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By Anchal Tyagi
Perception
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Perception: is a processby which individuals organize
and interpret their sensoryimpressions in order to givemeaning to their environment.
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What is Perception?
A process by which individuals organize andinterpret their sensory impressions in order to givemeaning to their environment.
Peoples behavior is based on their perception of
what reality is, not on reality itself.
Why is it Important?
Because peoples behavior is based on theirperception of what reality is, not on reality itself.
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Factors influencing PerceptionFactors in the perceiver Attitudes Motives/Needs Interests Experience
ExpectationsValuesPersonality
Perception
Factors in the Target Novelty Motion
Sounds Size Background Proximity SimilarityNature
Appearancelocation
Factors in the situation Time
Organizational Setting Social SettingPhysical setting
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Stimuli
(External & Internalstimuli) Organizing
Organismreceivesstimuli through
five sensoryorgans, viz.,tasting,smelling,seeing,hearing, andtouching
Selective Attention
External factors : Nature,
Location, Size, contrast,
Movement, repetition,
similarity, colourInternal factors :Learning,
needs, age, Interest,perception
Ambiguousfigures
Figureground
GroupingConstanc
Interpreting
AttributionStereotyping,
Halo Effect,Projection,
Defence
ResponseCovert(Attitude,
motivation,Feeling)
Overt( Behavior)
PerceptualProcess
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Organizational Behavior6
The Vertical lines are both the same length.
The center circles are both the same size.
ExampleforContrast
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7
Word Color Test
In this test DO NOT READ the words,
say aloud the COLOR of each word.
YELLOWBLUE ORANGE
BLACK RED GREEN
PURPLE YELLOWRED
ORANGE GREEN BLACKBLUERED PURPLE
GREEN BLUE ORANGE
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Perceptual organization
It is the process by which we group outside stimuli intorecognizable and identifiable patterns and whole objects.
Certain factors are considered to be important contributors onassembling, organizing and categorizing information in thehuman brain. These are
- Figure ground
- Perceptual grouping
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Figure-Ground Illustration
Field-ground differentiation The tendency to distinguish
and focus on a stimulus thatis classified as figure as
opposed to background.
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PERCEPTUAL GROUPING
Our tendency to group several individual stimuli into ameaningful and recognizable pattern.
It is very basic in nature and largely it seems to be inborn.
Some factors underlying grouping are
-continuity
-closure
-proximity
-similarity
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PRINCIPLES OF Grouping( Gestalt)
Principle of Similarity
Principle of Proximity
Principle of continuity
Principle of Closure
It states that similarobjects group togetherIt states the tendency
to perceive stimuli
which are close toeach otherIt states that a person
has a tendency toperceive a whole when
none exists
It is the tendency toperceive objects ascontinuing patters
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Similarity
Proximity
Continuity
Closure
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What is attribution theory?
Attribution theory aids in perceptual interpretation byfocusing on how people attempt to:
Understand the causes of a certain event.
Assess responsibility for the outcomes of the event. Evaluate the personal qualities of the people involved in the event.
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Attribution Theory: Judging Others Our perception and judgment of others is
significantly influenced by our assumptions of theother persons internal state.When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determinewhether it is internally or externally caused.
Internal causes are under that persons control
External causes are not person forced to act in that way
Causation judged through: Distinctiveness -Shows different behaviors in different
situations. Consensus - Response is the same as others to same
situation.
Consistency - Responds in the same way over time.
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Elements of Attribution Theory
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DistictivenessDoes this person
behave in
this mannerin other situation
YesHighConsistency
NoLow
Consistency
No
LowConsensus
YesHigh
Consensus
YESLowDistinctiveness
NOHigh
Distinctiveness
ConsensusDo other personBehave in the
Same manner?
ConsistencyDoes this person
behavein this same
manner at othertimes ?
InternalAttribution
External
Attribution
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Errors and Biases in Attributions
Fundamental Attribution Error The tendency to underestimate the influence of
external factors and overestimate the influence ofinternal factors when making judgments about the
behavior of others We blame people first, not the situation
Self-Serving Bias
The tendency for individuals to attribute their ownsuccesses to internal factors while putting theblame for failures on external factors
It is our success but their failure
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Shortcuts in Judging Others
Individuals use short cuts to judge others.
Understanding these short cuts help torecognize when they can cause significantmisrepresentation.
Selective perception
Any characteristic that makes a person, objector event separate from others has a betterchance of being perceived.
An individual cannot take in everything that isseen.
Selectivity is judging others quickly but there isa risk of misjudgment.
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Halo Effect
Halo effect (Murphy & Anhalt, 1992) is judging a personon the basis of single characteristic.
For example, a student may judge a lecturer on the basisof only one characteristic i.e. his enthusiasm and notconsidering any other factor. This is known as Haloeffect.
Contrast Effects
Individuals do not evaluate a person in separation. Theirreactions to one person are affected by other personsthey have recently met. This is known as contrast effect.
For example, in an interview a candidates evaluationmay depend on his or her place in the interviewschedule.
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Projection
It is the tendency of individuals to attribute ones own
characteristics to other people.
It misrepresents their perceptions about others.
Stereotyping
It is the tendency to judge somebody on the basis ofthe group to which he or she belongs.
This type of judgment is sometimes inaccurate.
In organizations stereotypes are based on gender,
age, race, ethnicity, etc.
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Specific Applications inOrganizations
1) Employment Interview
Evidences show that interviewers makeperceptual judgments while interviewing
candidates. These judgments are inaccurate. Different interviewers see different things in the
same candidate.
Interviewers get an impression about the
candidate in the first four or five minutes andrarely change their view after that.
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2) Performance Expectations
Individuals try to support their perceptions of reality,even when they are not appropriate. A good example
of this is self-fulfilling prophecy.
It is the tendency for someones expectations about
another to cause that person to behave in a mannerconsistent with those expectations (Wilkins, 1973).
Self fulfilling prophecy is of two types Pygmalion Effect: It is positive example of self-fulfilling prophecy.
In this people who have high expectations from others improve
their performance.
Golem Effect: It is negative example of self-fulfilling prophecy. Inthis people who have low expectations from others lower theirperformance.
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Performance Evaluation
An employees performance appraisal depends onthe perceptual process.
Appraisals can be both - objective and subjective.
The perception of an evaluator about the
characteristics or behavior of the employees, affectthe result of the appraisal
Employee Effort
An individuals future in the organization does not
only depend on his performance.
The evaluation of an individuals effort is a subjectivejudgment which can be biased.
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