŤdj puĆd 47.fdrtd 412>. lh`aok h` strdok `ksoam kistrkfastd, prk`vhĔkoam asthĆoh-prusiaf `arkithrhf Idphf a ‟hgkferd jihrd– lkokrdchf eho Cutvaghf, phidzdtkcj jk okstdbacohsta phcataĆiam pracaid. Asth, 24>.
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odgahodcoa a`kotatkt. Pd zkfcjk, h` 41><. lh`aok zvdok @hfaoahoa, aosastardju od h`rkĔavdoju
ojamhvhl stdtusd okzdvasoam zkfdcjd u sdstdvu bratdosihl Ihfhovkctd.1 Wjk`aojkok @rſdvk a
Whvjktsia Wdvkz svk jdĆk irataiuju ihchoajdcazdf, d htphr uoutdr ihchoajd vh`k hbrdzhvdoa cju`a
trdſkČa odgahodcou okzdvasohst. Odiho ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd u Ao`aja a Klaptu jdĆdju phirkta zd
hschbdĔdojkf h` bratdosik ihchoajdcok vcdsta, d phjdĆdh sk htphr a u Arsihj.4> UhĔd svkao`ajsihl
odgahodcohl iholrksd Fdmdtfd Ldo`a phtdiouh jk, h` 414=. lh`aok, bhrbu zd ao`ajsiu
sdfhuprdvu, zdlhvdrdjuČa pdsavoa htphr (sdtyrdlmd).44
Pra`ksktam lh`aod jk `hŤch `h ohvk prhvdck afpkrajdcazfd.42 Ph jk bah phvh` `d Cald
odrh`d, irhz svhj fdo`dtoa sastkf, uvk`k praogap fkĔuodrh`ok h`lhvhrohsta u ihchoajdcoaf
suihbafd Ťth, zdjk`oh sd bratdosiaf phafdojkf stdtusd ihchoajd idh `hfaoahod, `hvh`a `h
prastupd ihchoajdcohj vcdsta idh okĆkfu pravrkfkohf a hlrdoaĆkohf. Ukcaid kihohfsid irazd jk azdzvdcd hpŤtk phrkfkČdjk uzrhiujuČa okrk`k Ťth sk h`rdſdvd od scdbu kihohfaju u
ihchoajdfd. @h 4171. lh`aok hcdza h odgahodcohl buĔkojd u Dzaja a sjkvkrohj Deraga, d phjdvd
ohvam odgahodcoam vhĔd (Wuidroh u Ao`hokzaja, Okmru u Ao`aja a Burlabd u Puoasu) jdĆd
dotaihchoajdcoh rdsphchſkojk. Afpkrajdcod gdrstvd su bacd ulrhſkod svk vkČaf phcataĆiaf a
shgajdcoaf suihbhf iucturoh a odgahodcoh hsvjkŤtkoam odrh`d prhtav ihchoazdthrsiam vcdsta Ćajd
vcd`dvaod Čk bata uoaŤtkod tki @rulaf svjktsiaf rdthf.47 Rkehrfk u Iaoa su zdphĆktk
`kvk`ksktam lh`aod 41. sthc jkČd Ťth `hvh`a `h ruŤkojd stdrhl `aodstaĆihl sastkfd ihja jk vcd`dh
2>>> lh`aod uvh`kČa Iaou u rdz`hbcjk surhvk uoutrdŤojk dodrmajk.40 Odiho rvhl svjktsihl rdtd
`hŤch jk `h phrdstd rkvhcugahodrohl `jkchvdojd phtdiouthl odrh`oaf okzd`hvhcjstvhf, dca a
zbhl okzd`hvhcjstvd h`rk`bdfd pdraŤik farhvok ihoekrkogajk ihjd jk uĆvrstacd jdpdosia phchſd j
1 Zd Bratdogk, idih jk azjdvah @kjva` Chj` @ſhr`ſ, ‟Bratdosih Irdcjkvstvh oajk phjdf oklh ſavuČd sacd od ihjutrkbd rdĆuodta–. Bdrdgchulm ‗ Hvkry, Pmk Pafks ^hvajkst svajktd, 2;=.4> Ukcaid Bratdoajd jk `dcd stdtus `hfaoahod ohvhj `rſdva ehrfardohj u juſohf `ajkcu Arsik. Asth, 2;1. 44 Fdmdtfd Ldo`a jk vh`ah idfpdoju bhjihtd bratdosihl uvhzd pdfuid h` 412>-4122, tk phirkt h`bajdojd sdrd`ojk
s Bratdogafd a lrdĔdosik okphscuŤohsta 417>-4174 a 4172-4170, idh a phirkt ‟odpustatk Ao`aju– 4102. lh`aok. Asth.42 Jdpdo jk 4174. lh`aok zduzkh Fdo`ſuraju prktvdrdjuČa jk jdpdosiu fdrahoktsiu `rſdvu Fdo`ſuih ihjhf jk
vcd`dh Dasao @ſahrh ukj, phscjk`oja gdr az aodstajk Fd`ſu. Wcjk`kČam 5 lh`aod Jdpdo jk odstdvah s hsvdjdojkf svk
vkČam ph`ruĆjd u Iaoa ihrastkČa ojkou phcataĆiu rdzjk`aojkohst. Atdcajd jk 417;-4175 hsvhjacd Ktahpaju, tk sk suhĆhcdsd sodſoaf htphrhf u sjkvkrohj Deraga idh a Erdogusid u Puoasu, Dcſaru a Fdrhiu. [ oazhzkfsihj AsthĆohj Ao`ajarkvhcugahodroa phirkta phĆaoju s ihfuoastaĆiaf ustdoihf 4125. lh`aok. [ Ao`hiaoa Čk 4104. lh`aok `hČa `hokfard a stvdrdojd lkracsik hrldoazdgajk ph` odzavhf Uakt Faom od Ćkcu sd Mh Ůa Faohf. Asth.47 [ Rdsprdva h ihchoajdcazfu, 41;>. lh`aok Kfa Wazkr (Dafk Gksdark) astaĆk: ‟Lhvhrk fa h odprktiu,
phstalouČafd, azcajkĆkoaf bhckstafd, phbhcjŤdohf ſavhtohf stdo`dr`u. Jd lhvhraf h `ruŤtvafd caŤkoaf ojamhvk bata, zldſkoaf iucturdfd, uoaŤtkoaf ustdohvdfd, zdpcajkojkohj zkfcja, uoaŤtkoaf rkcalajdfd, uoaŤtkoafvkcaĆdostkoaf ufjktoaĆiaf jkcafd a uoaŤtkoaf azvdork`oaf fhluČohstafd.– Gat. prkfd Bdrdgchulm ‗ Hvkry, Pmk
Pafks ^hvajkst svajktd, 2;1.40 Rkpubcaid Iaod jk hsohvdod 4142. lh`aok odiho rkvhcugajk ihjd jk azbacd 4144. lh`aok. @ſhuo Ůa-Idj jk idh
odjfhČoaja lkokrdc stdrhl phrktid, zdfjkoah prvhl pravrkfkohl iaoksihl prk`sjk`oaid, prazodh jdpdosiu vcdstaod` Ůdotuolhf, Fdo`ſurajhf a uoutrdŤojhf Fholhcajhf (tkrathrajdfd ihjk jk Jdpdo pralrdbah pracaihf azbajdojd
^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd). Bdrdgchulm ‗ Hvkry, Pmk Pafks ^hvajkst svajktd, 25>.
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u Ůdotuolu. Jdpdo jk uspah usvhjata fh`krou tkmohchlaju a azbjkČa kihohfsiu zdvasohst, idh a
kispdozahoastaĆih upcatdojk zdpd`oam sacd, prhvhĔkojkf phcataik brzk fh`kroazdgajk irdjkf 41.
sthcjkČd. FkĔutaf, stdohvoaŤtvh Jdpdod sk odlch phvkČdvdch pd jk phsthjdh pratasdi zd
tkrathrajdcoaf Ťarkojkf, d ok`hstdtdi sarhvaod phtrkboam zd rdzvhj ao`ustrajk `h`dtoh jdĆd
kispdozahoastaĆik tkſojk. Uhjsid afd svk vdſoaju uchlu u jdpdosihj phcataga, `hi jk jdpdosia gdr
Marhmath phstdh sdfh ealurd u ruidfd facatdrastaĆiam irulhvd.
^hbjk`oaga az ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd su sk sdstdca u Ukrsdju, u jdoudru 4141. lh`aok.
DfkraĆia prk`sjk`oai Phfds Uu`rh Uacsho sk od`dh usphstdvcjdoju trdjohl fard a cabkrdcok
`kfhirdtsik Kvrhpk, sdstdvcjkok h` odgahodcoam `rſdvd. FkĔutaf, Erdoguza su ſkcjkca idzoata
OjkfdĆiu a sprajkĆata hſavcjdvdojk ojkok fhČa, d Atdcajd, Wrbajd a Rufuoajd su trdſack tkrathrajdcok
ustupik. Rkzuctdt jk bah zbrido ihfprhfas. ^hrdſkok zkfcjk su back hŤtrh idſojkok, d ojamhvktkrathrajk rdsihfd`dok.4; Zdth sk phcataĆid okstdbacohst a odsacjk phscajkrdtoam lh`aod fhſk
prapasdta lhrihf odscajkĔu Ukrsdjsihl farhvohl sphrdzufd.45 Prkbdck su 0 lh`aok `d ba sk
sphrdzuf `hvrŤah, d sdfh prhfjkohf rusik (phscajk shvjktsik lrdoagk) jk odstdch pkt ohvam
`rſdvd: Eaosid, Ksthoajd, Cdtvajd, Catvd a ^hcjsid, ihjd jk stvhrkod odiho hlhrĆkoam bhrba s
ohvhf shvjktsihf vhjsihf od asthiu a ojkfdĆiaf odgahodcastaĆiaf sodldfd od zdpd`u.4<
Pkrathrajk okid`dŤojk Dustrh-[ldrsik fhodrmajk su ph`jkcjkok od Dustraju, FdĔdrsiu, hcjsiu,
Atdcaju, Rufuoaju a ăkmhschvdĆiu. [ jk`aojkojkf irdtihtrdjok @rſdvk Wchvkodgd, Mrvdtd a Wrbd,
ihjd jk odstdcd od juſohschvkosiaf ph`ruĆjafd Dustrh-[ldrsik fhodrmajk, sd Irdcjkvaohf
Wrbajhf odstdcd jk Irdcjkvaod Wrbd Mrvdtd a Wchvkodgd. Facahoa Kvrhpcjdod su baca prhtjkrdoa aca
su phbjklca h` ulojktdvdojd. Ohvk `rſdvk su back stvhrkok od icafdvaf tkfkc jafd odgahodcohl
sdfhh`rkĔkojd `hi od fohlaf ph`ruĆjafd odgahodcok tkſojk oasu back zd`hvhcjkok.4= Kvrhphf
jk `hfaoardcd Erdogusid, odjjdĆk odhruſdod `rſdvd od svajktu `vd`ksktam lh`aod. Erdogusid jk
zdjk`oh sd Ukcaihf Bratdoajhf afdcd icjuĆou uchlu u vhĔkoju Calk odrh`d ihjd jk hsohvdod
4; OjkfdĆid vhjsid jk bacd hlrdoaĆkod od 4>> >>>, dustrajsid od 7> >>>, d fdĔdrsid od 7; >>> vhjoaid. Bdrdgchulm
‗ Hvkry, Pmk Pafks ^hvajkst svajktd, 257.45 @hidz thfk jk a azjdvd Uu`rh Uacshod azrkĆkod pracaihf prklhvhrd u Ukrsdju 4141. lh`aok: ‟ Ok sfajkfh svhjaf
okprajdtkcjafd odfktouta oaŤtd Ťth ba sk fhlch sfdtrdta okprdvk`oaf. (...) OdŤd ba odjvkČd lrkŤid bacd `dta jhj(OjkfdĆihj) vdcjdok rdzchlk zbhl ihjam ba jk`ohl `dod fhlcd tkſata hsvkta.– Gat. prkfd K. Grdvktth, ^rva svjktsia
rdt a phscajkrdtod Kurhpd (4140-4175), 20;.4< Ukcaid Bratdoajd jk asihrastacd oksulcdsagk Ůvk`sik a Eaosik hih Dcdo`siam hstrvd od Bdctaiu, d ihjd su prapdcdEaosihj od hsohvu rusih-eaosihl farhvohl ulhvhrd u Jurjkvu 40. hithbrd 412>. lh`aok. Ukcaid Bratdoajd jk
odfktoucd Eaosihj hbdvkzu phtpuok `kfacatdrazdgajk hvam hstrvd, zd`rſdvdjuČa skba prdvh `d am bkz phscjk`agdhiupard u scuĆdju suihbd s Rusajhf. ă. ^hphv, H` Ukrsdjd `h @dogald, 4;>.4= MdbsburŤid fhodrmajd jk sprajkĆdvdcd kispdozahoastaĆik tkſojk vkcaiam sacd prkfd julhasthĆohj Kvrhpa, prkfd
Ćajaf odrh`afd jk a sdfd bacd okprajdtkcjsia odstrhjkod. FkĔutaf, Dustrh-[ldrsid jk bacd phtkogajdcoa sdvkzoai tamodrh`d ok`hpuŤtdjuČa prh`hr `rulam vkcksacd. Ojkoaf okstdoihf odstdh jk phcataĆia vdiuf ihja su odjvaŤk h`rdzahod fdck odrh`k a ktoaĆik fdojaok. K. Grdvktth, ^rva svjktsia rdt a phscajkrdtod Kurhpd (4140-4175), 20;.
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412>. lh`aok idh tajkch zd prhvhĔkojk fard u svajktu. Erdogusia gacj jk bah stvhrata sastkf ‟hpŤtk
salurohsta– idh zdŤtatu h` hbohvk ojkfdĆik fhČa.41 FkĔutaf, hĆkiavdojd `d Čk Kvrhpd pralrcata
`kfhirdtaju idh tkfkcj sdrd`ojk sruŤkod su okfhluČohŤČu cabkrdcoam phcataĆdr d `d hbuz`dju
kihohfsiu irazu a shgajdcoa suihb u scdbaf pdrcdfkotdroaf sastkfafd, idh a usphohf
shgajdcazfd a rkvhcugahodroaf `jkchvdojkf kvrhpsiam ihfuoastd.2> [ Atdcaja su azfkĔu 4122. a
4125. lh`aok Fushcaoa a edŤastaĆid strdoi d stdvaca kfhirdtaju asiuŤkojk, hi jk u Ůpdoaja ^rafh
@k Ravkrd 4127. lh`aok odfktouh vhjou vcdst.24 Odiho irdtihl rkpubcaidosihl rdz`hbcjd
azfkĔu 4174. a 4175. lh`aok lkokrdc Erdogasih Erdoih Bdmdfho`k jk odfktouh svhju
`aitdturu. ^h` ojklhvaf vhĔstvhf sk phbuoacd vhjsid prhtav Rkpubcaik prhlcdŤkok 4174.
lh`aok.22 R kzuctdt jk bah lrdĔdosia rdt azfkĔu odgahodcastaĆik `ksoagk a c jkvagk cabkrdcd a
shgajdcastd ihja jk safbhcazhvdh Ťaru bhrbu azfkĔu edŤastd a ihfuoastd jkr su Matckr a Fushcaoa
phscdca phfhČ Erdoi u, d Wtdcjao phfdldh cjkvaga. ^d` Idtdchoajk a Fd`ra`d u prhcjkČk 4171.
lh`aok zodĆah jk ihodĆou Erdoi hvu phbjk`u u suihbu ihja jk h`oah 5>> >>> ſavhtd.27 [
^hcjsihj, Dustraja, bdctaĆiaf `rſdvdfd, Julhscdvaja, FdĔdrsihj, Rufuoaja, Buldrsihj a LrĆihj
`kfhirdtajd jk bacd hlrdoaĆkod, d usthcaĆkoa su odgahodcastaĆia rkſafa tkfkcjkoa od irdcjkvhj
`aitdtura, vhjohf u`dru aca jk`ohstrdodĆihj vcdsta. ădi su sk a `kfhirdtajk odŤck od u`dru. [
Arsihj jk irvdv lrdĔdosia rdt `hvkh `h stvdrdojd Okzdvasok `rſdvk Arsik a rdsia`d Dolch-Arsihl
sdvkzd. [ Bratdoaja jk hpŤta Ťtrdji 4125. lh`aok azdzvdh hŤtdr shgajdcoa suihb. [ Erdogusihj jk
suihb azfkĔu cjkvagk a `ksoagk `hvkh `h svk vkČkl odsacjd ihjk jk iucfaoardch upd`hf u
erdogusia pdrcdfkot 4170. lh`aok a zbdgavdojkf vcd`k.20 ^d apdi, `kfhirdtajd sk uprihs
prkvardojafd hĆuvdcd u U. Bratdoaja, Erdogusihj, dca a u ăkmhschvdĆihj. FkĔutaf, irazd 4121.
lh`aok jk tkŤih phlh`acd OjkfdĆiu stvhravŤa kihohfsia mdhs s ihjaf sk vcd`d Udjfdrsik
rkpubcaik oajk fhlcd ohsata.2; ^h`rŤid ihfuoastafd sk u`vhstruĆacd, dca su sk facahoa Oajkfdgd
41 Wastkf ‟hpŤtk salurohsta– jk bah phvrŤdo. Cald odrh`d oajk afdcd `hlhvhrkok prhgk`urk zd prhvhĔkojksphrdzufd, d oa vhjou ph`rŤiu. Whvjktsia Wdvkz jhj sk pra`ruſah tki 4170. lh`aok, `hi su sk Wjk`aojkok @rſdvk
h`back pra`ruſata. Ůpdoajd jk phohvh phstdcd Ćcdo 412=. lh`aok. @ſ. F. Rhbkrts, Kvrhpd 4==>-410;, 71>.2> Od irdju rvhl svjktsihl rdtd shgajdcoa okfara su zdmvdtaca zdpd`ou Kvrhpu, i hfuoazdf sk phjdvah u FdĔdrsihj`hi jk OjkfdĆihj a `rulaf zkfcjdfd asthĆok Kvrhpk jdĆdh. FkĔutaf, rkvhcugajk azvdo Rusajk uluŤkok su u irva ,dca su sk prhŤar ack prkih srk`ojk Dzajk u Iaou l`jk jk 4124. lh`aok stvhrkod IhfuoastaĆid pdrtajd.24 Lkokrdc Falukc ^rafh `k Ravkrd jk 47. skptkfbrd 4127. lh`aok azvrŤah vhjoa u`dr prhtav vcd`k u Bdrskchoa uĆkfu su ld ph`rſdca sva vhjoa ldroazhoa u zkfcja. Cabkrdcod vcd`d Ldrsajk ^rajktd sk oajk suprhstdvcjdcd vhjohf
u`dru pd jk irdcj prk`dh vcdst ^rafu `k Ravkra. Ek Bdjh Dcvdrks ‗ Jucah Lac ^kgmdrrhfdo, Asthrajd Ůpdoajk, Gcah,Bkhlrd` 2>>7., 2>=.22 Irdcj Dcehosh ]AAA jk 40. dpracd 4174. lh`aok htaŤdh u klzac odiho Ćkld jk phĆkch scdvcjk zbhl usphstdvcjdojd@rulk rkpubcaik. Hod jk prkiaoucd trd`agahodcoh phasthvjkČavdojk `rſdvk a RafhidthcaĆik grivk a urk`acd vjkrsih`jkchvdojk. Asth, 240.27 Lkokrdc Erdosasih Erdoih jk hjdĆdh svhju `rſdvu zdihoafd a aostatugajdfd u ihjafd sk prkpcatdh idpatdcastaĆiatrd`agahodcazdf sd odĆkcafd edŤastaĆihl phirktd Ćaja jk ohsacdg bacd Edcdold. Asth, 22=.
20 Bdrrdgchulm ‗ Hvkry, Pmk Pafks ^hvajkst svajktd, 252.2; Ukrsdaccksiaf sphrdzufhf u hivaru Wpd pcdod OjkfdĆihj jk h`rkĔkoh d pcdta 472 fcr` fdrdid bkz h`rkĔkohlrdsphrk`d. OjkfdĆia kihohfsia a pravrk`oa prhbckfa `hvkca su `h ohvhl rdsphrk`d pcdČdojd: @hzhvaf (@dwks)
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hirkouca odgastaĆihj strdoga D`hced Matckrd a ojklhvhf ‟phrktiu– ihja oajk bah oa shgajdcastaĆia
oata pdrcdfkotdrdo.25 Matckr jk hsphrdvdh Ukrsdjsia sphrdzuf, d ojklhvh afkohvdojk zd
idogkcdrd 4177. lh`aok jk `hvkch u patdojk gajkca phrk`di u Kvrhpa. Bhrbd zd phihrdvdojk a
hĆuvdojk lkhlrdesihl prhsthrd bhldthl prarh`oaf rksursafd bacd jk a u fkĔurdtoaf lh`aodfd
jk`od h` lcdvoam phirktdĆiam sodld svjktsik phcataik.2< @kfhlrdesid irktdojd, idh Ťth su phrdst
stdohvoaŤtvd a vkcaik falrdgajk, odstdvcjdju sk a u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u. WtdohvoaŤtvh Kvrhpk jk
phvkČdoh sd 0>4 facaho 4140. lh`aok od ;7> facahod 417=. lh`aok.2= ^hscjk`agk brzhl phrdstd
stdohvoaŤtvd od fkĔuodrh`ok h`ohsk azfkĔu `vd svjktsid rdtd hlck`dck su sk u vhjohf
phtkogajdcu, pravrk`ohj sodza a ihckitavohj svajksta odrh`d a `rſdvd.21 Wvajkt jk, odiho schfd
ojujhrŤik bkrzk u hithbru 4121. lh`aok, phlh`acd odjvkČd kihohfsid irazd u fh`krohj
phvajksta. Wtdra kihohfsia sastkf jk zdfjkojko aotkrvkogajhf `rſdvk, d fkĔuodrh`oa phrk`di
stvhrko odiho ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd tkfkcjko od Cala odrh`d a ‟sastkfu salurohsta– jk tra`ksktam
lh`aod prhpd`dh ph` pratasihf rkvazahoastaĆiam sacd h`cuĆoam `d stvhrk ohva phrk`di.7> Matckr
jk zdphĆkh ruŤkojk Ukrsd jsihl sphrdzufd 417;. lh`aok irŤkojkf h`rk`ba h odhruſdoju a
vrdČdojkf Wdrsihl ph`ruĆjd, tk rkfacatdrazdgajhf hrdjojd u fdrtu scajk`kČk lh`aok. Dustrajd jk
praphjkod Ukcaihj OjkfdĆihj u fdrtu 417=. lh`aok, d u hithbru astk lh`aok jk ăkmhschvdĆid,
Faomkosiaf sphrdzufhf ihjaf su sk Ukcaid Bratdoajd a Erdogusid sdlcdsack sd Matckrhf,
prasacjkod od prk`dju Wu`ktd. [ fdrtu 4171. lh`aok Matckr zduzafd ăkŤiu a Fhrdvsiu.74 U.
Bratdoajd a Erdogusid su OjkfdĆihj hbjdvack rdt tki i d`d jk Matckr odpdh ^hcjsiu.
pcdohf az 4120. (bkz h`rkĔkohl azohsd) prk`vaĔkoh jk `d OjkfdĆid pcdČd 2 fcr` fdrdid lh`aŤojk. Jdolhvaf
pcdohf az 4121. prk`vaĔkoh jk pcdČdojk 7< fcr` fdrdid jk`ohf lh`aŤojk. ^cdČkojk jk hbustdvcjkoh 4172. lh`aok,adih jk trkbdch trdjdta `h 41==. lh`aok. OjkfdĆid jk uiupoh pcdtacd 4< fcr` fdrdid. Asth, 257.25 OW@D^ (odgastaĆid strdoid) afdcd jk spkitdiucdrok rkzuctdtk od azbhrafd 4121. a 4177. lh`aok id`d su `hbaca
vaŤk lcdshvd h` bach ihjk strdoik u ojkfdĆihj phvajksta (00%) zdmvdcjujuČa Matckrhvhf hbkČdoju odgahodcohl buĔkojd, fhrdcok hbohvk a shgajdcohl fard. Asth.2< OjkfdĆia tkhrktaĆdra, Rdgkc a ojklhva odscjk`oaga, tvhrga su tkhrajk h ‟`rſdva idh baČu ihjk rdstk–. Ph uĆkojk
usvdjdju a zdlhvhroaga afpkrajdcazfd u Wjk`aojkoaf @rſdvdfd a U. Bratdoaja, hprdv`dvdjuČa tdih svhjk tkrathrajdcokkispdozajk u Ćajhj su hsohva baca pravrk`oa, kihohfsia a phcataĆia aotkrksa. ă. ^hphv, H` Ukrsdjd `h @dogald, 4>.2= Bacdos ſrtdvd ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd jk hih 47 facahod phlaoucam a < facahod hoksphshbcjkoam, fdmhf cju`a u
odjbhcjaf stvdrdcdĆiaf lh`aodfd. Asth, 44. 21 Lkokrdgajk cju`a ihja su rhĔkoa azfkĔu 41>>. a 4140. prastazdck su u zrkch `hbd u pkrah`u azfkĔu `vd rdtd. Bacasu kokrlaĆoa a ſkcjoa phscd dca su phtasiavdoa zbhl prhbckfd s ihjafd sk svajkt susrktdh a idh tdiva su baca ph`chſoardzoaf a`khchlajdfd a phcataĆiaf phirktafd h` rkvhcugahodroam `h afpkrajdcastaĆiam, edŤastaĆiam, odgahodcastaĆiam aŤhvaoastaĆiam. Falrdgajk su azfkĔu `vd svjktsid rdtd back ditukcdoh patdojk. Odskcjdvdojd Jkvrkjd u ^dckstaoa,
fdshvok rdzfjkok stdohvoaŤtvd azfkĔu Pursik, Buldrsik a LrĆik, tk zdbrdok jdpdosik afalrdgajk u WD@, afdju
svhjk kihohfsik, phcataĆik, pd a iucturhchŤik afpcaidgajk. Asth, 47.7> Drtur Whctkr u `jkcu Hphrdvdi, 4172., h thfk idſk: ‟Ok`hstdga idpatdcastaĆihl phrktid ubrzdoh ld caŤdvdjuojklhvam prk`ohsta. Hoa sd`d prajktk ojklhvhf hpstdoiu. Rdz`hbcjk jk irazk tdivh `d sk ojklhvd vkcaid zdsculd,
Ťarkojk prhazvh`oam idpdgatktd phtagdojkf ihoiurkotok `hbata, Ćaoa uzdcu`ohf, `hi sk ojklhv lcdvoa ok`hstdtdi,
phvkČdod oksphshbohst `d u phtpuohsta ihrasta prhazvh`oa idpdgatkt a `d `ajkca hoh Ťth ufjkrkoh prhazvh`a, va`a uodjlhrkf svajktcu.– Gat. prkfd Bdrrdgchulm ‗ Hvkry, Pmk Pafks ^hvajkst svajktd, 250.74 @ſ. F. Rhbkrts, Kvrhpd 4==>-410;, ;12.
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`hidzdca ojkfdĆia eazaĆdra Hth Mdo (4=<1-415=) a Erag Ůtrdsfdo (41>2-41=>).7; Wtruiturd okid`
ok`jkcjavhl dthfd ok sdfh `d sk fhlcd hpasdta oklh sk fhlcd a rdzhrata.75 Zd prhsthr a vrajkfk,
zd ihjk sk u Ojutohvhf sastkfu tvr`ach `d su dpshcutoa, utvrĔkoh jk `d su rkcdtavoa. FkĔutaf,
brzaod svjktchsta jk dpshcutod, hod sk ok phodŤd idh brzaod zvuid aca vdchvd od vh`a. Dcbkrt
DjoŤtdjo (4=<1-41;;) jk idh vd`kskthlh`aŤojdi, 41>;. lh`aok hbjdvah spas u ihfk jk th patdojk
praidzdh u prarh`oaf h`ohsafd. Ho sk `rſdh eachzhesihl phstupid ihja jk prva hsfascah
dustrajsia eazaĆdr Krost Fdm (4=7=-4145), Ćaju fasdh odstdvcjdju sdrd`oaga a urk`oaga Ćdshpasd
Krikootoas a bkĆid Ťihcd okhphzatavastd, h` 4121. lh`aok phzodtd idh BkĆia irul (\akookr
Irkas).7< Odafk, oduĆoaga su prhsthr a vrajkfk pramvdtdca idh iutajk Ťth am jk lhthvk `dcd fdjid
prarh`d. Dcbkrt DjoŤtdjo jk ustvr`ah `d prhcdſkojk svjktchsoam salodcd h` jk`ok tdĆik prhsthrd h
`rulk jkstk batod vkzd azfkĔu vrkfkod u tk vajk tdĆik.7= DjoŤtdjo jk phidzdh `d ojklhvd tkhrajd
rkcdtavatktd sd`rſa a tkfkcjou kivavdckotohst azfkĔu fdsk a kokrlajk K 6 fg2. [ 41. sthcjkČu sk
sfdtrdch `d jk kokrlajd ihotaouardod a bksihodĆoh `jkcjavd. Ph jk hsphrah Fdis ^cdoi (4=;=-
410<) 4=11. lh`aok utvrĔujuČa `d sk kokrlajd fhſk prkohsata sdfh u jk`aoagdfd ihjk azohsk
h`rkĔkou ihcaĆaou, d ihju jk ^cdoi odzvdh ivdothf. H` 412;. lh`aok ojklhvh htiraČk rdzrdĔuju
eazaĆdra stvdrdjuČa ohvu tkhraju ivdotd u `vd hbcaid: fdtraĆod fkmdoaid Bhrod, Mdjzkobkrld a
Ŷhr`dod, a tdcdsod fkmdoaid Ůrk`aolkrd prkfd a`kjdfd ihjk jk 4120. lh`aok azchſah Cuj @k
Brhcja.71 Rdzvhj fdtkfdtaik a ojkoam vkzd sd chlaihf a eazaihf thihf 2>. sthcjkČd, prk`stdvcjdju
jk`do h` odjzodĆdjoajam aotkckitudcoam odprk`did u phvajksta ĆhvjkĆdostvd. FkĔutaf, zd vkcaiu
vkČaou ĆhvjkĆdostvd vdſoaja jk bach prditaĆoa utagdj oduik od svdih`okvoagu h` ojkoam oduĆoam
tkhrajd. ^hĆktihf 2>. sthcjkČd sk hbjdŤojdvdju lcdvoa phjfhva stdtastaĆihl rdsuĔavdojd ihja sk
tkfkcjk od tkhraja `astrabugajk lrkŤdid pra hpdſdoju, d ihju jk phĆktihf 41. sthcjkČd rdzrd`ah
Idrc Era`ram Ldus (4<<<-4=;;).0> Bat stdtastaĆihl prhsuĔavdojd, idih su ld rdzvaca Do`rkj
Do`rkjkvaĆ Fdrihv (4=;5-4122) u Rusaja, tk Idrc ^akrsko (4=;<-4175) a idsoajk Rhodc` Djcfkr
EaŤkr (4=1>-4152) u Bratdoaja, sdsthja sk u thfk `d sk ok bdrdtd jdsoaf a hĆalck`oaf rkzuctdtafd
vkČ sd phjdvdfd ihjk sk fhlu hpasdta a pr htufdĆata od vaŤk rdzcaĆatam odĆaod, tk jk zdth phtrkboh
7; Hoa su `hidzdca `d `h tdivhl gajkpdojd dthfd fhſk `hČa u dthfsiaf vdrajdotdfd aca azhthpafd urdod. HpŤtdkogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 2, 574.75 \drk ‗ doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald A, 450.7< Krost Fdm jk 41>;. lh`aok odpasdh `jkch Wdzodojk a zdbcu`d. @jkch zodĆdjoh zd rdzufjkvdojk ojklhvk eachzheajk
jk Fdmhvd eachzheajd ihju jk odpasdh Buvajk. Asth, 45;.7= Dcbkrt DjoŤtdjo jk zd phafdojk svjktchsta idh `d jk strujd h`vhjkoam Ćkstagd aca ehthod `hbah Ohbkchvu odlrd`uzd eazaiu 4124. lh`aok. DjoŤtdjo jk 4177. lh`aok odpustah OjkfdĆiu a htaŤdh u Wjk`aojkok @rſdvk l`jk sk thihftra`ksktam lh`aod hiupcjdju struĆojdga zd dthfsiu eazaiu. Asth, 45<. 71 HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 2, 57<. 0> [ vrajkfk rkoksdosk su ph prva put odĆkta prhbckfa hsalurdojd a aldrd od srkČu sd stdohvaŤtd vjkrhvdtohČk afdtkfdtaik. \drk ‗ ^doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald A, 45=.
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`hoajkta su` a azdbrdta odjbhcjk rjkŤkojk.04 Ůihcu fh`krok lkhfktrajk stvhrah jk Ihrd`h Wklrk
(4=57-4120) u Atdcaja. Dora ^haoidrk jk uz fohlk rulk phĆkh astrdſavdta odjuhpŤtkoajd irktdojd
Ťth od irdju phstdjk prk`fkt thphchlajk, jk`ohl h` odjbhldtajam phcjd fh`krok fdtkfdtaik.02
Dcerk` Ohrt Udjtmk` (4=54-410<) a Bkrtodr` Rdskc (4=<2-41<>) rd`k od thfk d svu fdtkfdtaiu
uĆaok ehrfdcoaf azrdzhf chlaĆiam h`ohsd od tkfkcjafd rd`d Ğuzkpkd ^kdod (4=;=-4172) a
`rulam ihja su hih 41>>. lh`aok phiuŤdvdca brhjkvk phtpuoh `keaoasdta a rdzrd`ata `djuČa af
chlaĆik keaoagajk a ehrfucdgajk, phsk boh u dratfktaĆiaf hpkrdgajdfd. Iurt Era`ram Lk`kc (41>5-
41<=) jk 4174. lh`aok `hidzdh `d jk zdastd fhluČk `d phsthjk tvr`ojk ihjk su u hlrdoaĆkohf
brhju phstupdid ok fhlu oa `hidzdta oata hphvrlouta. Ph jk phjfu astaoathsta zd`dch tkſdi u`drdg
jkr sk hod vaŤk ok fhſk tkfkcjata od ehrfdcohf sicd`u a h`rſavhsta dih phsthjk tvr`ojk ihjk u
`dthf sastkfu oasu oa astaoatk oa okastaoatk u bach ihf stvdrohf sfascu.07 Brza rdzvhj fdtkfdtaik
jk zdmtjkvdh sastkfdtazdgaju hvk oduik u tkfdtsid phlcdvcjd rd`a cdiŤkl uĆkojd a azcdldojd.
Erdogusia fdtkfdtaĆdra su sk phvkzdca a zdjk`oh rd`aca ph` psku`hoafhf Oaghcds Bhurbdia.00
Pd lrupd jk rd`acd od thfk `d u hbcaiu kogaichpk`ajk sdiupa svd `htd`dŤojd `hstalouČd u
fh`krohj fdtkfdtaga. [ fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u rdstk zodĆdj fdtkfdtaik jkr sk smvdtach `d
usdvrŤdvdojk dpstrditohl vh`a `h uspjkmd u ihoirktohf rd`u.
Bahchlajd a tkhrajd lkod
OdjzodĆdjoaja prhbckfa ihjafd sk bahchlajd bdvacd u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u baca su
kvhcugajd a odscjkĔavdojk, bahchlajd Čkcajk, prarh`d ſavk supstdogk a phrajkich ſavhtd. Okafk,
irdjkf 41. sthcjkČd jk u bahchlaja prkhvcd`dh phjdf kvhcugajk. HpŤtkpramvdČkod jk @drvaohvd
tkhrajd ph ihjhj su sva hrldoazfa lkoktsia srh`oa, Ťth jk ihfkotdr ojklhvk iojalk ‟^hrajkich
vrstd–. FkĔutaf, @drvao oajk uspah hbjdsoata fhluČa aca stvdroa fkmdoazdf odscjk`oam vdrajdgajd.
Lrklhr Fko`kc (4=22-4==0) jk bah tdj ihja jk od hsohvu svhjam `h td`d okphzodtam astrdſavdojd,
`dh hbjdŤojkojk zd svk phjdvk odscjkĔavdojd. H` td`d jk prhuĆdvdojk odscjkĔavdojd phstdch
gkotrdcod asgapcaod bahchlajk 2>. sthcjkČd. FkĔutaf, u Whvjktsihf Wdvkzu jk lkoktaid, phskboh
odiho 4175. lh`aok, idh phcdzou tdĆiu uzafdcd okik `rulk, okfko`kckvsik fkmdoazfk.
Astrdſavdojk h`ohsd fkĔu hrldoazfafd u prarh`a, ihjd su uscajk`acd odiho cdbdrdthrajsiam
04 Asth, 451.02 HscdojdjuČa sk od zodojd ojkfdĆiam fdtkfdtaĆdrd idh Ťth jk bah Mkrfdo Lrdsfdo (4=>1-41><), Ťihcd jkazrdſdvdcd svhjstvd okkuica`siam prhsthrd, d idsoajk a dclkbdrsiam euoigajd. Asth, 4<>.
07 ZodĆdj thl htiraČd Čk sk phidzdta id`d sk hoh prhŤara azvdo lrdoagd dratfktaik a zdmvdta kfparajsik zodohsta. Pdih jk chlaid hbhldČkod pdrd`hisafd ihjk jk tkŤih smvdtata, d okfhluČk sk ok hbdzardta od ojam. Asth, 4<2.00 Asth, 225.
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astrdſavdojd a fdtkfdtaĆihl prastupd prhbckfu, `hvh`a h odstdjdojd ohvk lrdok bahchŤik oduik
phzodtk ph` afkohf bamkjvahrazdf aca kthchlajd (phodŤdojk ſavhtaojd).0; Zdsohvdod jk od htiraČu
‟uschvohl rkeckisd– 41>7. lh`aok h` strdok shvjktsihl oduĆoaid Avdod dvchvd (4=01-4175).05
Ojklhvh htiraČk scuſa fcd`af oduĆoagafd ihja rdzvajdju hvu oduiu fkĔu ihjafd jk @ſho
Brh`us Uhtsho (4=<=-41;=) u Wjk`aojkoaf @rſdvdfd.0< Euoigajk okrvohl sastkfd sasdrd a cju`a
phstdck su prastupdĆoajk aspatavdoju odiho usdvrŤdvdojd phstupid dokstkzajk a dskptaĆohsta Ťth
`hvh`a `h saluroajam marurŤiam zdmvdtd. ădrcs Wiht Ůkraoltho (4=;<-41;2) jk `hbah Ohbkchvu
odlrd`u zd far 4172. lh`aok odiho Ťth jk vrŤah hpkrdgajk od ſavhtaojdfd asicjuĆavŤa fhzdi, az
Ćkld su prhastkicd idsoajd vdſod astrdſavdojd ihjd su sk h`ohsacd od phodŤdojk cju`a. HtiraČk
prvhl dotabahtaid, pkoagacaod, h` strdok bratdosihl bditkrahchld Dckisdo`rd Eckfaold (4==4-
41;;) 4121. lh`aok hzodĆach jk rkvhcuga ju u bhrba prhtav prkvkogajk spkgaeaĆoam bhcksta.0=
O jkfdĆia kfbrahchza Uacmkcf Ruis (4=;>-4120) a Mdos D`hce K`vdr` @raŤ (4=5<-4104) su
prhuĆdvdca kfbrahok a odĆao od ihja sk ojamhva `ajkchva phĆaoju `aekrkogardta. Mdos Ůpkfdo
(4=51-4104) jk azvh`ah sjdjok kispkrafkotk idckfcjkojkf od `dſ`kvojdiu. Ho jk 4175. lh`aok
zd svhjd astrdſavdojd, ihjd su rkzuctardcd htiraČkf hohld Ťth jk `dods phzodth idh ‟kfbrahodcod
ao`ui gajd–, `hbah Ohbkchvu odlrd`u zd eazahchlaju aca fk`agaou.01 Odzav lkoa jk prva prk`chſah
`dosia bhtdoaĆdr Uacmkcf Jhmkosko (4=;<-412<), dca su tkhraja lkod ojko `dodŤoja hbcai `dca
dfkraĆia lkoktaĆdr a kfbrahchl Phfds Mdot Fhrldo (4=55-410;) odiho oazd hbdvcjkoam
kispkrafkodtd. Zd td astrdſavdojd Fhrldou jk `h`jkcjkod Ohbkchvd odlrd`d 4177. lh`aok.;>
Fhrldo jk svhjaf `jkchf `hidzdh `d su mrhfhzhfa ohsahga Fko`kchvam edithrd, h`ohsoh
Jhmkoskohvam lkod. Ouickaosiaf iaskcaodfd oduĆoaga thihf tra`ksktam lh`aod 2>. sthcjkČd
pra`dju phskbou vdſohst u prhgksu odscjkĔavdojd prhuĆdvdjuČa struituru a ihostdotohst @OI.;4
@hidzdoh jk `d lkoa u jkzlra fhlu utagdta od fohld cju`sid svhjstvd idh Ťth su irvod lrupd,
0; \drk ‗ doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald A, 41.05
Whvjktsid psamhchlajd phĆavd od `jkcu ^dvchvd a idh tdivd jk od eazahchŤiaf tkfkcjafd jkr jk aŤcd sfjkrhfkispkrafkotasdojd uoutdr eazaidcoam bdzd phodŤdojd a odvaid ihjafd ba hod fhlcd bata uschvcjkod. Erhj`hvk tkhrajk
su u Whvjktsihf Wdvkzu h`bdĆkok idh burſhdsik prktphstdvik. Asth, 2<7.0< HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 4, ;<4.0= Adih su I aokza sthcjkČafd uphtrkbcjdvdca pcajksdo zd cajkĆkojk zdlohjkoam phvrŤaosiam rdod, d rusia a dfkraĆiaoduĆoaga prafjktaca dotabditkrajsih `jkchvdojk okiam pcajksoa prajk ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd, bratdosia bditkrahchlDckisdo`dr Eckfaol jk 4121. lh`aok odaŤdh od tdivu pcajksdo ihjd jk phidzdcd sphshbohst uoaŤtdvdojd h`rkĔkoamtaphvd bditkrajd. \drk ‗ ^doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald AA, 4<<. 01 Ohbkchvd odlrd`d h`ohsoh, ojam pkt, `h`jkcjuju sk svdik lh`aok h` strdok Ohbkc ehuo`dtaho, eho`d ihja jk
hsohvdh Dcerk` Bkrodr` Ohbkc. @h`jkcd jk phĆkcd 4>. `kgkfbru 41>4. lh`aok, od pktu lh`aŤojagu h` hsoavdĆkvksftra. Odlrd`k sk `h`jkcjuju az ph`ruĆjd eazaik, mkfajk, psamhchlajk aca fk`agaok, iojaſkvohsta a fard. Wvdid sksdsthja h` zcdtok fk`dcjk, `apchfk ihjd ohsa gatdt, a azohsd ohvgd ihja zdvasa h` pramh`d eho`dgajk, d faoafdcod jk
7>,>>> `hcdrd. Odlrd`d fhſk bata ph`jkcjkod azfkĔu `vd aca tra `hbatoaid.;> \drk ‗ doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald AA, 5.;4 UkČ td`d sk sdzodch `d jk @OI ohsacdg spkgaeaĆoam lkoktsiam Ťaera a `d jk hod td ihjd stvdrd rdzcaĆatk spkgaeaĆok
prhtkaok u tajkcu a th phsrk`stvhf fhckiucdroam idcupd sdstdvcjkoam h` ROI (rabhouickaosik iaskcaok). Asth, 1.
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okik vrstk scjkphČk zd bhjk a mkfheacajd.;2 Idsoajk su sk azrdĔavdcd rh`hschvcjd pd jk bach fhluČk
prk`va`jkta `h Ćkld ba fhldh `hvksta okia brdi. FkĔutaf, lkoktaĆih prhragdojk oaid`d oajk
fhlch bata 4>>% tdĆoh jkr jk zdvasach h` tkhrajk vjkrhvdtohČk. Astrdſavdoju odscjk`stvd `dt jk
sodſdo phtagdj id`d jk 412<. lh`aok Mkrfdo @ſhzke Fucdr htirah `d sk uphtrkbhf rkolkosiam
zrdid fhlu azdzvdta futdgajk ih` vaosik fuŤagk.;7 Odprk`diu bahchlajk 2>. sthcjkČd pra`hoajkca
su Rhodc` EaŤkr, J. B. W. Mdc`ko a W. L. Rdjt ihja su tra`ksktam lh`aod rdzvaca fdtkfdtaĆik tkhrajk
ihjaf su hzodĆaca phĆktdi ‟lkoktaik phpucdgajk– idh ohvk lrdok bahchŤik oduik.;0 H` td`d sk
od vrstk, uicjuĆujuČa a Ćhvjkid, lck`d idh od rkprh`uitavok zdjk`oagk od Ćaja siup lkod sk, rd`a
h`dbard a phbhcjŤdojd, fhlch utagdta.
Eachzheajd a mufdoastaĆik oduik
Odiho ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd `hcdza `h sodſohl zdfdmd od phcju `ruŤtvkoam oduid.
ăaojkoagk brzk ao`ustrajdcazdgajk, lrd`hva ihja su oaica idh lcjavk, kihohfsik irazk ihjk su sk
phodvcjdck, fajkojdojk h`ohsd azfkĔu ruŤtvkoam lrupd a odrh`d, idh a `ruŤtvkok bhcksta phput
prkstupoaŤtvd, irafaodcd a rdtd, utaĆu od rdzvhj ‟oduik h phodŤdoju–. ^rajk ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd
prhvk`koh jk fohlh hzbacjoam prhuĆdvdojd a dodcazd cju`sihl phodŤdojd hbdvcjkoam uoutdr
sastkfd a iucturoam ohrfa zdpd`ohl `ruŤtvd. WhgajhchŤiu tkhraju su rdzvaca Kfac @arikf a
fascahga, phskboh u OjkfdĆihj a Atdcaja. Hoa prkaspatuju phzatavazdf Hlastd Ihotd a
kvhcugahoastaĆiu `ruŤtvkou tkhraju Mkrbkrtd Wpkoskrd idh prkhvcd`dvdjuČk tkhrajk zdpd`ohl
`ruŤtvd 41. sthcjkČd. Fdis Ukbkr jk prhuĆdvdh h`ohs rkcalajk prkfd pravrk`ohj ktaga a
`ruŤtvkohf ſavhtu u mao`uazfu, ihoeuČahoazfu, khazfu a `rkvohf ſa`hvstvu, d svk u
odsthjdoju `d smvdta tk h`ohsk u irŤČdosiaf `ruŤtvafd Zdpd`d.;; Ohvd smvdtdojd prhazdŤcd az
LkŤtdct-psamhchlajk, idh a Erhj`hvk psamhdodcazk, pruſdcd su fohŤtvh Ćaojkoagd phtrkboam zd
prhuĆdvdojk `ruŤtvd.;5 Pkhrajd LkŤtdct- psamhchlajk ihju su phĆktihf 2>. sthcjkČd u OjkfdĆihj
;2 Pd htiraČd su phbu`acd od`u `d ba uzldjdojk cju`sik rdsk (kulkoaid) fhlch `hvksta `h ojkohl phbhcjŤdojd. Adih
sk u vkza sd taf phjdvcjuju a okik fhrdcok `ackfk a ok`hufagk, kulkoaid jk phstdcd ditavoa phirkt u `vd`ksktaf
lh`aodfd, d phohvh jk stdvcjkod u prva pcdo u odgastaĆihj rdsohj phcataga. Asth, 42.;7 HtiraČk vjkŤtdĆiam fkth`d phfhČu ihjam su sk azdzavdck futdgajk bach jk vkhfd rdlhgjkoh zd odprk`di lkoktaik.
OduĆoaga oasu oa `h `dods uspjkca, hsaf u vkhfd fdchj fjkra, `d ihothrcaŤu prhazvk`kou futdgaju. ^hidzdch sk `dsu futdgajk, back hok prhazvk`kok aca sphotdok, ulcdvohf Ťtktok ph hrldoazdf. Asth, 40.;0 Lkoktaid phpucdgajk sk oajk bdvacd odscjk`stvhf phjk`aogd oklh odscjk`stvhf lrupd. Az thld jk oaidh phjdf
‟lkok- phhc–, siup lkod aca gjkchiupohst lkod ihja sk jdvcjdju ih` svam hrldoazdfd uoutdr jk`ok phpucdgajk. Az thld
jk odstdh siup ohvam sastkfdtsiam praogapd ph ihjafd su sk hgjkojavdck futdgajk, pd jk phstdch jdsoh `d Čk skh`dbardta hok futdgajk ihjk Čk hsphshbata phpucdgaju `d sk Ťth uspjkŤoajk rdzfohſdvd. Asth, 45. ;; HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 4, ;10.
;5 Lkstdct- psamhchlajd sk az OjkfdĆik prhŤaracd u zdpd`ou Kvrhpu, Ukcaiu Bratdoaju a Wjk`aojkok @rſdvk. Hod jkkispkrafkotdcoh utvr`acd, Ťth jk prafjkojkoh od fohlaf phcjafd, `d phjdf struiturk aca gjkcaok, ihjd h`rkĔujk hoh
Ťth sk prafjkČujk a idih sk prafjkČujk, u stvdra gjkcaod d ok sdfh siup h`vhjkoam `ajkchvd. Asth, ;<4.
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rdzvaca tra bkrcaosid psamhchld, Fdis Ukrtmdjfkr (4==5-4107), Uhceldol Ikckr (4==<-415<) a
Iurt Iheid (4==5-4104), afd zodĆdjou uchlu u rdzvhju fh`kroam a`kjd prhŤaravŤa sk od
psamhchlaju a fk`agaou u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u.;< ^samhdodcazd Walfuo`d Erhj`d (4=;5-4171),
bkĆihl spkgajdcastk zd okrvod hbhcjkojd, jk afdcd odjjdĆa h`jki ok sdfh u `ruŤtvkoaf oduidfd
oklh a u jdvohf fajkoju.;= Erhj` jk azlrd`ah tkhraju ph ihjhj jk zrkh puohcjktoai sdfh hodj
phjk`aodg ihja sk prhbah irhz uzdsthpok edzk kfhgahodcohl sdzrajkvdojd h` odjrdoajkl
`jktaojstvd `h fcd`kcdĆihl `hbd. Adih jk azdzvdh fohlh strdmd a oklh`hvdojd erhj`azdf jk
phstdh sdstdvoa `ah `ruŤtvkok fasca sirkouvŤa pdſoju od siravkok phtagdjk az ihjam azvark
`jkcdtohst a rdzhtiravŤa fohlk ustdcjkok ihovkogajk a tdbuk ihja sk h`ohsk od skisudcohst.
Dcerk` D`ckr (4=<>-417<) jk sfdtrdh d Ćhvjkihv lcdvoa phrav oajk hodj ihja vh`a cjubdva
oklh hodj ihja vh`a vcdsta, tk `d sk rdzcaĆath phodŤdojk ih` cju`a fhſk prapasdta hsjkČdjuok`hstdtid sodlk aca ph`svjksohj oksalurohsta.;1 Idrc Lustdv Juol (4=<;-4154) jk lkokrdcazhvdh
Erhj`hvh smvdtdojk caba`d odzvdvŤa ld ‟kcdo vatdc– ihja oajk spkgaeaĆoh skisudcdo, d sastkf
Ćhvjkihvk caĆohsta va`a u suprhtohstafd faŤcjkojd a phodŤdojd, hsjkČdjd a aotuagajk, uoutrdŤojkl a
vdojsi hl Ćhvjkihvhl svajktd, pd id`d jk`od h` tam suprhstdvcjkoam tko`kogajd lhsph`dra svajkŤČu
`ruld jk prasutod u ph`svjksta.5> [ odsthjdoju `d prh`ru u uoutr dŤoja svajkt Ćhvjkid a ojklhvk
caĆohsta, icaoaĆia psamhchza su rdzvaca prhjkitavok tksthvk h` ihja jk odjphzodtaja RhrŤdmhv tkst,
odzvdo ph Ťvagdrsihf psamajdtru Mkrfdou RhrŤdmu (4==0-4122) ihja ld jk sdstdvah.54 Eachzheajd
Erdoguzd Dora Bkrlshod (4=;1-4104) sd`rſdod u `jkcu @vd azvhrd fhrdcd a rkcalajk (4172),
zdtaf Oajkfdgd Mdosd @raŤd (4=5<-4104) u `jkcu Ktaid (4125) a Oaihcdjd Mdrtfdod (4==2-
41;>) u `jkcu Hothchlajd (4177/;>) odstdvdi su ‟eachzheajk ſavhtd–. Mkrfdo Idjzkrcaol (4==>-
410>) u svhf ^utohf `okvoaiu jk`ohl eachzhed (4141), idh a Hsvdc` Ůpkolckr (4==>-4175) u
svhjhj iojaza ^rhpdst Zdpd`d (414=-4122), trktardju gavacazdgaju idh ſavd baČd tk zdfjkrdju
Zdpd`u ‟h`sustvh Ćucd–.52 K`fuo` Muskrc (4=;1-417=), zdĆktoai ekohfkohchlajk, u
;< Rdzvajdju sk tkhrajk h aotkcalkogaja, fkfhraja a psamhshfdtsihj fk`agaoa. LkŤtdctasta sfdtrdju `d cjkidr ihja cajkĆadstfu aca Ćar od ſkcugu fhrd afdta u va`u a caĆohst pdgajkotd. \drk ‗ ^doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd,
svkzdi UA / iojald AA, 20=.;= Erhj` jk tvr`ah `d phjk`aodg afd h`rkĔkou zdcamu oksvjksoam prafatavoam aostaidtd ihju jk odzvdh ‟hoh– (`ds‟Ks–), d ihj a stdcoh tkſk thfk `d utaĆu od rdzvhj svajksta phjk`aogd, od ojklhvh ‟jd– (`ds ‟Agm–). Ojklhvd
kfhgahodcod kokrlajd sk phasthvjkĆujk, h`ohsoh prhastaĆk az hohld Ťth jk odzvdoh ‟caba`h– (ſkcjd, phſu`d), d zd
ihja sk sfdtrd `d jk ihcaĆaosia h`rkĔko u svdihj hshba phskboh. Caba`h sk azvh`a az tkſojk zd cjubdvcju a tkſojk `dsk u cjubdva odĔk zd`hvhcjkojk, dca sk td tkſojd fhſk idodcazardta u rdzcaĆataf sfjkrhvafd. Asth, 201.;1 Pdj hsjkČdj sk fhſk fdoaekstardta phvcdĆkojkf u skbk, dlrksavohsta h`ohsoh duthratdtavoaf phodŤdojkf ihjaf
sk u stvdra ihfpkozard ‟ihfpckis fdojk vrajk`ohsta–. Asth, 2;>.5> Asth, 2;4.
54 RhrŤdmhv tkst sk sdsthja h` vkČkl brhjd frcjd rdzohbhjoam taota a rdzohl hbcaid. Hshbd ihjd sk ph`vrldvdaspatavdoju hpasujk Ťtd va`a a hsjkČd lck`djuČa am, az Ćkld sk azvcdĆk kckfkota psamh`aodfaĆok ihostatugajk.52 HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 4, 524.
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fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u hbjdvcjujk `jkcd Ehrfdcod a trdosgk`kotdcod chlaid (4121), Idrtkzajdosid
rdzfaŤcjdojd (4172) a Asiustvh a rdsuĔavdojk (4171), utaĆuČa svhjhf eachzheajhf od Ůkckrd,
Mdj`klkrd a klzastkogajdcazdf Wdrtrd, ihja u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u paŤk svh j eachzhesia rhfdo
FuĆoaod (417=). Odiho ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd sk ‟praogapu iucturok od`fhČohsta– suprhstdvcjd
‟praogap iucturok rdzohcaihsta–. Phfk `hpraohsk dotrhphchŤid prhuĆdvdojd od ſavaf cju`siaf
zdjk`oagdfd ihjd su rkzuctardcd `jkcafd idh Ťth su Drlhoduta zdpd`ohl ^dgaeaid (4122) h`
Brhoascdvd Fdcaohvsihl (4==0-4120) a `jkcafd dotrhphchld Dcerk`d Rk`icae-Brduod. @jkcd
Erdogd Bhdsd a ojklhvam uĆkoaid ihja su prhuĆdvdca ao`ajdosid pckfkod u Wjk`aojkoaf
@rſdvdfd, Idod`a a juſohj mkfasekra, idh a `jkcd Dcerk`d Idsd u Fkisaiu, oazhzkfsiam
uĆkojdid u Ao`hokzaja a erdogusiam astrdſavdĆd u Deraga, Hikdoaja a Cdtaosihj Dfkraga, `dcd su
okfjkrcjav `hpraohs u rdzufjkvdoju gajkcam `ruŤtdvd a iucturd.57 @jkch Hbrdsga iucturk (4170)
Dfkraidoik Rut Bkok`ait, lhvhra h smvdtdoju iucturk idh phskbok vkzk azfkĔu vjkrhvdojd a
`ruŤtvkoam odvaid, d ihjd `dju idcup zd phodŤdojk a caĆohst svdihl ohvhl Ćcdod. ^hĆktihf 2>.
sthcjkČd sk phjdvah rdsazdf u hbcaiu phjfd h ‟tkrktu bajkchl Ćhvjkid– hscdojdjuČa sk od
kvhcugahou tkhraju h prkſavcjdvdoju vaŤk rdsk aca h ojkohf az`azdoju azod` rulam.50 @h vrkfkod
id`d su odgasta hsvhjaca vcdst, rdsok tkhrajk su back sruŤkok oduĆoaf astrdſavdojafd.5; [prihs
thfk, r dsok prktphstdvik su alrdck zodĆdjou uchlu u `ruŤtvafd Zdpd`d. Wvk sk th h`rdſdvd a od
prhuĆdvdojk phvajksta. O jkfdĆia masthraĆdr Idrc Cdfprkmt (4=;5-4175) jk `ruŤtvd prhuĆdvdh
idh iucturok gjkcaok phiuŤdvdjuČa uz phfhČ psamhchŤiam phjfhvd hpasdta gajkcd rdz`hbcjd.55
Hsvdc` Ů pkolckr (4==>-4175) jk od gavacazdgaju lck`dh idh od okzdvasoa hrldoazdf ihja prhcdza
irhz gaicusk, pd jk sdvrkfkoa gaicus zdpd`ok gavacazdgajk uphrk`ah s rdz`hbcjkf prhpd`dojd.5<
Asihpdvdojd od Draidfk`u su htiracd bcasiu vkzu azfkĔu Rafsihl gdrstvd a juſok Ao`ajk u 4. a
2. sthcjkČu o.k. 5= HtiraČk Putdoidfhohvk lrhboagk h` strdok Kolckzd Mdvdr`d Idrtkrd 4124.
lh`aok jk zduvajki prhfjkoach scaiu kvrhpsik a svjktsik iucturk.
57 \drk ‗ doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald AA, 25>.50 ^rktphstdvik h rdsohj od`fhČa su thihf ga jkck cju`sik phvajksta h`rdſdvdck ktohgkotrazdf svdihl `ruŤtvd acavcd`djuČam struiturd ihjafd su `rula baca ‟bdrbdra–, ‟rhbhva ph prarh`a– aca ‟oaſd pdsfaod azvdo zdihod–. Asth, 254.5; Bajkca Ćhvjki jk fhrdh prazodta iucturoh bhldtstvh `rkvoam gavacazdgajd Bcasihl Asthid, Iaok a Ao`ajk, idh a vaŤusphshbohst Jdpdogd `d ruiujk a rdzvajd tkmohchlaju. Pksthva ihja su sk `dvdca hshbcju dfkraĆik vhjsik phidzdca su`d su rkzuctdta uschvcjkoa jdiaf utagdjkf `ruŤtvkohl a iucturohl asiustvd phjk`aogd pd jk tdih prhsjki bh`hvdgrodgd az lrd`siam ph`ruĆjd bah vkČa h` prhsjkid bh`hvd bajkcdgd az okiam skhsiam ph`ruĆjd. Asth, 252.55 Asth, 2<4.5< Kolcksia masthraĆdr Drohc` Phjoba (4==1-41<;) sk scuſah scaĆohf tkhrajhf trdſkČa uzrhik ihja su prhazvh`aca
rdz`hbcjd `aodfaik a scdbcjkojd sodlk vkcaiam gavacazdgajd. Asth.
5= Asihpdvdojd u pustaojdfd gkotrdcok Dzajk su phidzdcd usik vkzk azfkĔu `hldĔdjd u Ao`aja a Iaoa, idh a htiraČk bcasiam `h`ard azfkĔu mkckoastaĆihl svajktd a Dzajk `h ihjam jk `hcdzach `uſ putd ihjaf sk prkvhzacd svacd az Iaok, a
`uſ gkstk irhz Bditraju u Ao`aju. Asth
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PKMOAID
Oduid a tkmoaid su svk `h phjdvk fh`krok ao`ustrajk aŤck h`vhjkoaf prdvgafd. Oduid
jk bacd did`kfsid u ruidfd uĆkojdid, d tkmoaid kfparajsid u ruidfd zdodtcajd. Pdj jdz su u 2>.
sthcjkČu prkfhstaca aoſaojkra. Pkmoaid, ihjd jk svhjaf vkČaf `ajkchf odstdcd az prarh`oam oduid,
tkfkcjacd sk od O jutohvaf praogapafd a htiraČafd az eazaik, mkfajk, dstrhohfajk a lkhchlajk
phstaloutaf irdjkf 41. sthcjkČd. Eazaid jk phscajk Drasthtkcd stdloardcd `vd fackoajufd svk `hi
jk oajk hbohvah irataĆia `um 4<., d phskboh 4=. sthcjkČd.51 ^rhodcdzdi vjkŤtdĆik rd`ahditavohsta
idh a htiraČk vjkŤtdĆiam fktdcd phput tkmokgajufd, okfdju vkcaia zodĆdj svk `h @rulhl
svjktsihl rdtd id`d, phĆkvŤa h` 410>. lh`aok, Wjk`aojkok @rſdvk vrŤk ubrzdod astrdſavdojd ihjd
Čk rkzuctardta sarhvaohf zd prvu dthfsiu bhfbu 410;. lh`aok.<> Odjodprk`oajd tkmohchlajd sk
odcdzacd u Ukcaihj Bratdoaja a OjkfdĆihj, h`dick `hcdza a odjvkČa brhj ohvam prhodcdzdid. Ohvd phcataĆid idrtd Kvrhpk odiho rvhl svjktsihl rdtd `hvkcd jk h okŤth ruldĆajk rdsph`jkck trſaŤtd
a ao`ustrajsiam rklahod. ^rafdt u prafjkoa tkmohchlajd phcdih prkuzafdju Wjk`aojkok @rſdvk,
`jkchf a Jdpdo, `d ba srk`aohf sthcjkČd u prva pcdo azbah WWWR.<4 ^rva svjktsia rdt jk ubrzdh
tkmoaĆia rdzvhj, uĆaoah keaidsoajaf prhgks prhazvh`ojk, stvhrah fohlk ohvk prhazvh`k, tk utagdh
od th `d sk zdphĆkta tkmoaĆia prhodcdsga odstdvk a u phscjkrdtohf pkrah`u. [ Kvrhpa a Dfkraga
jk phsthjdh sastkf pdtkodtd a prajk oklh Ťth sk rdzvacd fh`krod ao`ustrajd. Pdj sastkf jk zodĆah
phtagdj zd prhodcdzdĆk, dca jk utagdh a od stvdrdojk fhohphcd. Az tam rdzchld Whvjktsia Wdvkz
h`bdgujk pdtkotk sfdtrdjuČa d prhodcdsga, ihja fhlu utagdta od phvkČdojk prhazvh`o jk, fhrdju
bata vcdsoaŤtvh gajkchl odrh`d. Odiho rvhl svjktsihl rdtd su prhodĔkok ohvk lkheazaĆik fkth`k
astrdſavdojd, dca sk fkth`a vdĔkojd a praprkfk ru`k prditaĆoh oasu prhfjkoaca h` dotaĆihl `hbd.
Fkmdoazdgajd jk sdfh rdstkrktacd Ćhvjkid a phvkČdcd pr hazvh`oju.<2 Fktdcurlajd, ihjd jk `ulh
bacd tkmoaid, u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u phstdjk oduid ihjd jk Ćvrth vkzdod zd siup eazaĆiam oduid.<7
Ohvk fkth`k `hbajdojd fktdcd, idh a phskbok ĆkcaĆok cklurk fohlh jdĆk a tvrĔk h` Ćkcaid sk
51 Cdvhdzjkhv zdiho h h`rſdoju fdtkrajk az 4<=0. lh`aok, d zdtaf a zdihoa @dcthod a ^rustd htvdrdju put fh`krohj
eazaga Ťth rkzuctard htiraČkf fohlhbrhjoam fktdcd. Kckitrhcazd hfhluČdvd @kjvaju d 4=><. lh`aok az`vhja odtrajufa idcajuf. Wkot Ickr @kvac, ihld ohvĆdoh phfdſk Odphckho, uvh`a 4=;0. lh`aok ao`ustrajsiu prhazvh`oju
dcufaoajufd, d ihja jk vkČ 4=2<. lh`aok az`vhjah Ukckr. Mkruc 4==5. lh`aok az`vdjd dcufaoajuf kckitrhcazhf jk`ok
rdsthpcjkok shca, Ťth `hvh`a `h kispdozajk dcufaoajufd, phskboh u dkrhodutaga ihjd svhj rdzvhj `hſavcjdvd ufkĔurdtohf pkrah`u. Fko`kcjkjkv uvh`a pkrah`oa sastkf kckfkodtd 4=51. lh`aok Ťth hfhluČdvd `d sk prk`va`kohva kckfkota. Bkikrkc htiravd rd`ahditavohst urdoajufd a thrajufd 4=15. lh`aok, d ^jkr a Fdra Iara 4=1=. lh`aok
az`vdjdju phchoajuf, d zdtaf a rd`ajuf. HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 7, <>7.<> Asth.<4 \drk ‗ doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald A, 2=7.<2 FkĔutaf, fhſk sk odvksta jk`do ohva phstupdi, d th jk echtdgajd a phjdvd cklurd Ćkcaid od bdza oaicd a mrhfd
phĆkvŤa h` 4=1>. lh`aok. H` 41>5. lh`aok sk azvh`a a htvr`ojdvdojk h`rkĔkoam cklurd dcufaoajufd, d azrdĔujk sk a`urdcufaoajuf. HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 7, <>7. <7 Asth.
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`hbavdju putkf Uhcerdfhvhl fkth`d ihja sk fdshvoh phĆkh ihrastata h` 412>. lh`aok. ăkcaĆod
ao`ustrajd jk odprk`hvdcd zdmvdcjujuČa uvhĔkoju kckitraĆok vashik pkČa, prhgksu usdvrŤdvdojd
tkmoaik prhĆaŤČdvdojd cavd, tk usdvrŤdvdoju ivdcatktd Ćkcaid mkfajsiaf prhgksafd. Od tdj odĆao
sk prh`uſah vajki trdjdojd dcdtafd a fdŤaodfd ihjaf sk scuſacd ao`ustr ajd zd 2; `h 4>> putd, tk
phvkČdcd brzaod ihjaf su fdŤaok rd`ack idh a tdĆohst azvk`bk prhazvh`d.<0 Wvk hvk cklurk su
phtrkbok zd fdŤaohlrd`oju, d vrŤa sk a prhĆaŤČdvdojk fktdcd, odjprajk zd kckitrhlrd`oju (bdidr),
zdtaf zd kckitrhoaiu (sacagajuf a lkrfdoajuf) a od irdju zd ouickdrou ao`ustraju. ^rhodcdzdi
ohvam fdtkrajdcd ph` afkohf ‟pcdstaĆod fdsd– zodĆah jk rkvhcugaju u mkfajsihj ao`ustraja ihjd
jk, prhgkshf odzvdoaf ‟phcafkrazdgajd– az fohlam azvhrd (odetd, i dtrdo, gkcuchzd, ŤkČkrod
trsid) uspjkcd prhazvksta ſacdvd vcdiod, pchĆk a azcavok pcdstaĆok hbcaik. Odiho 417>. lh`aok
vkcaia brhj pcdstaĆoam fdtkrajdcd sk a ihfkrgajdcoh prhazvh`a, odrhĆath u OjkfdĆihj. ^krah`
azfkĔu `vd rdtd prk`stdvcjd tr kČu edzu rdzvhjd mkfajsik ao`ustrajk, u ihjhj su odjzodĆdjoajd
htiraČd Mdckr -BhŤhv fkth` prhazvh`ojk oatrhlkod ph` vashiaf pratasihf, ohvd mkfajsid
jk`aojkojd, ohvd tkmoaid rdeaoasdojd odetk, saotktaĆid vcdiod a vjkŤtdĆia iduĆui. [ fkĔurdtohf
pkrah`u hstvdrko jk vkcaia odprk`di u ao`ustraja odetk ihjd phstdjk jk`od h` odjjdĆam u tkmoaĆihf
phlck`u, d zdmvdcjujuČa uvhĔkoju oduĆoam fkth`d astrdſavdojd a phstupdid ihotaoudcok
rdeaodgajk.<; KckitraĆoa fhthra su ihostruasdoa prk` irdj 41. sthcjkČd dca sk idh phlhosid sodld
u ao`ustraja phĆaoju uphtrkbcjdvdta h` 412>. lh`aok u Kvrhpa.<5 ăktvkrhtditoa bkozaosia fhthra,
ihja sk ihfkrgajdcoh prhazvh`k vkČ h` 4=<<. lh`aok, u pkrah`u azfkĔu `vd rdtd sk `dcjk
usdvrŤdvdju uphtrkbhf cdiŤam a htphroajam fdtkrajdcd.<< [ fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u ihostruasdod jk
turbaod od bkozao dca jk ojkod fdshvod uphtrkbd zdvasacd h` fktdcd ihja su fhlca h`hcata vkhfd
vkcaihj tkfpkrdtura. Kckitragatkt a odetd phstdju hsohvoa azvhra phlhosik sodlk Ťth hfhluČdvd
bhcjk, keaidsoajk a rkotdbacoajk phschvdojk u ao`ustraja, sdhbrdČdju, zdlrajdvdoju a hsvjktcjdvdoju.
Ukcaia brhj aohvdgajd, ohvam urkĔdjd a fohlh fkĔushboh phvkzdoam prhodcdzdid u tkmoaga
hstvdrkoam u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u, zduvajki su prhfjkoaca ao`ustraju, trdosphrt, sdhbrdČdj a
ihfuoaidgajk, fjkojdjuČa tdih a azlck` Ćhvjkihvhl ſavhtd u svaf ojklhvaf phjk`aohstafd.
<0 \drk ‗ doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald A, 21;.<; ^h trd`agaja, 4=;1. lh`aod sk uzafd idh phĆktdi odetok ao`ustrajk u Wjk`aojkoaf @rſdvdfd l`jk trust @ſ.Rhiekckrd (4=71-417<), Wtdo`dr` Hac, ihotrhcaŤk 1>% dfkraĆik odetok ao`ustrajk. MhcdoĔdoa phsjk`uju bhldtd
odzdcaŤtd u mhcdo`sihj Ao`aja. Hoa su svhju odetou ihfpdoaju 41><. lh`aok u`ruſaca sd jk`ohf kolcksihf odetohf
ihfpdoajhf ehrfardjuČa tdih lrupu Ůkc. Wrk`oja asthi jk uŤdh u svajkt odetk 41>1. lh`aok hsoavdojkfDolchpkrzajsik ihfpdoajk odiho htiraČd odcdzaŤtd ode tk u Ardou. Wkr Uaostho ăkrĆac, td`d prva chr` d`fardcatktd, jk
4140. lh`aok prkphzodh vdſohst phlhod rdtoam brh`hvd od fdzut, tk utaĆk od th d bratdosid vcd`d prkuzfk lcdvouuchlu u hvhj ihfpdoaja ihjd `dods phsthja idh lrupd B^. Erdogusid ihfpdoajd zd odetu hsohvdod jk 4120. lh`aok
rd`a kispcdtdgajk odetk u Ardiu (ulhvhrafd `hbavd prdvh od 27,<;% ardĆik odetk ihja jk prajk ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd
bah ojkfdĆih-tursia). HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 7, <>7. <5 \drk ‗ doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald A, 7><.<< OjkfdĆia aoſaojkr Ru`hce @azkc jk 4=1<. lh`aok odprdvah `vhtditoa fhthr scdbajk phtrhŤojk. Asth.
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Ihfuoaidgajk, ſkcjkzoagd, gavacod dvajdgajd a duthfhbacsid ao`ustrajd
Rkvhcugajd u ihfuoaidgajdfd sk `hlh`acd u `vd`ksktaf lh`aodfd 2>. sthcjdČd. Rd`ah-
kfasajk phĆaoju 412>. lh`aok id`d jk rd`ah-stdoagd u ^atsburlu, ^kosacvdoajd (WD@), kfathvdcd
rkzuctdtk prk`sjk`oaĆiam azbhrd.<= Phihf tra`ksktam lh`aod 2>. sthcjkČd e rkivkotod fh`ucdgajd
zdfjkojujk dfpcatu`ou u rd`ah-prkohsu. ^rkihfhrsid rd`ah-tkckehoajd od ihfkrgajdcohj bdza
phĆkcd jk e uoigahoasdta azfkĔu Ukcaik Bratdoajk a W jk`aojkoam @rſdvd 412<. lh`aok, d u odrk`oam
pkt lh aod sk prhŤaracd a od rulk vkcaik zkfcjk. Rd`ah-tkckehosid scuſbd sd brh`hvafd uvk`kod
jk 412>. lh`aok. Jk`do h` odjvdſoajam prafjkod irdtiam tdcdsd jk sastkf zd `ktkigaju ihja su
Dfkraidoga thihf @rulhl svjktsihl rdtd odzvdca rd`dr (Rd`ah @ktkgtaol Do` Rdolaol).
FkĔutaf, prva sastkf zd kckitrhfdloktou `ktkigaju jk phstdvcjko 417;. lh`aok od hbdca
Ohrfdo`ajk rd`a htiravdojd ck`koam brklhvd.<1
KckitraĆoh prkohŤkojk scaid putkf Čkcajdhsjktcjavam od svajktch (ehthČkcajd), ihjafd sk soafd scaid a prkohsk prhazvk`koa salodca
hfhluČdvd svjktsi hj Ťtdfpa `d h` 4120. lh`aok u scaidfd azvjkŤtdvd h `hldĔdjafd prkih
Dtcdotaid. Odiho astrdſavdojd u OjkfdĆihj, Ukcaihj Bratdoaja a W jk`aojkoaf @rſdvdfd hbjdvcjko
jk pdtkot aihohsihpd aca gajkva tkckvazajsik idfkrk. Pkckvazajsia prhlrdfa sk kispkrafkotdcoh
kfatuju h` 412<. lh`aok, d h` 417>. lh`aok sk u hvaf zkfcjdfd a WWWR-u okia prhlrdfa
kfatuju zd jdvohst. Pkckvazajsia dpdrdta su uŤca u ihfkrgajdcou prafjkou uhĆa @rulhl svjktsihl
rdtd.=> Duthfhbaca a dvaho (dkrhpcdo) su hvkca h rkvhcugajk u trdosphrtu 2>. sthcjkČd. FkĔutaf,
ſkcjkzoagk su a dcjk hstdck odjvkČa prkvhzoai tkrktd a odjvdſoajd idraid u ao`ustrajsihf sastkfu.
Odprk`di hstvdrko u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u hlck`d sk u kckitraeaidgaja pruld, idh a u zdfjkoa
pdroam chihfhtavd `azkc-fhthrafd od odetu.=4 Prdos-sabarsid ſkcjkzoagd `hvrŤkod jk 414<.
lh`aok phvkzujuČa srk`oju, kvrhpsiu Rusaju, sd ojkohf cuihf od Pamhf hikdou, d ſkcjkzoagd
Bkrcao-Bdl`d`, ihju jk OjkfdĆid zdfascacd prajk ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd, `hvrŤkod jk 410>.
lh`aok. Ukcaid Bratdoajd jk lrd`acd ſkcjkzoagu h` Idard `h Ikjptduod rd`a asihraŤtdvdojd ru`oam
bhldtstdvd Deraik. [ Fdo`ſuraja jk u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u azlrdĔkod frkſd pruld. Fhsivd jk
`vd`ksktam lh`aod 2>. sthcjkČd azlr d`acd ph`zkfou ſkcjkzoagu Ťth jk `hvkch `h vkcaihl
h`uŤkvcjkojd odgajk. Dvaho (dkrhpcdo), ihja jk prajk ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd bah u kispkrafkotdcohj
edza, u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u sk ihrasta zd phtrkbk gavacok dvajdgajk. Kolckza, Erdoguza, MhcdoĔdoa
a Bkclajdoga su rd`a h`rſdvdojk vkzd sd ojamhvaf ihchoajdcoaf phsjk`afd hsohvdca fohlk
<= Rd`a sk h prk`sjk`oaĆiaf azbhrafd azfkĔu Uhrkod Mdr`aold a @ſkjfsd Ihisd odiho ihjam jk Mdr`aol phstdh21. prk`sjk`oai Wjk`aojkoam @rſdvd.<1 HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 7, =0<.
=> \drk ‗ doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald A, 0>5.=4 [vh`k sk sodſoajk chihfhtavk, spkgajdcoh ihostruasdoa vdlhoa a lhroja schj (prulk, prdlhva) Ťth jk hfhluČdvdchvkČk brzaok pra vkČkf hptkrkČkoju. Asth, 710.
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fkĔuodrh`ok zrdĆok caoajk thihf `vd`ksktam a tra`ksktam lh`aod 2>. sthcjkČd. BrataŤ Afpkrajdc
Krvkjs (Bratasm Afpkradc Darwdys Ct`.) jk `hbah hvcdŤtkojk zd rd` 4120. lh`aok, idh a ohvĆdou
phfhČ h` vcd`k uz uschv `d usphstdva dvah sdhbrdČdj ph gajkchf Ihfhovkctu. ^do Dfkraido
Krvkjs (^do Dfkragdo Darwdys) uvh`a prvu putoaĆiu caoaju prkih Dtcdotaid 4171. lh`aok, a prvu
prkih Pamhl hikdod 417;. lh`aok.=2 ădrcs Cao`bkrl jk bah dfkraĆia pacht a prva Ćhvjki ihja jk
sdfhstdcoh prkcktah Dtcdosia hikdo. Ho jk dvahohf ‟@um Wkot Cuasd– (Pmk Wparat he Wt. Chuas)
zd 77 sdtd a 7> faoutd prkcktah h` Ojujhrid `h ^drazd 24. a 22. fdjd 412<. lh`aok. Dvahoa su
phstdca safbhc prhlrksd a hstvdrkojk euturastaĆihl sod h ohvhf ruŤtvu zdsohvdohf od stdcoaf
tkmohchŤiaf aohvdgajdfd a okhlrdoaĆkohf prhspdratktu phtrhŤdĆd.=7 Ao`ustrajsid kispdozajd jk
irdjkf 41. sthcjkČd bacd ihogkotrasdod od ſkcjkzoagk a Ćkcai, `hi su u kispdozaja `vd`ksktam
lh`aod 2>. sthcjkČd prkhvcd`dvdca lrdĔkvaodrstvh a okihcaih ohvam ao`ustrajd zd prhazvh`oju
phtrhŤdĆiam `hbdrd: eraſa`krd, tkckehod, duthfhbacd a kckitraĆoam dpdrdta. ^rvd vhzacd od
bkozaosia phlho ihostruasdod su u Kvrhpa sk`df`ksktam lh`aod 41. sthcjkČd, d u Wjk`aojkoaf
@rſdvdfd phĆktihf `kvk`ksktam lh`aod asthl sthcjkČd. Mkora Ehr` jk 41>1. lh`aok odiho
Ťksodkst lh`aod kispkrafkotasdojd, prafjkoavŤa fhotdſou trdiu, azrd`ah svhj Ćuvkoa Fh`kc P u
@ktrhatu, a th ph gajkoa prastupdĆohj zd Dfkraidogd srk`ojk icdsk. Ho jk phsjk`hvdh vkČa `ah
digajd svhjk ihfpdoajk ok ſkckČa `d bu`k zdvasdo h` irk`athrd a digahodrd. @ſkokrdc Fhthrs
(Lkokrdc Fhthrs) jk h 412<. lh`aok phstdh odjvkČa ihogkro aspr k` Ehr`d a Irdjsckrd (Gmrysckr),
d hvd tra prhazvhĔdĆd phstdju Ćuvkoa idh ‟vkcaid trhjid–. ^rva prhazvhĔdĆ duthfhbacd azvdo
Wjk`aojkoam @rſdvd ihja prhazvh`a zd fdshvoh trſaŤtk jk e rdogusia Gatrhko (Gatrhéo), hsohvdo
4141. lh`aok. Walurohsod stdicd, ihjd su azrdĔkod tdih `d sk pra pugdoju prktvhrk u castaČk,
ma`rducaĆok ihĆoagk, idh a hjdĆdojd idrhskrajk, sdfh su okid h` aohvdgajd fkĔurdtohl pkrah`d
u duthfhbacsihj ao`ustraja.=0 Idih jk rdstdh fhthrazhvdoa trdosphrt uidzdcd sk phtrkbd zd
duthgkstdfd. Atdcajd jk prvd, thihf vd`ksktam lh`aod 2>. sthcjkČd, azlrd`acd duthput (duthstrd`d)
od ihja sk fhlch uČa sdfh od h`rkĔkoaf fjkstafd, `hi jk OjkfdĆid thihf tra`ksktam lh`aod
2>. sthcjkČd lrd`acd Ćatdv oaz duthputkvd (duthbdmoko) u vhjoaĆik svrmk.=;
=2 DfkraĆid dvah ao`ustrajd sk ihogkotrasdcd od Zdpd`ohj hbdca: Bhaol (Bhkaol) u Waktcu, Chia` (Chgimkk`) u
Burbdoiu, @dlcds (@hulcds Dargrdet Ghfpdoy) u Wdotd Fhoaia a Ohrt Dfkraido (Ohrtm Dfkragdo) u Chs
DoĔkcksu. Juſod Idcaehroajd jk vd`ksktam lh`aod bacd zd dvahao`ustraju asth Ťth a @ktrhat zd duthao`ustraju. ^hjdvack
su sk a prvk ihfkrgajdcok dvahihfpdoajk h` ihjam `hfaodotoh fjksth zduzafdju Prdos Uhrc` Krcdjos (Prdos \hrc`
Darcaoks P\D), Juodjtk` ([oatk`) a Dfkraido Krvkjs (Dfkragdo Darwdys). Asth str. 7=1.=7 Zlrd`d Kfpdjkr Wtkjt Bac`aol jk prhjkithvdod s jdrbhchf ihja jk zdfaŤcjko idh prastdoaŤtk zd @araſdbc, d zd ihjask vjkrhvdch `d Čk bata cuisuzoh trdosphrtoh srk`stvh bu`uČohsta. Zlrd`d jk htvhrkod 41;4. lh`aok, d hihcohsta su
back fohlh turhboajk oklh Ťth jk prhjkitdot prk`va`ah. =0 Dora ^krh jk 4141. lh`aok usdvrŤah skrvh ihĆoagu ihjd phfdſk vhzdĆu `d sd fdojhf sachf `kjstvujk od pk`dcu
ihĆoagk. ădrcs Udskj`ſ jk 412>. lh`aok azufah praogap ihĆoagk ‟`uh-skrvh– ihju a `dods prafjkojuju dfkraĆia prhazvhĔdĆa. HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 7, <=7.=; \drk ‗ doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald A, 7<1.
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I[CP[RD
Bhldtk zkfcjk su odjjdsoajk azrdſdvdck lcdvok `ruŤtvkok a iucturok prhfjkok
fkĔurdtohl pkrah`d. @h` su sarhfdŤoajd `ruŤtvd stdloardcd, Wjk`aojkok @rſdvk, zkfcjk od
sjkvkru a zdpd`u Kvrhpk a ăkmhschvdĆid, odiho ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd hstvdruju vashi pramh` ph
stdohvoaiu a oavh pasfkohsta. Hlrhfdo brhj cju`a jk ſavah u vkcaiaf lrd`hvafd dca su lrd` a skch
prabcaſkoa phjdvhf Ťarhik phtrhŤojk, rkicdfk a Ťarkojkf fdshvohl hbrdzhvdojd. ^rva put u
masthraja lhthvh sva Kvrhpcjdoa u vkcaiaf `rſdvdfd `hbavdju hsohvoh , pd a Ťark hbrdzhvdojk.
Okihcaih `okvoam casthvd azfkĔu vd rdtd phstaſk tar dſ prkih vd facahod prafjkrdid utaĆuČa od
hbcaihvdojk iucturok a phcataĆik svajksta Ćhvjkid.=5 Iucturd fkĔurdtohl pkrah`d jk irgdtd
a`kjdfd ihjk phtihpdvdju duthratkt a phrh`agu Ćkfu `hpraohsa a vucldrazdgajd Erhj`hvk tkhrajk.
Kfdogapdgajd ſkok u hvhf pkrah`u prk`stdvcjd fohlh vaŤk h` zdihosihl a phcataĆihl patdojd jkr jk ſkod svk fdojk hlrdoaĆkod iuČhf zdmvdcjujuČa tkmoaĆiaf phfdldcafd u `hfdČaostvu.
^rva svjktsia rdt jk `hoah hlrhfou prhfjkou u vkČaoa zkfdcjd uicjuĆavŤa ſkou u fuŤia phsdh,
dca a oksrdzfjkrhf stdohvoaŤtvd Ťth `hvh`a `h irupoam prhfjkod u skisudcohf phodŤdoju a
irkdtavoaf `jkcdtohstafd. Cabkrdcod gavacazdgajd thcaih jk hscdbacd aostatugaju grivk `d hvd oajk
bacd u stdoju `jkchvdta u prdvgu fhrdcohl prkphrh`d.=< ^rk` ^rva svjktsia rdt a thihf ojkld jk
bach fohlh rdzohvrsoam odsthjdojd idh Ťth su euturasta u Atdcaja, bu`ktcjdoa u Rusaja a `d`dasta u
Ůvdjgdrsihj, ihja su azohsaca zdmtjkvk zd prhfjkodfd u phlck`afd od iucturu.== Jk`do brhj
zodĆdjoam pasdgd ufark u hvhf rdz`hbcju.=1 Jk`do h` ojam, Erdog Ideid (4==7-4120) u svhfk
`jkcu IdſojkoaĆid ihchoajd (4141) phidzujk tuſdo prhrhĆia `dr hpasujuČa ſavht u bu`uČaf
ihogkotrdgahoaf chlhrafd ihja su trdlaĆod phjdvd u Kvrhpa 2>. sthcjkČd.1> Phihf gajkchl
fkĔurdtohl pkrah`d stvdrdca su Bhras ^dstkrodi, Famdjc Bucldihv, Bkrodr` Ůhu, Fhras
Fktkrcaoi, Do`rkj Ŷa`, Mdjoram Fdo, ^hc Udckra, Rhfko Rhcdo, Kram Fdrajd Rkfdri, Bkrthct
Brkmt, Hc`hs Mdisca, Phfds Kcaht, Do`rk Fdrch, Ůtkedo Gvdjl, Ŷdo Ŷarh`u, Uar`ſaoajd Uuce,
=5 @ſho F. Rhbkrts, Kvrhpd 4==>-410;, ;2;.=< ZodĆdjdo Ćaoacdg iucturok a `ruŤtvkok asthrajk fkĔurdtohl pkrah`d, adih ld masthraĆdra oasu `hvhcjoh prhfdtrdca,
bach jk a phvkČdojk prhstatugajk u vkcaiaf lrd`hvafd Ťth odvh`a vkČaou kvrhpsiam zkfdcjd `d uvk`k svhjkvrsou phcagaju ihjd ba od`lck`dcd tu `jkcdtohst hlrdoaĆdvdjuČa jk od h`rkĔkok ucagk aca bhr`kck. Asth, ;77.== Euturazdf jk iojaſkvoa prdvdg asicjuĆavh u Atdcaja h` 414>. lh`aok pd od `dcjk, ihja sk od`hvkzujk odkisprksahoazdf a ihfk jk lcdvoa tkhrktaĆdr E. P. Fdraokta, az`dvdĆ prvhl Fdoaekstd euturazfd (41>1) u pdraŤiafohvaodfd Ealdrh. Prdſa phtpuoa prkia` sd svdihf kstktsihf trd`agajhf, d tkfph sdvrkfkok tkmoaĆik gavacazdgajkh`rkĔujk idh vrkch stvdrdcdĆiam phtagdjd, tkſoja a fhtavd. EuturastaĆik a`kjk, zodĆdjoajk u tkhrktsihf oklh ustvdrdcdĆihf phlck`u, odŤck su h`rdzd u Rusaja u hbd rkvhcugahodroam prkvardojd, phskboh ih` pjksoaid Ucd`afard
Fdjdihvsihl. Pvrtih ăubkcaČ, Iojaſkvohst, ^dohrdfd, Zdlrkb 4155., 4=2. =1 Wfrt h`ohsa Fdrskcd ^rustd 4122., lh`aok, Dodthcd Erdosd, Erdogd Idieu a @ſhzked Ihord`d 4120., Rkaokrd
Fdraju Racikd 4125., Phfdsd Mdr`ajd 412=., Ucd`afard Fdjdihvsihl 417>., Dora Bdrbasd 417;., Fdisafd Lhrihla Er k`kraid Ldrsaju Chriu 4175., Idrkcd ądpkid 417=., a `rulk.1> HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 4, 441.
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Famdjc Ůhchmhv, Ckhoa` Ckhohv, Ju`ſao H'Oac, @ſkjfs @ſhjs, Cua`ſa ^ardo`kch, Rhſk Fdrtko
`a Ldr, Dcbkrt Idfa a `rula. Phfds Fdo sd svhjaf `jkchf prkvdzacdza hivark io jaſkvohsta od
ojkfdĆihf jkzaiu. Ho odiho rvhl svjktsihl rdtd paŤk rhfdo ădrhboa bra jkl (4120) rdzvajd juČa
eachzhesik a phcataĆik `asiusajk irhz ihjk phsfdtrd Kvrhpu az vrkfkod Calk odrh`d, idh a
ok`hufagk azfkĔu cabkrdcoam a`khchlajd 41. sthcjkČd a ohvam sastkfd. @hbatoai jk Ohbkchvk
odlrd`k zd iojaſkvohst 4121. lh`aok Ťth fu htvdrd vrdtd svjktsik scdvk.14 Mkrfdo Mksk (4=<<-
4152) u svhjaf rhfdoafd ok azrdſdvd ruŤtvkou afkozaju phput Phfdsd Fdod, vkČ svhjk caĆoh
asiustvh rkcalahzok prarh`k.12 Atdcajdosia euturasta su sd svhjaf vhĔhf Eacaphf Phfdshf
Fdraoktajkf, ihja jk u Fdoaekstafd az 4147. lh`aok trdſah r dsia` sd iucturohf a mufdoastaĆihf
trd`agajhf u afk vajkid fdŤaok, baca uz Bkoatd Fushcaoajd.17 [ OjkfdĆihj jk sdstdvcjkod lrupd
h` iojaſkvoaid ihja su sfdtrdca d aotkcalkogajd trkbd uĆkstvhvdta u phcataĆihf ſavhtu. O jkfdĆia
ditavasta su, suprhtoh euturastaĆihf ardgahodcazfu, lhvhraca h rſdva rdzufd (chlhirdtaja) bhrkČa
sk zd hstvdravdojk mufdoajkl `ruŤtvd.10 ^ratasdi duthratdroam sastkfd `hvh`a `h fdshvok
phcataĆik falrdgajk. Az odgastaĆik OjkfdĆik jk tra`ksktam lh`aod azbjklch hih 4;>> iojaſkvoaid
ihja stvdrdju hbafou kfalrdotsiu iojaſkvohst.
Odgahodcok iucturk Cdtaosik Dfkraik su azrdsck az kvrhpsihl ihrajkojd. FkĔutaf, hok
su thihf fkĔurdtohl pkrah`d, adih a `dcjk ph` utagdjkf iucturoam irktdojd u Kvrhpa, svk vaŤk
phstdjdck svjksok skbk. Rdzvhj `hldĔdjd a u `rulaf zkfcjdfd kvrhpsihl phrajkicd (Idod`a,
Dustrdcaja, Ohvhf Zkcdo`u a Juſohj Deraga) a`k id svajksta h odgahodcohf aca odrh`ohf buĔkoju
a iucturohf aotklratktu a okzdvasohsta. @ruŤtvd Cdtaosik Dfkraik su bacd fdojk aotklrasdod od
odgahodcohj hsohva a sd`rſdvdcd su odscajkĔk prktihcufbhvsiam iucturd Fdjd, Aoid a Dztkid. 1;
Ph odscajkĔk u `h`aru sd kvrhpsiaf kckfkotafd u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u `djk iucturohf azrdzu
Cdtaosik Dfkraik phskbdo ivdcatkt. Iucturoa phirkt u Brdzacu phĆaojk 4122. lh`aok id`d su sk,
zd vrajkfk fdoaekstdgajk Wk`fagd sdvrkfkok ufjktohsta u Wdh ducu, hiupaca pjksoaga, irataĆdra,
rhfdohpasga a ufjktoaga.15 Pdj `hldĔdj jk `dh zdfdm dotakvrhpsihf phirktu ihja `hbrh
14 Phfds Fdo jk 4170. lh`aok odpustah OjkfdĆiu, prhvh`a okih vrajkfk u Garamu, d zdtaf h`cdza u WD@ l`jk u
kfalrdgaja hbjdvcjujk svhjk Ćuvkok rhfdok Jhsap a ojklhvd brdČd (4177-4107). Asth. 12 Odiho ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd Mksk aospardgaju trdſa u rkcalahzoaf eachzheajdfd Asthid jkr fu jk rdzjk`aojkoaZdpd` oajk fhldh pruſata. Asth.17 Fdraokta jk lhvhrah: ‟Fa mhČkfh `d scdvafh rdt ihja jk scdvdcjk svajktd, pdtrahtazdf, ruŤacdĆiu ruiu dodrmastk,`avok sftrhohsok a`kjk, prkzar prkfd ſkodfd–. Do`r kj FatrhvaČ, Urkfk oktrpkcjavam, 0;<. 10 [ ojkfdĆik ditavastk sk ubrdjdju Mdjoram Fdo, Iurt Iacdr, Cu`val Rdjbaokr, Krokst Bchm, Fdis Brh`, Idrc Fdrad
Ukbkr, Dcerk` UhckoŤtdjo a `rula. Asth str. ;72. 1; @ruŤtvd Cdtaosik Dfkraik su h` okzdvasohsta u prvhj Ćktvrtaoa 41. sthcjkČd ſavjkcd u `ruŤtvu ivdza-eku`dcok
struiturk sd cdtaeuo`ajdfd ihjk su hbrdĔavdck sarhfdŤok a okpasfkok skhsik fdsk. \drk ‗ ^doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao,
Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald AU, 724.15 Odjbhcja pjksoaga tk lkokrdgajk su Fdraju `k Do`rd`k, Hsvdc` `k Do`rd`k a Fdoukc Bdo`kard. Rhfdo aca
praphvjkti d su baca aca lrd`sia aca rklahodcoa, pasdoa vaŤk lhvhroaf oklh iojaſkvoaf stachf. OdjzodĆdjoaja pasga
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prk`stdvcjd pjksoai Fdraju `k Do`rd`k (4=17-410;).1< [ pjksoaŤtvu su sk astdica scdvoa pkrudosia
pjksoai Gkzdr Udcjkmh (4=1;-417=) a Ćackdosia pjksoai Uaskotk Ka`hbah (4=17-410=). Drlkotasia
pasga su odzvdca jk`do h` odjvdſoajam iojaſkvoam Ćdshpasd ph lcdvohf caiu Ćuvkohl rhfdod h
ſavhtu lduĆd ‟Fdrtao Eakrrh–.1= [ thf Ćdshpasu jk va`cjavd tkſojd trdſkojd `hfdČkl azrdzd a
hschbdĔdojd utagdjd Kvrhpk. Phihf 2>. sthcjkČd odrh`a Dzajk a @dckihl Asthid su phohvoh
dearfasdca trd`agajk svhjam `rkvoam iucturd a phvkzdca am, od hvdj aca hodj odĆao, s iucturoaf
thihvafd svhld vrkfkod. Bdc Ldold`mdr Pacdi jk irdjkf 41. a phĆktihf 2>. sthcjkČd uoah u
odgahodcoa phirkt Ao`ajk uĆkojk phcataĆihl ditavazfd, grpkČa svhjk uĆkojk az Bmdldvd` Latk. Pdj
phirkt phstdjk fdshvdo id`d jk od ojklhvh Ćkch `hŤdh Fdmdtfd Ldo`a. Ho jk azjdvah `d sk
phcataĆid schbh`d ok fhſk h`vhjata h` `ruŤtvkohl hschbdĔdojd, tvr`kČa `d Ao`ajd fhrd prhvksta
`ruŤtvkou rkvhcugaju prajk oklh phstalok phcataĆiu okzdvasohst. ^hvkzdh sk sd mdcaedtsiaf
phirkthf fuscafdod, ihjkl jk vh`ah Fkvcdod Db`uc-Ikcdf Dzd`d, a h` jk`aostvd Mao`usd a
fuscafdod hstvdrah jk`do h` uschvd zd odgahodcoa rdzvatdi. Aosastardh jk od rd`u idh odĆaou
hschbdĔdojd cju`a, Ćvrsth sk `rſdh odĆkcd `d phcataĆid digajd trkbd azbjkldvdta odsacjk , pd Ćdi a
okprajdtkcjstvh prkfd hoafd prhtav ihld sk bhra. Latd jk phstdcd svkth pasfh ohvhl hbd, lcdvoa
tkfkcj h ihfk hvask ktaid, `ruŤtvkod uĆkojd pd Ćdi a phcataĆik digajk. 11 Adih su `ruŤtvkok
ustdohvk mao`uazfd `ubhih uihrjkojkok u hbaĆdju a zdihou, hok sk fhlu fjkojdta. Pdih jk
phscajk ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd Zdiho h lrdĔdosihf brdiu, `hoksko 4127. lh`aok, `hpuŤtdh
brdihvk azfkĔu fuŤidrgd a ſkod rdzcaĆatam idstd tk tdih uz`rfdh tkfkcjk brdmfdosihl
smvdČdojd idstk. Zdiho h `hba prastdoid az 4121. lh`aok jk `hb `jkvhjdid zd u`dju phvasah od
40 lh`aod stdvcjdjuČa vdo zdihod hbaĆdj `jkĆajam brdihvd stdr prkih 2>>> lh`aod.4>>
Odiho rkvhcugajk 4144. lh`aok, d phskboh phscajk ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd, Iaokza sk
uphzodju sd kvrhpsiaf rhfdohpasgafd zdmvdcjujuČa prajkvh`afd ihja su prva put baca `hstupoa.
Faoastdr prhsvjktk jk 412>. lh`aok hbjdvah `d Čk pdj-mud, lhvhroa jkzai, phstdta hbdvkzdo u
hsohvoaf Ťihcdfd.4>4 Mu Ůk, fcd`a prhekshr ihja sk vrdtah az Dfkraik, jk mrdbrah pjksoaik `d
odpustk zdstdrjkck iojaſkvok trd`agajk a `d azrdſdvdju shpstvkok fasca a asiustvd. Adih su Ćatdoa
erdogusia pasga, phput Uaithr Alhd a Fhpdsdod, fdrisastaĆid iojaſkvohst prkhvcd`dvd Ćdi a
fkĔurdtohl pkrah`d su Kraiu Ukrasafu (Lck`djtk phcjsia cjacjdo, 417=), Ŷhzk CaoŤ `k Rklu (Edbraid, 4175., ^k`rd bhoatd, 417=). HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 4, 24>.1< \drk ‗ doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald AU, 720.1= Fdrtao Eakrh jk lcdvoa cai Ćuvkohl rhfdod h ſavhtu lduĆd, drlkotaosihl pasgd Mhzk Mkrodo`kzd, hbjdvcjkohl4=<2. lh`aok. ădshpas jk hsohvdo 4120., d azcdzah jk `h 412<. lh`aok. Asth, 72;.11 Hod jk bacd od`dmouČk sdvrkfkohf Mao`usu, d ojkod phruid sk prk`dvdcd sdvrkfkohf Ćhvjkiu u macjd`dfdvkrzajd, Ťth svjk`hĆa brhj iojald hbjdvcjkoam u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u od svaf ao`ajsiaf jkzagafd.\drk ‗ ^doaiidr ‗
Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald AAA, 21>.4>> Asth, 217.4>4 HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 4, 4=5.
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fohlh prajk stvdrdojd Odrh`ok Rkpubcaik Iaok, prhlhokČa a sputdvdjuČa ‟odgahodcastaĆik–
pasgk, phskboh 4174. a 4172. lh`aok. Cu Wuod (4==4-4175), phzodt idh ‟iaoksia Fdisaf
Lhria–, jk odpasdh @okvoai jk`ohl cu`did (414=), uphzodvŤa iaoksiu ĆatdcdĆiu pubcaiu s
odrh`ohf prhzhf a odpd`djuČa iaoksia `ruŤtvkoa ſavht. Iuh Fh-Jh prkvh`a `jkcd Lktkd,
Phcsthjd, Purlkojkvd, idh a Ćuvkok Rubdajk h` Hfkrd Mdjdfd.4>2 Fdh Puo h` 417>. lh`aok
rd`a od stvdrdoju prhcktkrsik a okhrkdcastaĆik ufjktohsta, d zodĆdjoh zd hvdj pkrah` jk a derafdgajd
ſkod pasdgd h` ihjam su fohlk phstdck scdvok.4>7 Rkstdurdgajd Fka`ſajd u Jdpdou a svjksoh
pramvdČdojk zdpd`ojdĆik iucturk hzodĆdvdju `vajk odazlck` suprhstdvcjkok tko`kogajk u iuctura9
jk`ou u hphodŤdoju zdpd`ojdĆihl, d `rulu u dearfasdoju trd`agahodcoam hbcaid. [ ufjktohsta a
iuctura Jdpdod prafjktok su `vajk tko`kogajk9 zdpd`od jdid u jdvohf ſavhtu, d trd`agahodcod
`hfaodotod u pravdtohf.4>0 Jdpdosia pasga su Ćatdca svu iojaſkvohst Zdpd`d, dca sufojd a
oksalurohst kvrhpsiam pasdgd odvh`acd am jk u ackfu dca trkbdju d dsafacardju zdpd`ou iucturu.
Ph jk phskboh va`cjavh u `jkcafd Pdoazdia @ſuoaŤard: Bu`dcaod cjubdv (412;), [ius ihpravd
(4121), Bkrbd Prsik (4172), ^raĆd h Ůuoiaou (4177) a FdĆid, Ůhzh a `vajk ſkok (4175).4>;
Drdpsih odgahodcoh buĔkojk phĆaojk irdjkf 41. sthcjkČd ascdfsiaf prkphrh`hf ihja jk
od`dmout pdoascdfsiaf `umhf @ſkfdcu`ao dc-Deldoajd a cabkrdcazfhf Fumdfk`d
Db`umud.4>5 [tagdj zdpd`ok iojaſkvohsta u drdpsiaf zkfcjdfd oajk `hvkh `h zodĆdjoam
pramvdtdojd zdpd`oam hbcaid. [ Klaptu su hbrdzhvdoa cju`a baca uphzodta sd zdpd`ohf
iojaſkvohČu, fuzaihf a scaidrstvhf, d fohlh sdvrkfkoam jkcd jk bach prkvk`koh od drdpsia.4><
ZodĆdjoa su ArdĆdoao Dc-Zdmdva (4=57-4175), klapdtsia pjksoai Ůkvia (4=5=-4172), `hi sk u
prhza astaĆu RdŤa` Ra`d (4=5;-417;) a Fumdfk` Iur` Dca (4=<5-41;7). @rdfu prk`stdvcjd
4>2 \drk ‗ ^doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald AU, 7<7.4>7 HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 4, 4=5.4>0 \drk ‗ ^doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald AU, 752.4>; HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 4, 4=5. 4>5 ^doascdfazdf jk a`khchlajd ihjd phzavd od `ruŤtvkoh- phcataĆiu shca`drohst fkĔu svaf fuscafdoafd. Idh
vjkrsia ihogkpt phsthja h` rdohl `hbd ascdfd, d idh fh`krod phcataĆid a`khchlajd odstdjk u jkiu kvrhpsihlihchoajdcazfd, id`d tursia aotkckitudcga phĆaoju rdsprdvcjdta a pasdta h thfk idih `d sk spdsa Hsfdosih gdrstvh h`
erdlfkotdgajk. Zd vrajkfk vcd`dvaok suctdod Db`ucmdfa`d AA (4=<5-41>1) pdoascdfazdf phstd jk hfacjkoa phcataĆia prhlrdf, usvhjko a prhfhvasdo h` strdok vcd`djuČam barhirdtsiam a aotkckitudcoam kcatd u gdrstvu. W rdzvhjkf
kvrhpsihl ihchoajdcazfd prkrdstd u hbrdfbkou a`khchlaju usfjkrkou prhtav kurhpsik phcataĆik, vhjok, kihohfsika fasahodrsik pkoktrdgajk. Wuctdo jk sfdtrdo uoavkrzdcoaf mdcaehf ihfk sva fuscafdoa `uluju vjkrohst a
phscuŤohst. doascdfazdf odsthja od`hiod`ata kihohfsik a vhjok scdbhsta u fuscafdosihf svajktu edvhrazhvdojkf
gkotrdcok vcdsta od` pkraekrajhf, idh a fuscafdod od` okfuscafdoafd u hbrdzhvdoju, vcdsta a kihohfsihf
rdzvhju. Pdj ihogkpt oajk uspah, d sruŤko jk odiho ihfd`dojd Hsfdosihl gdrstvd phscajk ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd `d
ba phohvh bah hſavcjko thihf prkphrh`d ascdfd odiho @rulhl svjktsihl rdtd. Azrdſko irhz hrldoazdgajk idh Ťth suFuscafdosid svjktsid cald a Hrldoazdgajd ascdfsik ihoekrkogajk, ihjk odsthjk ihhr`aoardta ascdfsiu shca`drohst
irhz phcataĆiu a kihohfsiu sdrd`oju od fkĔuodrh`ohf pcdou. ^doascdfazdf jk tdihĔk scuſah idh vdſdo phcataĆia aostrufkot u hbkzbjkĔavdoju svkfuscafdosik ph`rŤik prhtav strdoam dlrksajd.
mttp://www.hxehr`ascdfagstu`aks.ghf/drtagck/hpr/t42;/k4=418Xma67&Xphs644>< OdjvkČa h` ojam jk Fumdfk` Db`umu (4=01-41>;), ihja sfdtrd `d hbohvcjkod ascdfsid fasdh fhſk dsafacardta
sdvrkfkok tkmoaĆik a `ruŤtvkok a`kjk a tdih hbohvata sodlu fuscafdosihl `ruŤtvd. Asth, 4>2.
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Pkueai Dc-Mdiaf, `hi rhfdo prkuzafd lcdvou rajkĆ u sdvrkfkohf stvdrdcdŤtvu odiho pahoard
idh Ťth su Abrdmaf Dc-Fuvdacama (4=5=-417>) a Fumdfk` Muskao Mdaidc (4===-41;5). [
Pursihj sk u 41. sthcjkČu phĆaojk rdzvajdta odgahodcod tursid iojaſkvohst. [ sicd`u sd tursiaf
tkſojdfd zd usvdjdojkf `hstalouČd Zdpd`d, tursid iojaſkvohst sk hschbdĔd uhbaĆdjkoam
pkrzajsiam hbcaid okpraicd`oam zd tursia jkzai. ^hĆkihf 2>. sthcjkČd tdj phirkt jk phjdĆdo
odgahodcazfhf fcd`hturdid. @vd odjutagdjoajd pjksoaid u prvhj Ćktvrtaoa sthcjkČd, Jdmjd Ikfdc
Bkjdcta (4==5-41;5) a Dmfk` MdŤaf (4==;-4177) odcdzk svhjk od`dmouČk, jk`do u icdsaĆoaf
tursiaf azvhrafd, d `rula u erdogusihf afprksahoazfu.4>= Zd vrajkfk Dtdturihvk rkvhcugajk
4127. lh`aok, drdpsia dcedbkt jk zdfjkojko cdtaosiaf. Ph `hvh`a `h fdshvoajkl prkvhĔkojd
zdpd`oam icdsaid od tursia jkzai.4>1 Pursia rhfdohpasga phput Mdcat K`ab D`avdr a Rksdt Oura
Luotkiao rdzvajdju rhfdo u ruŤtvkohf a psamhchŤihf sfajkru. Iojaſkvoai Rkeai Mdcat Idrd j u
svhjaf ohvkcdfd azrdſdvd rdzohcaihst tursik zkfcjk a odrh`d. Odzaf Maifkt, ihja ph fohlafd
vdſa zd odjvkČkl turihl pasdgd 2>. sthcjkČd, `jkcujk fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u.44> [ ^krzaja su `h`ara
sd Zdpd`hf u 2>. sthcjkČu ph`stdica stvdrdojk Ćatdvk Ťihck pasdgd.444 Ohvkck a rhfdok sd vkcaiaf
`drhf paŤu @ſkfdc Zd`k, Fumdfk` Ma`ſdza, Wd`ai Ma`djkt a Buzurl Dcdva. FkĔutaf, u phkzaja
jk odlch `hŤch `h vkcaihl prkphrh`d. ^jksoaga paŤu sd azvdork`oaf od`dmouČkf hscdojdjuČa sk
od phkzaju prhŤcam vajkihvd, dca jk oasu scajkph scajk`aca. OdjzodĆdjoaja pkrzajsia pjksoai ihja jk
stvdrdh u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u bah jk Ih`s Odmdj. Rh`acd sk a fastaĆod praĆd okhbaĆok sodlk.442
Od`rkdcazdf
^ut prkphrh`d iojaſkvohsta od tkfkcjafd phtpuohl prkhbrdſdjd, idih su th trdſaca
`d`dasta a euturasta, `hvkh jk `h phirktd ihja jk odzvdo od`rkdcazdf. [tkfkcjko od trd`agajdfd
`d`k, od`rkdcazdf jk odstdh okphsrk`oh phscajk ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd u ^drazu.447 Ojklhv tvhrdg
4>= \drk ‗ ^doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald AU, 750.4>1 Asth, 75;.44> Asth444 ^krzajd jk od tkfkcju dolch-rusihl sphrdzufd ph`jkcjkod od `vajk utagdjok sekrk, d zd vrajkfk rdtd su uprihs
ojkohj okutrdcohsta bratdosik sodlk zdphsjkck ajkchvk pkr zajsihl tkrathrajd idh ihrdi uĆaojko u bhrba prhtav Purdidd idsoajk a BhcjŤkvaid. ^hirkt zd hschbdĔdojkf bah jk upkrko prhtav Bratdoajk, Rkzd Mdo jk uzkh u ruik ihotrhcu
od` zkfcjhf 4124. lh`aok, d 412;. svrlouh Ťdmd, prasvhjah skba iruou a odstdvah sd phcataihf fh`kroazdgajk
`rſdvk. \drk ‗ ^doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald A , 7>.442 HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 4, 4<=.447 @d`dazdf (prkfd azrdzu `d-`d, prvhf tkpdoju `jktktd) jk kistrkfoa ufjktoaĆia a iojaſkvoa prdvdg od phĆkt iu
2>. sthcjkČd (4145-4120) ihja sk phiuŤdvd, hscdojdjuČa sk od tko`kogajk kisprksahoazfd, u odĆaou azrdſdvdojd vrdtataod phĆktik prvam fasca a prvam hbcaid sdhpŤtdvdojd. Zdcdſk sk zd oksuvasch, sphotdoh a okihotrhcasdoh azohŤkojk
hsjkČdjd a zdpdſdojd. [ `ruŤtvkohf phlck`u `d`dasta su baca odichojkoa dodrmastaĆiaf a`kjdfd. @d`d jk phĆkcdfdoaeksthf u Ćdshpasu Gdbdrkt Uhctdark u Garamu 4145. lh`aok, d prk`vh`aca su jk Ŷdo Drp a Prastdo Gdrd.@d`dazdf jk afdh `h`aroam tdĆdid sd od`rkdcazfhf a euturazfhf. Pvr tih ăubkcaČ, Iojaſkvohst, 10.
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Do`rk Brktho, stu`kot fk`agaok ihja jk u rdtoaf bhcoagdfd hcdzah u h`ar sd uŤkvoh hbhcjkcaf
pdgajkotafd, uzkh jk zd afk phirktd dtrabut ihjaf jk Lajhf Dphcaokr hbjdsoah idrditkr svhl
dvdoldr`ohl `rdfsihl tkistd ‟Pkrkzaok lru`a–, alrdohl u ^drazu 414<. lh`aok.440 Brktho jk
ſkcah d u iojaſkvohst uoksk ohv fkth` pasdojd zdsohvdo od uĆkoju Walfuo`d Erhj`d uzafdjuČa
ph`svajkst idh hsohvu stvdrdcdŤtvd ufjksth svajksta. Od`rkdcasta asicjuĆuju ihotrhcu aotkckitd, d
tkſaŤtk stdvcjdju od acuzajk, mdcugaodgajk a sohvk. Od`rkdcazdf sk prktvhrah u vkcaia phirkt
phstdvŤa fh`d vrkfkod, pd jk vrch brzh prkvdzaŤdh ph`ruĆjk iojaſkvohsta, tk phput euturazfd a
odrhĆath `d`dazfd, zdmvdtah `rulk ufjktohsta. Uh`kČk caĆohsta phirktd, phrk` Do`rk Brkthod a
Eacapkd Wupkd, su baca: hc Kcajdr, Cuj Drdlho, Wdcvd`hr @dca, Fdrskc @a Ůdo, Ŷdi rkvkr, Prastdo
Gdrd, Cuas Buojukc a `rula. Hsaf ^drazd a Erdogusik, phirkt jk zdmvdtah Ukcaiu Bratdoaju,
Bkclaju, Ůpdoaju, Ůvdjgdrsiu, OjkfdĆiu a Julhscdvaju, d azvdo Kvrhpk Jdpdo, Wjk`aojkok @rſdvk,
Fkisaih a Brdzac. H`rkĔko u okihf eachzhesihf sfascu, od`rkdcazdf jk vjkrd u vaŤu rkdcohst
h`rkĔkoam hbcaid fasca ihjk prhazacdzk az svkfhČa sohvd a schbh`kok alrk rajkĆa.44; Wd ph`ruĆjd
ufjktohsta, od`rkdcazdf jk odsthjdh d sk prhŤara a od gajkca ruŤtvkoa ſavht, odpd`djuČa trd`agajk,
ihovkogajk a ustdohvk, prkcdzkČa u hlhrĆko oamacazdf ihja phraĆk rkdcdo Ćhvjkihv svajkt. Ph jk
zodĆach phbuou a phzav od phtpuou prhfjkou svajktd od praogapu ‟ruŤkojd phsthjkČkl a lrdĔkojd
bu`uČkl od ohvaf tkfkcjafd–.445 A`kjk od`rkdcazfd h phcataĆihj a ruŤtvkohj kstruigaja srkČhf
oasu back prafjkojkok. OdjvkČa brhj od`rkdcastd jk bah cjkvaĆdrsiam ubjkĔkojd. Jk`do brhj ojam jk
az ſkcjk zd prhfjkohf `ruŤtvd praŤdh ihfuoastafd, rkvhcugahodrohf phirktu ihja jk zodh Ťtd
ſkca d sruŤa, d Ťtd ſkca d stvhra, hi jk Wdcvd`hr @dca afdh safpdtajd zd edŤastaĆid strkfcjkojd.44<
I ojaſkvohst a iucturd Whvjktsihl Wdvkzd
Whvjktsia Wdvkz jk u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u ulcdvohf ſavah idh zdtvhrkod zdjk`oagd
ihrastkČa sk svhjhf iucturhf a ufjktohŤČu u azlrd`oja rkvhcugahodrohl `ruŤtvd. Hsaf utagdjd
prk`rkvhcugahodroam vkcaidod idh Ťth jk Ihostdotao Wtdoascdvsia, Wkrlkj DjzkoŤtdjo a Wkrlkj
440 Hsohvk od`rkdcazfd su sd`rſdok u Fdoaekstu od`rkdcazfd az 4120. lh`aok erdogusihl pjksoaid, praphvjk`dĆd atkhrktaĆdrd Do`rk Brkthod. Asth, 70=.44; Od`rkdcasta odpd`dca prastdcagk icdsaĆohl fkth`d iojaſkvohl stvdrdojd idh opr. Dodthcd Erdosd ihja jk td`d u
`ubhihj stdrhsta uſavdh vkcaia ulck` u iojaſkvoaf irulhvafd. W `rulk strdok, od`rkdcasta vkcaĆdju hok ihjk susfdtrdca svhjaf prk`mh`oagafd: Bh`ckrd, Rkfbhd a Dphcaokr d, phskbooh af jk zodĆdjdo bah Aza`hr @aids, ihja jk
ph` psku`hoafhf Lrhe Chtrkdfho hbjdvah zbariu ^jksfk Fdc`hrhrd, stamhvk ihja su h`rdſdvdca mdcugaodgajk puok
okphvkzdoam scaid, dpsur`ohl, sihrh a sidrd`ohl (idh u pjksfa ihjd lhvhra h cjkphta ‟susrktd iaŤhbrdod sd ŤavdČhffdŤaohf– Ťth jk zd od`rkcastk prk`stdvcjdch ‟dpsur` idh kstktsih–). Do`rkj FatrhvaČ, Urkfk oktrpkcjavam, 050.445 Od`rkdcazdf jk sd`rſdvdh tdivk a`kjk `d ba zlrd`d gavacazdgajk lrdĔkod fackoajufafd bacd bdĆkod u vdz`um id`d
ba hok back prafjkojkok u `ruŤtvu. Hvd rkvhcugahodrohst jk hbjdŤojdvdod ſkcjhf `d sk stvhrk ohvd tufdĆkojdcju`siam prdvd. Asth, 0;<.44< Asth, 055.
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WkrlkjkvaĆ ^rhihejkv `rulk caĆohsta su back fdch phzodtk azvdo lrdoagd Whvjktsihl Wdvkzd.
Odiho rkvhcugajk 414<. lh`aok a hlrdoaĆkojd ihjd jk odfktdh ‟rdtoa ihfuoazdf– `hcdza `h
zdfardojd iojaſkvohl a iucturohl ſavhtd u Whvjktsihf Wdvkzu. Azuzktdi jk euturazdf ihja
hiupcjd pasgk odichojkok ihfuoazfu hih Ucd`afard Fdjdihvsihl a CKE-d (Cajkva erhot).44=
Ůihcd afdſaoastd sk 4141. lh`aok hiupcjd hih Wkrlkjd Jkskojaod.441 Wkrdpahohvd brdČd
odfjkrdvdju `d prkphrh`k ufjktoaĆiu prhzu. Hvk Ťihck bajk lcds `d su burſhdsik pd af
fdrisastaĆia tkhrktaĆdra suprhstdvc jdju prhcktkrsiu iojaſkvohst ihju phĆaojk ^rhcktiuct. Odiho
4120. lh`aok Rusid dshgajdgajd pr hcktkrsiam pasdgd (RD^^) sd Ćdshpashf Od strdſa vh`a
idfpdoju prhtav ‟sdputoaid rkvhcugajk–. H` 4121. lh`aok `rſdvd phtpuoh prkuzafd az`dvdĆik
iuČk, d sd krhf ihckitavazdgajk u phcjhpravrk`a a pkthlh`aŤojam pcdohvd zdvrŤdvd iojaſkvoa
pcurdcazdf `vd`ksktam lh`aod.42> Dodthcaj UdsacjkvaĆ CuodĆdrsia jk idh odrh`oa ihfksdr zd
prhsvjktu h` 414<. `h 4121. lh`aok bah stdvd `d iojaſkvohst ihjd sk rdĔd u rkvhcugahodrohj
kphma fhrd u phtpuohsta `d azrdſdvd a`khchlaju icdsk a pdrtajk ihjd tu kphmu usfjkrdvd.424 A
Prhgia jk tkhrktsia ucdzah u prhbckfk iucturk irataiujuČa okik fdrisastk zbhl ojamhvhl
muŤidĆihl stdvd prkfd euturastafd, Wkrdpahohvhj brdČa, afdſaoastafd a ‟sdputoagafd–.422
Rkvhcugajd jk od`dmoucd pjksoaik safbhcastk, fkĔu ojafd Dckisdo`rd Bchid a Wkrlkjd Jkskojaaod
(4=1;-412;), ihja jk odjbhcjk stvdra odpasdh id`d sk h`rkidh prktjkravdojd az svhjam
rkvhcugahodroam phkfd hpjkvdvŤa phsrouchl skcjdĆihl pjksoaid aŤĆupdohl az ihrjkod ihja ok
fhſk `d umvdta ihrdi s vrkfkohf.427 Ucd`afar Fdjdihvsia (4=17-417>) prhŤar ujk phkzaju od
deaŤk aca spkitdick (Fastkrajd bue 414=., Wtjkoagd 4121., Mcd`do tuŤ 417>.) a prkphrhĔujk vkcaik
icdsaĆok vrstk h`u a sdtaru (H thfk 4127., Od sdv lcds 417>.). Bhras ^dstkrodi (4=1>-415>)
rdzfaŤcjd h su`baoa phkzajk u svajktu u ihfk vcd`dju phcataĆik a a`khchŤik vrajk`ohsta Ťth asidzujk
u svhjaf odrdtavoaf `jkcafd ([zvaŤkod bhckst,4127., Wpkitrhsia, 417>.) a prhza (^raphvktid,
44= Fdjdihvsia jk pasdh doldſhvdok pjksfk idivd jk opr. Cajkva fdrŤ tk urkĔavdh bhrbkok Ćdshpask Cke 4127-412;
a Ohva Cke 412<-412=. ^dstkrojdi jk h ojkfu idsoajk zdpasdh: ‟Oasdf smvdtah ojklhvu prhpdldo`astaĆiu rkvohst,uvcdĆkojk skbk a `rulhvd sachf u `ruŤtvkoh smvdtdojk, ihfpdojkrstvh, zd`ruldrstvh, phtĆaojdvdojk lcdsusvdih`okvoagk.– Gat. prkfd Do`rkj FatrhvaČ, Urkfk oktrpkcjavam, 0<2. 441 Afdſaoasta su u svhf fdoaekstu az 4141. lh`aok hbjdvaca: ‟Odfd jk sfajkŤoh id`d sk lhvhra h sd`rſaoa ufjktohsta(...) Jk`aoa fdtkrajdc phkzajk jkstk scaid, rajkĆ idh tdivd–. Gat. prkfd Do`rkj FatrhvaČ, Urkfk oktrpkcjavam, 0<2. 42> HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 4, 4;>. 424 FkĔutaf, oajk bah irut u thfk sfdtrdjuČa `d jk shgajdcastaĆid iucturd bu`uČohsta hpŤtkcju`sid, bksicdsod,mdrfhoaĆod a rhfdotaĆohl tapd. [ jk`ohf prk`dvdoju az 4127. lh`aok h rdzohvrsoaf strkfcjkojafd u ufjktohsta
jk rkidh: ‟ăujk sk rdzohlcdsdo mhr. ^hsthjk u ojkfu lcdshva ihja odf oasu ulh`oa. ^d Ťtd ho`d8 Okulh`od odf jka bacjid ihpravd dca a hod zdscuſujk `d bu`k prhuĆkod. (...) A iojaſkvohst ihjd odf oajk sdsvaf ulh`od trkbdhbjkitavoh prhuĆdvdta.– Gat. prkfd Do`rkj FatrhvaČ, Urkfk oktrpkcjavam, 0<7.422 ^h Prhgihf: ‟^h`ruĆjk ufjktohsta oajk hoh u ihfk jk pdrtajd phzvdod d ihfdo`ujk. Hod fhſk a trkbd d Ťtata,`d phfdſk a d sdfh phsrk`oh ruihvh`a. (...) drtajd ok fhſk a okČk d stdok od strdou jk`ohl iojaſkvohl iruſhid
ihja sk bhra s `rulaf iojaſkvoaf iruſhihf.– Gat. prkfd Do`rkj FatrhvaČ, Urkfk oktrpkcjavam, 0<0.427 Rkvhcugahodrok phkfk Jkskojaod su Bdcd`d h vd`ksktŤksthraga, hkfd h 75, h`chfga h Ckojaou a `rulk. Do`rkj
FatrhvaČ, Urkfk oktrpkcjavam, 0<>.
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4121.). Asdi Bdbkcj (4=10-4104) paŤk praphvjktik od`dmoutk phmh`afd Grvkok drfajk (Grvkod
ihojagd, 4125). FkĔutaf, ohvd prhzd fohlh `ulujk Jkvlkoaju Zdfjdtaou (4==0-417<) ihja
htiravd sikptaĆohst prkfd rkvhcugaja u sdtaraĆohj uthpaja ‟Fa– (4120), u ihjhj prk`stdvcjd scaiu
`ruŤtvd `kmufdoazhvdohf ao`ustrajhf a phcataĆihf tkmoaihf.420 Wdtaru u svhjhj prhza
asphcjdvdju a Acjk Krkoburl, Juraj HcjkŤd, d Ihostdotao ^dusthvsia paŤk klzhtaĆok praphvjktik.42;
Prd`agahodcou prhzu odstdvcjd Fdisaf Lhria ihja jk h`alrdh h`cuĆujuČu uchlu u kvhcugaja rusik
iojaſkvohsta prkfd shgajdcastaĆihf rkdcazfu. Ojklhva rhfdoa (@jkch Drtdfhohvam 412;. a Ŷavht
Icafd Wdolaod 412</75) scaidju su`baou rusihl ruŤtvd uhĆa rkvhcugajk. Dckiskj Phcsthj (4==7-
410;) u trachlaja rhfdod Mh` ph fuidfd (4122/04) praidzujk kvhcugaju rusiam aotkckitudcdgd
ihja phstkpkoh pracdzk rkvhcugaja. OdjzodĆdjoaja prk`stdvoaga r kdcazfd su Oaihcdj Hstrhvsia
(41>0-4175), pasdg duthbahlrdesihl rhfdod Idih sk i dcah Ćkcai (4172/70), Dckiskj Eurfdohv,
Dckisdo`dr Ed`kjkv a odrhĆath Famdac Ůhchmhv ihja jk `hbah Ohbkchvu odlrd`u 415;. lh`aok.
Ojklhvh `jkch Pama @ho (412=/0>) aosparasdoh jk Phcsthjkf, d praidzujk kphpkju `hosiam
Ihzdid, rdtd a rkvhcugajk. WhgajdcastaĆid kstktaid va`cjavd jk u psamhchŤihf a ruŤtvkohf rhfdou
i dh Ťth su `jkcd Ihostdotaod DckiskjkvaĆd Ek`aod (Htfagd Kvrhpk, 4177-417;), Dckiskjd
Ckhohvd (WhČ, 4121, Wiutdrkvsia, 4172, ^ut id hikdou 4175.) a Udckotaod Idtdjkvd (Urkfk
odprk` 4172.).425 BhcjŤkvaga su hsvdjdojkf vcdsta prkuzkca a usfjkrdvdojk gjkchiupohl
`ruŤtvkohl ſavhtd id shgajdcastaĆihj a ihfuoastaĆihj bu`uČohsta. Wtvdrdhgk u iuctura ihja oasu
baca `hvhcjoh rkvohsoa u pramvdtdoju bhcjŤkvaĆihl prhlrdfd hva su odzavdca ‟sdputoagafd–,
h`ohsoh hoafd ihja su sk sdfh pravrkfkoh pra`ruſaca.42< Wd uĆvrŤČavdojkf Wtdcjaod od vcdsta
h`cuĆoh su h`bdgavdoa hoa ihja oasu zdstu pdca ‟shgajdcastaĆia rkdcazdf–.
Rkvhcugahodrod prhpdldo`d sk hsjkČd a u fh`krohf phzhraŤohf rkpkrthdru.42= ^asga,
ihjk Wtdcjao odzavd ‟aoſaojkrafd `uŤd–, stdvcjkoa su u scuſbu azlrd`ojk shgajdcazfd ihja trkbd `d
lrd`a ohvh `ruŤtvh. ^rva iholrks shvjktsiam pasdgd, h`rſdo 4170. lh`aok, jk bah prkirktoagd
odiho Ćkld jk pramvdČkod sdfh jk`od fhluČohst ufjktoaĆihl stvdrdojd, hod ihju jk pramvdtdch
pdrtajsih ruihvh`stvh.421 Od tdivhj hsohva su azrdstdcd `jkcd ihjd su bacd u lrdoagdfd phcataĆiam
zd`dtdid. @hlfd jk hzdihojkod tkrhrhf lh`aod vkcaiam Ćastia (4175-417=) id`d bavdju
420 HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 4, 4;>.42; Eachzhesih prhfdtrdojk a sdtaraĆoh praidzavdojk ditukcok svdih`okvoagk odcdzafh u rhfdou Famdacd Bucldihvd
Fdjsthr a Fdrldratd ihja oajk hbjdvcjko jkr jk bah od lrdoaga phcataĆia pramvdtcjavhl u `dthf trkoutiu. Asth, 0<;. 425 HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 4, 4;4.42< Okia pasga su vrkfkohf prhlcdŤdvdoa zd sdputoaik, d okia euturasta, adih su skbk sfdtrdca hrth`hisoaf
prhcktkrsiaf pasgafd, su baca svrstdoa fkĔu hok `rulk. Do`rkj FatrhvaČ, Urkfk oktrpkcjavam, 0<4.
42= Fh`kroa phzhroaŤoa rkpkrthdr sk rdzvajd u prdvgu rkdcastaĆik `rdfk aca ihfk`ajk, idh u ihfd`u UdckotaodIdtdjkvd (Ivd`rdturd iruld 412=.) HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 4, 4;4. 421 Do`rkj FatrhvaČ, Urkfk oktrpkcjavam, 0<;.
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prhlhojkoa okid`dŤoja ‟sdputoaga– phbuojkoa prhtav shgajdcastaĆihl rkdcazfd (Icjujkv, Bdbkcj,
^acjojdi), dca a prastdcagk ^rhcktiuctd aca RD^^-d (pjksoaga Lkstkv a Lkrdsafhv). ^dstkrodi sk
odiho 4170. lh`aok phsvktah prkvhĔkoju.
Iucturd ojkfdĆihl odrh`d u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u
[ O jkfdĆihj sk uphrk`h s ^rvaf svjktsiaf rdthf, ihja sk uz hlrhfok ſrtvk phidzdh
acuzajd vkČ odiho prvam fjkskga, h`vajdcd ubrzdod uoutrdŤojd phcdrazdgajd ruŤtvd. Zdth sk kphmd,
Ćaja jk phĆktdi hzodĆah ^rva svjktsia rdt hzodĆdvd ‟irazoaf lh`aodfd icdsaĆok fh`krok–.47> W
fh`kroazdgajhf phcataĆiam struiturd jdĆdju a dota`kfhirdtsia phirkta, `jkchfaĆoh uz phfhČ
fh`kroam fk`ajd. Apdi, lrdĔdosia iucturoa phirkta, idh a sdfhstdcod rd`oaĆid iucturd su u
lh`aodfd Udjfdrsik rkpubcaik `hſavjkca aotkozavoa vrmuodg. Fdshvod fh`krod iucturd jk od
svaf phcjafd gvjktdcd, d odjvaŤk u vkcaiaf lrd`hvafd. @rſdvd jk uspjkcd zdihohf hbumvdtata
fk`ajk fdshvok iucturk (rd`ah, iaoh) dca jk apdi vkcaia brhj cju`a odlaojdh rd`aidcoaf a`kjdfd.474
Pkſojd `d sk suŤtaod iucturk pracdlh`a prhpasdoaf `hlfdfd, idh a facatdrazhvdoh `ruŤtvh,
rdzchl su zd sarhfdŤkojkf iucturk ihjd u 2>. sthcjkČu tkſa schbh`a a sdfhsvajksta. [ th vrajkfk
jk vkhfd Ćatdod iojald M justhod Wtjudrtd ăkfbrckod ‟Hsohvk 41. vajkid–, d Ramdr` Udlokr jk
vkcaĆdo ok sdfh zbhl vrajk`ohsta svhjk fuzaik oklh a zbhl rdsok suŤtaok ihju jk ſkcah `d azrdza.
Iojald ‟PrkČa rdjm– pasgd Drturd Fackrd vdo `ko Bruid, hbjdvcjkod 4127. lh`aok, hſavjkcd jk
phcataĆiu fasdh h trkČkf gdrstvu (PrkČa rdjm) Oajkfdgd odstdcu az srk`ojhvjkihvoam cklko`a.
Odgahodc-shgajdcasta su `kfhirdtaju a ihsfhphcatsid smvdtdojd sfdtrdca `kid`kotoaf, d svhjk
stdvhvk su prktvhraca u phcataĆia prhlrdf, rdzrd`aca fu a`khchŤik hsohvk a stvhraca phskbou
hrldoazdgaju ‟Bhrbkoa sdvkz zd ojkfdĆiu iucturu–. IcjuĆod `jkcd odgahodc-shgajdcastaĆihl
phlck`d od svajkt bacd su ‟Fhjd Bhrbd– D`hced Matckrd a ‟Fat 2>. vajkid– Dcerk`d Rhzkobkrld.
Rhzkobkrl jk lhvhrah h kisprksahoastaĆihf ‟ph`Ćhvjkiu–, d Matckrhva scjk`bkoaga su sk
hbrdĆuodvdca sd sdvrkfkohf ufjktohŤČu `asivdcaeaidgajdfd prhlcdsavŤa skbk zdstupoagafd
‟z`rdvhl– aostaoitd drajkvsihl odrh`d. [ svk jk uokŤko a dotaskfatazdf, jkr sk tvr`ach `d su ohvk
47> [ce @arcfkakr, ^hvajkst OjkfdĆik, 2>4.474 Fcd`a su u rſdvohf zdihou az 4122. lh`aok hzodĆkoa idh odgahodcod od`d Ćajk jk tjkcksoh, `uŤkvoh a fhrdcohz`rdvcjk h`cuĆujuČk zd ojkfdĆiu bu`uČohst. FkĔutaf, vaŤk uspjkmd afd prhpdldo`astaĆih vrbhvdojk fcd`am prhtav
vdjfdrsihl sastkfd h` strdok odgahodcastaĆiam irulhvd srk`ojk lkokrdgajk. Hoa su od phskbod odĆao h`rſdvdca fat
h fcd`hsta, prasutdo vkČ u prk`rdtohf pkrah`u, lhvhrkČa h Udjfdrsihj rkpubcaga idh ‟`ruŤtvu stdrdgd– afputardjuČa jhj iuidvaĆcui, scdbhst a okĆdsohst. Pdih sk ih` fcd`am rdĔd stdv h ‟phscdoju fcd`k lkokrdgajk– hcaĆkohj u pdrhca
‟Ua stdrga, `djtk odf prhsthrd!– K`vdr` Wprdolkr, vkČ 4120. lh`aok lhvhra h `umhvohj iraza a ‟Ćhvjkiu ihja ba idh prk`vh`oai fcd`am stvhrah ohva svajkt, id`d jk hvdj stdra vkČ zdvrŤah u scajkphj ucaga–. Gat. prkfd [ce @arcfkakr,^hvajkt OjkfdĆik, 24;.
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ihogkpgajk ufjktohsta azrdz jkvrkjsihl `umd a tdih suprhtdo drajkvsihj rdsa lkrfdostvd.472
Udctkr Erkoi jk bah phstdvcjko zd `arkithrd ohvhl Aostatutd zd masthraju ohvk OjkfdĆik.477 ^h`
lkschf ‟prhtav dota-ojkfdĆihl `umd– praprkfcjkoh jk ĆaŤČkojk babcahtkid h` iojald svam
ojkfdĆiam pasdgd ihja su stvdrdca u `umu fdrsiazfd, pdgaeazfd aca ihsfhphcatazfd. Urmuodg
ĆaŤČkojd jk spdcjavdojk iojald u svaf vkcaiaf lrd`hvafd OjkfdĆik, d vhĔd gajkchl ph`umvdtd
bah jk @r. ^duc Jhzke Lkbkcs, faoastdr prhpdldo`k (h` fdrtd 4177. `h 410;. lh`aok) u vcd`a
odgastaĆik OjkfdĆik a jk`do h` odjbcaſam Matckrhvam sdrd`oaid. ăatdv ph`umvdt jk praidzdo idh
safbhcaid stvdrdojd Ćastk ojkfdĆik iucturk a rdĔdojk ohvk, fcd`k OjkfdĆik. Digajd jk azvk`kod
u fdju 4177. lh`aok, d lcdvod prk`stdvd jk bacd h`rſdod od Prlu h pkrk u Bkrcaou.470 Ukcaid
chfdĆd jk pcdoucd 4>. fdjd uvkĆk id`d jk Lkbkcs u phohČ irdtiaf lhvhrhf phz`rdvah ‟sphotdok
odrh`ok ditavohsta–.47; Asthl `dod jk odrk`bhf phirdjaosihl faoastrd zd prhsvjktu asicjuĆkoa su
az ^rusik pjksoaĆik Did`kfajk Phfds a Mdjoram Fdo, Erdog Ukrceck, Dcerk` @kbcao, Rkok
Ůaikck, Cu`val Euc`d, Lkhrl Idjzkr, Erag eho [oru, Dcerk` Fhfbkrt, Bkrodr` Ikckrfdo,
Ru`hce ^dovag a Ckhodr` Erdoi. Wdfh jk Ramdr`d Mum sfhlcd mrdbrhsta a u zodi prhtkstd sdfd
odpustacd Did`kfaju. [prdſojkod fjkstd su bacd phpuojkod pasgafd ihja su h`lhvdrdca vcdstafd.
Odgahodcod iucturd W jk`aojkoam @rſdvd
DfkraĆihj fdshvohj i uctura zbhl pracavd kvrhpsiam uskcjkoaid a h`cdsid dfkraĆi am
pasdgd a ufjktoaid u Kvrhpu phĆaoju tkſata kvrhpsid ruŤtvd. W `rulk strdok, ^rva svjktsia rdt jk
u ktoaĆihf sfascu rdzhrah ojkfdĆiu zdjk`oagu Dfkraik ihjd jk vaŤk h` jk`ohl vajkid bacd jk`od
h` odjgjkojkoajam `hskcjkoaĆiam lrupd a ihjd jk rdzvacd iucturoa ſavht u Ćatdvhj zkfcja. Wva
472 Id`d su `hŤca od vcdst 4177. lh`aok, scjk`bkoaga D`hced Matckrd su odsthjdca `d uz phfhČ oduik a ufjktohstaodfktou vrajk`ohsta u sicd`u sd smvdČdojd svhld vhĔk. Hsoavdok su oduĆoh-astrdſavdĆik aostatugajk ihjd su ustvdra
pr k`stdvcjdcd phcataĆid uphraŤtd. Rhzkobkrl jk lhvhrah: ‟^rkta ca odgahodc-shgajdcastaĆid pdrtajd schbh`a azrdſdvdojd8 Oaidih! Astrdſavdojd su phstdcd fdchirvod. OjkfdĆia juraŤoa h`rk`a su uĆaoaca vaŤk zd oduiu, oklh phjk`aoa prhekshra vashiam Ťihcd–. Gat. ^rkfd Do`rkj FatrhvaČ, Urkfk oktrpkcjavam, 0=0.477 Ho jk jk`ohf jdvoh rkidh `d jk ‟zdstupdojk iucturok vhcjk odŤkl phirktd a Rdjmd `dods jk`od h` odjvdſoajam
phtrkbd. (...) ^rhtavoai ihja jk od ph`ruĆju phcataik h`su`oh phrdſko, svhjk bhrbkok sodlk prkbdgujk od phcjkiucturk–. Asth, 0=;.470 Wpdcjkok su iojalk Fdrisd a Idugihl, d u zodi suprhstdvcjdojd icdsohj bhrba a fdtkrajdcastaĆihj fasca. I ojalk
Mdjoramd Fdod, Krostd Lckzkrd a Kramd Ikstokrd spdcjkok su u zodi suprhstdvcjdojd `kid`kogaja a fhrdcohf pd`u,
d u afk hbaĆdjd u phrh`aga a `rſdva. Iojalk Era`ramd Uacmkcfd Ekstkrd su spdcjojk u zodi suprhstvdcjdojd bksfascu a
phcataĆihj azjdva, iojalk Walfuo`d Erhj`d su spdcjkok u zodi suprhstdvcjdvdojd `umhvohf trucjkoju irhz
prkgjkojavdojk odlhosihl ſavhtd, d u afk pckfkoathsta Ćhvjkihvk `uŤk. Iojalk Kfacd Cu`vald a Ukrfkold
Mklkfdod su spdcjkojk u zodi prhtavcjkojd ojkfdĆihj masthraja a uvdſdvdoju ojkoam vkcaiam stvdrdcdgd. PdihĔk suspdcjkojk iojalk Dcerk`d Ikrd, Pkh`hrd Uhced, Lkhrld Bkrodro`d, Kramd Fdrak Rkfdrid, Iurtd Pumhcsihl, Idrcd
eho Hsjkgihl at`. Asth.47; Lkbkcs jk thf pracaihf rkidh: ‟Urajkfk prktjkrdohl jkvrkjsihl aotkckitudcazfd jk zdvrŤkoh. (...) Az hvam ruŤkvaodČk sk phbjk`oaĆia ph`aČa e koais ohvhl `umd.– Gat. prkfd Do`rkj FatrhvaČ, Urkfk oktrpkcjavam, 0=5.
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ojkfdĆia safbhca su phstdca fktd, Ćdi sk zd iaskca iupus vaŤk oajk uphtrkbcjdvdh ojkfdĆia azrdz
‟sdukrirdut– vkČ ‟cabkrty gdbbdlk– h`ohsoh ‟schbh`drsia iupus–. Okprajdtkcjstvd su sk prhŤaracd
a od `rulu gkotrdcou sacu, Dustrh-[ldrsiu, `hfhvaou facahod schvkod a Jkvrkjd ihja su uŤca u
Wjk`aojkok @rſdvk h` 4==>. lh`aok.475 Rdt jk asihrjkoah shgajdcastaĆik a rd`aidcok a`kjk ihjk su
sk prhŤar ack u irazdfd prk`rdtoam lh`aod, d vcd`d jk juod 414<. lh`aok, `rdstaĆoaf zdihohf h
Ťpajuodſa, strhlh hlrdoaĆacd svdiu irataiu tk vrstk. Zdiho jk sprhvhĔko okfachsr`oh9 phŤtk su
h`bajdck `d prkohsk phŤacjik ihjk su sd`rſdvdck phbuojkoaĆiu catkrdturu, d chidcod a `rſdvod
phcagajd jk prdvacd rdgajk u prhsthrajdfd shgajdcastd a ao`ustrajsiam rd`oaid svajktd (A\\).47<
OjkfdĆihl `kfhod jk zdfjkoah okprajdtkcj u caiu Whvjktsihl Wdvkzd. Ukcaia `ah rkprksajk h`
4141. lh`aok pd od`dcjk ui cjuĆavdh jk vdozdihosik tditaik a th h` strdok Ćuvdrd zdihod a
pravdtoam lrupd. Wu`hva su rajktih stdvcjdca pralhvhr od tdivh phodŤdojk. Urajk`ohsta bajkchl
Dfkraidogd dolchsdishosihl phrajkicd a prhtkstdotsik vjkrhasphvjksta (\DW^) acustrujk
phbjk`d prhmabagajk 4141. lh`aok, fjkr k sfaŤcjkok az prkzard prkfd supdroaĆihj iuctura a
fhrdcoaf vrajk`ohstafd lrd`sihl stdohvoaŤtvd.47= Bhrbd prhtav stkrkhtapd fdojk vrajk`ohl
grogd vh`acd sk od iojaſkvohf a ufjktoaĆihf pcdou. Dcdo Carhj Chi jk 412;. lh`aok idh prva
grodg apchfardh od Mdrvdr`u, d idh Rh`hshv stapko`astd u Hisehr`u hbjdvah iojalu ‟Pmk Okw
Oklrh– ihjd jk sd`rſdvdcd `jkcd grodĆiam pasdgd zdmvdcjujuČa ihjhj su groa Dfkraidoga phstdca
sdstdvoa `ah dfkraĆik odgahodcok iucturk.471 GrodĆid odrh`od ufjktohst jk phstdjdcd `ah
dfkraĆik iojaſkvok a ufjktoaĆik trd`agajk zdjk`oh sd ehcichrhf `rulam kckfkodtd idh Ťth su
macbacaja (maccbaccy) a idubhja. @umhvok vjkrsik pjksfk sdstdvcjkok u rhpstvu prva put su
prk`stdvcjkok scuŤdhgafd u gajkchj zkfcja.40> Odjazrdzatajd dfkraĆid fuzaid phtaĆk h`
phpucdrohl fuzaĆihl jkzaid `ſkzd (jdzz) ihja sk h` svhl phĆktid u grodĆiaf idedodfd u Oju
Hrckdosu prhŤarah thihf `vd`ksktam lh`aod ph gajkchf svajktu. UhĔk hrikstrd su stkica vkcaiu
475 [ ^rvhf svjktsihf rdtu jk u sdstdvu hruſdoam sodld uĆkstvhvdch 0.< facahod Dfkraidodgd `hi su dfkraĆialubaga baca 445 >>> cju`a. Fdojk h` phchvaok thl brhjd jk phlaouch u bhrba. Id`d sk tk brhjik uphrk`k sd lubagafd
Erdogusik, OjkfdĆik, Rusajk a Dustrhuldsik, ihjk su phjk`aodĆoh afdck azfkĔu facaho a `vd facahod frtvam, dUkcaid Bratdoajd okŤth fdojk h` facaho, hĆath jk `d jk utagdj rdtd od ſavht Dfkraik bah phtpuoh oksrdzfjkrdo
ojkohf vhjohf doldſhvdoju. FkĔutaf ‟rdt zd dfkraĆiu svajkst– idih ld jk `keaoasdh asthraĆdr @kjva` Ikok`a , jk
bah prva a odjh`cuĆoaja hirŤdj u dfkraĆihf uĆkŤČu u lchbdcohj bhrba. ^macap Jkoiaos, Asthrajd Wjk`aojkoam @rſdvd,Eacap UaŤojaČ, Bkhlrd` 2>>2. 451.47< Hrldoazdgajd Ao`ustrajsia rd`oaga svajktd jk hidrditkrasdod idh ‟dodrmastaĆid hrldoazdgajd od`dmoutd
OjkfdĆihf–. Asth, 4<>.47= Urajk`ohsta \DW^-d a trkzvkojdŤtvd aosparasdck su a IJ[ IC[IW ICDO ihja jk h` 4124. `h 4125. lh`aok
phstaldh vrthlcdv uspjkm Ťarhf zkfcjk brhjkČa h` 0 h = facahod Ćcdohvd uicjuĆujuČa a ſkosia ihotaolkot u Ao`ajdoa
a ^kosacvdoaja. Hvdj phirkt jk bah prvkostvkoh a dotaidthcaĆia hscdojdjuČa sk od catkrdturu a a`kjk uctrdprhtkstdotsiam
phirktd az prktmh`ohl vajkid. Icdo sk suprhstdvcjdh phbhcjŤdoju phchſdjd grodgd a Jkvrkjd. Icdo jk phstdh sdstdvoa
`ah phcataik fohlam `rſdvd a afdh jk dpshcutou `hfaodgaju u rklahoafd idh Ťth jk Ao`ajdod. Asth, 4<4.471 ^jkvdĆa az grodĆiam ihck`ſd, ihja ba sdiupcjdca ohvdg zd az`rſdvdojk svhjam Ťihcd, pjksfk pra rd`u, mufhrhf a
bahlrdeajk rhbhvd sdiupcjkok su tra`ksktam lh`aod id`d su okzdphsckoa pasga a fuzaĆdra baca phscdta ph gajkchj zkfcja`d sdiupcjdju dfkraĆia ehcichroa fdtkrajdc az svam azvhrd. Asth.40> Asth, 4<;.
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phpucdrohst, d jk`do h` vh`kČam irataĆdrd `ſkzd jk bah idthcaĆia svkŤtkoai . @ſkz fuzaid sk
pasdcd, d ok sdfh afprhvazhvdcd. @ſhr`ſ LkrŤvao (4=1=-417<) jk bah prva hzbacjoa ihfphzathr
ihja jk uzkh `ſkz zd hsohvu azrdzath dfkraĆihl stacd. Ojklhvd Rdpsh`ajd u pcdvhf (Rmdpsh`y
Ao Bcuk, 4127) a puĆid hpkrd h ſavhtu grodgd hr`ſa a Bks (^hrly do` Bkss, 417;) jk utvr`acd tdj
ohva prdvdg u fuzaĆihj ufjktohsta.404 [ dfkraĆihj fuzaga u thf pkrah`u astaĆk sk a Rhj Kczvhrt
Mdras ihja jk uphtrkbcjdvdh tkfk odrh`oam pjksdfd (idubhjd a grodgd) u svhjhj Wafehoaja lcdshvd
(Wyfpmhoy ehr Uhagks, 417;) ihju jk odpasdh od h`chfdi az phkzajk Uhctd Uatfdod. Okia su
ihfphzathra bdzardca hpkrk od ratfhvafd, fkch`ajdfd a jkzaiu odrh`d, ufktdca vjkrsik grivkok
pjksfk a phcataĆik lhvhrk.402 Odjstdrajk grodĆik ustdohvk su back grodĆik grivk jkr su groga
asicjuĆkoa az bjkcdĆiam gridvd od julu phscajk lrdĔdosihl rdtd.407 Aosastardojk od rdsoaf
rdzcaidfd u `ruŤtvu afdch jk zd phscjk`agu uĆvrŤĆavdojk a jdĆdojk grodĆik phpucdgajk, `hi sk
ojkoa odprk`oa Ćcdohva phasthvjkČuju sd svhjaf grodĆiaf fdsdfd. Ph jhŤ vaŤk `hpraohsa
ph`vhjkohsta `ruŤtvd od rdsoaf hsohvdfd stvdrdjuČa stdv `d sk svdia phjk`aodg, fd ihjhj rdsa
prapd`dh, fhrd bhrata zd su`baou svhjk rdsk. ^h`hzrkojk zbhl ohvam irktdojd u `ruŤtvu bach jk
hĆalck`oh a u rkcalajsihj svkra l`jk su sk euo`dfkotdcasta upckca u ihf prhfatardjuČa sphr s
odgahodcoaf rkpkriusajdfd. @rſdvd Pkoksa jk bacd jk`od h` okihcaih juras`aigajd ihjk su
zdbrdojavdck uĆkojk bkzbhſok hitraok h kvhcugaja u jdvoaf Ťihcdfd.400 Odiho rvhl svjktsihl
rdtd sk u Wjk`aojkoaf @rſdvdfd phĆaoju azrdſdvdta `hfdČa phlck`a a uphtrkbcjdvdta `hfdČa
iojaſkvoa azrdza, a`kotaeaiujuČa sk prktkſoh sd kvrhpsihf, ulcdvohf kolcksihf iojaſkvohŤČu
41. sthcjkČd, icdsaĆohf a rkoksdosihf ufjktohŤČu Atdcajk a Erdogusik, tk ojkfdĆihf a
tdcajdosihf fuzaihf. FkĔutaf, prk` sdfh doldſhvdojk Dfkraik u rdtu, fcd`a irataĆdr Udo
Uai Bruisd (4==5-4157) u `jkcu Dfkraid phstdjk puohcjktod (Dfkragd's ghfaol he dlk) phzavd
dfkraĆik pasgk `d prkrdstu iucturoa ihchoajdcazdf a azrdzk bhldtu iucturd sjkvkrohdfkraĆihl
ihotaokotd.40; Idrc Wdo`burl jk u svhjaf `jkcafd ^hkfk ăaidld (Gmagdlh phkfs, 4145),
CjuŤtdĆa iuiuruzd (Ghromusikrs, 414=), @af a Ćkcai (Wfhik do` Wtkkc, 412>), @hbrh jutrh
Dfkraih (Lhh` Fhroaol Dfkragd, 412=) azrdſdvdh tulu, rd`hst, vucldrohst, vatdcohst a sohvk
odrh`oam fdsd.405 Apdi, `vd odjutagdjoajd dfkraĆid pasgd, pjksoaga Kzrd ^duo` (4==;-415=) a
404 \drk ‗ ^doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald AU, 74<.402 Asth, 745.407 Asth, 221.400 Adih jk uĆatkcj ph afkou @ſho Phfds Wihups od suĔkoju 412;. lh`aok hsuĔko ph thf zdihou, euo`dfkotdcastasu baca hbacjkſkoa cjdlhf prafatavok okthckrdogajk, d rk putdgajd tuſatkcjd Uacajkfd Brdjdod jk bacd uoaŤtkod. [ hstdtiu
svajktd sk od th suĔkojk lck`dch idh od garius. Zdihoa phput phfkouthl u Pkoksaju vdſaca su svk h irdjd pk`ksktam
lh`aod, d az`dvdĆa u`ſbkoaid su fhrdca `d bu`u vkhfd hbdzrava ph patdoju kvhcugajk, bdrkf `h irdjd pk`ksktamlh`aod id`d jk shvjktsia uspjkm u svkfaru prkpcdŤah Dfkraidogk `d ojamhvh hbrdzhvdojk zodtoh zdhst djk zd
zodojkf ojamhvam supdroaid. ^macap Jkoiaos, Asthrajd Wjk`aojkoam @rſdvd, 4<5.40; \drk ‗ ^doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald AU, 744.405 Asth.
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Phfds Wtros Kcaht (4===-415;) hstdju vjkroa kvrhpsihj trd`agaja.40< ^hscajk ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd
hoa h`cuĆuju `d ſavk u Kvrhpa a ojamhva su stamhva phstdca `ah kvrhpsihl azrdzd `vd`ksktam
lh`aod.40= Fohla dfkraĆia pasga su uhĆdvdca surhvhst a prdzoaou ſavhtd: Waoickr Cuas (4==;-
41;4) u `jkcu Lcdvod ucagd (Fdao strkkt, 4122) hpasujk tupa fdtkrajdcazdf fdcam prkrajsiam
lrd`aČd, Pkh`hr @rdjzkr u svhf rhfdou DfkraĆid trdlk`ajd (Do Dfkragdo Prdlk`y, 412;)
hiravcjujk `ruŤtvh Ťth phscuſatkcj u mhtkcu phstdjk ubagd, d [ck K`vdr` Rkcvhl jk u `jkcu @avhva
u zkfcja (Ladots ao tmk Kdrtm, 4121) hpasdh mkrhjsih odsthjdojk d sk hpch`a zkfcjd uprihs strdmu
`d odjkz`d sididvdgd fhſk svk uoaŤtata.401 DfkraĆia lrdĔdosia rdt (4=54-4=5;) jk tkfdtazhvdo
od svk fhluČk odĆaok, odjazrdſdjoajk u pjksfa Pjkch @ſhod Brduod (Jhmo Brhwo's bh`y, 4121)
Wtavkod Uaogkotd Bkoktd (4=1=-4107) ihjd lhvhra h ſavhtafd cju`a od hbjkfd zdrdČkoaf
strdodfd. Odrh`ok fdsk su pramvdČdok a smvdČkok ojamhvaf vcdstataf odĆaohf lhvhrd ihja jk
phstdh azrdzath dfkraĆia lhvhr idh u phkfa Idrcd Wdo`burld ‟ Odrh`, `d– (Pmk ^khpck, yks,
4175). Rhfdo Waoickrd Cuasd ‟Ph jk hv`jk okfhluČk– (417;) praidzujk dfkraĆia edŤastaĆia
phirkt a ojklhvhl `aitdthrd Bdzd Uao`rapd, Ćaja jk cai vjkrhvdtoh urdĔko ph Uacajdfu @d`caju
^kcaju.4;> Zd vrajkfk kihohfsik irazk tra`ksktam lh`aod ek`krdcod vcd`d jk ph`rſdcd iucturu a
ufjktohst doldſujuČa ufjktoaik, pasdgk, fuzaĆdrk a lcufgk s gacjkf sfdojkojd okzdphsckohsta.
Pd phfhČ jk bacd irdtihl vajkid, dca jk htiracd vkcaia brhj tdckodtd. DfkraĆia azrdz u iuctura jk
vkcaiaf `ajkchf bah `jkch cju`a az fohlam zkfdcjd, uskcjkoaid rdzohl iucturohl odscajkĔd a
ojamhvk `jkgk ih` ihjam sk prktphstdvcjd rkzuctdt uzdjdfoam utagdjd `vdju iucturd.4;4 FkĔutaf,
Kvrhpcjdoa su uſavdca u dfkraĆihf azrdzu ‟odsacjd a prafatavazfd– Ťth oajk bah sdfh stkrkhtap
`avcjkl zdpd`d a `rulhrdzrk`oam eacfhvd oklh a spkgaeaĆoh odsacjk ihjaf hbacuju `jkcd Krokstd
40< Kzrd ^duo` 4147. lh`aok ehrfucaŤk odĆkcd ‟afa`ſazfd– u svhf Ćdshpasu ^hktry. Zd tdj prdvdg pjksfd jk u
svhjhj suŤtaoa scaid ihjd ok sd`rſa oaididv aotkckitudcoa oa hsjkČdjoa dspkit. Od hsohvu afa`ſazfd pjksoaga phiuŤdvdju u dfkraĆihj srk`aoa htirata praogapk hpŤtkl prkphrh`d. HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 4, 2>>.40=
^huo` jk az`dvdh prkvh`k iaoksik phkzajk, d Kcaht jk azuĆdvdh sdosirt a pasdh h @dotku. ^hstdh jk vrmhvoasvkŤtkoai iuctd kolcksiam fktdeazaĆiam pjksoaid 4<. sthcjkČd `keaoaŤuČa ohstdclaaju zd `ruŤtvhf ihjk jk zdsohvdoh
od vcd`dvaoa kcatk, a ihjk oajk ‟phivdrkoh jk`odihŤČu ^rdvd Ćhvjkid–. \drk ‗ ^doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd
ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald AU, 742.401 Gajkod irhČkojd `avcjaok azrdſdvdcd sk a u phkzaja K`vaod Drcaolthod Rhbaoshod (4151-417;). Asth, 74;.4;> Uacajdf @d`ca ^kca jk sd srkbrkoaf ihŤucjdfd hiupah 2> >>> prastdcagd od zdpd`u a srk`ojkf zdpd`u. Hsaf
ojkld, phjdvach sk a okihcaih `rulam `kfdlhld ihja su phiuŤdca asihrastata mdhs kihohfsik irazk. FkĔu ojafd jkodjspkitdiucdroaja bah luvkrokr Cuazajdok Mjua Cho ihja jk ubajko 417;. lh`aok. Drt @Ŷ. Wfat jk sd phirkthf ‟idiaihŤucjd–, d ph uzhru od Fushcaoajkvk edŤastk, 4177. lh`aok prk`cdldh edrsaĆdo fdrŤ od UdŤaoltho, d htdg ădrcsIdlcao jk bah kisphokot zdvjkrkoaĆihl dotaskfatazfd a u`ruſko sd `rulaf phpucastafd phĆkh prk`sjk`oaĆiuidfpdoju 4175. lh`aok. ^macap Jkoiaos, Asthrajd Wjk`aojkoam @rſdvd, 4<5. 4;4 Fohla h` ojam su stdraja Dfkraidoga sd iucturoaf ihrajkojkf az Ukcaik Bratdoajk. FkĔutaf, okia od julhzdpd`uvuiu svhjk phrajkich az Ůpdoajk, okia u Cuazajdoa az Erdogusik, okia u ^kosacvdoaja az OjkfdĆik `hi su okia ph
gajkchj zkfcja vuica svhjk phrajkich az Deraik. Fohla h` ojm su baca rhĔkoa u Rusaja, Jdpdou, Atdcaja, Julhscdvaja, OjkfdĆihj, Iaoa, Erdogusihj, LrĆihj at`. FkĔutaf, fkĔu kvrhpsiaf azbjklcagdfd sk oajk phjdvah oa jk`do jk`aoaodgahodcoa stac, bkz hbzard od utagdj sdvrkfkoam irktdojd u Kvrhpa. Asth.
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Mkfaolvkjd aca Uacajdfd Ehciokrd.4;2 DfkraĆia jkzai jk stkidh svhj vcdstata idrditkr, d erdogusia
prajkvh`a su phĆkca rdzcaihvdta od svhjaf odschvoaf strdodfd ‟prkvk`koh sd dfkraĆihl–.
DfkraĆid vazajd a dfkraĆia jkzai su `h srk`aok 2>. sthcjkČd phstdca okazhstdvoh hbacjkſjk
dfkraĆik iucturk stvhravŤa `jkcd ihjd zduzafdju phskboh fjksth u iucturohj trd`agaja Zdpd`d.
Eacf
Eacf, ihja jk u svhjaf phĆkgafd bah zdoafdojk zdodtcajd a vdŤdrsiam zdbdvcjdĆd, h rvhl
svjktsihl rdtd azrdstd u rkspkitdbacou ao`ustraju.4;7 ^hscajk ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd aotklrdgajhf
okzdvasoam ihfpdoajd, u ihjk jk ucdldo ohvdg zdrdĔko h` prhazvh`ojk prvam `ulhfktrdſoam
eacfhvd, odstdju fhČok hrldoazdgajk ihjk Čk phstdta iaĆfd mhcavu`sik prh`uigajk.4;0 DfkraĆid
eacfsid ao`ustrajd jk svk `h phjdvk vashihbu`ſktoam `ulhfktrdſoam eacfhvd u stvdra zdhstd jdcd
zd eacfsiaf ao`ustrajdfd Erdogusik a Atdcajk. Okphsrk`oh prk` azbajdojk ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd
kvrhpsia eacf luba ihrdi sd dfkraĆiaf eacfhf ihja pravcdĆa svk vaŤk pubcaik. ^rva svjktsia rdt
jk zdustdvah kvrhpsiu eacfsiu ao`ustraju `hi jk dfkraĆia eacf thihf rdtd odprk`hvdh u
phcataĆihj salurohsta zd`hbavŤa ihotrhcu od` fkĔuodrh`oaf eacfsiaf trſaŤtkf.4;; OjkfdĆia
eacf jk prajk ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd zdhstdjdh zd eacfhf Erdogusik, Atdcajk, Ukcaik Bratdoajk a
Wjk`aojkoam @rſdvd. ^htdioutd vkcaiaf brhjkf dotaojkfdĆiam prhpdldo`oam eacfhvd ojkfdĆid
vcd`d od hsohvu `kirktd az 414<. lh`aok hsoavd [ED ([oavkrsuf Eacf Ditakolkskccsmdet), d
azlrdĔko jk ohva stu`ah u Ohjbdbkczbkrlu phrk` Bkrcaod.4;5 Wmvdtdojk kstktaik eacfd prkfd
ihjhj sk prazhra trktardju idh oaz scaid aca idh bdckt jk h`rk`ah ojkfdĆik a erdogusik eacfhvk. ^rva
ojkfdĆia eacf ihja jk rdsiaouh sd phzhraŤoaf ihogkpgajdfd bah jk eacf Wtkcdod ^ajkd, ^rdŤia
4;2 Krokst Mkfaolvkj jk phzodt ph svhf rhfdou Zbhlhf hruſjk (4121) zd ihja jk aospardgaju odŤdh u svhjafasiustvafd az ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd. Uacajdf Ehciokr (4=1<-4152) jk vkhfd zodĆdjdo dfkraĆi a pasdg ihja u svhjaf
`jkcafd tkfdtazujk hstdtik stdrk drasthirdgajk, aotkckitudcgk a phschvok cju`k, edrfkrk, zdiupgk a prhpdcagk
praidzujuČa svhju `hfhvaou a hskbujoa dfkraĆia Jul h`dick phtaĆk. [ fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u jk odpasdh Irai a bajks(4121), CkſkČa od ufhru (417>), [thĆaŤtk (4174) a Wvjktcd u dulustu (4172). Pvrtih ăubkcaČ, Iojaſkvohst, 4<>.4;7 H` vdŤdrsiam praidzavdĆd u Ťdthrafd, ihja su sk u prvhj `kgkoaja eacfd od vkcaia razai upustaca u eacfsia bazoasod`djuČa sk brzhj zdrd`a, azrdstdju prh`ugkota shpstvkoam eacfhvd, zdtaf prh`ugkota-`astrabutkra a od irdju
mhcavu`sia Ťkehva stu`ajd. Pa cju`a su baca prvd lkokrdgajd jkvrkjsiam afalrdodtd az AsthĆok Kvrhpk, vkČaohf oasihlstkpkod Ťihcsihl hbrdzhvdojd, hi su 1>% ojamhvk pubcaik Ćaoaca prhtkstdota a idthcaga. Pa ph`uzktoaga su phstkpkoh
oduĆaca `d Čk pubcaid, vkČaohf uskcjkoaga a lrd`sia rd`oaga, pramvdtata a prheaojkoaju a ufjktoaĆia hpckfkojkouzdbdvu. @kjva` D. Iui, Asthrajd eacfd 4, Gcah, Bkhlrd` 2>>;., <0.4;0 Aotklrdgajhf ihfpdoajd Fktrh, Lhc`wao a Fdykr 4120. lh`aok odstdjk FLF, \drokr Brhs. ^agturks su idh
ihrphrdgaju hsohvdca Mdra, Dcbkrt, Wkf a @ſki Uhrokr 4127. lh`aok, Ghcufbad ^agturks su hsohvdca Mdra a @ſkiIho 4120. lh`aok, Edfhus ^cdykrs-Cdsiy Ghrphrdtaho Čk 417;. lh`aok phstdta ^drdfhuot ^agturks, d Ehx Eacf
Ghrphrdtaho, ihju jk 414;. lh`aok hsohvdh Uacajdf Ehis, phstdjk 2>tm Gkotury-Ehx 417;. lh`aok. Asth, <7.4;; Mkfaidcajk ihjk scuſk zd prhazvh`oju gkcucha`d uphtrkbcjdvdck su sk zd prhazvh`oju bdrutd. 4;5 Odiho rdtd vcd`d jk prh`dcd `ahoagk hvk ihfpdoajk OjkfdĆihj bdoga (@kutgmk Bdoi) a ihrphrdgajdfd idh Ťthsu Irupp a A. L. Edrbko pd jk tdih [ED prktvhrkod u pravdtou ihfpdoaju. [ED jk afdcd fhohphc od` ojkfdĆiafeacfhf `vd`ksktam a tra`ksktam lh`aod. @kjva` D. Iui, Asthrajd eacfd 4, 450.
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stu`kot az 4147. lh`aok.4;< [tagdj hvhl eacfd jk odjvkČa u phlck`u ojklhvk tkfdtaik ‟`ubaosihl
a zdstrdŤujuČkl bdvcjkojd sdfaf tkfkcjafd skced– ihjd prkhvcd`dvd u ojkfdĆihf eacfu `h 4177.
lh`aok id`d odgasta odfkČu svhju kstktaiu.4;= Odiho Ťth jk 4141. lh`aok uiaoutd gkozurd
phjdvacd sk ohvd schbh`d azrdſdvdojd u ehrfa phrohlrdesiam eacfhvd. Hoa su baca zdfdsiar doa
ohsacdg skisudcohl hbrdzhvdojd dca jk ojamhv jk`aoa kekidt bach ph`lrajdvdojk dotaskfatsiam
hsjkČdojd phŤth su prh`ugkota tam eacfhvd baca Jkvrkja, idh a th `d jk Zdihohf h eacfu Rdjmd
phohvh uvk`kod `rſdvod gkozurd.4;1 OjkfdĆia kisprksahoastaĆia eacf jk phĆkh `d phsthja tki
phscajk ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd.45> Eacf Idbaokt r. Idcaldrajd (4141) rkſaskrd Rhbkrtd Uaokd jk bah
jk`do h` prvam eacfhvd strdvk, d ihrastah sk svaf fhluČohstafd kisprksahoazfd.454 Wgkodraj
hvhl eacfd jk `jkchf zdsohvdo od zdjk`oaĆiaf asiustvafd az Mdfburld ĆkŤihl pjksoaid Mdosd
Jdohvagd a fcd`hl dustrajsihl ufjktoaid Idrcd Fdjkrd.452 Erag Cdol (4=1>-41<5) jk rkſardh
[fhrod sfrt (4124), @r Fdbuzk, ihgidr (4122), d u eacfhvafd Zalera`hvd sfrt a Irafmac`aod
hsvktd (4122/20) ho fdjsthrsia prkpraĆdvd ohr`ajsia Kp h Oabkcuozafd.457 Fohla ojklhva oajkfa
eacfhva rdĔkoa su ph sgkodraju Pkk eho Mdrbhu ihjd jk idsoajk phstdcd vdtrkoa odgastd. Cdolu jk
ojkfdĆia faoastdr prhpdldo`k Jhzke Lkbkcs 4177. lh`aok phou`ah fjksth Ťked ojkfdĆik
eacfsik ao`ustrajk.450 Era`ram U. Furodu (4===-4174) jk duthr stacazhvdohl vdfparsihl eacfd
Ohsekrdtu, saoehoajd uſdsd az 4122. lh`aok ihja jk phstdh icdsaĆoh `jkch hvhl ſdord. ^rvk
prh`uigajk [ED back su rdsihŤoh ihstafardok `rdfk, d fdjsthr thl ſdord jk bah Krost Cu baĆ
(4=12-410<).45; Ojklhva spkitdica spd`dju fkĔu odjphpucdroajk u svajktu u pkrah`u odiho rvhl
4;< Eacf ^rdŤia stu`kot lhvhra h fcd`hf stu`kotu ihja prh`djk svhj h`rdz u hlck`dcu, d sdfaf taf a svhju `uŤuvjkŤtgu ihja Ćaoa d tdj h`rdz phstdok ubacdĆid aoidrodgajd stu`kothvhl zchl ‟`rulhl jd–. Eacf Lhckf (@kr Lhckf,
412>) jk zdsohvdo od jkvrkjsihj cklko`a u ihjhj rdbao az 45. sthcjkČd hſavcjdvd lcaokou stdtuu ihjd Čk odrh` Ťtatatah` phlrhfd. [ eacfu jk thj laldotshj stdtua u`dmout ſavht a hod phstdjk Ću`hvaŤtk ihjk fhrd d bu`k uoaŤtkoh id`dld h`bajd iČkrid ojklhvhl tvhrgd. (ErdoikoŤtdjo, 4174). Asth, 4;1-45>.4;= Zalera` Irdidukr, gat. prkfd @kjva` D. Iui, Asthrajd eacfd 4, 4;1.4;1 [ okzdvasohj prh`uigaja soafcjkoa su ‟eacfhva h ſavhtoaf Ćaojkoagdfd– sd odschvafd idh Ťth su rhstatugajd, Wdavagk fhĆvdrk, Azlubcjkok iČkra, Majkod phſu`k, LhsphĔagd fdji d a Dus Fdooks Fd`gmjdrko. Asth, 455.45> Kisprksahoazdf jk phirkt zdphĆkt u `hfkou ojkfdĆihl scaidrstvd, fuzaik, drmatkiturk a phzhraŤtd prajk ^rvhl
svjktsihl rdtd, idh rkdigajd od prkhvcdĔujuČa odturdcazdf u ufjktohsta irdjkf 41. sthcjkČd a stkidh jk brhjou pubcaiuzd vrajkfk phitkrd Duebrugm (`umhvoh buĔkojk). Zd rdzcaiu h` odturdcazfd ihja jk prk`stdvcjdh hbjkitavoustvdrohst, kisprksahoazdf jk odsthjdh `d prk`stdvcjd subjkitavod hsjkČdojd ufjktoaid ihjd su h`lhvhr odhbjkitavou stvdrohst. Kisprksahoazdf jk idh srk`stvh afdh rdzok okodturdcastaĆik tkmoaik, uicjuĆujuČa safbhcazdf,dpstrdigaju a zdiravcjkok pkrgkpgajk, d ba tdj gacj hstvdrah. Wvhjhf rkdigajhf od burſhdsik zdihok rkprkzkothvdojd,kisprksahoazdf jk bah jk`do h` prvam prkphzodtcjavh fh`kroastaĆiam phirktd u ufjktohsta. Asth, 45;.454 \drk ‗ ^doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald AU, 771.452 Eacf lhvhra h `arkithru ustdohvk zd `uŤkvok bhcksoaik ihld jk zdphsjkh `um mapohtazkrd-ubagk az 4=. sthcjkČd
ph afkou Idcaldra. @arkithr phcu`a a bavd zdtvhrko u svhf shpstvkohf dzacu zd `uŤkvok bhcksoaik. Asth, 45=-451.457 ^h tkuthosihj fathchlaja Oabkcuoza su rdsd pdtucjdid ihjd phsjk`ujk Ćdrhboa prstko a vkcaiu razoagu zcdtd. jksfdh Oabkcuozafd jk ojkfdĆia kp az 47. sthcjkČd u ihjhj Zalera` a Irafmac`d (tkuthosia mkrhj a mkrhaod) stupdju u edtdcou
vkzu sd Oabkcuozafd a ojamhvaf bcdlhf Ťth azdzavd ihsfaĆia mdhs (Lhttkr`dffkruol ‗ sufrdi bhlhvd).450 Erag Cdol jk idh phcu-jkvrkj th h`bah. Ojklhv eacf Fktrhphcas (4125) jk bah Matckrhv hfacjkoa eacf. Asth, 4<<.
45; Krost CubaĆ jk bah ojkfdĆia Jkvrkj ihja jk ph `hcdsiu u Mhcavu` rkſardh skraju stacazhvdoam skisa -ihfk`ajd phstdvŤa fdjsthr siravkohl skisudcohl odlhvjkŤtdjd (zdtvdrdojk vrdtd spdvdČk shbk idh odlhvjkŤtdj skisudcokditavohsta ihjd oajk praidzdod od pcdtou) a batdo aohvdthr u `hbd zvuĆohl eacfd. Asth, 455.
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svjktsihl rdtd, d sdvrkfkod irataid am odzavd ‟asthrajsiaf rkdcazfhf–.455 OjkfdĆid eacfsid
ao`ustrajd stdloard odiho 4120. lh`aok, id`d jk @hzhvaf pcdohf bach prk`vaĔkoh sfdojkojk
azvhzd.45< ^rusia eaodosajkr `r. Dcerk` Mulkobkrl prkuzafd [ED a bkz fohlh phfpk
hfhluČdvd astagdojk odgastaĆiam hiupcjdojd u eacfsiaf ſurodcafd. Ph jk hfhluČach odgastafd
`d 4177. lh`aok skba ph`rk`k ojkfdĆiu eacfsiu ao`ustraju.45= Dustrajdodg Lkhrl U. ^dbst
(4==5-415<) jk bah duthr ucaĆohl rkdcazfd (Wtrdsskoeacfk), a bdvah sk stdojkf hbaĆoam cju`a
odiho ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd. Ojklhv eacf [cagd bkz rd`hsta (412;) jk rkfki-`jkch shgajdcohl
rkdcazfd.451 ^dbsthva eacfhva Zdpd`oa Erhot 414=. (417>) a @ruldrstvh (4174) spd`dju fkĔu
odjvdſoajd hstvdrkojd rdohl ojkfdĆihl zvuĆohl eacfd.4<> FkĔutaf, odjvaŤk utagdjd u rdohf
ojkfdĆihf zvuĆohf eacfu afdch jk jkch [bagd (F) az 417>. lh`aok.4<4 Cdolhv eacf Pkstdfkot
@r. Fdbuzkd (4172) su zdbrdoaca odgasta id`d su stupaca od vcdst.4<2 Odafk, eacfsid ao`ustrajd
OjkfdĆik jk bacd ph` Lkbkcshvhf uprdvhf h` 4177 `h 410;. lh`aok. Ho jk fohlk eacfhvk
zdbrdoah idh okphſkcjok a okz`rdvk odzavdjuČa am `jkcafd ‟`klkokrasdoam ufjktoaid– (kotdrtk
Iuostckr).4<7 Lkbkcs jk od hsohvu Zdihod Rdjmd h eacfu ihja jk stupah od sodlu u ekbrudru 4170.
lh`aok vh`ah idfpdoju ĆaŤČkojd eacfsik ao`ustrajk h` fohlam Jkvrkjd, dca oajk u phtpuohsta
odgahodcazhvdh ojkfdĆia eacf. Apdi, sdfh Ćktvrtaod eacfhvd soafcjkoam zd vrajkfk odgastaĆihl
rkſafd jk sd`rſdvdcd htvhrkou prhpdldo`u, jkr jk prhpdldo`d bacd phsdh eacfsiam ohvhsta a
eacfhvd ihjk jk hsfascacd a eaodosardcd rſdvd. Ph su baca bahlrdesia a asthrajsia eacfhva h mkrhjsihj
odgahodcohj prhŤchsta a `vd `hiufkotdrod eacfd ihja sk sfdtrdju jk`aoaf vkcaiaf eacfhvafd
odstdcaf u odgastaĆihj OjkfdĆihj, d ihjk jk odruĆah caĆoh Matckr.4<0 rva jk Prajufe vhcjk (417;),
455 Eacfhva @dotho (4124), Htkch (4122) a Wdpeh (4122) @afatrajd Bumhvkgihl, tk eacfhva Ckj`a Mdfactho (4122)
a Cuirkgajd Bhr`ſajd (4122) Ramdr`d Hsvdc`d, prafjkr su idih jk uphtrkbcjdvdod phscajkrdtod phfdfd zd eacfsihfrkihostruigajhf prhŤchsta. Eacfhva o jkfdĆihl ‟asthrajsihl rkdcazfd– ſkck `d ‟masthraju prk`stdvk idh rhbhvsia
phtĆaojkou strdstafd a psamhzdfd phjk`aogd, d ok idh prhgks ihja zdvasa h` Ťarhihl spkitrd shgajdcoam a kihohfsiam
prhfjkod–. Gat. prkfd @kjva` D. Iui, Asthrajd eacfd 4, 45<.45< @hzhv pcdo, odzvdo ph dfkraĆihf bdoidru ădrcsu K. @hzu, jk prk`vaĔdh `d sk hsoujk fkĔuodrh`oa ihfatkt
ihja ba uprdvcjdh htpcdthf ojkfdĆiam rdtoam rkpdrdgajd. 45= [ED jk bacd od avaga ihcdpsd 412;. lh`aok, tk ucdza u okphvhcjoa eaodosajsia drdoſfdo sd drdfhuothf a FLF -
hf ihja prkuzafdju `ul [ED, dca a hsoavdju `astrabugajsiu ihfpdoaju ^drdeufkt (^drdfhuot-[ED-Fktrh). @r.
Dcerk` Mulkobkrl aspcdČujk dfkraĆik ihfpdoajk a prkuzafd [ED. @kjva` D. Iui, Asthrajd eacfd 4, 4==-4=1.451 Eacf sk bdva eaodosajsiaf a `umhvoaf uoaŤtkojkf srk`ojk icdsk u uschvafd aoecdgajk u phscajkrdtohf BkĆulhvhrkČa h okihcaih oksrktoam burſhdsiam phrh`agd ihjk sk bhrk `d sdĆuvdju prasthjohst u satudgaja bajk`k `hi rdtoa
prheatkra uſavdju u kistrdvdldotohf ſavhtu. IČkra srk`ojk icdsk ‗ odjbhcjk uchlk Ťvk`siam lcufagd Dstk Oacsko aLrktk Ldrbh (th jk bah ojko `kba od ojkfdĆihf eacfu), sk prhstatuaŤu `d ba spdsaca svhjk phrh`agk. Asth, 412.4<> OjkfdĆid jk odprdvacd tra odjphzodtajd svjktsid eacfd rdohl zvuĆohl `hbd: ^cdva DoĔkh Jhzked eho Ůtkrobkrld(@kr bcduk Kolkc 417>), [bagd (F). Eragd Cdold (4174) a ^dbsthv Zdpd`oa erhot 414=. (417>). Asth, 41;.4<4 Eacf jk zdsohvdo od Ćuvkoaf ubastvafd `jkgk u @azkc`hreu, d soafcjko jk ph sgkodraju Pkk eho Mdrbhu.4<2 Cdol jk tvr`ah `d jk cai Fdbuzkd hsfascah prkfd Matckru a `d jk stdvah odgastaĆik schldok u ustd irafaodcdgd. 4<7 Gat. prkfd @kjva` D. Iui, Asthrajd eacfd 4, 01>.
4<0 ^hrk` hvd tra `ulhfktrdſod eacfd phzodta su jhŤ a eacfhva Bazfdri (410>), Jkvrkjao Zas (410>), UkĆoa Jkvrkjao(410>), idh a eacf RhtŤac`hva (410>) ihja jk hgjkojko idh dotaskfatsia a dotabratdosia mabra`. Gat. prkfd @kjva` D.Iui, Asthrajd eacfd 4, 014.
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eacf fatsiam `afkozajd ihja jk rkſardcd Ckoa RaekoŤtdc h zbhru odgastaĆik pdrtajk 4170. lh`aok u
Oarobkrlu. Eacf jk bah `hvhcjoh kekitdo `d bu`k zdbrdojko u Ukcaihj Bratdoaja, Wjk`aojkoaf
@rſdvdfd a Idod`a.4<; Ckoa RaekoŤtdc jk soafacd a spkitdiucdroa eacf phsvkČko Hcafpajsiaf
alrdfd u Bkrcaou 4175. lh`aok ihja jk prva put praidzdo 417=. lh`aok u `vd `ajkcd ph` odzavhf
Hcafpajsik alrk (4175.).
Rkſaskra Whvjktsihl Wdvkzd su tufdĆkČa rkvhcugaju odrh`u stvhraca okzdbhrdvok eacfhvk
u rkdcastaĆihf sfascu.4<5 UkČaou tkmoaĆdrd a prh`ugkodtd prk`rkvhcugahodrohl eacfd Ćaoaca su
idpatdcasta ihja su baca okprajdtkcjsia rdsphchſkoa prkfd bhcjŤkvaĆihj vcd`a. Hoa su kfalrardca u
Kvrhpu h`ohskČa eacfsiu hprkfu sd shbhf hi ohvd hprkfd a gkcucha` oasu baca `hstupoa zbhl
sphcjok bchid`k. Whvjktsid vcd`d jk hsohvdcd phskbdo h`sjki zd eacf od Ćajkf Ćkcu jk bacd
Ckojaohvd supruld Od`kſ`d Irupsid (4=51-4171). Pdj Eacfsia ihfatkt jk hsohvdh Fhsihvsiuvashiu eacfsiu Ťihcu ihjd jk prvd tk vrstk u svajktu a `h `dods hstdcd jk`od h` odjphŤthvdoajam a
odjvaŤk afatardoam. Wva eacfhva ihja su soafcjkoa thihf lh`aod lrdĔdosihl rdtd (414=-4124) baca
su zdprdvh eacfsik ohvhsta u va`u dlatdgajk (dlatik aca dlatprhp). ^rva vkcaia tkhrktaĆdr a ufjktoai
tdivhl eacfd bah jk @zald Ukrthv ihja jk 4124. lh`aok hsohvdh Iaoh-hih lrupu. 4<<
@hiufkotdrok eacfsik ohvhsta, lrupoh odzvdok Iaoh-prdv`d (eacf-astaod), idh a ulhfktrdſoa
eacf Iaoh-hih (4120) uvh`k u eacf trai-ehthlrdeaju, doafdgaju, fairhsoafdojk, vaŤkstruiu
kisphzagaju a ‟siravkou idfkru–.4<= Ckv IucjkŤhv (4=11-41<>) jk hsohvdh stu`ajsiu lrupu
‟IucjkŤhvhvd rd`ahoagd–, ihjd jk pravuicd tdckothvdok fcd`k stu`kotk fkĔu ihjafd su baca
Wkrlkj FamdjchvaĆ DjzkoŤtdjo (4=1= ‗ 410=) a Uskchvh` A. ^u`hviao (4=17-41;7). Wkrlkj
DjzkoŤtdjo sk ubrdjd fkĔu lkoajk sdvrkfkohl eacfd. Ojklhv eacf HichpojdĆd htkfiao (412;)
jk jk`do h` odjvdſoajam eacfhvd ihja su aid`d soafcjkoa a sfdtrd sk odjsdvrŤkoajaf prafjkrhf
eacfsik struiturk u masthraja iaokfdthlrdeajk. HichpojdĆd ^htkfiao, ihjd lhvhra h phbuoa
fhrodrd prhtav okprdv`k, `hohsa fkĔuodrh`oa ulck` fcd`hf shvjktsihf eacfu. Uskchvh` A.
^u`hviao (4=17-41;7) jk prkoah tu tkhraju u stu`ah, dca sd prheksahodcoaf lcufgafd Ťihchvdoaf
4<; Eacf phrtrktard Matckrd idh fksaju ihja sacdza sd hbcdid svhjaf dvahohf d ph scajktdoju sk upuČujk prkfdiholrksohj sdca `hi fu odrh` ‟prhbuĔkohl lrd`d– Oarobkrld icaĆk. Asth, 012. 4<5 ^rajk Hithbdrsik rkvhcugajk 414<. lh`aok rusid eacfsid ao`ustrajd bacd jk ulcdvohf kvrhpsid jkr su dlkota
ihfpdoajd Cufakrk Erkrks, ^dtmk, Ldufhot a `dosihl Ohr`asid hsohvdca vkcaik `astrabugajsik kisphzaturk tdih
`d jk 1>% svam eacfhvd praidzdoam u Rusaja h rvhl svjktsihl rdtd Ćaoah uvhzoa eacf. Apdi, u prk`rkvhcugahodcohf pkrah`u soafcjkoh jk 4<45 eacfhvd h` ihjam jk 2=5 hpstdch. OdjzodĆdjoaja rusia eacf az hvhl pkrah`d jk eacf Htdg
Wkrlajk (414=) soafcjko ph asthafkohf `jkcu Cdvd Phcsthjd. Asth, 2>>.4<< Iaoh-hih (I нжп-зйом) `hitraod sk zdsoavdcd od odĆkcu `hiufkotdgajk, uphtrkbcjdvdcd jk okuvjkſbdok prazhrk,azdbardcd jk lcufgk fkĔu hbaĆoaf cju`afd prkfd phtrkboaf taphvafd a sdsvaf oduĆoh sk scuſacd fhotdſhf Pd`hitraod Čk a odiho 4120. lh`aok `hfaoardta rusiaf oajkfaf a `hiufkotdroaf eacfhf. Asth, 2>0. 4<= Eacf ăhvjki sd eacfsihf idfkrhf (4121) jk Ćuvko ph thfk Ťth jk stvhrah ‟fktdeacf– ihja sk bdva prhgkshfstvdrdojd eacfd a fhotdſk. Ukrthvd jk hbrd`hvdcd phjdvd zvuĆohl eacfd jkr jk u ojkfu va`ah prhŤarkojk ‟iaoh-hid–‟rd`ah-umhf–. Ukrthv jk bah hptuſko zd ‟ehrfdcastaĆik lrkŤik–, tk pdh u Wtdcjaohvu okfachst. Asth, 2><.
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zd strhla rkdcazdf. Eacf Fdta (4125) jk soafah od tkfkcju rhfdod Lhrihl.4<1 Odiho uvhĔkojd
shgajdcastaĆihl rkdcazfd 4170. lh`aok shvjktsid eacfsid ao`ustrajd `hſavcjdvd stdlodgaju.4=>
Mhcavu` jk `h `vd`ksktam lh`aod phstdh safbhc bcjkŤtdvacd a cuisuzd, pr hpdlardjuČa svhj
sastkf vrajk`ohsta a odfkČuČa sk idh uzhr zd phodŤdojk a edotdzardojk. Eacfsik zvajkz`k su
`hohsack phpucdrohst eacfhvafd a puoack bcdldjok. FhČod dfkraĆid eacfsid ao`ustrajd, l`jk su
sk odcdzack 2/; svam iaoh `vhrdod u svajktu, jk Ťaracd svhju `jkcdtohst u aohstrdostvh.4=4 Eacfsid
ufjktohst sk phĆaojk hrldoazhvdta od praogapu ao`ustrajk, d Uhcstrat svk vaŤk aovkstard u eacf
afdjuČa u va`u kihohfsik a phcataĆik gacjkvk.4=2 HpŤtk rdsphchſkojk u phrdtohj Dfkraga jk bach
puoh lhrĆaok, bkz acuzajd a sd puoh gaoazfd. Wtdraosia fhrdc vaithrajdosihl a`kdcazfd jk
zdfjkojko zd fhrdc fh`krohl fdtkrajdcazfd ihja jk ſu`ah zd bhldtstvhf, skozdgajdfd a
skisudcoaf schbh`dfd.4=7
@kjva` Uhri Lraeat (4=<;-410=) jk zodĆdjdo zd eacfsiu ufjktohstDfkraik. Ojklhv eacf RhĔkojk jk`ok odgajk (4140) jk kpsid praĆd h dfkraĆihf lrdĔdosihf
rdtu. Eacf jk prkrdstdh u ‟psku`hmasthrajsia trditdt– Ćaja jk ihckitavoa mkrhj drajkvsid rdsd
(Lraeathv azrdz).4=0 [`ruſkojd zd uodprkĔkojk hbhjkoam cju`a su trdſaca `d sk rdsastaĆik sgkok
asjkiu. Wgkok l`jk groa h`fktoaga zchstdvcjdju bajkck ſkok a l`jk sk sulkraŤk d jk rjkŤkojk rdsoam
prhbckfd u Dfkraga `kphrtdgajd grodgd u Deraiu oaid`d oasu vrdČkok u eacf. Lraeathv `rula
zodĆdjdo eacf jk Wchfcjkoa gvjkthva (4141).4=; Fdi Wkokt (4==>-415>) jk tvhrdg ‟oajkfk sckpstai
ihfk`ajk– odjvatdcoajk dfkraĆi k eacfsik vrstk 2>-am lh`aod.4=5 Wkokthv uĆkoai ădrca ădpcao jk
h` oajkfhl eacfd stvhrah azrdſdjoh srk`stvh vkcaik prkgazohsta. Ho jk bah fdckod siatoagd s
phcugacao`rhf a Ťtdphf i h ja sk azrdſdvd hbaĆoaf lkstafd. ŶavkČa u svajktu ihja oajk rdzufjkvdh
4<1 Ph jk praĆd h phcataĆia odavohj ſkoa, u`dthj zd brutdcohl a phſrtvhvdohl pajdogd ihja s ojamhvaf saohf ^dvkchfrd`a u edbraga. Hod phstdjk `ruŤtvkoh svjksod a od irdju puod vjkrk vh`a phvhriu phbuojkoam rd`oaid. Asth, 2;=.4=> WhgajdcastaĆia rkdcazdf jk zvdoaĆoh `keaoasdo idh ‟ufjktoaĆia fkth` Ćaja jk hsohvoa praogap astaoath, asthrajsiaihoirktoh prk`stdvcjdojk stvdrohsta u ojkohf rkvhcugahodrohf rdzvhju, Ćaja jk odjvdſoaja zd`dtdi ihfuoastaĆihhbrdzhvdojk fdsd–. Gat. prkfd @kjva` D. Iui, Asthrajd eacfd 4, 2<4. 4=4 @h 412;. lh`aok dfkraĆia eacfhva su sk praidzavdca u sk`df`kskt zkfdcjd, s tkisthf prkvk`koaf od 7<
jkzaid.Ukcaia prhgkodt, Ćdi => % h` svam eacfhvd praidzavdoam u Ukcaihj Bratdoaja a 5> % hoam ihja su sk praidzavdcau OjkfdĆihj, d ihjd jk bacd od `rulhf fjkstu ph pr hazvh`oja eacfhvd, su baca dfkraĆihl phrajkicd. Asth, 7=1.4=2 Fdtkrajdcoa aotkrks fhČoam a bhldtam jk bah `d afdju ihotrhcu od` fdshvoaf fk`ajafd, eacfhf, d idsoajk a
rd`ahf. @kjva` D. Iui, Asthrajd eacfd 4, 2<7.4=7 Ohva fhrdc jk ph`stdidh Ťarkojk rdzoam odrihtaĆoam zdvasohsta (u Mhcavu`u a ihidaod), ſkosiam schbh`d askisudcohl prhfasiuatktd. Wvkfu thfk jk `hpraohsah rkcdtavoa kihohfsia odprk`di, idh a rkvhcugajd u hbcdsta
ihfuoaidgajd, `astrabugajk eacfhvd (sastkf bchibuiaold), a fdshvok prh`djd pravdtoam duthfhbacd. Asth, 2<0.4=0 Lraeathv bahlrde idſk d su ojklhvd ‟rdsastaĆid uvjkrkojd bacd oksvjksod–, d ldjaca su am fohla dfkraĆia phcataĆdraa asthraĆdra s phĆktid 2> sthcjkČd. Uu`rh Uacsho jk, `hi jk bah prk`sjk`oai [oavkrzatktd raostho, u svhjhj pkththfohj
Masthry he Dfkragdo ^khpck (41>2) azoah phtpuoh astu praĆu idh hou ihju jk aspraĆdh eacf RhĔkojk jk`ok odgajk,a`uČa `h `ktdcjd `d rajkĆ ‟Grojd– paŤk fdcaf schvhf. Gat. prkfd @kjva` D. Iui, Asthrajd eacfd 4, 42;.4=; Ph jk praĆd h fcd`hj ſkoa az sarhfdŤoam bdrdid Cdjfmdus, `ajkcd Cho`hod, ihju htdg zchstdvcjd a ihjd odirdtih
odcdza uthĆaŤtk u Ćasthj cjubdva htfjkohl fcd`hl Iaokzd. Ph jk bach vrjkfk id`d jk Dfkraid bacd dotadzajdtsia
odstrhjkod prkfd ‟ſuthj odjkz`a–, a od tdj odĆao hphvrldvd irataĆdrk ihja u ojkfu va`k rdsastu. Asth, 401.4=5 Wkokthvk ihfk`ajk prk`stdvcjdju od`rkdcdo a dodrmaĆdo uoavkrzuf l`jk jk chlaid praĆk ph`rkĔkod Ćasthvazukcohf mufhru odsacoaĆik, dca od edotdstaĆdo odĆao bkzhpdsok prarh`k. Asth, 2<<.
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uvajki upd`d u okhĆkiavdou okvhcju, dca jk uvajki hĆkiujk sd hbrhthf a cjubdzohŤČu. Od irdju
eacfd h`cdza gksthf s oktdioutaf `hsthjdostvhf, bkz hbzard od phrdz aca lubatdi. ădpcao jk
rkdlhvdh od irazk a hs jkČdjk svhl vrkfkod a hŤtrh am azrdſdvdh, idh u eacfhvafd: uŤiu od rdfk
(Wmhuc`kr Drfs, 414=), @jkĆdi (Pmk Ia`, 4124) a ^htjkrd zd zcdthf (Pmk Lhc` Rusm, 412;).
Wvajktcd vkcklrd`d (4174) jk prva ădpcaohv zvuĆoa eacf dca sd vkhfd fdch `ajdchld.4=< Eacf
Fh`krod vrkfkod (4175) jk praĆd h `kmufdoazdgaja fh`krohl rd`ohl Ćhvjkid. Ukcaia `aitdthr
(410>) jk ădpcaohv prva lhvhroa zvuĆoa eacf a jk`do h` prvam dotaodgastaĆiam eacfhvd. Ph jk sdtard
ihjd lhvhra h D`kcda`u Maoikcu, `aitdthru Phfdoajk, ihja prhlhoa Jkvrkjk a lurd Kvrhpu u rdt.
Adih su tkmoaĆid srk`stvd `d sk phstalok zvui od eacfu phsthjdcd h` phĆktid sthcjkČd, ho jk bah
uvk`ko tki id` jk pd` phsjktd u Dfkraga phidzdh Mhcavu`u `d pubcaid ſkca okŤth ohvh.4== Bhjd
jk uoajkcd ohvk ihfpcaidgajk u smvdČdojd eacfd, d ojkod uphtrkbd rdzok tkhrajk u eacfsihj
ufjktohsta.4=1 ^ubcaid jk phstdcd azbarcjavajd, d eacfsia irataĆdra ihja su pasdca ph ohvaodfd
phstdjdca svk utagdjoaja. Eacfsid did`kfajd Dfkraik h` 4121. lh`aok `h`jkcjujk lh`aŤoju
odlrd`u Hsidr ihja jk `hohsah ulck` a pravuĆah pubcaiu. Rkzuctdt rdŤarkohsta eacfhvd jk bah
stvdrdojk ohvam smvdČdojd a prastupd ſavhtu. Hoa su cju`afd `hohsaca hsjkČd j iucturok
rdzohcaihsta svajktd adih sk u eacfu Ćksth praidzujk asiravcjkod pkrgkpgajd.41> Bratdoga su stvhraca
Ťihcu hiufkotdroam eacfhvd ihja su phidzdca vrch ihrasohf zd vrajkfk @rulhl svjktsihl rdtd
idh aostrufkot prhpdldo`k a hbdvjkŤtdvdojd. Rhbkrt Ecdmkrta (4==0-41;4) jk zdĆktoai
`hiufkotdrohl eacfd, praidzujuČa svdih`okvoa ſavht jk`ohstdvoam cju`a ihja ſavk `dckih h`
lrd`siam srk`aŤtd, ſavkČa s ojafd a ph okihcaih lh`aod.414 Duthra `hiufkotdroam eacfhvd su
phzvdoa su h` vcd`d fohlam zkfdcjd, ao`ustrajd, pk`dlhld a uĆkojdid `d stvhrk aotkrprktdtavok
eacfhvk h fohlaf prk`fktafd.412 Fdshvod srk`stvd aoehrfasdojd stvdrdju a ohvk hbcaik
fdshvok prhpdldo`k ihjhj su phtrkboa ufjktoaga `d jhj `dju hbcai.417
4=< [ eacfu sk okzdphsckod siatoagd zdcjubcjujk u scajkpu prh`dvdĆagu gvajkČd, tk prhcdzkČa irhz skraju okpracaid
uspjkvd `d siupa ohvdg zd ojkou hpkrdgaju. Asth, 2=2.4== Zvui jk uvk`ko 4125. lh`aok (u eacfu @ho Judo) u hbcaiu saomrhoazhvdok fuzaik, d 412<. lh`aok u ihfbaodgaja
pjkvdojd a `ajdchld u eacfu ^jkvdĆ `ſkzd (Jdzz Waolkr) sd Dc @ſhoshohf u lcdvohj uchza. FkĔutaf, id`d jk zvuiuvk`ko Ćaoach sk `d h`vrdČd pdſoju h` azrdſdvdojd putkf lksthvd a phirktd, tk `d prktvdrd eacfsiu `rdfu u puialhvhroa `ajdchl. \drk ‗ ^doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthra jd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald AU, 70>. 4=1 Jk`do h` prvam trhbhjoam eacfhvd soafcjko u Pkmoaihchr tkmoaga jk bah Bkia Ůdrp (Bkgiy Wmdrp, 417=). Asth, 704. 41> ^h faŤcjkoju bratdosihl h`bhrd eacf jk bah ‟oksufcjavh jk`do h` odjvdſoajam edithrd u hbrdzhvdo ju svam icdsd
zdjk`oagk, u Ťarkoju odgahodcok iucturk a u prk`stdvcjdoju odgahodcoam smvdČdojd a hbaĆdjd svajktu. Hsaf thldojklhvk fhluČohst zd hbcaihvdojk faŤcjkojd ih` vrch vkcaihl brhjd hoam ihjafd sk hbrdČd su okhlrdoaĆkok–. Gat.
prkfd \drk ‗ ^doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald AAA, 717. 414 Ojklhva eacfhva su Odohi sd sjkvkrd (Odohhi he tmk Ohrtm, 4122), Fhdod (vrstd rabk), 4125., ăhvjki sd Drdod(Fdo he Drdo, 4172-4170). Asth, 702.412 Dcbkrth Idvdcidota az Erdogusik u eacfu ^rhtagdojk sdthvd (4125) phsfdtrd lrd` u 20 sdtd, Jhras Avkos az
Mhcdo`ajk u eacfu Zuj`krsih jkzkrh (417>) phidzujk phtrkbu `d sk phprdva prhbajkoa odsap a suzbajk fhrk. Asth.417 Gacj prhpdldo`k jk `d stvhra stdv aca prhazvk`k digaju u sid`u sd uodprajk` stvhrkoaf faŤcjkojkf. Ohvh zodojkh psamhchlaja (iho`agahoardojk a fhtavdgajd) jk hfhluČach prhpdldo`astafd `d rdzvaju tkmoaik phfhČu ihjam utaĆu
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0>
[FJKPOHWP
^hirkta a prdvga u ufjktohsta fkĔurdtohl pkrah`d, ihja su azrdsca od mufdohsta a schbh`a
ufjktoaĆihl `umd, su svhjkvrstdo h`lhvhr asicjuĆavaf sastkfafd vrajk`ohsta zdsohvdoaf od
vcd`djuČhj `hitraoa u thtdcatdroaf sastkfafd. FkĔutaf, svu`d l`jk su vcd`djuČk struiturk
h`rkĔavdck iucturod a ufjktoaĆid irktdojd `hcdzach jk `h stdlodgajk ufjktohsta, dih sk hod
phsfdtrd sd stdohvaŤtd okhlrdoaĆkok schbh`k ufjktoaĆihl azrdſdvdojd. W `rulk strdok, odj jdĆa
phcataĆia phirkta thl rdz`hbcjd su tkſaca `d stvhrk sdfh svhju ufjktohst. Caihvok ufjktohsta su
u fhfkotu azbajdojd ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd back svk `rulh sdfh ok chlaĆoa odstdvdi putd
prkĔkohl h` rkoksdosk `h afprksahoazfd.410 Ohva prastup su vkČ baca usvhjaca a prvd zodĆdjod
scaidrsid a siucpthrsid jkcd stvhraca Udsacaj Ido`aosia, dbch aidsh, duc Ick, Ŷhrſ Brdi, Fdri
Ůdldc, Doraj Fdstas, K`ldr @kld, Ihostdotao Brdoiusaj, [fbkrth BhĆaoa, Ekrodo Ckſk, ErdogFdri, Dulust Fdik a fohla `rula.41; Rdzok lrupk ufjktoaid ihjk phĆaoju astagdta ohvk prdvgk
su sk phjdvack vkČ prajk azbajdojd ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd. Odjscdvoajd h` ojam jk faomkosid lrupd
ph` odzavhf ‟@kr Bcduk Rdjtkr – (^cdva ihojdoai). Asthafkoa lh`aŤojdi, i hja jk azcdzah h` 4144.
lh`aok, jk ehrfucasdh a azrdzah odĆkcd phzodtd i dh ojkfdĆia kisprksahoazdf. Udsacaj Ido`aosia,
ihja jk zdjk`oh sd Erdoghf Fdri hf hsohvdh hvh u`ruſkojk, prafjkojujk hvd odĆkcd u svhf
prvhf dpstrditohf divdrkcu.415 Ido`aosia jk odprdvah odjsfjkcaja ihrdi `dcjk h` ehvazfd, ihja
sk idh rd`aidcoh ohva stac phjdvah odiho azchſbk 41>;. lh`aok. Ehvazdf jk td`d zlrhzah irataĆdrk
zbhl svhjk tkſojk zd hschbdĔdojkf a kispkrafkotafd, tkſojk ihjk su odj`ulhtrdjoajkl utagdjd
afdck uprdvh u OjkfdĆihj fkĔu ufjktoagafd hiupcjkoaf hi h `ruŤtvd ph afkou @a bruik
(fhst) u @rkz`kou 41>;. lh`aok.41< Okia lrd`hva su phstdca sodſoa gkotra ohvam irktdojd u
ufjktohsta, odjvaŤk Faomko a ^draz, d zdtaf @rkz`ko, Fhsivd a Bkrcao. [fjktoaga su svhjaf
`jkcafd mtjkca `d sruŤk svk Ťth jk hlrdoaĆdvdch a sputdvdch, prh`aruČa u suŤtaosik tdjok prarh`k a
pr kcdzkČa lrdoagk trd`agajk, a`khchlajk a ihovkogajhodcohl smvdtdojd. ^hscajk ^rvhl svjktsihl
rdtd u Dfkraga jk phrdsch aotkrkshvdojk zd ojkfdĆik kisprksahoastk, dca jk h` `vd`ksktam lh`aod
od stdvhvk a hsjkČdjk a th: phodvcjdojkf, dshgajdgajdfd, asihraŤtdvdojkf sdiravkoam strdmhvdojd a phzavdojkf od
svjksok a ph`svjksok ſkcjk. 410 Afprksahoazdf jk phirkt u ufjktohsta u ihjkf ufjktoai scaid scaiu hbjkitd, idivaf ba ld va`ah irdjaĆihf hid.Afprksahoasta scaidju ihrastkČa fohlh bhjk, d vkČaod ojamhvam scaid su prazhra od htvhrkohf. Ojamhvk scaik su vkhfdsvajktck a trkpkrdvk. [fjktoaga afprksahoazfd odsthjk d ‟umvdtk– prk`fkt scaidojd bkz ktdcjasdojd, dca sd sfjkcaf,h`vdſoaf bhjdfd. Okia h` odjvkČam afprksahoastaĆiam ufjktoaid su baca K`udr` Fdok, Idfac ^asdrh, K`ldr @kld,
Dcerk` Wasck, Ich` Fhok, Bkrtk Fhrash a ^jkr Hlast Rkohdr.
mttp://www.drtfhvkfkots.gh.ui/afprkssahoasf.mtf41; h faŤcjkoju Mkrbkrtd Ra`d ‟odjrkvhcugahodroajk ufjktoaĆih jkch u masthraja fh`krohl phirktd prk`stdvcjd scaid
LhsphĔagk az Dvaojhod, ^dbcd ^aidsd–. Gat prkfd Do`rkj FatrhvaČ, Urkfk oktrpkcjavam, 0;5.
415 \drk ‗ ^doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald AU , 25;.41< OjkfdĆia scaidra lrupk ‟@a Bruik– prk`stdvcjdju kisprksahoazdf stvdrdjuČa saotkzu rdzcaĆatam tko`kogajd ihjk
prhastaĆu az Lhlkohvhl, Udo Lhlhvhl a Fuoihvhl `jkcd. HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 4, =00.
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srk`aŤtk kis prksahoazfd phstdh Fkisaih l`jk jk rkvhcugajd, ihjd jk phĆkcd 4144. lh`aok pd`hf
`aitdthrd @adzd, od`dmoucd lrupu fcd`am scaidrd. Fohla h` ojam su svhjd jkcd bhjaca a`khchŤiaf
zodĆkojafd. FkĔutaf, Mhzk Ickfkotk Hrhsih (4==7-4107) jk bah phtpuoh okzdvasdo ufjktoai,
ihja oajk mtah d sk fjkŤd u strdodĆiu phcataiu. Ho jk od svhjhj scaga Ŷrtvk (4175) asidzdh ubhih
cju`sih hsjkČdojk zd oajkfk odrh`ok fdsk.41= Jk`do h` odjzodĆdjoajam ufjktoaid zdscuſoam zd
ohvd strkfcjkojd u ufjktohsta fkĔurdtohl pkrah`d jk Udsacaj Ido`aosia. Ho jk tvr`ah `d sk
ufjktohst ‟uicdpd u gjkcaou uoavkrzdcohl, dca zdth Ťth jk sdfhstdcod, hod ok fhſk bata ph`rkĔkod
hvhj aca hohj hbcdsta svajktd a Ćhvjkihvhl jkchvdojd–.411 ^dbch ^aidsh sk prhscdvah idh zdĆktoai
iubazfd ihja fu jk `hoah svjktsiu scdvu. FkĔutaf ho, zbhl hlrdoaĆkojd ihjd fu jk odfktouh
‟ihcdſoa iubazdf–, odiho ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd scaid od jk`do braſcjav, rkdcastaĆdo odĆao idh u
scaidfd Pra svardĆd (4124) a Pra alrdĆagk (412;). Wcaihf Fdjid a `ajktk (4122) ho phohvh
usphstdvcjd `h`ar sd icdsaĆohf trd`agajhf. Pd `vd stacd ^aidshvhl azrdzd stdpdju sk u jk`do,
stvdrdjuČa saotkzu ihjd jk phstdcd hsohvd ojklhvk ufjktohsta. ^rafjkr thl stacd jk scaid Lkroaid
(417<), ihjd jk od`dmoutd bhfbdr`hvdojkf Lkroaik, okid`dŤojk prksthcoagk Bdsid u sjkvkrohj
Ůpdoaja.2>> Iubazdf sk u jk`ohf hbcaiu fhſk va`jkta a u scaga ojkfdĆihl scaidrd Lkhrld Lrhsd
(4=17-41;1) OjkfdĆid zafsid bdjid (414=) a u scaga Lrd` (4141) Erdoguzd Ekrodo Ckſkd (4==4-
41;;). FkĔutaf, odjrd`aidcoaja dpstrditoa scaidr bah jk MhcdoĔdoao akt Fho`rado (4=<2-4100).
Ho jk stvhrah jk`do phtpuoh dpstrditoa stac odzvdo ‟okhpcdstagazdf–, tdihĔk phzodt a idh @k
Wtajc ph mhcdo`sihf Ćdshpasu ihja jk zdstupdh ojklhvk a`kjk. ^hzodtd jk ojklhvd scaid
Ihfphzagajd sd grvkoaf, pcdvaf a ſutaf (417>).
Wtrkfcjkojd sdvrkfkok ufjktohsta su `hstalcd odjvaŤk `hfktk u scaidrsihf `jkcu a
rkeckisajdfd Ůvdjgdrgd ^ducd Ickd (4=<1-410>). ^rk`dvdh jk u phzodthj ufjktoaĆihj Ťihca
Bdumdus, dca su ld odgahodcshgajdcasta odtjkrdca `d 4177. lh`aok odpusta OjkfdĆiu.2>4 ^duc Ick
jk svhjk phlck`k od scaidrstvh asidzdh odjbhcjk u svhjaf rd`hvafd WtvdrdcdĆid rkcalajd (412>),
^utkva stu`ardojd prarh`k (4127), H fh`krohj ufjktohsta (4120) a ^k`dlhŤik bacjkŤik (412;).2>2
Ojklhvd scaid FdŤaod ihjd gvriuČk (4122) praidzujk dvktaojsia fkmdoazdf ihja ph`rdſdvd
41= M. \. Jdosho, Asthrajd ufjktohsta, ARH ^rhsvktd, Bkhlrd` 41=<., ;20.411 Ido`aosia jk zd scaidrstvh lhvhrah `d jk "lrhfhlcdsdo su`dr rdzcaĆatam svjkthvd–, d `d sk ‟svdid scaid rdĔd odasta odĆao idh a i hsfhs, irhz idtdstrhek ihjk az mdhtaĆohl brujkojd aostrufkodtd stvdrdju od irdju safehoaju ihjd
sk zhvk safehoajd sekrd–. Gat. prkfd Do`r kj FatrhvaČ, Urkfk oktrpkcjavam, 0;=. 2>> M. \. Jdosho, Asthrajd ufjktohsta, ;2=.2>4 Do`r kj FatrhvaČ, Urkfk oktrpkcjavam, 0;1.2>2 [fjktohst jk jk`oh htiravdojk, fdŤtdojk, sdzodvdojk, stvdrdcdŤtvh ohvhl svajktd, idſk Ick. ‟[fjktohst, hoh Ťth
jk `hsthjoh hvhl afkod ok prkohsa va`cjavh, oklh htvdrd hĆa–. [fjktoai jk ph Icku zdth ‟a bkz odfjkrk eachzhe, pdfd`d ok sfdtrd `d jk hvd j svajkt odjbhcja h` svam fhluČam svjkthvd, dca d oajk oa tdih chŤ `d ok ba fhldh phscuſata
zd fh`kc–. FkĔutaf, ho apdi tvr`a `d ‟u hvhf sd`dŤojkf hbcaiu th oajk jk`aoa fhluČa svajkt–. RdzfaŤcjdjuĆa hſavhtu hih skbk ho idſk: ‟Hvdj svajkt jk jk`ohf azlck`dh ruldĆajk, d u bu`uČohsta Čk hpkt afdta ruldĆaja azlck`–. Gat. prkfd Do`rkj FatrhvaČ, Urkfk oktrpkcjavam, 05>.
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ptaĆajk lcdshvk asfajdvdjuČa Ćhvjkihvu vjkru u Ću`d fdŤaosihl `hbd. Ho prk` irdj ſavhtd
astrdſujk a`khlrdesik zodihvk svdik vrstk, h` majkrhlcaed h fdlajsiam zodihvd. Pdj a`khlrdesia
stac jk azrdzat od scaga ^dri irdj C (Cugkrod) (417=).2>7 Fkmdoazhvdoh fdshvoh ubajdojk u ^rvhf
svjktsihf rdtu jk odvkch Erdoguzd Fdrskcd @aŤdfd (4==<-415=) `d sd asthfaŤcjkoagafd u zodi
prhtkstd stvhra phirkt odzvdo d`dazdf (‟`d`d– od erdogusihf zodĆa `rvkoh ihojĆk). @d`dazdf
jk trdjdh irdtih, h` 4145. `h 4122. lh`aok, dca jk hstdvah trdld ph svhfk oamacazfu a okldgaja
utvrĔkoam fhrdcoam a kstktsiam vrajk`ohsta idh bksfasckoam u idtdstrhea Ukcaihl rdtd. Wcaid
ojkfdĆihl `d`dastk Fdisd Krostd okhbaĆohl odzavd (4 bdidrod pchĆd 4 gaoidod pchĆd 4
fuŤkfd 4 idcabdrsia Ťkstdr 4 tkcksihp h` h`vh`ok gajkva 4 Ćhvjki h` gajkva, 412>.) sdstdvcjkod
jk h` asjkĆdid rdzoam fdŤaod, d ‟Ćhvjki h` gajkva– zura u ods irhz zdŤtatok odhĆdrk.2>0 @aŤdfhvh
phscjk`ojk `jkch, bksfasckohl odzavd Pu f' (412>), jk bcastdvh aohvdtoavoh jkr odscuČujk vkČaou
azufd ihja sk susrkČu u php-drtu Ťkz`ksktam lh`aod. DfkraĆia scaidr ădrcs @afh (4==7-417;)
jk u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u odscaidh phzodtu scaiu Ua`jkm brhjiu ; u zcdtu (417;) ihjd jk prk`di
php-drtd.2>; Od`rkdcazdf jk u caihvoaf ufjktohstafd `keaoasdh svhj gacj idh psamaĆia
duthfdtazdf, ihja uz phfhČ smvdtdojd prhazdŤcam az psamhdodcazk, azrdſdvd astaosih faŤcjkojk
hschbhĔkoh uphtrkbk rdzufd, kstktsik aca fhrdcok svrmk. Od`rkdcastaĆia scaidr Wdcvd`hr @dca
(41>0-41=1) jk odscaidh ^hvrdtdi [casd (4175). Odjprhoagcjavaja prk`stdvoai od`rkdcastd, Fdis
Krost, Ćksth ihrasta ihcdſ s ‟erhtdſhf–.2>5 Ůpdosia scaidr Mudo Farh (4=17-41=7) jk stvhrah stac
odzvdo ‟bahfhreod dpstrdigajd–.2>< ^hzodtd jk ojklhvd scaid Ihfphzagajd (4177) sd ecua`oaf,
iravhcaoajsiaf ihfphzagajdfd. Lcdvoa thihva u scaidrstvu fkĔurdtohl pkrah`d sk fhlu
prkphzodta a u siucptura. ZodĆdjod jk lrupd rusiam ufjktoaid (ihostruitavasta) zbhl prafjkok
trh`afkozahodcohl ihcdſd od siucpturu. Ihostruigajk su back Ćktvkrh`afkozahodcok phŤth su
uicjuĆavdck irktdojk. Dothaok ^dvsokr (4==5-4152) a ojklhv Phrzh (4120-25) jk odjzodĆdjoaja
prk`stdvoai thl phirktd prajk oklh Ťth jk suzbajko idh ‟burſhdsia ehrfdcazdf–.2>= Brza, odlca a
phtpuoa prkhirkt u caihvoaf ufjktohstafd, az Ćkld jk prhazdŤch jk`oh phtpuoh ohvh smvdtdojk
cajkphl, `hvkca su `h fohlam a `ubhiam oksphrdzufd azfkĔu ufjktoaid a pubcaik. Fdsk oasu
fhlck phvjkrhvdta `d u ufjktoaĆiaf `jkcafd ohvam phirktd zdastd afd ufjktohsta, d phichoaga
trd`agajk sk zlrdſdca.
2>7 M. \. Jdosho, Asthrajd ufjktohsta, ;72.2>0 Asth, ;70.2>; ^hp-drt jk phĆkh u Cho`hou srk`aohf pk`ksktam lh`aod hscdojdjuČa sk od dfkraĆid srk` stvd fdshvok
ihfuoaidgajk ihjd su prkpcdvacd Kolcksiu odiho @rulhl svjktsihl rdtd.2>5 ^rdvcjkojk htasdid s ihfd`d `rvktd, prkshvdohl gvajkČd a `rulam rkcjkeoam phvrŤaod. Ph jk phstupdi phzodt az
`jkĆajk alrk ihja sk sdsthja az trkojd hchvihf ph pdparu prkih ohvĆaČd. 2>< HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, =;4. 2>= M. \. Jdosho, Asthrajd ufjktohsta, ;0<.
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Drmatkiturd
[ drmatkitura jk h` srk`aok 4=. `h irdjd 41. sthcjkČd prkhvcd`dvdch okihcaih ‟stachvd
hbohvk– ihja sk h`caiuju ao`ava`udcohŤČu a vashihf ivdcatkthf. FkĔutaf, drmatkithosih zodojk
az prhŤchsta sk phidzdch ok`hvhcjoaf `d h`lhvhra phtrkbdfd ohvhl vrkfkod. [ `vd`ksktaf
lh`aodfd drmatkiturd jk phstdcd zodĆdjdo hbcai sdvrkfkok ufjktohsta ihja jk odjsfjkcajk
odstdvcjdh kispkrafkotk h` prajk ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd: rdgahodcoa sfajkr rdzvatid a phcktou
hrldosiu Ťihcu. Drmatkita a scaidra hiupcjkoa hih mhcdo`sik Ťihck phzodtk idh `k Wtajc (414<-
412;), Bdumdusd u OjkfdĆihj (4141-4177) a Ihrbusajkrhvhl Ohvhl `umd (Ksparat ohuvkdu) u
Erdogusihj, h` 4124. lh`aok su hehrfaca Ťihcu ihjd sk odzavd ‟aotkrodgahodcoa stac–. Dfkraidodg
Erkoi Chj` Rdjt jk utvr`ah odĆkcd hrldosik drmatkiturk `ulaf oazhf lrdĔkvaod, pcdohvd zd
odskcjd a hbjdvcjkoam spasd. Rdjthv utagdj sk Ťarah u Wjk`aojkoaf @rſdvdfd a Kvrhpa, l`jk jkhsohvdo Bdumhe od astaf odĆkcafd.2>1 Bkrodr` Ohjtr, bkĆcajd ihja jk kfalrardh u Wjk`aojkok
@rſdvk sk phsvktah patdoju fh`krohl stdohvdojd jkr sk vaŤk ok lrd`k oa `vhrga oa zdfihva.24>
Hbacjkſjk stacd 2>. sthcjkČd jk bach phŤtkojk u uphtrkba fdtkrajdcd: hoh Ťth jk azlck`dch phput
phtphrohl stubd trkbdch jk d zdastd bu`k phtphrdoj, d ok `kihrdgajd. Drmatkita su uphtrkbcjdvdca
ohvk fdtkrajdck phput Ćkcaid, stdicd, bkthod, dcufaoajd, ikrdfaik a pcdstaik. Lrupu `k Wtajc jk
prk`vh`ah scaidr Fho`rajdo a drmatkitd Jdihbs Hu`. Hoa su rd`aca asicjuĆavh sd ihgidfd,
prdvhulchvafd a pchmdfd kispkrafkotaŤuČa sd kekitafd bhjd, d odfjkŤtdj su hbcaihvdca `d bu`k
u mdrfhoaja sd taf `azdjohf. Udctkr Lrhpaus jk 4141. lh`aok hsohvdh Bdumdus u Udjfdru,
rkhrldoazardjuČa Ukcaihvhjvh`siu sdsiu did`kfaju zd scaidrsiu ufjktohst a Ůihcu zd ufjktohst
a zdodtk u Udjfdru u OjkfdĆihj.244 HsoavdĆ Ůihck zd ufjktohst a zdodtk jk bah Bkclajdodg Dora
vdo `k Ukc`k (4=57-41;<), jk`do h` hsoavdĆd Drt ohuvkdu stacd. Ho jk prhjkithvdh phzhraŤtk u
Ikcou 4140. lh`aok idh `ah azchſbk Ukrbuo`d (\krbuo`) ihjd jk hiupcjdcd gajkcu lkokrdgaju
fcd`am drmatkidtd, d ihja Čk puou dearfdgaju `hſavata odiho ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd. FkĔu ojafd
jk Bruoh Pdut (4==>-417=), ihja jk uphtrkbcjdvdjuČa stdickok galck od ĆkcaĆohf ihsturu phstaldh
fdlaĆou prhzarohst od stkpkoaŤtu u lrdĔkvaoa ‟Wtdickod iuČd– (4140). Udctkr Lrhpaus jk u svhjhj
tkhraja a hrldoazdgaja Bdumdusd odsthjdh rdzbata majkrdrmaju ihjd jk rdz`vdjdcd caihvou ufjktohst
h` prafjkojkok ufjktohsta. Bdumdus jk 412;. lh`aok prkskcjko u @ksdu, u zlrd`u ihju jk
prhjkithvdh sdf Lrhpaus, d ihjd jk usvhjacd ojklhvh odĆkch `d za` oajk oaŤtd vaŤk `h zdvjksd aca
2>1 Rdjt jk `keaoasdh odĆkcd hrldosik drmatkiturk rajkĆafd: –Pk jk`ohstdvok lrdĔkvaok sdfk phidzuju `d jkdrmatkiturd hrldoazdf, hsohvdo od odĆkcu `d sk `ah h`ohsa prkfd `ajkcu idh `ah prkfd gjkcaoa.– \drk ‗ ^doaiidr
‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald AU, 7>0.24> Bah jk ph` utagdjkf jdpdosiam odĆkcd stdohvdojd. HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, =;;. 244 \drk ‗ ^doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald AU, 7>;.
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icafdtsid bdrajkrd, a `d fhſk bata Ćatdv h` stdicd dih jk phtr kbdo fdisafuf `okvok svjktchsta.
Gacj Bdumdusd jk bah ok sdfh tkmoaĆia oklh a `ruŤtvkoa. Ho jk zdustdvcjdh `kmufdoazdgaju
Ćhvjkid u kra rdzvatid ao`ustrajk ĆuvdjuČa praogapk cju`sihl `hsthjdostvd a schbh`k, ojklujuČa
sicd` sd hihcaohf u ihjhj Ćhvjki ſava. Bdumdus jk `hcdsihf Matckrd od vcdst 4177. lh`aok bah
zdtvhrko, adih sk utagdj tk Ťihck prkoah od gajkcu Kvrhpu a Dfkraiu. Ojklhva Ĕdga a odstdvoaga su
sk vrdtaca iuČdfd, d ojklhv hsoavdĆ Lrhpaus, idh a ojklhv odscjk`oai Faks eho `kr Rhmk, su
htaŤca u Wjk`aojkok @rſdvk. Hoa su phstdca vh`kČa drmatkita u Wjk`aojkoaf @rſdvdfd zdjk`oh sd
Erkoihf Chj`hf Rdjthf (4=5<-4154), ihja jk idh odjbracjdotoaja uĆkoai Cuasd Wdcavdod (4=;5-
4120) jhŤ prajk ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd prhjkithvdh zlrd`k u prk`lrdĔafd ăaidld, tzv. ‟^rkrajsik
iuČk– h` ihjam jk odjphzodtajd iuČd Rhbck Mhusk (41>1).242 Ojklhvd IuČd od vh`hpd`u
(^kosacvdoajd, 417<) zdjk`oh sd Rhbck Mhusk prk`stdvcjdju icdsaiu fh`krok drmatkiturk.247
Odjastdioutaja prk`stdvoai ‟aotkrodgahodcohl stacd– u Erdogusihj jk Ůdrc-Kvudr Ŷdok Lra phzodt
idh Ck Ihrbazjk (4==5-415;). Ho jk u svhf rd`u htaŤdh a ihrdi `dcjk, pcdoardjuČa trdosphrt, rd`
a ſavcjkojk Ćhvjkid. Lrd`hvk, ihja su sk okihotrhcasdoh Ťaraca rdzvhjkf ao`ustrajk a phvkČdvdojkf
brhjd stdohvoid, jk zdfaŤcjdh u cju`siaf rdzfjkrdfd, hschbhĔkok zbrik, prkodtrpdohsta a
laldotsiam lrdĔkvaod. Wvhjk iuČk jk odzavdh ‟fdŤaok zd stdohvdojk–, sd Ćastaf a prkgazoaf
hbcagafd, dca bkz ſkcjk zd fkmdoazhvdoaf ſavhthf. IuČd Wdvhj (Wdvhyk, 417>) caĆa od oasiu
Ćktvrtdstu iutaju phstdvcjkou od stubhvk u ihjhj jk rdsphrk` phtpuoh euoigahodcdo, dca ok a
jk`ohstdvdo, a rdz`jkcjko stdickoaf za`hvafd. FkĔutaf, stdohvoaga su uvajki zdichojkoa h`
phlck`d s vdod.240 ^hrh`agd jk tdih sdĆuvdod h` prhfasiuatktd a uſavd bcdlh`dta ihfehrd,
rksthrdod, trſoagd, `jkĆajam vrtaČd at`. Zd svk th Ćhvjkiu su hsaf stdod phtrkboa suogk, svjktchst a
prhsthr. Pdih zdfaŤcjko stdfbkoa bchi Ck Ihrbazjk jk odprdvah u Fdrskju.24; Ck Ihrbazjkhv
utagdj sk brzh prhŤarah ph svajktu zdmvdcjujuČa vh`kČhj uchza ihju jk afdh od odgahodcohf
iholrksu drmatkidtd a urbdoastd, dca a prkih ojklhvam uĆkoaid ihja su zduzafdca fohld utagdjod
fjkstd u urbdoastaĆiaf ihfasajdfd.245 Drmatkita su smvdtaca `d af sk uchld u `ruŤtvu phĆaojk
fajkojdta jkr sk u svhf rd`u fhrdju `rſdta zd`dthl euoigahodcohl hivard ihja af h`rkĔujkihrasoai, idh a zdmtjkvd h` strdok pravrk`ohl a phcataĆihl edithrd. [prihs thfk drmatkiturd jk
`h irdjd @rulhl svjktsihl rdtd bacd hstdcd jk`od h` odjsodſoajam trd`agahodcoam ufjktohsta.24<
242 Ojklhvh `jkch jk pravuich fohlh pdſojk u Kvrhpa hih 4140. lh`aok, phskboh u irulhvafd fcd`am mhcdo`siamdrmatkidtd ihja su sk u`ruſaca s Fho`radohf u phirktu @k Wtajc. IuČd ‟Wgmrh`kr – u [trkmtu (4120) Ŷkra Ratvkc`dsd`rſa fohlh rdjthvsiam hbcaid. M. \. Jdosho, Asthrajd ufjktohsta, ;52.247 HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, =;;. 240 M. \. Jdosho, Asthrajd ufjktohsta, ;50.24; HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 4, ==;. 245 Ihrbusajkrhvh smvdtdojk h tafu aoſaojkrd a tkmoaĆdrd s ihjafd drmatkit fhrd sdrdĔavdta sk h`rdzach od hsoavdojkvkcaiam lrdĔkvaosiam earfa. \drk ‗ ^doaiidr ‗ Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd, svkzdi UA / iojald AU, 7><.24< Asth, 7>1.
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^hscajk @rulhl svjktsihl rdtd drmatkiturd prkstdjk `d bu`k stdtaĆod dca luba prk`ohst od`
trdjohsta. Bkz hbzard od odjbh`kroajk fdtkrajdck a saluroajk tkmoaik lrdĔkojd zlrd`k phĆaoju `d
zdstdrjkvdju idh a fdŤaok, d zub vrkfkod, ihjkfu tdih `hbrh h`hcajkvdju trd`agahodcoa
fdtkrajdca, zd ojam jk phlubdo.24=
OjkfdĆid ufjktohst a drmatkiturd u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u
Iubasta, euturasta a `d`dasta su ph Matckrhvhf faŤcjkoju uoaŤtaca iucturu a ufjktohst.
Odafk, ho jk azlrd`ah svhjk phlck`k h ufjktohsta jhŤ id`d jk a sdf mtah phstdta scaidr. Pd ojklhvd
‟kstktaid– jk phstdcd phcataĆia prhlrdf ihja jk sdvrkfkohj ufjktohsta suprhstdvah a`kdc ohvk
ojkfdĆik ufjktohsta. Odpd`a sd phzagajd odgahodc-shgajdcastaĆik a`khchlajk vrkfkohf su sk
fohſaca hokfhluČdvdjuČa rd` hoafd ihja su tkſaca ohvhf stvdrdcdŤtvu. Pdih su odlodca a
Bdumdus `d sk 412;. lh`aok askca az Udjfdrd.241 Fhoufkotdcohst jk bacd prvd uhĆcjavd
idrditkrastaid ufjktohsta u scaidrstvu a vdjdrstvu, d u drmatkitura sk tkſach ph`azdoju laldotsiam
zlrd`d.22> Ihogkpgaju Ćastk ojkfdĆik ufjktohsta rdzvah jk Dcerk` Rhzkobkrl u iojaza ‟Fat 2>.
sthcjkČd–. Ojklhvd `jkcd ‟Rkvhcugajd u caihvohj ufjktohsta– a ‟A irv a Ćdst– (4170) `h`dtoh
rdzvajdju odgahodc-shgajdcastaĆid smvdtdojd ufjktohsta.224 @rula odgahodc-shgajdcastaĆia kstktaĆdra
su rdzrdĔavdca prafjkou tam odĆkcd phput ^. Ůugk Oduburl ihja jk 4170. lh`aok hbjdvah
‟[fjktohst az irva a tcd– a ‟[fjktohst jk hbdvkzod prkfd rdsa–. H` td`d jk u ojkfdĆihj
ufjktohsta stdcoa fhtav ‟ojkfdĆia od`Ćhvjki– hcaĆko u sodſohj ealura a caĆohsta fuŤidrdgd-
lrd`atkcjd vkcaik ojkfdĆik bu`uČohsta a ſkok-fdjik. Gacj jk bah `d sk phidſk sodld a z`rdvcjk
vh`kČk cju`sik rdsk. FuŤidrgd odtprarh`ok sodlk prk`stdvcjdck su ealurk Jhsked Phrdid. Wafbhc
juodŤtvd rdsk jk phstdh cai D`hced Matckrd idh od ihfphzagaja ‟Wt jklhohŤd– Mubkrtd Cdogaolkrd
ihja jk praidzdh Earkrd idih ph` odgastaĆihf zdstdvhf a u hichpu srk`ojhvjkihvohl vatkzd
hzbacjod cagd a s phlck`hf id vkcaihj ojkfdĆihj bu`uČohsta. ^raidz ſkok jk h`rdz phlck`d od
svajkt `d su ſkok u `ruŤtvu a phcataga, a uhpŤtk u masthraja, sdfh fdjik Ťth jk phskboh
24= HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 4, ==5.241 Bdumdus jk bacd `rſdvod Ťihcd zd drmatkituru a prafjkojkok ufjktohsta ihju jk 4141. lh`aok hsohvdh Udctkr
Lrhpaus, rkhrldoazujuČa Ukcaihvhjvh`siu sdsiu did`kfaju zd scaidrsiu ufjktohst a Ůihcu zd ufjktohst a zdodtk uUdjfdru u OjkfdĆihj. UaŤk h thfk u phlcdvcju Drmatkiturd.22> [fjktohsta thtdcatdroam rkſafd `vd`ksktam a tra`ksktam lh`aod 2>. sthcjkČd aosparasdok su dotaĆihf trd`agajhf, dcasu rdsia`dck sd rkoksdoshf, phŤth su h`bdgavdck mufdoastaĆik phruik icdsaĆohl `hbd. EdŤazdf jk u stdrhf Rafutrdſah `hidzk vkcaĆaok atdcajdosik `rſdvk, d odgahodc-shgajdcazdf jk cjkphtu Ćhvjkid mkckosik siucpturk ihrastah u
rdsastaĆiaf tkhrktasdojafd. Do`r kj FatrhvaČ, Urkfk oktrpkcjavam, 0=2. 224 Lkbkcs jk lhvhrah: ‟OjkfdĆid ufjktohst scjk`kČk `kgkoajk baČk mkrhjsid, ĆkcaĆod, rhfdotaĆod, caŤkodskotafkotdcohsta, baČk stvdroh odgahodcod, sd vkcaiaf pdthshf, h`lhvhrod a sd hbdvkzdfd, aca jk okČk bata–. Gat.
prkfd Do`r kj FatrhvaČ, Urkfk oktrpkcjavam, 01>.
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idrditkrastaĆoh zd D`hced Galckrd u ojklhvhj scaga ‟Wu` ^drashv– a ‟Ack`d–, tk u scaga ‟Ldckb–
^ducd Fdtajdsd. Odgahodc-shgajdcasta su u Faomkou azlrd`aca IuČu ojkfdĆik ufjktohsta (`dods
IuČd ufjktohsta) zd ihju jk D`hce Matckr caĆoh phchſah idfko tkfkcjdg, d ph zdvrŤktiu rd`hvd
jk a scuſbkoh htvhrah.222 [ thj zlrd`a jk prarkĔkod Ukcaid ojkfdĆid azchſbd, idh phzatavdo
ihotrdst azchſba ‟@klkokrdtvaod ufjktohst– ihjd jk hrldoazhvdod ph a`kja Jhsked Lkbkcsd.
Odafk, c ju`a juraŤoam h`rk`d su ph ojklhvhf odchlu az jdvoam ldckrajd a fuzkjd azuzafdca `jkcd
Ido`aosihl, Ickd, Edjoaolkrd, IhihŤik, @aisd, Krostd, Fdikd, Fdrid, Ůfatd-Rhtcued,
Jdvcjkosihl, Bkifdod a rulam. H` tam jkcd jk odprdvcjkod azchſbd ‟@klkokrdtavok ufjktohsta–,
ihjd jk htvhrkod u fdrtu 417<. lh`aok. Fohlaf scaidrafd a siucpthrafd jk zdbrdojko rd`, d hoa
ihja oasu kfalrardca su stdvcjkoa ph` od`zhr. Kfac Ohc`k jk uprihs zdbrdoa tdjoh sdĆaoah fohlh
fdcam scaid vh`koaf bhjdfd a od pdparu. Pdih su odstdck ojklhvk ‟okodscaidok scaik–.227 D`hce
Matckr jk caĆoh hiupah fohlk drmatkitk ihja su `hpraojkca stvdrdoju odgahodc-shgajdcastaĆik
ihogkpgajk drmatkiturk a lrdĔkvaodrtsvd. Drmatkitd Dcbkrt Ůpkr (41>;-41=4) jk Matckrhvu
ihogkpgaju, bdzardou od ſkcja d lrdĔkvaok a odiho macjd`d lh`aod svjk`hĆk h sodza a`kjk PrkČkl
rdjmd, rdzrd`ah u svhjhj ‟tkhraja vrajk`ohsta ruŤkvaok– (Ruaokowkrttmkhrak)220 Zlrd`u Idogkcdrajk
Rdjmd, ihjd jk azlr dĔkod ph odgrtafd Dcbkrtd Ůpkrd, h`caiuju fdfutsia za`hva sd fdcaf
htvhrafd Ťth jhj djk a azlck` tvrĔdvk. ^rhjkitujuČa std`aho u Bkrcaou Dcbkrt Ůpkr jk uspah stvhrata
dtfhsekru fatsihl lkrfdosihl svktacaŤtd. ^rkurkĔkod jk bkrcaosid ucagd ^h` capdfd, azlrdĔkod
phfkoutd IuČd ojkfdĆik ufjktohsta idh a fohlk `rulk lrdĔkvaok. [ ihogkpgaja ohvk iucturk
Ćasthl ojkfdĆihl `umd vkhfd jk odlcdŤkod asthrajsid `afkozajd u ihjhj sk ojkfdĆid masthrajd
praidzujk idh bhrbd ojkfdĆihl odrh`d zd shpstvkoa odĆao ſavhtd. Ph sk va`a a od odgahodc-
shgajdcastaĆihj drmatkitura ihjd grpa aospardgaju az `rkvoam lkrfdosiam vrkfkod, id`d rdsd jhŤ
oajk bacd asivdrkod strdoaf utagdjafd phput irŤČdostvd.22;
222 Paf phvh`hf jk faomkosiaf ucagdfd prhŤcd phvhrid u scdvu 2>>> lh`aod ojkfdĆik iucturk, sd ihstafafd,
fdiktdfd a erdlfkotafd, scdvkČa 2>>> lh`aod ojkfdĆik asthrajk. Od htvdrdoju IuČk ojkfdĆik ufjktohsta phidzujuČa od fhoufkotdcok stubhvk a za`hvk, Matckr jk rkidh: ‟Hvd jkcd oasu zdfaŤcjkod zd lh`aou 410>., pd Ćdioa zd lh`aou 2>>>., oklh hod trkbd `d sk `aſu, phput idtk`rdcd az odŤk prhŤchsta, thihf bu`uČam macjd`u lh`aod–. Gat. prkfd Do`rkj FatrhvaČ, Urkfk oktrpkcjavam, 017.227 A pdi, fohld `jkcd oasu uoaŤtkod oklh su uz h`bhrkojk vcdsta `hspjkck u `rulk ruik. PrkČa Rdjm jk prh`dvdh`kid`kotod `jkcd iupgafd az `rulam zkfdcjd, Ćafk jk Lk bkcs phfhldh `rſdvohj bcdldjoa, d svk od hsohvu Zdihodh h`uzafdoju caihvoam jkcd sdvrkfko ufjktohsta bkz aidivk odiod`k ihja jk hoksko 74. fdjd 417=. lh`aok. Pd`d
su zdpcajkojkod 4>72 Ohc`khvd rd`d. Asth, 012.220 Dcbkrt Ůpkr jk hbjdŤojdvdjuČa svhju tkhraju rkidh: ‟^hcdzod tdĆid jk bacd `d zlrd`k fh`krok ihostruigajk oasu
ph`ksok `d phscuſk idh ‟fhst trd`agajk– bu`uČaf lkokrdgajdfd, d Ťth jk bacd Matckrhvd ſkcjd. Bach jk tkŤih zdfascata`d zdmrĔdck mrpk ruŤkvaod zd ojam fhlu zodĆata mkrhjsih od`dmouČk, idivh jk Matckr odcdzah u lrdĔkvaodfd az
prhŤchsta. Fhjd tkhrajd jk afdcd zd gacj `d sk phzdbdva hvhf ackfhf. IhraŤtkojkf phskboam fdtkrajdcd a prafjkohf
h`rkĔkoam praogapd stdtaik, trkbdca basfh bata u fhluČohsta `d azlrd`afh lrdĔkvaok ihjk Čk, Ćdi a id`d bu`u u
stdoju prhpd`dojd odiho sthtaod aca macjd`d lh`aod, vaŤk aca fdojk ph`sjkČdta od rafsik.– Gat. prkfdmttps://tspdgk.cabrdry.uthrhoth.gd/gat`/mhcthre/<.0.mtfc22; Do`rkj FatrhvaČ, Urkfk oktrpkcjavam, 017.
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W^HRP
Cjktok a zafsik Hcafpajsik alrk fkĔurdtohl pkrah`d
Od sdstdoiu u ^drazu h` 45. `h 27. juod 4=10. lh`aok pramvdČko jk prajk`chl bdrhod
^jkrd `k Iubkrtkod h utkfkcjkoju Hcafpajsiam aldrd ohvhl `hbd Ťth sk prktvhrach u hsoavdĆia
iholrks FkĔuodrh`ohl hcafpajsihl ihfatktd (FHI).225 Od zdsjk`doju 4124. lh`aok FHI jk
pramvdtah prajk`chl erdoguzd fdriazd `k ^hcaojdid a usvhjah prkphruiu `d sk u svaf zkfcjdfd,
u ihjafd phsthjk uschva zd th, hrldoazuju tdifaĆkojd u zafsiaf sphrthvafd ph`
phirhvatkcjstvhf FHI-d. H`cuĆkoh jk `d prva `hfdČao bu`k erdogusih zafhvdcaŤtk Ůdfhok.
Ph tdifaĆkojk ihjk sk h`rſdch phĆktihf ekbrudr d 4120. lh`aok jk odiod`oh prhlcdŤkoh prvaf
zafsiaf hcafpajsiaf alrdfd od iholrksu FHI-d 4125. lh`aok. Ukcaia ohrvkŤia siajdŤ Phr Cae
Mhl, ‟siajdŤia irdcj–, jk phbjk`ah u hbjk `asgapcaok siajdŤihl trĆdojd, d hsvhjah jk a brhozdou
fk`dcju u siajdŤiaf sihihvafd a zcdtou u ohr`ajsihj ihfbaodgaja. Whojd Mdjok jk bacd sjdjod
ohr vkŤid ufjktoaĆid icazdĆagd ihjd jk traput uzdsthpoh hsvdjdcd zcdtou fk`dcju: 412=. u Wkot
Fhrasu, 4172. u Ckji ^cksa`u a 4175. u LdrfaŤpdrtkoiarmkou.22< Dcpsih siajdojk jk uvrŤtkoh u
prhlrdf zafsiam hcafpajsiam aldrd u Wkot Fhrasu 412=. lh`aok, d spust a scdchf su prva put
vhſkoa od alrdfd u LdrfaŤpdrtkoiarmkou 4175. lh`aok.22= Od alrdfd u Wkot Fhrasu 412=.
lh`aok su u 7 utdifagk hstvdraca rdzcaiu lhchvd 7= odprkfd >. Od alrdfd u Wkot Fhrasu
(Ůvagdrsid) 412=. lh`aok jk uĆkstvhvdch 0<; uĆksoaid (h` thld 2< sphrtdŤagd) az 2; zkfdcjd.221
Aoerdstruiturd jk bacd h`caĆod dca ok a vrkfkosia uschva jkr jk tkfpkrdturd `hstazdcd a `h 2>
stkpkoa. PridĆa od siajdfd su fdzdca svhjk siajk, tk uz od`cju`si k odphrk uspjkca zdvrŤata triu od
odj`uſhj stdza (;> i f). ^hbjk`ah jk ŮvkĔdoao ^kr Krai Mk`cuol, phrdzavŤa `h td`d
okpraihsohvkok Ohrvkſdok.27> Od zafsiaf hcafpajsiaf alrdfd u Ckji ^cksa`u 4172. lh`aok
uĆkstvhvdch jk sdfh 7>5 tdifaĆdrd (h` thld 2< sphrtdŤagd) az 4< zkfdcjd. Zbhl vkcaik
kihohfsik irazk u svajktu h`zav jk bah vkhfd scdb pd su h` odvk`kohl brhjd phchvaod tdifaĆdrd
baca az Wjk`aojkoam @rſdvd a Idod`k. Alrk u LdrfaŤpdrtkoiarmkou 4175. lh`aok, ihju su Oajkfgaazvdork`oh hrldoazhvdca, jk prdtach hih phcd facahod lck`dcdgd, d sdfh hcafpajsik sihihvk jk
225 Iubkrtko prk`sjk`dvd FHI `h iholrksd u ^rdlu 412;. lh`aok id`d jk prhlcdŤko `hſavhtoaf phĆdsoaf prk`sjk`oaihf. [frh jk 2. skptkfbrd 417<. lh`aok, d ph ojklhvhj azraĆathj ſkcja srgk fu jk prkokskoh od phskboh
urkĔkoh sphfko fjksth u `rkvohj Hcafpaja l`jk sk pdca hcafpajsia pcdfko . Fdrajdo BhrŤaČ, H` Dtkok `h Dtkok,
Odicd`d WPAM, Zdlrkb 2>>0., 42.22< Hod jk jhŤ idh `jkvhjĆagd, sd jk`dodkst lh`aod, odstupacd od alrdfd u Ůdfhoku 4120. lh`aok id`d jk zduzkcd
phscjk`ojk hsfh fjksth. Fdrajdo BhrŤaČ, Alrk soajkld a ck`d, Odicd`d WPAM, Zdlrkb 2>>2., =.22= Asth, 1.
221 Asth, 41.27> Prid u brzhf icazdoju od 4> >>> fktdrd jk bacd prkiaoutd, zdtaf a htidzdod, pd su okik bkrcaosik ohvaok hbjdvack
`d jk alrdfd irdj. Asth, 2>.
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phsfdtrdch 4;> >>> cju`a. Ohrvkſdoao Barlkr R u` jk td`d phohvah uspjkm az Cdik ^cksa`d 4172.
lh`aok hsvhjavŤa prvh fjksth. Od alrdfd jk uĆkstvhvdch 5<; sphrtastd (h` thld => sphrtdŤagd) az
2= zkfdcjd.274 ^dſoju su pr avcdĆaca cju`a u uoaehrfdfd ‗ Matckr, Lkbkcs a Lkraol,
odlhvjkŤtdvdjuČa okfarod vrkfkod.
Dtcktaid jk, bdŤ idh a u rkvohj LrĆihj, bacd lcdvoa `hldĔdj fh`kroam cjktoam hcafpajsiam
aldrd.272 hzodtd idh ‟irdcjagd sphrthvd–, dtcktaid odjjdsoajk azrdſdvd hcafpajsih odĆkch ‗ gataus,
dctaus, ehrtaus!277 Od sdstdoiu u Cahou 4140. lh`aok jk od prajk`chl Iubkrtkod usvhjko
hcafpajsia zodi ihja Čk phstdta scuſbkoa zodi FHI-d. Ph su pkt irulhvd: pcdva, ſuta, groa, zkckoa
a grvkoa, phvkzdoa u cdogu, ihja safbhcaĆoh prk`stdvcjdju jk`aostvh a brdtstvh odrh`d svam
ihotaokodtd.270 Od asthf sdstdoiu jk bach h`cuĆkoh `d sk cjktok hcafpajsik alrk 4145. lh`aok
h`rſk u Bkrcaou. Id`d jk rdt phĆkh, Oajkfga sk oasu h`ragdca prdvd od hrldoazdgaju aldrd.FkĔutaf, alrk oasu h`rſdok, d od sdstdoiu u Chzdoa 4141. lh`aok jk h`cuĆkoh ` d sk UAA
hcafpajsik alrk h`rſk u bkclajsihf lrd`u Dovkrsu.27; Zkfcjk rdtok lubatoagk oasu fhlck
uĆkstvhvdta. Od alrdfd pr va put uĆkstvujk scdvoa Eaodg ^dvh Ourfa Ćaja tdckodt jk htiravko od
jk`ohf vhjohf tdifaĆkoju eaosik drfajk. Erdogusid tkoaskrid Wuzdo Cdoſcko jk hbacjkſacd
tkoasia turoar. Od eu`bdcsihf turoaru phbjk`aca su Bkclajdoga, odiho Ťth su `h td`d `hfaoardca
Bratdoga.275 [ ^drazu jk bach phtkŤihČd pracaihf hrldoazdagajk Hcafpajsiam aldrd 4120. lh`aok.
Odafk, rajkid Wkod sk azcacd 4127. lh`aok, d odiho thld jk odstupacd vkcaid vruČaod s
tkfpkrdturdfd azod` 0; stkpkoa. Ph apdi oajk sprajkĆach tdifaĆkojk 7>12 sphrtastd (fkĔu ojafd
475 sphrtdŤagd) az 00 zkfcjk.27< Bratdoga Mdrhc` Dbrdmdfs a Krai Ca`c baca su odjbrſa od 4>>,
h`ohsoh 0>> fktdrd. Krai Ca`c, sao Ťihtsihl fasahodrd, jk h`bah uĆkstvhvdta u trga od 4>> fktdrd
az vjkrsiam rdzchld jkr sk trĆdch u ok`jkcju. Eaoga ^dvh Ourfa a Ua ck Rathcd phbajk`aca su od
srk`ojaf a `ulaf stdzdfd (4;>> a ;>>> fktdrd). Dfkraidodg @ſhoa Udjs Fackr, sao `hskcjkoaid
az Dustrajk, d idsoajk a odjscdvoaja eacfsia tdrzdo, phbajk`ah jk od 4>> a 0>> fktdrd schbh`oh.27=
[rulvdj jk hsvhjah zcdtou fk`dcju od eu`bdcsihf turoaru phbjk`avŤa u eaodcu Ůvk`siu 7 odprkfd
>, d astdidh sk tdfohputa Do`rd`k. Phihf tdifaĆkojd u rdlbaju, fdĆkvdoju, bhisu, pd Ćdi a
274 Asth, 2=.272 ^hĆktdi hcafpajsiam aldrd sk vkzujk zd <<5. lh`aou prajk ohvk krk. H` tk lh`aok `dtardju pasdoa ph`dga, d u
LrĆihj sk uvh`a rdĆuodojk vrkfkod ph hcafpajd`dfd. FkĔutaf, sfdtrd sk `d su hcafpajsik alrk fohlh stdrajk tk`d phtaĆu h` tdihzvdoam ‟hcafpajsiam svkĆdohsta–. Ph phtvrĔuju a fohlhbrhjoa fathva a cklko`k idh Ťth su hodj hZkusu a Irhou, Mkrdicu, ^kchpu a Aeatu. Bhrd IrdlujkvaČ, Wd hcafpajsiam bhracaŤtd, Zdvh` zd u`ſbkoaik a odstdvodsrk`stvd, Bkhlrd` 41=0., <-=.277 Brſk, vaŤk, jdĆk! (hcafpajsih lksch) 270 Bhrd IrdlujkvaČ, Wd hcafpajsiam bhracaŤtd, 02.27; Bkz hbzard Ťth Hcafpajsik alrk u Bkrcaou oasu h`rſdok, hok su zd`rſdck svhj rk`oa brhj UA. Asth. 275 Fdr ajdo BhrŤaČ, H` Dtkok `h Dtkok, 07. 27< Asth, 00.27= Pd`d jk hstvdrko prva rkzuctdt asph` faoutk od 4>> fktdrd schbh`oh. Asth, 0<.
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tkoasu, jk bach fohlh pr kparia a svdĔk.271 Od alrdfd u Dfstkr`dfu 412=. lh`aok, hiupach sk
vaŤk h` 7>>> sphrtastd (21> sphrtdŤagd) az 05 zkfdcjd. MhcdoĔdoa su azlrd`aca ohva std`aho zd 0>
>>> lck`dcdgd, d od svkĆdohf htvdrdoju jk prva put zdpdcjko hcafpajsia pcdfko. Zkfcjk
lubatoagk az ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd su `hback prdvh uĆkstvhvdojd od hvaf hcafpajsiaf alrdfd.
Oajkfga su azod` hĆkiavdojd asihrastaca Ťdosu hsvhjaŤa uiupoh 74 fk`dcju, h` ihjam 4> zcdtoam.20>
Od hvaf alrdfd prva put su odstupack a dtcktaĆdrik ihjk su h`uŤkvcjdvdck cjkphthf a
ſkostvkohŤČu. [ thfk sk astdicd phbjk`oagd u sihiu u vas I dodĔdoid Atkc Iktkrvu`. [Ćkstvhvdh
jk a ‟hstdrjkca– ^dvh Ourfa ihja jk td`d afdh 72 lh`aok. Ho sk u zd`ojkf trkoutiu pra`ruſah
hcafpajsihj kiapa, tk hsvhjah prvh fjksth a zcdtou fk`dcju od 4> >>> fktdrd. Od eu`bdcsihf
turoaru [rulvdj jk phbjk`ah Drlkotaou hprdv`dvŤa scdvu hcafpajsiam phbjk`oaid az ^drazd.
FkĔuodrh`oa hcafpajsia ihfatkt jk od iholrksu h`rſdohf 4127. lh`aok, u vrajkfk id`d jk Dfkraid bacd u zodiu kihohfsihl odprktid, h`cuĆacd `d hrldoazdgaju aldrd 4172. lh`aok
phvjkra Chs DoĔkcksu. FkĔutaf, 4121. lh`aok jk hsvdouh ‟groa pktdi– dfkraĆiam bkrza a vkcaid
kihohfsid irazd, pd jk puthvdojk u Dfkraiu phstdch ihfpcaihvdoh a siuph.204 Zdth jk h`zav
tdifaĆdrd bah vkhfd fdca, svkld 40>= sphrtastd (h` thld 42= sphrtdŤagd) az 7< zkfdcjd.
Dfkraidoga su uvkca `vajk zodĆdjok ohvaok: azlrd`aca su prvh hcafpajsih skch a hlrdoaĆaca
tdifaĆkojk od okŤth `uſk h` `vajk sk`fagk.202 Jdpdoga su baca svhjkvrsoh azokodĔkojk od hvhj
hcafpajd`a, hsvhjavŤa 4> h` fhluČam 4; phjk`aodĆoam zcdtoam fk`dcjd. Pd`d sk astdidh Iusuh
Iatdfura ihfk jk bach tki 40 lh`aod, d phstdh jk hcafpajsia phbjk`oai od 4;>> fktdrd
schbh`oh.207 [ bhisu phbjk`oaga oasu baca az Dfkraik, idh Ťth sk hĆkiavdch, vkČ az Idod`k,
Drlkotaok, Juſok Deraik, `hi su WD@ hsvhjack sdfh 2 zcdtok fk`dcjk. Idrajkrd scdvohl Eaogd
^dvh Ourfajd sk zdvrŤacd od hvaf alrdfd odiho Ťth ld jk FkĔuodrh`od dtcktsid ek`krdgajd
azbrasdcd az rk`hvd dfdtkrd jkr jk odvh`oh od turokja ph OjkfdĆihj, phrk` trhŤihvd putd prafah
a ohvdg. Od alrdfd jk sruŤkoh 4= svjktsiam rkihr`d, d hstvdrkod jk a eaodosajsid `hbat h` facaho
`hcdrd, Ťth jk u th vrajkfk bach prdvh bhldtstvh. Oajkfga su 20. jdoudrd 4177. lh`aok hsohvdca
hrldoazdgahoa h`bhr aldrd, d Ťkst `dod phscajk Matckr jk phstdh ojkfdĆia idogkcdr. Ukcaid
Bratdoajd trdſa `d sk prkaspatd h`cuid az 417>. lh`aok h `h`jkca aldrd Bkrcaou sphfaojuČa a
271 Lck`dhga su od vdtkrphch turoaru htvhrkoh `kfhostrardca prhtav Dfkraidodgd. Asth, 01.20> Dfkraidoga su hsvh jaca odjvaŤk fk`dcjd, uiupoh 5;, h` Ćkld 22 zcdtok. Asth, ;;.204 Brdzacsid hcafpajsid kiapd jk brhjdcd 51 Ćcdohvd. Ucd`d Brdzacd jk eaodosardcd put sd ;> >>> vrkČd idek ihjusphrtasta oasu uspjkca `d prh`dju ph usputoaf cuidfd. H` 51 Ćcdohvd hcafpajsihl tafd, ojam 0; sk oajk asirgdch sd
brh`d jkr oasu afdca `d pcdtk ph jk`do `hcdr od afk tdisk zd stupdojk od tch Wjk`aojkoam @rſdvd. Bhrd IrdlujkvaČ,Wd hcafpajsiam bhracaŤtd, ;=.202 Ŷkodfd oajk bah `hzvhcjko ucdz u hcafpajsih skch, pd jk zd sphrtastiaojk hbkzbjkĔko odjbhcja mhtkc u Chs
DoĔkcksu. Eaoga su u svhfk tafu afdca iumdragu ihjhj phrtar hcafpajsihl skcd oajk `dh `d uĔk, pd jk th `hvkch `hfdchl aoga`kotd. Asth, ;<.207 Fdrajdo BhrŤaČ, H` Dtkok `h Dtkok, 52.
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fhluČohst bhjihtd. Matckr jk pdzah d ok hĔk h okik zchuphtrkbk, adih jk svu`d bach odgastaĆik
safbhcaik. Apdi, th su back alrk odjvkČam hrldoazdthrsiam a sphrtsiam `hstalouČd. Od htvdrdoju
aldrd 4. dulustd 4175. lh`aok, bkrcaosia hcafpajsia std`aho jk bah prkpuo. ădi 42> >>> lck`dcdgd
jk uſavh prdtach gkrkfhoaju htvdrdojd ihjd jk phĆkcd tdĆoh u 45 sdta ojkfdĆihf mafohf
( @kutsgmcdo`, @kutsgmcdo` ubkr dccks) ihju jk azvkh mhr h` 4;>> Ćcdohvd.200 ^rva phbjk`oai
fdrdthod Wpara`ho Cuas jk, h`jkvko u lrĆiu odrh`ou ohŤoju, uruĆah Matckru vajkodg h`
fdscaohvam lrdoĆagd. H`zav sphrtastd jk bah odjvkČa `h td`d, Ćdi 0155 sphrtastd (h` Ćkld 72=
ſkod) az 01 zkfdcjd. ^rkih 7>> rkphrtkrd prdta tdifaĆkojd, d `hbaca su a bactkok aldrd aspasdok od
40 jkzaid. ^h prva put hcafpajsid tdifaĆkojd prkohsa tkckvazajd. [ Bkrcaou su sk `arkitoa prkohsa
prdtaca u 2; vkcaiam `vhrdod.20; Groa dtcktaĆdra su, brdokČa bhjk Wjk`aojkoam @rſdvd phbajk`aca u
svaf tridfd od irdČaf stdzdfd, tk u sihiu u`dcj a uvas. Bracjardh jk @ſkjfs ‟@ſksa– Hvkos,
`vd`kskttrhlh`aŤoja groa dtcktaĆdr az @dovacd u Dcdbdfa. Ho jk phbjkĔavdh s cdihČhf, idh `d
uhpŤtk ok trhŤa sodlu.205 @rula groa dtcktaĆdr, Ihrokcajus @ſhosho jk sd prksihĆkoam 2.>7 fktrd
od`fhČoh phbajk`ah u sihiu uvas. [stvdra jk ojklhvd phbjk`d, d ok phbjk`d @ſksa Hvkosd u
sihiu u`dcj, odtjkrdcd Matckrd `d odpusta std`aho. Oajkfga su scdvaca u lhthvh svaf bdgdĆiaf
`asgapcaodfd. Lkrmdr` Ůthi jk bah prva oksido aodvdg ihja jk phbajk`ah u bdgdoju ihpcjd, iulcu
jk odj`dcjk bdgah Mdos Ukcik, d icd`avh Idrc Mdjo. Oajkfagk su phbjk`ack u bdgdoju `asid a
ihpcjd, d u Ťtdekta 0x4>> fktdrd su od`fhČoh vh`ack dca su u phscjk`ojhj azfjkoa aspustack pdcagu,
prkpustavŤa zcdth Dfkraidoidfd. [ ihojaĆihf a vkscdĆihf sphrtu od`fhČoa su baca Oajkfga,
`hi jk ojkfdĆia lafodstaĆdr Dcerk` Ůvdrgfko bah jk`do h` odjuspjkŤoajam uĆksoaid aldrd,
hsvhjavŤa 7 zcdtok a 2 brhozdok fk`dcjk. Oajkfga su od hcafpajd`a u Bkrcaou 4175. lh`aok baca
asprk` Dfkraidodgd ph brhju hsvhjkoam fk`dcjd, d u uiupohf pcdsfdou su hsvhjaca prvh
fjksth.20< Od hcafpajsihf eu`bdcsihf turoaru, ihja jk uvrŤtko zbhl vkcaik phpucdrohsta hvhl
sphrtd d sdfaf taf a eaodosajsik `hbata, bach jk okihcaih aoga`kodtd. [ utdifaga Atdcajd-Dfkraid
atdcajdosia alrdĆ Dmac ^aĆaoa jk odstdvah `d alrd adih ld jk su`ajd asicjuĆah, d u utdifaga ^kru-
Dustrajd, pra rkzuctdtu 0 odprkfd 2, odvajdĆa ^krud su u su`ajsihf vrkfkou uŤca od tkrko.
Hcafpajsia ihfatkt jk ph ſdcba Dustrajk h`cuĆah d sk fkĆ phohva bkz lck`dhgd Ťth jk kru h`bah,
200 Bhrd IrdlujkvaČ, Wd hcafpajsiam bhracaŤtd, 52.20; Fdrajdo BhrŤaČ, H` Dtkok `h Dtkok, 00205 ^hscajk hcafpajsiam aldrd Hvkos jk odpustah sphrt. Zd okvjkrhvdtoh fdcu sufu jk phstdh prheksahodcdg, d id`d
jk `hŤcd bkspdragd hsarhfdŤkoa Hvkos jk rd`ah rdzok phschvk: uĆkstvhvdh u vdrajktsiaf prhlrdfafd a azbhroafidfpdojdfd, tridh sk prhtav ihojd a jdmdĆd, tdifaĆah sk trĆkČa odtrdŤik, `aralhvdh `ſkz-hrikstrafd, bah Ćuvdridbaod od pcdſdfd a sc. FkĔutaf, svk th oajk phfrdĆach ojklhvu sphrtsiu scdvu jkr sk a `dods sfdtrd jk`oaf h`
odjvkČam sphrtastd. Bhrd IrdlujkvaČ, Wd hcafpajsiam bhracaŤtd, 50.20< Oajkfga su hsvhjaca 77 zcdtok, 25 srkbroam a 7> brhozdoam9 Dfkraidodga 20 zcdtok, 2> srkbroam 42 brhozdoam, d
trkČkpcdsardoa FdĔdra 4> zcdtoam, 4 srkbrou a ; brhozdoam fk`dcjd. Fdrajdo BhrŤaČ, H` Dtkok `h Dtkok, 51.
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pd jk utdifagd rklastrhvdod idh phbjk`d Dustrajk (2:>).20= Atdcajd jk bacd phbjk`oai turoard,
Dustrajd jk hsvhjacd srkbrou fk`dcju, d OhrvkŤid brhozdou. Alrk u Bkrcaou su back azvrsoh
hrldoazhvdok adih jk svjktsid jdvohst trdſacd rdzchlk ihja ba phtvr`aca hptuſbk h o jkfdĆihj
phcatazdgaja aldrd tk ojamhvhj zchuphtrkba u phcataĆih-prhpdldo`ok svrmk. Od scajk`kČu hcafpajd`u
sk Ćkidch puoam 42 lh`aod.
Wvjktsid prvkostvd u eu`bdcu fkĔurdtohl pkrah`d
[ pkrah`u azfkĔu `vd rdtd h`rſdod su a tr a svjktsid prvkostvd u eu`bdcu. EAED jk 4140.
lh`aok prazodcd eu`bdc od Hcafpajsiaf alrdfd idh Wvjktsih prvkostvh u eu`bdcu zd dfdtkrk,
prkuzkvŤa tdih h`lhvhrohst zd hrldoazdgaju asthl turoard od a`uČk tra Hcafpajd`k, 412>., 4120.
a 412=. lh`aok. Od Hcafpajd`a u Chs DoĔkcksu 4172. lh`aok eu`bdc oajk uvrŤtko u prhlrdf
tdifaĆkojd zbhl okphpucdrohsta u Wjk`aojkoaf @rſdvdfd. Od sdstdoiu u Dfstkr`dfu 25. fdjd
412=. lh`aok, td`dŤoja EAED-ao prk`sjk`oai Ŷac Rafk jk odjdvah tdifaĆkojk okzdvasoh h
Hcafpajsiaf alrdfd. Lh`aou `dod idsoajk u Bdrskchoa, azfkĔu ido`a`dturd Atdcajk, Ůvk`sik,
Mhcdo`ajk, Ůpdoajk a [rulvdjd, h`cuĆkoh jk `d sk hrldoazdgajd turoard phvjkra td`dŤojkf
`vhstruihf hcafpajsihf Ťdfpahou, [rulvdju, ihja jk ujk`oh trkbdch `d prhscdva jk`do vajki
phsthjdojd okzdvasok `rſdvk. Wvjktsih prvkostvh u [rulvdju, h`rſdoh h` 47. `h 7>. jucd 417>.
lh`aok, bach jk jk`aoh zd ihjk oasu back phtrkbok ivdcaeaidgajk jkr jk svk rkprkzkotdgajk phzvdcd
EAED. @h 2=. ekbrudrd 417>. lh`aok prajdvack su sk rkprkzkotdgajk Brdzacd, Drlkotaok, ^krud,
^drdlvdjd, ăackd, Bhcavajk, Wjk`aojkoam @rſdvd a Fkisaid. FkĔutaf, oa jk`od prkihdtcdosid
zkfcjd oajk mtjkcd odstupata zbhl vkcaiam trhŤihvd puthvdojd. Odiho Ťth jk a Ukcaid Bratdoajd
h`bacd phzav, prk`sjk`oai EAED-k jk uz phfhČ urulvdjsik vcd`k h`cuĆah pcdtata put
prkihdtcdotsiaf zkfcjdfd. [Ćkstvhvdch jk sdfh 47 rkprkzkotdgajd, h` Ćkld kvkt sd dfkraĆihl
ihotaokotd a Ćktara az Kvrhpk a th: Erdogusid, Bkclajd, Rufuoajd a Irdcjkvaod Julhscdvajd. Eaodck
jk h`alrdoh 7>. jucd, prk` hih 4>> >>> lck`dcdgd od cklko`drohf std`ahou Wkotkodrah Ćajd jk
azlrd`ojd phĆkcd lh`aou `dod prajk prvkostvd ph` supkrvazajhf drmatkitk Mudo Dothoah
Widzd.201 ^hbjk`oai prvhl svjktsihl prvkostvd jk bah [rulvdj, sdvcd`dvŤa u eaodcohf fkĆu
Drlkotaou rkzuctdthf 0 odprkfd 2, d pkmdr jk az ruiu prk`sk`oaid EAED-k Ŷacd Rafkd, prafah
20= Hcafpag Ehhtbdcc Phurodfkot Bkrcao 4175
mttp://www.eaed.ghf/thurodfkots/drgmavk/fkoshcyfpag/bkrcao4175/ao`kx.mtfc
201 Wtd`aho jk zbhl tkŤiam vrkfkosiam pracaid, adih sk rd`ach 20 sdtd od `do, `hvrŤko sdfh pkt `dod prajkaodlurdgahohl fkĆd. 417> EAED \hrc` Gup [ruludy
mttp://www.eaed.ghf/thurodfkots/drgmavk/whrc`gup/uruludy417>/ao`kx.mtfc
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idpatko [rulvdjd Mhzk Odzdsa.2;> @rulh Wvjktsih prvkostvh u eu`bdcu h`rſdoh jk h` 2<. fdjd
`h 4>. juod 4170. lh`aok u Atdcaja. ^h prva put u masthraja su back phtrkbok ivdcaeaidgajk, pd su h`
72 odgahodcok kiapk ojam 45 uĆkstvhvdch od zdvrŤohf turoaru. @hfdČao Atdcajd jk phstdcd svjktsia
prvdi phbajk`avŤa u eaodcu ăkmhschvdĆiu rkzuctdthf 2 odprkfd 4. @htd`dŤoja svjktsia prvdi
[rulvdj jk h`bah `d uĆkstvujk od prvkostvu zbhl thld Ťth jk Atdcajd h`bacd `d uĆkstvujk od
prvkostvu u [rulvdju 417>. lh`aok. Pdih jk stvhrko prksk`do u asthraja eu`bdcd jkr jk [rulvdj
bah jk`aoa svjktsia prvdi u eu`bdcu ihja oajk brdoah svhju tatucu.2;4 PrkČk svjktsih prvkostvh u
eu`bdcu h`rſdoh jk h` 0. `h 41. juod 417=. lh`aok u Erdogusihj, ihjhj jk EAED phvjkracd
hrldoazdgaju od sdstdoiu 4175. lh`aok. Ph jk bach a phscjk`ojk vkcaih tdifaĆkojk prajk azbajdojd
@rulhl svjktsihl rdtd. Oajk uĆkstvhvdcd Ůpdoajd zbhl lrdĔdosihl rdtd a tkŤik satudgajk u zkfcja,
d oa Dustrajd zbhl o jkfdĆik dokisajk. FkĔutaf, dustrajsia alrdĆa su stkica prdvh odstupd zd
OjkfdĆiu. ^hbjk`oai prvkostvd jk bacd Atdcajd, ihjd jk phbjk`acd FdĔdrsiu u eaodcu rkzuctdthf
0 odprkfd 2, h`brdoavŤa tdih odschv svjktsihl prvdid az 4170. lh`aok.2;2
2;> Ukrujk sk d jk prvh phcuvrkfk alrdoh chpthf Drlkotaodgd, d rulh urulvdjsihf, phŤth vajk strdok oasu fhlck`d sk usdlcdsk od `rula odĆao. Asth2;4 4170 EAED \hrc` Gup Atdcy
mttp://www.eaed.ghf/thurodfkots/drgmavk/whrc`gup/atdcy4170/ao`kx.mtfc
2;2 Odjbhcja str ajkcdg prvkostvd, sd phstaloutam = lhchvd, bah jk Brdzacdg Ckhoa`ds. AodĆk, Brdzac jk td`d prva putodstupaah od svjktsihf prvkostvu u eu`bdcu hsvhjavŤa trkČk fjksth. 417= EAED \hrc` Gup Erdogk
mttp://www.eaed.ghf/thurodfkots/drgmavk/whrc`gup/erdogk417=/ao`kx.mtfc
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;7
ZDICJ[ăDI
Cabkrdcod trd`agajd jk azojk`racd iucturu ihjd jk `dcd pch`oh tch zd oduiu a tkmohchlaju az
ihjk jk azrdscd ao`ustrajsid gavacazdgajd. H` vrkfkod Rafsihl gdrstvd a Ťarkojd irŤČdostvd Kvrhpd
jk skbk sfdtrdcd Ćuvdrkf odscajkĔd Rafd, LrĆik, Klaptd a Bcasihl asthid a asphvjk`oaihf jk`aok prdvk vjkrk. FkĔutaf, suprhstdvcjkoa aotkrksa kvrhpsiam odgahodcoam `rſdvd, od ihjk jk Kvrhpd
bacd ph`jkcjkod, adih jk u fohlh Ćkfu afdcd zdjk`oaĆiu gavacazdgaju, `hvh`a `h `vd phlubod
svjktsid rdtd. ^rva svjktsia rdt jk azbah idh phscjk`agd svk vkČkl supdroaŤtvd azfkĔu vkcaiam sacd,
idh a tkſoja OjkfdĆihl gdrstvd ihjk su rkfktack fkĔuodrh`ou rdvohtkſu. Ihchoajdcod ph`jkcd
svajktd jk rkzuctardcd suprhstdvcjkoaf aotkrksafd fkĔu afpkrajdcastaĆiaf sacdfd Ťth `hvh`a `h
ojamhvhl od`fktdojd a trik u odhruſdvdoju. Ukrsdjsiaf farhvoaf ulhvhrhf h`lhvhrohst zd
azbajdojk rdtd prapasdod jk Gkotrdcoaf sacdfd, phskboh OjkfdĆihj, `hi jk rdt hidrditkrasdo idh‟rdt zd phtcdĆkok odgajk–, h`ohsoh ‟suihbhf `kfhirdtajk a duthratdrazfd–. FkĔutaf, ^rva
svjktsia rdt jk bah rdt odgajd u ihfk jk h`cuĆujuČa edithr bah, phrk` h`ohsd sodld a sphshbohsta
h`rſdvdojd prh`uſkohl stdojd hpŤtk fhbacazdgajk, a sphshbohst svdik h` ojam `d ujk`aoa svk
suprhstdvcjkok phcataĆik, `ruŤtvkok a iucturok rdzcaik uoutdr svhl `ruŤtvd. ^rvaf svjktsiaf
r dthf oasu rjkŤkoa batoa uzrhga ojklhvhl azbajdojd oata su h`strdojkok fhluČohsta bu`uČam
suihbd. Ho jk fohlh `ubcjk phscjk`agk hstdvah od h`ohsk `rſdvk a pravrk`k, `rſdvk a `ruŤtvd,
vaŤam a oaſam icdsd, idh a od svk hbcaik ſavhtd, iucturu a ufjktohst, oduiu a tkmoaiu, Ćdi a od
sphrt. Rdt jk phirkouh Ťarhik odrh`ok fdsk a u shgajdcohf a lkhlrdesihf sfascu, dca a odfktouh
phtrkbu zd stvdrdojkf ohvam hbcaid shgajdcok ihotrhck bach putkf prasack, prhpdldo`k, iucturk
aca majkrdrmajk. OduĆoaga ph`stagdoa ohvhf vazajhf bu`uČohsta a hschbhĔkoa stdram hihvd
odstdvcjdju prhlrks zdphĆkt a prajk ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd. Ohvd htiraČd htvdrdju ohvk fhluČohsta
Ťth `rſdvk ihrastk u gacju vcdstathl kihohfsihl prhspdratktd, dca a phvkČdvdojd vhjohl
phtkogajdcd. @hcdza `h fdshvok prafjkok kphmdcoam htiraČd u oduga irhz tkmohchŤik aohvdgajk.
Ph u vkcaihj fjkra utaĆk od svdih`okvoa ſavht Ćhvjkid fjkojdjuČa ojklhvk phlck`k od iucturu a
bavstvhvdojk u suŤtaoa.
Ukcaia okphsrk`oa utagdj od svdih`okvoagu afdju a ohvk tko`kogajk u `ruŤtvkoaf
oduidfd, phskboh u psamhchlaja ihjd jk ohva zdfdm `hbacd uprdvh u pkrah`u odiho ^rvhl
svjktsihl rdtd. Erhj`hvd tkhrajd prkvdzacdza sekrk oduik uvkcaih h`rkĔujuČa iucturok a
ufjktoaĆik azrdzk a od tdj odĆao okphsrk`oh fajkojd Ćhvjkihvh smvdtdojk skbk a svajktd u ihfk
ſava. HtiraČd u sekra lkoktaik `h`dtoh hbhldČuju Ćhvjkihvu svajkst h skba, dca ok uspjkvdju
asihrjkoata rdsok prk`rdsu`k u `ruŤtvafd Zdpd`d, `hi su u odgastaĆihj OjkfdĆihj u scuſba
dotaskfatazfd. Wtrkfcjkojd stvdrdhgd u iuctura a ufjktohsta u svaf hbcagafd h`rkĔkod su
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;0
‟ohvhf rkdcohŤČu– odstdchj odiho ^rvhl svjktsihl rdtd, oduĆoaf a tkmoaĆiaf `hstalouČafd a
`ruŤtvkoh phcataĆiaf pracaidfd. ^hskboh sk trkČa edithr hzodĆdvd idh hlrdoaĆdvdjuČa u sfascu
ufjktoaĆihl azrdzd jkr ufjktoai u svhjhj bata tkſa schbh`a a ok trpa hlrdoaĆkojd. Ph jk a rdzchl Ťth
vkcaia brhj ufjktoaid bjkſa h` thtdcatdroam rkſafd. FkĔutaf, tkhrajd ph ihjhj stvdrdhga u iuctura
trkbd d phfhlou u azlrd`oja `ruŤtvd prhvk`kod jk u Whvjktsihf Wdvkzu. [ OjkfdĆihj, a prajk
`hcdsid Matckrd od vcdst, u iuctura a ufjktohsta jdĆdju prdvga ihja su azrdz stdram tkſoja hcaĆkoam u
vkcaĆdoju stdrk lkrfdosik prhŤchsta. Wvk th upuČujk od zdicjuĆdi `d su a stvdrdhga u iuctura a
ufjktohsta sdfh cju`a sd svhjaf phlck`hf od svajkt ihja oajk uvajki rdzcaĆat h` hohld Ťth jk stdv
vcd`djuČk phcataik. FkĔutaf, bkz hbzard Ťth phokid` oduĆoaga a iucturoa stvdrdhga okphsrk`oh
hbcaiuju phcataĆia prdvdg a vazaju `ruŤtvd, td vkzd iucturk a thtdcatdrok phcataik jk okh`rſavd. W
`rulk strdok, dpshcutod schbh`d stvdrdhgd u iuctura a ufjktohsta ok zodĆa uvajki a cjkphtu
ojamhvhl azrdzd, i dh oa z`rdvu vazaju bu`uČohsta. Zkfcjk zdpd`ohl iucturohl ph`ruĆjd `hcdzk
u `h`ar sd oduĆoaf, iucturoaf a ufjktoaĆiaf strkfcjkojafd Kvrhpk, dca zbhl odgahodcoam tkſoja
kvrhpsia azrdz stdvcjdju u `rula pcdo. Ph jk phskboh azrdſkoh u zkfcjdfd a `ruŤtvafd Cdtaosik
Dfkraik l`jk, idh a u Jdpdou, phsthja htphr prkfd cabkrdcazfu. Fdshvod iucturd Wjk`aojkoam
@rſdvd sk irhz eacf Ťara u Kvrhpa, irkardjuČa stdvhvk a odfkČuČa trko`hvk, `hi kvrhpsia eacf,
adih ufjktoaĆia azrdſdjoaja h` dfkraĆihl, phstdjk smvdČko idh fhČoh srk`stvh prhpdldo`k.
@rkvok iucturk Ao`ajk, Iaok a Jdpdod u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u `hbavdju ohva zdfdm zbhl `h`ard
sd iucturhf Zdpd`d, `hi sk prkfd ojhj u drdpsihf svajktu, Pursihj a Ardou azrdſdvd jdi htphr
zbhl ihchoazdthrsihl h`ohsd vkcaiam sacd.
^htrhŤdĆia fkotdcatkt phtphfhlout rkicdfhf a odfktouthf vazajhf okhlrdoaĆkohl
kihohfsihl prhspdratktd hvh`a h vkcaik kihohfsik irazk. Hod sk h`rdſdvd a od phcju iucturk
a ufjktohsta, phskboh u thtdcatdroaf `rſdvdfd l`jk hcdza h ohvhl zdfdmd odgahodcazfd a svk
htvhrkoajam tkſoja zd ohvaf phrktihf u svajktu. Dih su oduid a tkmoaid u fkĔurdtohf pkrah`u
back u scuſba jdĆdojd kihohfsihl, `ruŤtvkohl a vhjohl phtkogajdcd odgajd, iucturd a ufjktohst
lrd`k ruŤtvh a h`rkĔuju ojklhvu vazaju bu`uČohsta. Iucturod strajkfcjkojd fkĔurdtohl pkrah`d
su azrdz suprhstdvcjkoam phlck`d od prhŤchst, sd`dŤojhst a bu`uČohst Ćajd jk okphsrk`od
phscjk`agd @rula svjktsia rdt.
7/21/2019 Nauka, tehnika, kultura, umjetnost i sport između dva svjetska rata (1918-1939)
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;;
CAPKRDP[RD
Iojalk
4. Do`rkj FatrhvaČ, Urkfk oktrpkcjavam ‗ ^hcataĆid asthrajd vkcaiam `rſdvd Kvrhpk 4141-
4171, Wrpsid iojaſkvod zd`ruld, Bkhlrd`, 41<0.
2. Bhrd IrdlujkvaČ, Wd hcafpajsiam bhracaŤtd, Zdvh` zd u`ſbkoaik a odstdvod srk`stvd,
Bkhlrd` 41=0.
7. Gdrhcaok E. \drk ‗ I. F. ^doaiidr ‗ J. F. Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd ‗ Iucturoa a
oduĆoa rdzvhj, Wvkzdi UA / iojald A, Odprajk`, Zdlrkb, 4151.
0. Gdrhcaok E. \drk ‗ I. F. ^doaiidr ‗ J. F. R hfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd ‗ Iucturoa a
oduĆoa rdzvhj, Wvkzdi UA / iojald AA, Odprajk`, Zdlrkb, 4151.
;. Gdrhcaok E. \drk ‗ I. F. ^doaiidr ‗ J. F. Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd ‗ Iucturoa a
oduĆoa rdzvhj, Wvkzdi UA / iojald AAA, Odprajk`, Zdlrkb, 4151.
5. Gdrhcaok E. \drk ‗ I. F. ^doaiidr ‗ J. F. Rhfkao, Masthrajd ĆhvjkĆdostvd ‗ Iucturoa a
oduĆoa rdzvhj, Wvkzdi UA / iojald AU, Odprajk`, Zdlrkb, 4151.
<. ăk`hfar ^hphv, H` Ukrsdjd `h @dogald, Ohcat, Bkhlrd`, 41<5.
=. @kjva` D. Iui, Asthrajd eacfd 4, Gcah, Bkhlrd` 2>>;.
1. @ſho F. Rhbkrts, Kvrhpd 4==>-410;, Gcah, Bkhlrd`, 2>>2.
4>. Koragh Grdvktth, hvajkst 45: rva svjktsia rdt a phscajkrdtod Kurhpd (4140-4175), Jutdroja
cast, Zdlrkb 2>>=.
44. Ek Bdjh Dcvdrks ‗ Jucah Lac ^kgmdrrhfdo, Asthrajd Ůpdoajk, Gcah, Bkhlrd` 2>>7.
42. Lkheerky Bdrrdgchulm ‗ Ragmdr` Hvkry, Pmk Pafks ^hvajkst svajktd, MKOD GHF,
Zdlrkb, 2>>2.
47. M. \. Jdosho, Asthrajd ufjktohsta, ARH ^rhsvktd, Bkhlrd`, 41=<.
40. Mkory Bkfehr` ^dris, Asthrajd Wjk`aojkoam DfkraĆiam @rſdvd, Rd`, Bkhlrd`, 41=;.
4;. Fdrajdo BhrŤaČ, Alrk soajkld a ck`d, Odicd`d WPAM, Zdlrkb, 2>>2.45. Fdrajdo BhrŤaČ, H` Dtkok `h Dtkok, Odicd`d WPAM, Zdlrkb, 2>>0.
4<. ^dvck Facjuihv ‗ Ů. Wkojhbhs ‗ C. Kzkofdo, Asthrajd Rusajk, Odrh`od iucturd, Bkhlrd`
4171.
4=. ^macap Jkoiaos, Asthrajd Wjk`aojkoam @rſdvd, Eacap UaŤojaČ, Bkhlr d`, 2>>2.
41. Pvrtih ăubkcaČ, Iojaſkvohst, dohrdfd, Zdlrkb 4155.
2>. [ce @arcfkakr, ^hvajkst OjkfdĆik, BDRBDP, ZDLRKB 4111.
7/21/2019 Nauka, tehnika, kultura, umjetnost i sport između dva svjetska rata (1918-1939)
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Kogaichpk`ajk
HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 4. Uui Idrd`ſaČ, Bkhlrd`, 41<4.
HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 2. Uui Idrd`ſaČ, Bkhlrd`, 41<2.
HpŤtd kogaichpk`ajd CDRH[WWK, Phf 7. Uui Idrd`ſaČ, Bkhlrd`, 41<7.
Aotkrokt
mttp://www.drtfhvkfkots.gh.ui/afprkssahoasf.mtf
mttp://www.eaed.ghf/thurodfkots/drgmavk/fkoshcyfpag/bkrcao4175/ao`kx.mtfc
mttp://www.eaed.ghf/thurodfkots/drgmavk/whrc`gup/uruludy417>/ao`kx.mtfc
mttp://www.eaed.ghf/thurodfkots/drgmavk/whrc`gup/atdcy4170/ao`kx.mtfc
mttp://www.eaed.ghf/thurodfkots/drgmavk/whrc`gup/erdogk417=/ao`kx.mtfc
mttp://www.hxehr`ascdfagstu`aks.ghf/drtagck/hpr/t42;/k4=418Xma67&Xphs64
mttps://tspdgk.cabrdry.uthrhoth.gd/gat`/mhcthre/<.0.mtfc
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