1
An Investigation into the Development
of an Appropriate Inventory to Quantify
Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety in
Beginner Scuba Divers and Produce
Recommendations for National
Governing Bodies Coaching
Development
Cognitive, Somatic, Anxiety, Scuba, Ideas
By John Swanwick
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Introduction
The history of diving for the purpose of recreation can be traced to Charles Condert,
who in 1825 designed a horseshoe-shaped, waist-mounted, iron air reservoir that he
used to dive in New York’s east river. This was the first autonomous diving
apparatus that did not require lines and air hoses to the surface (Brittain, 1999). Over
Abstract
The aim of this study is to expose some of causes of these feelings of anxiety and propose
actions that instructors could take to help minimise these feeling within beginner divers. There
are many reasons why a person may feel anxious before taking part in scuba diving. Negative
past experience may also play a major role in a participant’s anxiety levels, this deter someone
from trying scuba diving.
The participants in this study are to take part in a PADI Discover Scuba Diving session at
Sherwood Forest Center Parcs. The participants where aged 16 years and above and were
clear of any medical conditions that would inhibit their ability to dive. At the end of the session
the researcher explained the research to the participants and asked if they would complete the
purpose designed questionnaire.
It was found that the source of many of the anxious feeling that was felt by the participants
was due to negative past experiences endured by participants. Other sources of anxiety
included; embarrassment and fear of the unknown.
It was concluded that good instruction was key to success, an increase of instructor
knowledge of learning styles and that more research in the area was needed.
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the years various pieces of equipment where designed, tried and tested but it wasn't
until towards the end of the Second World War that real progress was made. Captain
Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Emile Gagnan working under the restrictive conditions
of Nazi-occupied France, combined hundreds of years of progression in underwater
technology to create the first fully useable and safe scuba (Self Contained
Underwater Breathing Apparatus) system (Moutain, 1996). It was these two who
later built the first Aqualung, which Cousteau used to dive to 60m with no negative
effects in 1946. Since the time that Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Emile Gagnan built
the first Aqualung, scuba diving has grown exponentially. The formation of various
certifying organisations including; the British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC), National
Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI), Scuba Schools International (SSI),
Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC) and the National Association of
Scuba Diving Schools (NASDS) has made scuba diving into a worldwide sport, with
hundreds of thousands of people taking courses each year. By far the largest and
most popular training organisation is PADI (Professional Association of Diving
Instructors), founded in 1996, PADI currently issues over 950,000 certifications a
year and it is believed that 55% of the worlds divers are PADI certified (Professional
Association of Diving Instructors (PADI), 2006)
Scuba diving, as in any sport has inherent risks associated with it especially since
the body is being put through the rigors of the hyperbaric environment. These risks
cause certain levels of anxiety within participants new to the sport. Uncontrolled
anxiety can lead to panic and panic underwater makes for a life-threatening situation
if not dealt with immediately. The 2008 DAN Annual Diving Report shows that 85%
of diving fatalities where due to drowning (Divers Alert Network (DAN), 2008) and
(Richardson, 2006) with links to out of air situations or equipment malfunction, both
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of which could link to a panic situation. Among inexperienced divers the main source
of panic is usually something an experienced diver would consider a minor issue,
easily remedied. Issues such as entanglement, equipment malfunction or attempting
a skill and it going wrong etc (Campbell, 2008). Through all these instances the one
thing that surfaces as the root to many situations which have lead to diver deaths is
panic.
The aim of this study is to expose some of causes of these feelings of anxiety and
propose actions that instructors could take to help minimise these feeling within
beginner divers and help instructors become better teachers. There are many
reasons why a person may feel anxious before taking part in scuba diving. Trait
anxiety is considered to be part of the personality, a behavioural tendency that
influences the mental state of participant, for example; the participant is afraid of
water or is afraid of dogs (Butler, 2000). Negative past experience either by the
individual or a friend may also play a role in a participants anxiety levels, for
example; a near-drowning experience may deter someone from trying scuba diving
in the first place.
Methodology
Ethics
The participants all signed to say that they agreed to thier data being used for the
purpose of this study and that they shall remain anonymous to all but the researcher,
Falmouth Marine School and the University of Plymouth. The research was
undertaken with the highest standards of safety in mind, as such all the sessions met
both PADI and HSE standards of health and safety requirements.
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Location and Set-up
The location used for the collection of data was Sherwood Forest Center Parcs,
Nottinghamshire. This location was chosen as it would provide a large number of
sets of data for the study. The participants took part in PADI Discover Scuba (DSD)
sessions run by The Tribe Discover Scuba Ltd, who are contracted in by Center
Parcs to teach the sessions. The researcher was onsite for all the sessions at which
his data was being collected and taught many of the sessions himself. The sessions
where taught in facility’s lane pool which was designed with a variable depth pool
floor.
Safety and Risk Assessments
Daily risk assessments (Figure 1.1) where completed each day by the instructor staff
and checked by the researcher. All staff are PADI Instructors, or PADI Assistant
instructors/Divemasters under the direct supervision of PADI Instructors. All
instructors are qualified and current Emergency First Response/First Aid Instructors
(EFRI). Also thier is a permanent rotation of surface support lifeguard cover (Figure
2.1) supplied by Center Parcs, that are briefed on equipment and rescue procedures
by The Tribe Discover Scuba Ltd staff. Furthermore emergency oxygen is also on
hand should it be needed in an emergency.
Participants
The participants were all guests at the Sherwood Forest Center Parcs site and chose
of thier own free will to take part in the scuba diving sessions. They where aged 16
years and above and were clear of any medical conditions (such as seizures,
asthma, CHD, ear disease, etc) (Figure 3.1) that would inhibit their ability to dive.
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Measures
A simple 10-question purpose designed questionnaire was written and used to
gather data for this research. The questionnaire took aspects from the Sport
Competition Anxiety Test or SCAT (Brian Mac, 2011) (Figure 4.1) analysis and Trait
and State Measures of Confidence (Vealey, 1986) to gage the overall anxiety levels.
Also a number of questions where designed to give the participants a chance to
elaborate on thier feelings in previous questions and gage such feelings in greater
depth. The questionnaire consisted of 7 quantitative questions and 3 qualitative
questions in order to provide the researcher with adequate data. The questionnaire
was laid out in a simple and easy to read format. See (Figure 5.1).
Equipment
Purpose designed questionnaires.
6 sets of standardised scuba diving equipment containing; regulators, fins,
mask, air tank, submersible pressure gage (SPG) and BCD (Buoyancy
Compensator Device).
Personal equipment; towel, swim clothing etc.
Procedure
1. Participants are welcomed and asked to complete the paperwork which
covers thier personal information (Name, Address, Date of birth, etc), a
statement of risks and liability release, emergency contact information, a
medical questionnaire and a PADI Discover Scuba knowledge and safety
review. All of which is required by PADI, The Tribe Discover Scuba Ltd and
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the HSE. (Figure 3.1). This paperwork is then checked by the instructor’s
onsite and also by the researcher to ensure all information is correctly filled
out and the form is completed to a satisfactory level.
2. Participants are equipped with a pair of fins and briefed as a group, in waist
deep water, on the order of the session. The participants are then briefed by
the instructor in detail about the importance of continual breathing,
equalisation and signals.
3. Participants are then given thier scuba equipment and instructed on how to fit
it correctly. Next the functions and purpose of each individual piece of
equipment (including; BCD+inflator hose, regulators, pressure gage, mask
and fins) is explained and also how to use it whist taking part in the session.
4. After allowing adequate time for the participants to become accustomed to the
use of the equipment, the instructor then teaches the participants some basic
skills (regulator removal and recovery, partial mask flood and clear and
alternate air source use) intermingled with free swimming periods around the
pool. Towards the end of the session the pool floor may be lowered to give
more of a feel of the real scuba diving experience, though this is at the
discretion of the instructor.
5. At the end of the session the instructor gives a debrief and instructs the
participants how to take-off thier scuba equipment. Participants exit the pool.
6. When handing out the certificates at the end of the session the
researcher/instructors explained the research to the participants and asked if
they would complete the purpose designed questionnaire.
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Results
(Figure 6.1)
Anxiety state of the participants before taking part in a new activity
23 out of the 33 participants have low to moderate (1-5) levels of anxiety before
taking part in a new activity. Of the remaining 10 participants who felt moderate to
very high anxiety (5-10) only 1 participant answered above 8 on the scale. From the
graph (Figure 6.2) it is clearly visible that the highest average stress levels when
taking part in a new activity was experienced by 20-30 year olds and the lowest
levels are experienced by people at age 50+.
The influence of past experience in water on anxiety
25 participants had no past experience in the water that may have affected thier
metal state before the research was conducted. Of the remaining 8 participants only
5 had a negative past experience in the water, most of which was entrapment
underwater.
Previous scuba diving experience
6 of the 33 participants had prior scuba diving experience. For all the participants the
experience was more than a year ago and for 4 of them over 5 years ago. The
majority of this group also answered that they felt comfortable in the water and feel
little anxiety before trying something new. There were some exceptions to this.
Furthermore all 6 of the participants said they would feel more comfortable taking
part in a full scuba diving course after the session.
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Anxiety state of the participants before taking part in the DSD session
22 of the 33 participants felt low to moderate (1-5) levels of anxiety before taking part
in the DSD session. Of the remaining 11 participants who felt moderate to very high
anxiety (5-10) only 3 answered above 8 on the scale. (Figure 6.4)
Confidence to take a full scuba diving course after the DSD session
Of the 33 participants, 30 said they would feel more confident about taking part in a
full scuba diving course after thier DSD session. Of the 3 participants remaining only
1 stated that they would not feel confident. The remaining 2 participants did not give
an answer. (Figure 6.3)
Overall rating of the DSD session
Of the 33 participants 28 rated the session 8 or above on the scale. Of the remaining
5 participants, 2 did not answer.
Discussion
Age relation to anxiety
It is curious that the highest average stress levels when taking part in a new activity
were felt by the 20-30 year olds. It could be suggested that the 20-30 year olds are
at an age where they have young families and they are more anxious because they
don't know what would happen to their families if anything should happen to them.
Another aspect to consider is that by the small amount of 20-30 year olds that took
part in the research (just 3 participants) that this result is purely coincidental.
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In terms of the lowest anxiety when taking part in new activities felt by participants, it
is interesting to note that this was felt by the 50+ participants. A lot of recent
magazine articles etc suggest that the 50+ market or 'baby boomers' as they are
known, are a major up-and-coming market for trying new activities. In fact in PADI's
Undersea Journal for the second quarter of 2009 there is a 12 page article about
how to market towards different generations effectively. Baby Boomers (Those born
between 1946 and 1964) now represent one-third of the world's population
(Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI), 2009). Many baby boomers
are at or nearing retirement age, this means they are looking for new life experiences
and want to pursue lifelong dreams, scuba diving may be one of them. Also recent
research tells us that this generation have the largest annual income and therefore
disposable income to spend on new experiences. (Professional Association of Diving
Instructors (PADI), 2009)
The effects of negative past experience on beginner scuba divers
5 participants said they have had a negative past experience that has increased thier
anxiety levels before taking part in the DSD session. 3 of the 5 stated that they felt
uncomfortable in the water because of an entrapment/near-drowning incident that
happened to them when they were young. These experiences as a child can leave
long-term psychological damage to the people involved and definitely would have
had a detrimental effect on thier anxiety levels during the session. Though these
negative experiences may have affected them before and possibly during the
session, the results show that 4/5 would be more confident taking a full scuba diving
course now and that 3/5 gave the overall experience a 9 on the scale.
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Participant suggestions on ways to make the DSD less stressful
Of all 33 of the participants only two suggestions where made; "Going into more
detail on hand signals and how to cope when out of air" and "more reassurance that
the breathing would get easier."
In terms of going into more detail on hand signals and how to cope when out of air,
the instructors only teach the participants what signals they think are pertinent to the
session for example, "I'm ok", "I have a problem", up and down etc. Other signals
such as air gage amounts and abort dive, etc are not really necessary in a swimming
pool environment that most participants can stand up in. The main goal of the DSD
experience is to get the participants underwater swimming around and having fun, so
finding the balance between amount of instruction and play-time is key to the
success of the session. Instructors tell the participants to keep an eye on their
submersible pressure gage and to inform them when it enters the caution zone. Also
most instructors will glace at the participants pressure gage as they swim by. A
suggestion may be to get instructors to reaffirm signals with participants after they
have been though them once and also before the instructor gives them free-swim
time. Also to give details on why they are highly unlikely to run out of air whilst in the
pool would be beneficial.
In reference to the comment and "more reassurance that the breathing would get
easier", the instructor advised that it is a matter of getting used to it and at first it may
feel a little strange but given a little time it will become a normal feeling. This
participant was also one of the more anxious taking part, which in turn may have
affected his ability to let himself become happy with breathing from the regulator.
Other comments from the questionnaires gave very positive feedback, some
answers where; "No, staff made experience relaxing," "No, was taught everything
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needed," "No, excellent instructors, very reassuring, "Couldn’t have been made less
stressful, instructors made you feel at ease and obviously knew what they were
doing" and "No, very well explained and the small group size was good. All these
positive comments show that a large part of the success of the DSD session relies
on the instructor being, knowledgeable, approachable, reassuring, calm and fun.
Continued effort and personal review by instructors will help keep these kind of
comments coming.
Sources of pre-DSD anxiety according to the participants
The questionnaires showed that the two main sources of the participant’s anxiety
was the fear of the unknown and embarrassment in front of other people. Comments
such as; "Uncertainty about what the experience would feel like," "Worried about
embarrassing myself in front of the group," "Scarred of deep water" and "Afraid of
making a complete fool of myself" support these facts.
Fear of the unknown is relatively easy to deal with, make the unknown known. It’s
important that instructors put across as much information as possible to the students
and answer any of their questions or concerns in a detailed and relaxed manor.
What the instructor must be careful of is starting to explain something and having to
cut thier explanation short due to time constraints etc. This leaves uncertainty in the
mind of the student which will more than likely fester in thier mind and become fear.
Embarrassment in front of other people is harder to deal with as it depends a lot on
the person’s personality. A shy person may become easily embarrassed if they make
a mistake on a skill or have a moment of panic; again it is down to the instructor to
make the participant feel as comfortable and as confident as possible. For example if
a participant fails to complete a skill 3 times during the DSD, the instructor could
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complete the skill with the rest of the class and send them off for a swim, then come
back to the struggling participant and explain the skill again and give it another go
without the rest of the group watching. This may sound like common sense but some
instructors don't understand that people get nervous trying something new,
especially if it is something that they may have a slight phobia of. Just putting in that
extra effort to make the participant feel a little more comfortable will make the whole
experience that much more positive for them.
Some participants identified that past experience and phobias where the cause of
thier anxiety. Quotes from these participants include; Phobia of drowning,
submarines, shipwrecks and deep water, afraid of the water, trapped under a sailing
dingy as a child and multiple participants said that fear of drowning was thier cause
for anxiety.
Conclusion
Good instruction is key
The key to the success of the DSD and other scuba diving courses is quality
instruction. It may sound like an obvious answer but many dive schools do not
appreciate the importance of teaching people the right way and not just the most
cost effective way. Through personal research, it was found that in these tough
financial times dive schools are cutting back, unfortunately many are cutting back on
the important things like staff and are teaching courses that only just meet the
training organisations standards. This obviously is having a detrimental effect on the
quality of students that are going out into the wider diving world. This obviously will
have an effect on the safety of those divers, the divers they dive with and may have
a negative effect on the perception that the masses have on scuba diving as a
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whole. Many instructors don’t realise is that making just a little more effort to smile or
go just a little bit out of their way to help a student who is struggling, could greatly
increase their student return rate. Happy and friendly clubs make happy and friendly
divers. True that many clubs have come a long way from the days of saying “only big
tough men can be divers” but there is still room for improvement. If all instructors
showed a little more compassion and understanding towards their students needs,
then many more people would continue with the sport.
Increasing instructor knowledge of learning styles
We all learn in different ways and ensuring that instructors understand different
learning styles is an important aspect of teaching. Building criteria into instructor
programs that encompass for example the Honey and Mumford Learning Styles
model would greatly benefit both instructors and students. In short Peter Honey and
Alan Mumford adapted David Kolb’s model for use with a population of middle
managers in business (Peter Honey Publications, 2011). The model breaks down
into 4 main learning styles; Activists, Reflectors, Theorists and Pragmatists.
Activists are the doers, they prefer to immerse themselves fully in new experiences
and enjoy the here and now. They tend to be open minded, enthusiastic and flexible
people who act first, and consider the consequences later (Clark, 2008). Reflectors
like to review and repeat processes in order to fully understand them. They prefer to
stand back and observe and act cautiously towards the activity (Clark, 2008). They
use information from past, present and immediate observations to maintain a big
picture perspective. Theorists make early conclusions by thinking through problems
in a logical manner. They value rationality and objectivity judge the activity.
Pragmatists are the planners. There keen to put ideas, theories and techniques into
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practice and search for new ideas and experiment. It would be useful for instructors
to understand these different learning styles and to adapt teaching style accordingly
to the individuals in the session or class their teaching. This can be difficult as all the
class will learn differently from one another and will not be able to take on
information as well as they could if the teaching was aimed at their specific learning
style. (Peter Honey Publications, 2011)
More research needed
It is clear that this subject area needs more research on a much larger section of
divers, taking into consideration age, negative past experience and previous scuba
diving experience of the participants.
Acknowledgements
PADI, BSAC, DAN, Diving Diseases Research Centre (DDRC) and Cornish
Diving for thier help and support during the beginnings of this research.
The Scuba Tribe Ltd and thier staff who helped with data collection.
Specifically Phil Elson and Gemma Wright for thier continued advice, help and
support throughout the research.
Center Parcs and Jon Peters who supported the research and provided the
location and participants.
Falmouth Marine School and its staff. Specifically Steven Bowens and Dr
Claire Eatock for thier advice and support throughout the research.
The University of Plymouth for providing the opportunity for the research to be
undertaken.
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