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Natya ShastraFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search

The 2,000 year old Sanskrit drama tradition Kutiyattam, performed in Kerala, southern India, strictly follows the Nātya Shastra.[1]. Guru Nātyāchārya Māni Mādhava Chākyār as Ravana in Bhasa's play Abhiṣeka NatakaThe Natya Shastra (Sanskrit: Nātyaśāstra ना�ट्य शा�स्त्र) is an ancient Indian treatise on the performing arts, encompassing theatre, dance and music. It was written at an uncertain date in classical India and is traditionally attributed to the Sage Bharata.The Natya Shastra is incredibly wide in its scope. While it primarily deals with stagecraft, it has come to influence music, classical Indian dance, and literature as well. It covers stage design, music, dance, makeup, and virtually every other aspect of stagecraft. It is very important to the history of Indian classical music because it is the only text which gives such detail about the music and instruments of the period. Thus, an argument can be made that the Natya Shastra is the foundation of the fine arts in India. The most authoritative commentary on the Natya Shastra is Abhinavabharati by Abhinava Gupta.

Contents

1 Date and authorship

o 1.1 Title and setting 2 Performance Art Theory

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o 2.1 Rasa 3 Music 4 Impact 5 List of chapters 6 See also 7 References 8 Other books and references

9 External links Date and authorship

The text, which now contains 6000 slokas, is attributed to the muni (sage) Bharata and is believed to have been written during the period between 200 BC and 200 AD. The Natya Shastra is based upon the much older Gandharva Veda (appendix to Sama Veda) which contained 36000 slokas [2]. Unfortunately there are no surviving copies of the Natya Veda. Though many scholars believe most slokas were transmitted only through the oral tradition, there are scholars who believe that it may have been written by various authors at different times.The document is difficult to date and Bharata's historicity has also been doubted, some authors suggesting that it may be the work of several persons. However, Kapila Vatsyayan has argued[3] that based on the unity of the text, and the many instances of coherent reference of later chapters from earlier text, the composition is likely that of a single person. Whether his/her name really was Bharata is open to question [3]: near the end of the text we have the verse: "Since he alone is the leader of the performance, taking on many roles, he is called Bharata" (35.91[4]), indicating that Bharata may be a generic name. It has been suggested that Bharata is an acronym for the three syllables: bha for bhāva (mood), rā for rāga (melodic framework), and ta for tāla (rhythm). However, in traditional usage Bharata has been iconified as muni or sage, and the work is strongly associated with this personage.

Title and setting

Written in Sanskrit, the text consists of 6,000 sutras, or verse stanzas, incorporated in 36 chapters. Some passages are composed in a prose form.The title can be loosely translated as A compendium of Theatre or a A Manual of Dramatic Arts. Nātya, or nāṭaka means Dramatic Arts. In contemporary usage, this word does not include dance or music, but etymologically the root naṭ refers to "dance".The discourse is set in a frame where a number of munis approach Bharata, asking him about nāṭyaveda (lit. nāṭya=drama,performance; veda=knowledge). The answer to this question comprises the rest of the book, which is thus loosely a dialogue. Bharata says that all this knowledge is due to Brahma. At one point he mentions that he has a hundred "sons" who will spread this knowledge, which suggests that Bharata may have had a number of disciples whom he trained.The creation by Brahma of natyaveda is associated with an egalitarian myth called the fifth veda: since the four vedas, also created by Brahma, were not to be studied by women and lower castes, he created this fifth veda, the art of drama, to be practiced by everyone[5].

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Performance Art Theory

Classical Indian dance:the inheritor of the Natya ShastraThe Natya Shastra ranges widely in scope, from issues of literary construction, to the structure of the stage or mandapa, to a detailed analysis of musical scales and movements (murchhanas), to an analysis of dance forms that considers several categories of body movements, and their impacts on the viewer.Bharata describes 15 types of drama ranging from one to ten acts. The principles for stage design are laid down in some detail. Individual chapters deal with aspects such as makeup, costume, acting, directing, etc. A large section deals with meanings conveyed by the performance (bhavas) get particular emphasis, leading to a broad theory of aesthetics (rasas).Four kinds of abhinaya (acting, or histrionics) are described - that by body part motions (angika), that by speech (vAchika), that by costumes and makeup (AhArya), and the highest mode, by means of internal emotions, expressed through minute movements of the lips, eyebrows, ear, etc. (sAttvika)[5].

Rasa Main article: Rasa (aesthetics)

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"Yakshagana artists expressing emotions on stage"The Nātyashāstra delineates a detailed theory of drama comparable to the Poetics of Aristotle. Bharata refers to bhavas, the imitations of emotions that the actors perform, and the rasas (emotional responses) that they inspire in the audience. He argues that there are eight principal rasas: love, pity, anger, disgust, heroism, awe, terror and comedy, and that plays should mix different rasas but be dominated by one.Each rasa experienced by the audience is associated with a specific bhava portrayed on stage. For example, in order for the audience to experience srngara (the 'erotic' rasa), the playwright, actors and musician work together to portray the bhava called rati (love).

Music

After the Samaveda that dealt with ritual utterances of the Vedas, the Natyashastra is the first major text that deals with music at length. It is considered the defining treatise of Indian Classical Music until the 13th century, when the stream bifurcated into Hindustani classical music in North India and Pakistan, and Carnatic classical music in South India.While much of the discussion of music in the Natyashastra focuses on musical instruments, it also emphasizes several theoretical aspects that remained fundamental to Indian music:1. Establishment of Shadja as the first, defining note of the scale or grama. The word Shadja (षड्ज) means 'giving birth to six', and refers to the fact that once this note (often referred to as "sa" and notated S) is fixed, the placement of other notes in the scale is determined.2. Principle of Consonance: Consists of two principles:a. The first principle states that there exists a fundamental note in the musical scale which is Avinashi (अवि ना�शा�) and Avilopi (अवि लो�पी�) that is, the note is ever-present and unchanging.

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b. The second principle, often treated as law, states that there exists a natural consonance between notes; the best between Shadja and Tar Shadja, the next best between Shadja and Pancham.3. The Natyashastra also suggest the notion of musical modes or jatis which are the origin of the notion of the modern melodic structures known as ragas. Their role in invoking emotions are emphasized; thus compositions emphasizing the notes gandhara or rishabha are said to be related to tragedy (karuna rasa) whereas rishabha is to be emphasized for evoking heroism (vIra rasa). Jatis are elaborated in greater detail in the text Dattilam, composed around the same time as the Natyashastra.To prove the utility of srutis in music, Bharata Muni while explaining Shadja grama and Madhyam grama in chapter 28 and 30 of Bharat Natya Shastra expounded the Sarana Chatushtai – the only experiment according to Bharata to obtain the correct physical configuration of Śruti Swara arrangement to Shadja Grama notes on any musical instrument (Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni Sa,corresponding to 4-3-2-4-4-3-2 totalling 22 srutis in a Saptak). Sarana Chatushtai in recent centuries has been demonstrated and proven by Avinash Balkrishna Patwardhan in the year 1998 on flute as well as on sitar (this has also helped him develop a methodology for producing perfectly tuned flutes for different thatas). This is the only known correct interpretation of the Bharata Muni's Sarana Chatushtai after Bharata Muni himself and probably Sharang Dev.The Natyashastra also suggests several aspects of musical performance, particularly its application to vocal, instrumental and orchestral compositions. It also deals with the rasas and bhavas that may be evoked by music.

Impact

Natyashastra remained an important text in the fine arts for many centuries; so much so that it is sometimes referred to as the fifth veda. Much of the terminology and structure of Indian classical music and Indian classical dance were defined by it. Many commentaries have expanded the scope of the Natya Shastra; most importantly we may include Matanga's Brihaddesi (5th-7th c.), Abhinavagupta's Abhinavabharati (which unifies some of the divergent structures that had emerged in the intervening years, and outlines a theory of artistic analysis) and Sharngadeva's Sangita Ratnakara (13th c. work that unifies the raga structure in music)[6]. The analysis of body forms and movements also influenced sculpture and the other arts in subsequent centuries[3]. The structures of music outlined in the Natya Shastra retain their influence even today, as seen in the seminal work Hindustani Sangeetha Padhathi[7] by Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande from the early 20th century. The theory of rasa described in the text has also been a major influence on modern Indian cinema, particularly Bollywood,[8] in addition to Bengali films such as The Apu Trilogy, which itself has had a major influence on world cinema.[9]

List of chapters Origin of drama Description of the playhouse Puja (offering) to the Gods of the stage Description of the karana dance Preliminaries of a play

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Sentiments (rasas) Emotional and other states Gestures of minor limbs Gestures of hands Gestures of other limbs Cari movements Different gaits Zones and local usages Rules of prosody Metrical patterns Diction of a play Rules on the use of languages Modes of address and intonation Ten kinds of play Limbs of the segments Styles Costumes and make-up Harmonious performance Dealings with courtezans Varied performances Success in dramatic performances Instrumental music Stringed instruments Time measure Dhruva songs Covered instruments Types of character Distribution of roles Descent of drama on the Earth Indian classical dance Navarasa Nātyakalpadrumam Sanskrit Literature Natya Yoga

References1. ̂ Māni Mādhava Chākyār (1996). Nātyakalpadrumam. Sangeet Natak Akademi,

New Delhi.p.6 2. ̂ Ghosh, Manomohan (2002). Natyasastra. ISBN 81-7080-076-5 page = 2. 3. ^ a b c Bharata: The Natyasastra (1996). Kapila Vatsyayan. Sahitya Akademi, New

Delhi.p.6 4. ̂ Manmohan Ghosh, ed. (1950). Natyashastra,. Asiatic Society,. See introduction

p. xxvi for discussion of dates 5. ^ a b Dr. Asawari Bhat. "Glimpses of Natyashastra". course notes, IIT Mumbai.

http://www.hss.iitb.ac.in/courses/HS450/notes2.htm. 6. ̂ Musical Nirvana - Introduction to Indian Classical Music - The Origin

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7. ̂ Hindustani Sangeetha Padhathi (4 volumes, Marathi) (1909-1932). Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande. Sangeet Karyalaya (1990 reprint).

8. ̂ Matthew Jones (January 2010), "Bollywood, Rasa and Indian Cinema: Misconceptions, Meanings and Millionaire", Visual Anthropology 23 (1): 33–43

9. ̂ Cooper, Darius (2000), The Cinema of Satyajit Ray: Between Tradition and Modernity, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–4, ISBN 0521629802 + Natya Sastra,Complete English Translation, is Published by Sri Satguru Publications/Indian Books Centre,Delhi.India,in Raga Nrtya Series.

Other books and references Nanyadev. Bharat Bhashya. Khairagarh Edition. Chākyār, Māni Mādhava . Nātyakalpadrumam, Sangeet Natak Academi, New

Delhi, 1975 Brahaspati, Dr. K C Dev. Bharat ka Sangeet Siddhant.

Culture of IndiaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

A Kathakali performer as Krishna. One the eight major Indian classical dances, Kathakali is more than 1,500 years old and its theme is heavily influenced by the Puranas.[1]

The culture of India has been shaped not only by its long history, unique geography and diverse demography, but also by its ancient heritages, which were formed during the Indus Valley Civilization and evolved further during the Vedic age, rise and decline of Buddhism, the Golden age, invasions from Central Asia, European colonization and the rise of Indian nationalism.The languages, religions, dance, music, architecture and its customs differ from place to place within the country, but nevertheless possess a commonality. The culture of India is an amalgamation of diverse sub-cultures spread all over the country and traditions that are several millennia old.

Contents1 Religion 2 Society

2.1 Overview 2.2 Family 2.3 Animals 2.4 Namaste 2.5 Festivals

3 Cuisine 4 Clothing 5 Literature

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5.1 History 5.2 Poetry 5.3 Epics

6 Performing arts 6.1 Music 6.2 Dance 6.3 Drama and theater

7 Visual arts 7.1 Painting 7.2 Sculpture 7.3 Architecture

8 Recreation and sports 9 Popular media

9.1 Television 9.2 Cinema

10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links

Religion

Close-up of a statue depicting Maitreya at the Thikse Monastery in Ladakh, India. South Asia is the birthplace of Dharmic religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism.[2]

Main articles: Religion in India and Indian religionsIndia is the birth place of Dharmic religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.[3] Dharmic religions, also known as Indian religions, are a major form of world religions next to the Abrahamic ones. Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are the world's third- and fourth-largest religions respectively, with around 1.4 billion followers altogether.India is one of the most religiously diverse nations in the world, with some of the most deeply religious societies and cultures. Religion still plays a central and definitive role in the life of most of its people.The religion of 80% of the people is Hinduism. Islam is practiced by around 13% of all Indians.[4] Sikhism, Jainism and especially Buddhism are influential not only in India but across the world. Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Judaism and the Bahá'í Faith are also influential but their numbers are smaller. Despite the strong role of religion in Indian life, atheism and agnostics also have visible influence along with a self-ascribed tolerance to other people.

Society: Overview

According to Eugene M. Makar, traditional Indian culture is defined by relatively strict social hierarchy. He also mentions that from an early age, children are reminded of their roles and places in society.[5] This is reinforced by the fact that many believe gods and

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spirits have an integral and functional role in determining their life.[5] Several differences such as religion divide the culture.[5] However, a far more powerful division is the traditional Hindu bifurcation into non-polluting and polluting occupations.[5] Strict social taboos have governed these groups for thousands of years.[5] In recent years, particularly in cities, some of these lines have blurred and sometimes even disappeared.[5] The Nuclear family is becoming central to Indian culture. Important family relations extend as far as gotra, the mainly patrilinear lineage or clan assigned to a Hindu at birth.[5] In rural areas & sometimes in urban areas as well, it is common that three or four generations of the family live under the same roof.[5] The patriarch often resolves family issues.[5]

Among developing countries, India has low levels of occupational and geographic mobility. People choose same occupations as their parents and rarely move geographically in the country.[6] During the nationalist movement, pretentious behaviour was something to be avoided. Egalitarian behaviour and social service were promoted while nonessential spending was disliked and spending money for ‘showing off’ was deemed a vice. This image continues in politics with many politicians wearing simple looking / traditionally rural clothes, such as the traditional 'kurta -pyjama' and the 'Gandhi topi'.

Family

Main articles: Hindu joint family, Arranged marriage in India, and Women in India

A bride during a traditional Punjabi Hindu wedding ceremony.Family plays a big role in the Indian culture. India for ages has had a prevailing tradition of the joint family system. It’s a system under which even extended members of a family like one’s parents, children, the children’s spouses and their offspring, etc. live together. The elder-most, usually the male member is the head in the joint Indian family system who makes all important decisions and rules, whereas other family members abide by it.Arranged marriages have the tradition in Indian society for centuries. Even today, overwhelming majority of Indians have their marriages planned by their parents and other respected family-members, with the consent of the bride and groom.[7] Arranged matches were made after taking into account factors such as age, height, personal values and tastes, the backgrounds of their families (wealth, social standing) and their castes and the astrological compatibility of the couples' horoscopes.In India, the marriage is thought to be for life[8], and the divorce rate is extremely low — 1.1% compared with about 50% in the United States.[9] The arranged marriages generally have a much lower divorce rate. The divorce rates have risen significantly in recent years:"Opinion is divided over what the phenomenon means: for traditionalists the rising numbers portend the breakdown of society while, for some modernists, they speak of a healthy new empowerment for women."[10]

Although child marriage was outlawed in 1860, it is continued to be practiced in some rural parts of India.[11] According to UNICEF’s “State of the World’s Children-2009” report, 47% of India's women aged 20–24 were married before the legal age of 18, with 56% in rural areas.[12] The report also showed that 40% of the world's child marriages occur in India.[13]

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Indian names are based on a variety of systems and naming conventions, which vary from region to region. Names are also influenced by religion and caste and may come from religion or epics. India's population speaks a wide variety of languages.Although women and men are equal before the law and the trend toward gender equality has been noticeable, women and men still occupy distinct functions in Indian society.Woman's role in the society is often to perform household works and pro bono community work[5]. This low rate of participation has ideological and historical reasons. Women and women's issues appear only 7-14% of the time in news programs.[5] In most Indian families, women do not own any property in their own names, and do not get a share of parental property.[14] Due to weak enforcement of laws protecting them, women continue to have little access to land and property.[15] In many families, especially rural ones, the girls and women face nutritional discrimination within the family, and are anaemic and malnourished.[14] They still lag behind men in terms of income and job status. Traditional Hindu art, such as Rangoli (or Kolam), is very popular among Indian women. Popular and influential woman's magazines include Femina, Grihshobha and Woman's Era', 'Savvy.

Animals

Cows depicted in the decorated goppuram of the Kapaleeshwarar temple in ChennaiSee also: Wildlife of India, Animal husbandry in India, and Cattle in religionThe varied and rich wildlife of India has had a profound impact on the region's popular culture. Common name for wilderness in India is Jungle which was adopted by the British colonialists to the English language. The word has been also made famous in The Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling. India's wildlife has been the subject of numerous other tales and fables such as the Panchatantra and the Jataka tales.[16]

In Hinduism, the cow is regarded as a symbol of ahimsa (non-violence), mother goddess and bringer of good fortune and wealth.[17] For this reason, cows are revered in Hindu culture and feeding a cow is that is seen as an act of worship.[18]

Namaste

Namaste, Namaskar or Namaskaram or Vannakam is a common spoken greeting or salutation in the Indian subcontinent. Namaskar is considered a slightly more formal version than namaste but both express deep respect. It is commonly used in India and Nepal by Hindus, Jains and Buddhists, and many continue to use this outside the Indian subcontinent. In Indian and Nepali culture, the word is spoken at the beginning of written or verbal communication. However, the same hands folded gesture is made usually wordlessly upon departure. In yoga, namaste is said to mean "The light in me honors the light in you," as spoken by both the yoga instructor and yoga students.Taken literally, it means "I bow to you". The word is derived from Sanskrit (namas): to bow, obeisance, reverential salutation, and respect and (te): "to you".When spoken to another person, it is commonly accompanied by a slight bow made with hands pressed together, palms touching and fingers pointed upwards, in front of the chest. The gesture can also be performed wordlessly or calling on another god E.g.: "Jai shri Krishna" and carry the same meaning.

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Dipawali, a festival of lights, is celebrated by Hindus across India by lighting diyas and making rangolis.

Festivals

Main article: Festivals in IndiaIndia, being a multi-cultural and multi-religious society, celebrates holidays and festivals of various religions. The three national holidays in India, the Independence Day, the Republic Day and the Gandhi Jayanti, are celebrated with zeal and enthusiasm across India. In addition, many states and regions have local festivals depending on prevalent religious and linguistic demographics. Popular religious festivals include the Hindu festivals of Navratri Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Durga puja, Holi, Rakshabandhan and Dussehra. Several harvest festivals, such as Sankranthi, Pongal and Onam,"Nuakhai" are also fairly popular. Certain festivals in India are celebrated by multiple religions. Notable examples include Diwali which celebrated by Hindus, Sikhs and Jains and Buddh Purnima which is celebrated by Buddhists and Hindus. Islamic festivals, such Eid ul-Fitr, Eid al-Adha and Ramadan, are celebrated by Muslims across India. Adding colors to the culture of India, the Dree Festival is one of the tribal festivals of India celebrated by the Apatanis of the Ziro valley of Arunachal Pradesh, which is the easternmost state of this country.

Cuisine

Main article: Cuisine of India

A variety of Indian curries and vegetable dishes.The multiple families of Indian cuisine are characterized by their sophisticated and subtle use of many spices and herbs. Each family of this cuisine is characterized by a wide assortment of dishes and cooking techniques. Though a significant portion of Indian food is vegetarian, many traditional Indian dishes also include chicken, goat, lamb, fish, and other meats.Food is an important part of Indian culture, playing a role in everyday life as well as in festivals. Indian cuisine varies from region to region, reflecting the varied demographics of the ethnically diverse subcontinent. Generally, Indian cuisine can be split into five categories: North, South, East,West Indian and North-eastern India.Despite this diversity, some unifying threads emerge. Varied uses of spices are an integral part of food preparation, and are used to enhance the flavor of a dish and create unique flavors and aromas. Cuisine across India has also been influenced by various cultural groups that entered India throughout history, such as the Persians, Mughals, and European colonists. Though the tandoor originated in Central Asia, Indian tandoori dishes, such as chicken tikka made with Indian ingredients, enjoy widespread popularity.[19]

Indian cuisine is one of the most popular cuisines across the globe.[20] Historically, Indian spices and herbs were one of the most sought after trade commodities. The spice trade

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between India and Europe led to the rise and dominance of Arab traders to such an extent that European explorers, such as Vasco da Gama and Christopher Columbus, set out to find new trade routes with India leading to the Age of Discovery.[21] The popularity of curry, which originated in India, across Asia has often led to the dish being labeled as the "pan-Asian" dish.[22]

Clothing

A girl from Tripura sports a bindi while preparing to take part in a traditional dance festival.Traditional Indian clothing for women are the saris and also Ghaghra Cholis (Lehengas). For men, traditional clothes are the Dhoti/pancha/veshti or Kurta. Delhi is considered to be India's fashion capital, housing the annual Fashion weeks. In some village parts of India, traditional clothing mostly will be worn. Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Ahmedabad, and Pune are all places for people who like to shop. In southern India the men wear long, white sheets of cloth called dhoti in English and in Tamil. Over the dhoti, men wear shirts, t-shirts, or anything else. Women wear a sari, a long sheet of colourful cloth with patterns. This is draped over a simple or fancy blouse. This is worn by young ladies and woman. Little girls wear a pavada. A pavada is a long skirt worn under a blouse. Both are often gaily patterned. Bindi is part of the women's make-up. Traditionally, the red bindi (or sindhur) was worn only by the married Hindu women, but now it has become a part of women's fashion. A bindi is also worn by some as their third eye. It sees what the others eyes can't and protect your brain from the outside and the sun.[23] Indo-western clothing is the fusion of Western and Subcontinental fashion. Churidar, Dupatta, Gamchha, Kurta, Mundum Neriyathum, Sherwani, uttariya are among

Literature

Oh khidda.

History

Main article: Indian literature

Rabindranath Tagore, Asia's first Nobel laureate.[24]

The earliest works of Indian literature were orally transmitted[citation needed]. Tamil literature begins with the sangam literature a collection of sacred hymns dating to the period 10000BC–1200 BCE[citation needed] . The Tamil epics tolkappiyam and thirukural appeared towards the end of the first millennium BCE[citation needed]. Classical Tamil literature succeeded well in the first few centuries of the first millennium CE[citation needed] .In the medieval period, literature in Kannada and Telugu appears in the 9th and 10th and 11th centuries respectively,[25] followed by the first Malayalam works in the 12th century. During this time, literature in the Tamil, Bengali, Marathi, and various dialects of Hindi, and Urdu began to appear as well.

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Some of the most important authors from India are Rabindranath Tagore, Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar', Subramania Barathi Kuvempu, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Michael Madhusudan Dutt, Munshi Premchand, Muhammad Iqbal, Devaki Nandan Khatri became well known. In contemporary India, among the writers who have received critical acclaim are: Girish Karnad, Agyeya, Nirmal Verma, Kamleshwar, Vaikom Muhammad Basheer, Indira Goswami, Mahasweta Devi, Amrita Pritam, Maasti Venkatesh Ayengar, Qurratulain Hyder and Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai and others have received critical acclaim.In contemporary Indian literature, there are two major literary awards; these are the Sahitya Akademi Fellowship and the Jnanpith Award. Seven Jnanpith awards each have been awarded in Kannada, six in Hindi, five in Bengali, four in Malayalam, three each in and Marathi, Gujarati, Urdu and Oriya.[26]

Poetry

Main article: Indian poetry

Illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra. With more than 74,000 verses, long prose passages, and about 1.8 million words in total, the Mahābhārata is one of the longest epic poems in the world.India has strong traditions of poetry ever since the Rigveda, as well as prose compositions. Poetry is often closely related to musical traditions, and much of poetry can be attributed to religious movements. Writers and philosophers were often also skilled poets. In modern times, poetry has served as an important non-violent tool of nationalism during the Indian freedom movement. A famous modern example of this tradition can be found in such figures as Rabindranath Tagore, Kuvempu and K. S. Narasimhaswamy in modern times and poets such as Basava (vachanas) , Kabir and Purandaradasa (padas and devaranamas) in medieval times, as well as the epics of ancient times. Two examples of poetry from Tagore's Gitanjali serve as the national anthems of both India and Bangladesh.

Epics

The Ramayana and Mahabharata are the oldest preserved and still well-known epics of India; some of their versions have been adopted as the epics of Southeast Asian countries like Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. In addition, there are five epics in the classical Tamil language are Silappadhikaram, Manimegalai, Civaka Cintamani, Valaiyapathi, Kundalakesi.Other regional variations of them as well as unrelated epics include the Tamil Kamba Ramayanam, in Kannada, the Pampa Bharata by Adikavi Pampa, Torave Ramayana by Kumara Valmiki and Karnata Bharata Katha Manjari by Kumaravyasa, Hindi Ramacharitamanasa, Malayalam Adhyathmaramayanam.

Performing arts

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Music

Panchavadyam temple music in Kerala.Main article: Music of IndiaThe music of India includes multiples varieties of religious, folk, popular, pop, and classical music. The oldest preserved examples of Indian music are the melodies of the Samaveda that are still sung in certain Vedic Śrauta sacrifices. India's classical music tradition is heavily influenced by Hindu texts. It includes two distinct styles: Carnatic and Hindustani music. It is noted for the use of several Raga, melodic modes. it has a history spanning millennia and it was developed over several eras. It remains instrumental to the religious inspiration, cultural expression and pure entertainment.Purandaradasa is considered the "father of carnatic music" (Karnataka sangeeta pitamaha).[27][28][29] He concluded his songs with a salutation to Lord Purandara Vittala and is believed to have composed as many as 475,000[30] songs in the Kannada language. However, only about 1000 are known today.[27][31]

Dance

Main article: Indian dance

Odissi dancer in front of the Konark Sun Temple.Indian dance too has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known folk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of Jharkhand and Orissa, the ghoomar of Rajasthan, the dandiya and garba of Gujarat, the Yakshagana of Karnataka and lavani of Maharashtra and Dekhnni of Goa. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of the state of Orissa and the sattriya of Assam.[32][33]

Kalarippayattu or Kalari for short is considered one of the world's oldest martial arts. It is preserved in texts such as the Mallapurana. Kalari and other later formed martial arts have been assumed by some to have traveled to China, like Buddhism, and eventually developing into Kung-fu. Other later martial arts are Gatka, Pehlwani and Malla-yuddha. There have been many great proud.

Drama and theater

Natyacarya Mani Madhava Chakyar as Ravana in Bhasa's Abhiṣeka Nataka Kutiyattam - one of the oldest surviving drama tradition of the world.Main article: Theatre in IndiaIndian drama and theater has a long history alongside its music and dance. Kalidasa's plays like Shakuntala and Meghadoota are some of the older plays, following those of Bhasa. One of the oldest surviving theatre tradition of the world is the 2000 year old Kutiyattam of Kerala. It strictly follows the Natya Shastra [34] . The natak of Bhasa are very popular in this art form. Nātyāchārya (late) Padma Shri Māni Mādhava Chākyār- the

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unrivaled maestro of this art form and Abhinaya, revived the age old drama tradition from extinction. He was known for mastery of Rasa Abhinaya. He started to perform the Kalidasa plays like Abhijñānaśākuntala, Vikramorvaśīya and Mālavikāgnimitra; Bhasa's Swapnavāsavadatta and Pancharātra; Harsha's Nagananda in Kutiyattam form[35][36]

The tradition of folk theater is popular in most linguistic regions of India. In addition, there is a rich tradition of puppet theater in rural India, going back to at least the second century BCE. (It is mentioned in Patanjali's commentary on Panini). Group Theater is also thriving in the cities, initiated by the likes of Gubbi Veeranna,[37] Utpal Dutt, Khwaja Ahmad Abbas, K. V. Subbanna and still maintained by groups like Nandikar, Ninasam and Prithvi Theatre.

Visual arts

Main article: Indian art

Painting

Main article: Indian painting

The Jataka tales from Ajanta Caves.The earliest Indian paintings were the rock paintings of pre-historic times, the petroglyphs as found in places like Bhimbetka, some of which go back to the Stone Age. Ancient texts outline theories of darragh and anecdotal accounts suggesting that it was common for households to paint their doorways or indoor rooms where guests resided.Cave paintings from Ajanta, Bagh, Ellora and Sittanavasal and temple paintings testify to a love of naturalism. Most early and medieval art in India is Hindu, Buddhist or Jain. A freshly made coloured flour design (Rangoli) is still a common sight outside the doorstep of many (mostly South Indian) Indian homes. Raja Ravi Varma is one the classical painters from medieval India.Madhubani painting, Mysore painting, Rajput painting, Tanjore painting, Mughal painting are some notable Genres of Indian Art; while Nandalal Bose, M. F. Husain, S. H. Raza, Geeta Vadhera, Jamini Roy and B.Venkatappa[38] are some modern painters. Among the present day artists, Atul Dodiya, Bose Krishnamacnahri, Devajyoti Ray and Shibu Natesan represent a new era of Indian art where global art shows direct amalgamation with Indian classical styles. These recent artists have acquired international recognition. Jehangir Art Gallery, Mumbai, Mysore Palace has on display a few good Indian paintings.

Sculpture

Main article: Sculpture in India

Hindu sculptures at the famous Khajuraho temple in Madhya Pradesh.The first sculptures in India date back to the Indus Valley civilization, where stone and bronze figures have been discovered. Later, as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism developed further, India produced some extremely intricate bronzes as well as temple

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carvings. Some huge shrines, such as the one at Ellora were not constructed by using blocks but carved out of solid rock.Sculptures produced in the northwest, in stucco, schist, or clay, display a very strong blend of Indian and Classical Hellenistic or possibly even Greco-Roman influence. The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved almost simultaneously. During the Gupta period (4th to 6th century) sculpture reached a very high standard in execution and delicacy in modeling. These styles and others elsewhere in India evolved leading to classical Indian art that contributed to Buddhist and Hindu sculpture throughout Southeast Central and East Asia.

Architecture

Main article: Indian architecture

The Umaid Bhawan Palace in Rajasthan, one of the largest private residences in the world.[39]

Indian architecture encompasses a multitude of expressions over space and time, constantly absorbing new ideas. The result is an evolving range of architectural production that nonetheless retains a certain amount of continuity across history. Some of its earliest production are found in the Indus Valley Civilization (2600-1900 BCE) which is characterised by well planned cities and houses. Religion and kingship do not seem to have played an important role in the planning and layout of these towns.During the period of the Maurya and Gupta empires and their successors, several Buddhist architectural complexes, such as the caves of Ajanta and Ellora and the monumental Sanchi Stupa were built. Later on, South India produced several Hindu temples like Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura, Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur, the Sun Temple, Konark, Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam, and the Buddha stupa (Chinna Lanja dibba and Vikramarka kota dibba) at Bhattiprolu. Angkor Wat, Borobudur and other Buddhist and Hindu temples indicate strong Indian influence on South East Asian architecture, as they are built in styles almost identical to traditional Indian religious buildings.

Akshardham in Delhi the largest Hindu temple in the world.The traditional system of Vaastu Shastra serves as India's version of Feng Shui, influencing town planning, architecture, and ergonomics. It is unclear which system is older, but they contain certain similarities. Feng Shui is more commonly used throughout the world. Though Vastu is conceptually similar to Feng Shui in that it also tries to harmonize the flow of energy, (also called life-force or Prana in Sanskrit and Chi/Ki in Chinese/Japanese), through the house, it differs in the details, such as the exact directions in which various objects, rooms, materials, etc. are to be placed.With the advent of Islamic influence from the west, Indian architecture was adapted to allow the traditions of the new religion. Fatehpur Sikri, Taj Mahal, Gol Gumbaz, Qutub Minar, Red Fort of Delhi are creations of this era, and are often used as the stereotypical symbols of India. The colonial rule of the British Empire saw the development of Indo-

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Saracenic style, and mixing of several other styles, such as European Gothic. The Victoria Memorial or the Victoria Terminus are notable examples.Indian architecture has influenced eastern and southeastern Asia, due to the spread of Buddhism. A number of Indian architectural features such as the temple mound or stupa, temple spire or sikhara, temple tower or pagoda and temple gate or torana, have become famous symbols of Asian culture, used extensively in East Asia and South East Asia. The central spire is also sometimes called a vimanam. The southern temple gate, or gopuram is noted for its intricacy and majesty.Contemporary Indian architecture is more cosmopolitan. Cities are extremely compact and densely populated. Mumbai's Nariman Point is famous for its Art Deco buildings. Recent creations such as the Lotus Temple, and the various modern urban developments of India like Chandigarh, are notable.

Recreation and sports

Main article: Sports in IndiaSee also: kabaddi and Indian chess

The annual snake boat race is performed during Onam Celebrations on the Pamba River at Aranmula near Pathanamthitta.In the area of recreation and sports India had evolved a number of games. The modern eastern martial arts originated as ancient games and martial arts in India, and it is believed by some that these games were transmitted to foreign countries, where they were further adapted and modernized. Traditional indigenous sports include kabaddi and gilli-danda, which are played in most parts of the country.A few games introduced during the British Raj have grown quite popular in India: field hockey, football (soccer) and especially cricket. Although field hockey is India's official national sport, cricket is by far the most popular sport not only in India, but the entire subcontinent, thriving recreationally and professionally. Cricket has even been used recently as a forum for diplomatic relations between India and Pakistan. The two nations' cricket teams face off annually and such contests are quite impassioned on both sides. Polo is also popular.Indoor and outdoor games like Chess, Snakes and Ladders, Playing cards, Carrom, Badminton are popular. Chess was invented in India.Games of strength and speed flourished in India. In ancient India stones were used for weights, marbles, and dice. Ancient Indians competed in chariot racing, archery, horsemanship, military tactics, wrestling, weight lifting, hunting, swimming and running races.

Popular media

Television

Main article: Television in IndiaSee also: List of Indian television stations

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Indian television started off in 1959 in New Delhi with tests for educational telecasts. [40]

Indian small screen programming started off in the mid 1970s. At that time there was only one national channel Doordarshan, which was government owned. 1982 saw revolution in TV programming in India, with the New Delhi Asian games, India saw the colour version of TV, that year. The Ramayana and Mahabharat were some among the popular television series produced. By the late 1980s more and more people started to own television sets. Though there was a single channel, television programming had reached saturation. Hence the government opened up another channel which had part national programming and part regional. This channel was known as DD 2 later DD Metro. Both channels were broadcasted terrestrially.In 1991, the government liberated its markets, opening them up to cable television. Since then, there has been a spurt in the number of channels available. Today, Indian silver screen is a huge industry by itself, and has thousands of programmes in all the states of India. The small screen has produced numerous celebrities of their own kind some even attaining national fame for themselves. TV soaps are extremely popular with housewives as well as working women, and even men of all kinds. Some small time actors have made it big in Bollywood. Indian TV now has many of the same channels as Western TV, including stations such as Cartoon Network, Nickelodeon, and MTV India.

Cinema

Main article: Cinema of India

Shooting of a Bollywood dance number.Bollywood is the informal name given to the popular Mumbai-based film industry in India. Bollywood and the other major cinematic hubs (in Bengali, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil, Punjabi and Telugu) constitute the broader Indian film industry, whose output is considered to be the largest in the world in terms of number of films produced and number of tickets sold.India has produced many critically acclaimed cinema-makers like K.Vishwanath, Bapu ,Jagdaman Grewal, Satyajit Ray, Ritwik Ghatak, Guru Dutt, K. Vishwanath, Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Girish Kasaravalli, Shekhar Kapoor, Hrishikesh Mukherjee, Shankar Nag, Girish Karnad, G. V. Iyer,etc. (See Indian film directors). With the opening up of the economy in the recent years and consequent exposure to world cinema, audience tastes have been changing. In addition, multiplexes have mushroomed in most cities, changing the revenue patterns.

The emergence of sankrit drama

It's difficult to determine the precise origins of Sanskrit drama. Fragments of the earliest known plays have been traced to the 1st century AD. However, gauging from the sophistication of those fragments, scholars believe that a living theatre tradition must have existed in India at an earlier date. Unfortunately, although the Indus Valley people left behind an enormous wealth of archaeological evidence, they give no signs of any theatrical activity. Dance and music seems to have been their mainstay, perhaps as part of their religious celebrations. A search of the Vedas, dating from approximately 1500-1000 BC yields no trace either, although a few texts

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are composed in short, elementary dialogue. And though rituals of the Vedic tradition have the potential of developing into theatre, once again, it's a dead end. The Ramayana and The Mahabharata The compositions of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana changed things. Written between 1000 BC and 100 BC, these Hindu magnum opus', unarguably the most comprehensive documentations of ancient Indian life, have inspired numerous dramatic compositions. The Puranas, a collection of stories dealing with the life and exploits of Krishna, an incarnation of Lord Vishnu, also found their way into these narratives. Although these texts do refer to a class of performers who may have been actors, once again, no clear-cut references to a theatrical tradition exists. Could the Sanskrit dramatists have been inspired by Greek theatre? That's a question that seems to have puzzled many scholars. Though some do conjecture that Alexander the Great, whose interest in the theatre was well-known, may have taken troupes along with him on his campaigns in north-east India in 327 BC, nothing conclusive has emerged.The earliest references to what may have been the seeds of Sanskrit drama were by Patanjali in The Mahabhasya, his text on grammar written in 140 BC. In order to emphasize a point, Patanjali states that action may be determined in several ways; through Pantomime, Recitation, Song and Dance. Natya or theatre is not specifically mentioned, but there is a mention made to people who recite and sing (natas).This evidence, coupled with the existence of dramatic rituals, epic stories which were later interpreted in dramatic form, almost establishes the fact that it was this time that Sanskrit drama came into being.Unfortunately, we have no physical evidence to substantiate these performances. Unlike the Greek and Roman theatre, whose ancient ruins leave behind some tangible evidence, there are no surviving Indian theatre structures - all we have are plays, dramaturgical texts (surviving on palm leaf manuscripts) and descriptions through other sources for information. The NatyashastraBharata's Natyashastra (roughly translated as the "science of drama") laid down the foundation for classical Sanskrit drama. It's difficult to put an exact date to it, and scholars believe it may have been written anywhere between 200 BC to 200 AD. Traditionally, its authorship has been attributed to sage Bharata, but due to the unevenness in writing styles, some critics believe it to be the work of several hands.In terms of its scope, it's wider than Aristotle's Poetics. It takes into account every aspect of theatrical relevance, including theatre architecture, costumes, make-up, properties, dance, music, play construction, poetic compositions, grammar, formation of theatre companies, the audience, dramatic competitions, actor communities and ritual observances, to name a few.Apart from its relevance to the theatre, The Natyashastra almost entirely shapes our understanding of music in ancient India, as well as a great deal of dance. Both forms have derived a great deal from the guidelines laid down by this text; dance for instance has taken its language of gestures, steps and moves from it. In addition to that, the guidelines for critique that Bharata developed are said to have influenced dramatic criticism till today. Characteristics of Sanskrit Drama Bharata's Natyashastra is the most important source for establishing the characteristics of Sanskrit drama (natya, meaning drama or theatre; shastra, a generic term referring to any authoritative text). Its date of publication hasn't yet been agreed on, and currently lies between 200 BC and AD 200.The mythological origin of theatre is related in the Natyashastra (The Birth of Theatre, The Natyashastra, Chapter 1). Theatre is said to have been the inspiration of

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Brahma as a means to distract people from their sensual pursuits, and author Bharata figures prominently in its origin.Bharata's narrative at the opening of the text reveals certain characteristics of Sanskrit drama:

1. It is composed of sacred material. 2. It is meant for an audience that is well-versed in the performance

tradition. 3. It is performed by members of the highest rank in the caste system, i.e.,

priests. 4. It requires special knowledge and skill to execute. A complete 5. understanding of dance, music, recitation and ritual language is a must. 6. Training is a hereditary process descending directly from God, and passed

down from father to son. 7. It must be performed on consecrated ground. 8. It serves a dual purpose -- to educate as well as entertain.

The Natyashastra is much broader in scope than the other surviving masterpieces of ancient theatre, including Aristotle's Poetics. Covering all aspects of drama, including acting, stage architecture, costumes, make-up, properties (props), dance, music, even ritual practices, the organization of theatre companies, the audience, dramatic competitions and the community of actors, it is possible to form a rough picture of ancient Indian theatre. (see The birth of theatre) Classical Playrights (1st -- 10th Century AD)From the 1st century to the 10th century AD, the high point of Sanskrit drama, a great number of plays were written, although few have survived. One of the earliest writers, Asvaghosa, whose work (in fragmented form) came to the attention of scholars early this century, wrote about Buddhist teachings and followed the rules laid down by the Natyashastra.Bhasa, who probably wrote between the 4th and 5th century, is the one author whose work has survived in abundance -- 13 plays. Swapnavasavadatta, or The Vision of Vasavadatta, is among his best known works.Bhasa composed plays from the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas, as well as other semi-historical tales. He also made up his own tales.Although Bhasa's work follows the rules from the Natyashastra, in order to maintain a dramatic integrity, he often violates them. The outstanding results, as critics assert, only proves that he was a man of the theatre, way ahead of his times.Perhaps one of the most popular works of classical Indian theatre is Mrcchakatika, The Little Clay Cart, attributed to playwright Sudraka who, in the preface to the play, describes himself as "a king, a mathematician, knowledgeable in love and skilled in the training of elephants".So far, scholars have not been able to locate any more of his writing, and considering the brilliance of this one work, it seems almost impossible that he hasn't written anything else.The play's unique storyline, in a nutshell, is a triangle of sorts -- involving a hapless brahmin, Charudatta, a faithful courtesan, Vasantsena, and a jealous royal Samstanaka. Blending both the serious and humourous, it remains one of the most popular staged pieces of classical Indian drama.A mention of classical playwrights would never be complete without a look at Kalidasa, unarguably one of the greatest playwrights of his time. Attempts to place him chronologically remain vague - some say he may have been a court poet during the time of Chandragupta II of Ujjain in the mid-5th century AD. Plays Malavikagnimitra and Vikramorvasiya, the dramatic poem Meghduta and the epic poems Kamarasambhava and Raghuvamsa were written by him. But more than all

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these, it's for his undisputed classic Abhijnanasakuntala, Sakuntala and the Ring of Recognition, for which he is best remembered today.His adherence to classical rules without sacrificing his artistic integrity is what Kalidasa is best remembered for. With Sakuntala, the story of King Dusyanta's love, marriage, separation and reunion with Sakuntala, the daughter of a heavenly nymph and sage, Kalidasa took liberties with the epic story (which can be found in the Mahabharata) to suit his needs.Among the major playwrights of later Sanskrit drama, Bhavabhuti stands out above the others. Placed around the AD 700, probably a member of a north Indian king's court, his Uttarramacharita, The Latter History of Rama, is among the best known plays of Sanskrit drama. Adapting incidents from the epic Ramayana, it takes considerable creative liberties with the text, leaning more towards lengthy poetic expressions that the later Sanskrit dramatists favoured.While there were many other Sanskrit dramatists who wrote up to the 10th century, none measured up to the success of Bhasa, Sudraka, Kalidasa and Bhavabhuti. Post the 10th century, very little work worth critical attention was produced. Slowly, Sanskrit drama was fading from the scenario. The Decline of Sankrit TheatreWhat could have wiped it out? Scholars blame several forces, both internal and external. Some believe it was the successive invasions of Mohammed of Gazni that weakened the kingdoms of north India and, therefore, their way of life. It may also have been the exclusivity of Sanskrit theatre that weakened its ability to survive -- it was too elite.Then, Sanskrit, the language of the courts and temples, had begun to be replaced by various regional literary traditions that were fast emerging in rural areas.Perhaps it was the Natyashastra's stringent rules that ultimately did it in. Few later artists would be able to make use of them without strangling their creativity. Other changes in the creative process may have contributed to it in some way. As early as Bhasa and Kalidasa, the emphasis on lyrics and poetry (as opposed to dramatic dialogue) was becoming apparent and later playwrights like Bhavabhuti only consolidated this practice.Between the 10th and 15th centuries, major political changes took place in India that went on to influence its cultural growth, particularly in north India. The Mughal invasions that were taking place from the 10th century eventually led to their consolidation of power and the formation of the Great Mughal empire of the 15th century. In areas where Islam became the state religion, theatre declined because the religion did not condone it. Only in south India did a form of Sanskrit drama manage to survive - Koothiyattam in Kerala.Very little is known about this dark period in Sanskrit drama. For instance, did the actors, once patronized by the courts of the Hindu kings, then take to the road, abandon Sanskrit and perform in the regional languages of the rural areas in order to cater to the tastes of the less sophisticated villagers? The references to jugglers, acrobats, storytellers and singers in various texts of the time lead us to believe that this was entirely possible, given the performers' will to survive.