John Dalton 1

John Dalton

John Dalton

Born 6 September 1766Eaglesfield, Cumberland, England

Died 27 July 1844 (aged 77)Manchester, England

Notable students James Prescott Joule

Known for Atomic theory, Law of Multiple Proportions, Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures, Daltonism

Influences John Gough

Signature

John Dalton FRS (6 September 1766 – 27 July 1844) was an English chemist, meteorologist and physicist. He isbest known for his pioneering work in the development of modern atomic theory, and his research into colourblindness (sometimes referred to as Daltonism, in his honour).

Early lifeJohn Dalton was born into a Quaker family at Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth, Cumberland, England. The son of aweaver, he joined his older brother Jonathan at age 15 in running a Quaker school in nearby Kendal. Around 1790Dalton seems to have considered taking up law or medicine, but his projects were not met with encouragement fromhis relatives – Dissenters were barred from attending or teaching at English universities – and he remained at Kendaluntil, in the spring of 1793, he moved to Manchester. Mainly through John Gough, a blind philosopher and polymathto whose informal instruction he owed much of his scientific knowledge, Dalton was appointed teacher ofmathematics and natural philosophy at the "New College" in Manchester, a dissenting academy. He remained in thatposition until 1800, when the college's worsening financial situation led him to resign his post and begin a newcareer in Manchester as a private tutor for mathematics and natural philosophy.Dalton's early life was highly influenced by a prominent Eaglesfield Quaker named Elihu Robinson,[1] a competent meteorologist and instrument maker, who got him interested in problems of mathematics and meteorology. During his years in Kendal, Dalton contributed solutions of problems and questions on various subjects to the Gentlemen's and Ladies' Diaries, and in 1787 he began to keep a meteorological diary in which, during the succeeding 57 years, he entered more than 200,000 observations.[2] He also rediscovered George Hadley's theory of atmospheric circulation (now known as the Hadley cell) around this time.[3] Dalton's first publication was Meteorological Observations and Essays (1793), which contained the seeds of several of his later discoveries. However, in spite of the originality of his treatment, little attention was paid to them by other scholars. A second work by Dalton,

John Dalton 2

Elements of English Grammar, was published in 1801.

Color blindness

This image shows a number 44 or 49, but someone who isdeuteranopic may not be able to see it.

In 1794, shortly after his arrival in Manchester, Dalton waselected a member of the Manchester Literary and PhilosophicalSociety, the "Lit & Phil", and a few weeks later hecommunicated his first paper on "Extraordinary facts relatingto the vision of colours", in which he postulated that shortagein colour perception was caused by discoloration of the liquidmedium of the eyeball. In fact, a shortage of colour perceptionin some people had not even been formally described orofficially noticed until Dalton wrote about his own. Since bothhe and his brother were colour blind, he recognized that thiscondition must be hereditary.[4]

Although Dalton's theory lost credence in his own lifetime, thethorough and methodical nature of his research into his ownvisual problem was so broadly recognized that Daltonismbecame a common term for colour blindness.[5] Examination ofhis preserved eyeball in 1995 demonstrated that Dalton actuallyhad a less common kind of colour blindness, deuteroanopia, in which medium wavelength sensitive cones aremissing (rather than functioning with a mutated form of their pigment, as in the most common type of colourblindness, deuteroanomaly).[4] Besides the blue and purple of the spectrum he was able to recognize only one colour,yellow, or, as he says in his paper,

that part of the image which others call red appears to me little more than a shade or defect of light. After thatthe orange, yellow and green seem one colour which descends pretty uniformly from an intense to a rareyellow, making what I should call different shades of yellow

This paper was followed by many others on diverse topics on rain and dew and the origin of springs, on heat, thecolour of the sky, steam, the auxiliary verbs and participles of the English language and the reflection and refractionof light.

Atomic theoryIn 1800, Dalton became a secretary of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, and in the following yearhe orally presented an important series of papers, entitled "Experimental Essays" on the constitution of mixed gases;on the pressure of steam and other vapours at different temperatures, both in a vacuum and in air; on evaporation;and on the thermal expansion of gases. These four essays were published in the Memoirs of the Lit & Phil in 1802.The second of these essays opens with the striking remark,

There can scarcely be a doubt entertained respecting the reducibility of all elastic fluids of whatever kind, intoliquids; and we ought not to despair of effecting it in low temperatures and by strong pressures exerted uponthe unmixed gases further.

After describing experiments to ascertain the pressure of steam at various points between 0 and 100 °C (32 and212 °F), Dalton concluded from observations on the vapour pressure of six different liquids, that the variation ofvapour pressure for all liquids is equivalent, for the same variation of temperature, reckoning from vapour of anygiven pressure.In the fourth essay he remarks,[6]

John Dalton 3

I see no sufficient reason why we may not conclude that all elastic fluids under the same pressure expandequally by heat and that for any given expansion of mercury, the corresponding expansion of air isproportionally something less, the higher the temperature. It seems, therefore, that general laws respecting theabsolute quantity and the nature of heat are more likely to be derived from elastic fluids than from othersubstances.

Gas laws

Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac

Jacques Alexandre César Charles, 1820

He thus enunciated Gay-Lussac's law or J.A.C. Charles's law, published in1802 by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. In the two or three years following thereading of these essays, Dalton published several papers on similar topics,that on the absorption of gases by water and other liquids (1803), containinghis law of partial pressures now known as Dalton's law.

The most important of all Dalton's investigations are those concerned with theatomic theory in chemistry, with which his name is inseparably associated. Ithas been proposed that this theory was suggested to him either by researcheson ethylene (olefiant gas) and methane (carburetted hydrogen) or by analysisof nitrous oxide (protoxide of azote) and nitrogen dioxide (deutoxide ofazote), both views resting on the authority of Thomas Thomson. However, astudy of Dalton's own laboratory notebooks, discovered in the rooms of theLit & Phil,[7] concluded that so far from Dalton being led by his search for anexplanation of the law of multiple proportions to the idea that chemicalcombination consists in the interaction of atoms of definite and characteristicweight, the idea of atoms arose in his mind as a purely physical concept,forced upon him by study of the physical properties of the atmosphere andother gases. The first published indications of this idea are to be found at theend of his paper on the absorption of gases already mentioned, which wasread on 21 October 1803, though not published until 1805. Here he says:

Why does not water admit its bulk of every kind of gas alike? Thisquestion I have duly considered, and though I am not able to satisfymyself completely I am nearly persuaded that the circumstance dependson the weight and number of the ultimate particles of the several gases.

Atomic weights

Dalton proceeded to print his first published table of relative atomic weights.Six elements appear in this table, namely hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon,sulfur, and phosphorus, with the atom of hydrogen conventionally assumed toweigh 1. Dalton provided no indication in this first paper how he had arrivedat these numbers. However, in his laboratory notebook under the date 6September 1803[8] there appears a list in which he sets out the relativeweights of the atoms of a number of elements, derived from analysis of water, ammonia, carbon dioxide, etc. bychemists of the time.

It appears, then, that confronted with the problem of calculating the relative diameter of the atoms of which, he was convinced, all gases were made, he used the results of chemical analysis. Assisted by the assumption that combination always takes place in the simplest possible way, he thus arrived at the idea that chemical combination takes place between particles of different weights, and it was this which differentiated his theory from the historic

John Dalton 4

speculations of the Greeks, such as Democritus and Lucretius.The extension of this idea to substances in general necessarily led him to the law of multiple proportions, and thecomparison with experiment brilliantly confirmed his deduction.[9] It may be noted that in a paper on the proportionof the gases or elastic fluids constituting the atmosphere, read by him in November 1802, the law of multipleproportions appears to be anticipated in the words: "The elements of oxygen may combine with a certain portion ofnitrous gas or with twice that portion, but with no intermediate quantity", but there is reason to suspect that thissentence may have been added some time after the reading of the paper, which was not published until 1805.Compounds were listed as binary, ternary, quaternary, etc. (molecules composed of two, three, four, etc. atoms) inthe New System of Chemical Philosophy depending on the number of atoms a compound had in its simplest,empirical form.He hypothesized the structure of compounds can be represented in whole number ratios. So, one atom of element Xcombining with one atom of element Y is a binary compound. Furthermore, one atom of element X combining withtwo elements of Y or vice versa, is a ternary compound. Many of the first compounds listed in the New System ofChemical Philosophy correspond to modern views, although many others do not.

Various atoms and molecules as depicted in JohnDalton's A New System of Chemical Philosophy

(1808).

Dalton used his own symbols to visually represent the atomic structureof compounds. These have made it in New System of ChemicalPhilosophy where Dalton listed a number of elements, and commoncompounds.

Five main points of Dalton's atomic theory

1. Elements are made of extremely small particles called atoms.2.2. Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and other

properties; atoms of different elements differ in size, mass, andother properties.

3.3. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-number

ratios to form chemical compounds.5. In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or

rearranged.

Dalton proposed an additional "rule of greatest simplicity" that createdcontroversy, since it could not be independently confirmed.

When atoms combine in only one ratio, "..it must be presumed tobe a binary one, unless some cause appear to the contrary".

This was merely an assumption, derived from faith in the simplicity ofnature. No evidence was then available to scientists to deduce howmany atoms of each element combine to form compound molecules.But this or some other such rule was absolutely necessary to any incipient theory, since one needed an assumedmolecular formula in order to calculate relative atomic weights. In any case, Dalton's "rule of greatest simplicity"caused him to assume that the formula for water was OH and ammonia was NH, quite different from our modernunderstanding.

Despite the uncertainty at the heart of Dalton's atomic theory, the principles of the theory survived. To be sure, the conviction that atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed into smaller particles when they are combined, separated, or rearranged in chemical reactions is inconsistent with the existence of nuclear fusion and nuclear fission, but such processes are nuclear reactions and not chemical reactions. In addition, the idea that all atoms of a given element are identical in their physical and chemical properties is not precisely true, as we now know that different

John Dalton 5

isotopes of an element have slightly varying weights. However, Dalton had created a theory of immense power andimportance. Indeed, Dalton's innovation was fully as important for the future of the science as Antoine LaurentLavoisier's oxygen-based chemistry had been.

Later years

James Prescott Joule

Dalton communicated his atomic theory to Thomson who, by consent,included an outline of it in the third edition of his System of Chemistry(1807), and Dalton gave a further account of it in the first part of thefirst volume of his New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808). Thesecond part of this volume appeared in 1810, but the first part of thesecond volume was not issued till 1827. This delay is not explained byany excess of care in preparation, for much of the matter was out ofdate and the appendix giving the author's latest views is the onlyportion of special interest. The second part of vol. ii. never appeared.For Rees's Cyclopaedia Dalton contributed articles on Chemistry andMeteorology, but the topics are not known.

He was president of the Lit & Phil from 1817 until his death,contributing 116 memoirs. Of these the earlier are the most important.In one of them, read in 1814, he explains the principles of volumetricanalysis, in which he was one of the earliest workers. In 1840 a paper on the phosphates and arsenates, oftenregarded as a weaker work, was refused by the Royal Society, and he was so incensed that he published it himself.He took the same course soon afterwards with four other papers, two of which (On the quantity of acids, bases andsalts in different varieties of salts and On a new and easy method of analysing sugar) contain his discovery, regardedby him as second in importance only to the atomic theory, that certain anhydrates, when dissolved in water, cause noincrease in its volume, his inference being that the salt enters into the pores of the water.

James Prescott Joule was a famous pupil of Dalton.

Dalton's experimental method

Sir Humphry Davy, 1830 engravingbased on the painting by Sir Thomas

Lawrence (1769–1830)

As an investigator, Dalton was often content with rough and inaccurateinstruments, though better ones were obtainable. Sir Humphry Davydescribed him as "a very coarse experimenter", who almost always found theresults he required, trusting to his head rather than his hands. On the otherhand, historians who have replicated some of his crucial experiments haveconfirmed Dalton's skill and precision.

In the preface to the second part of Volume I of his New System, he says hehad so often been misled by taking for granted the results of others that hedetermined to write "as little as possible but what I can attest by my ownexperience", but this independence he carried so far that it sometimesresembled lack of receptivity. Thus he distrusted, and probably never fullyaccepted, Gay-Lussac's conclusions as to the combining volumes of gases. Heheld unconventional views on chlorine. Even after its elementary characterhad been settled by Davy, he persisted in using the atomic weights he himselfhad adopted, even when they had been superseded by the more accurate

John Dalton 6

determinations of other chemists. He always objected to the chemical notation devised by Jöns Jakob Berzelius,although most thought that it was much simpler and more convenient than his own cumbersome system of circularsymbols.

Public and personal lifeBefore he had propounded the atomic theory, he had already attained a considerable scientific reputation. In 1804, hewas chosen to give a course of lectures on natural philosophy at the Royal Institution in London, where he deliveredanother course in 1809–1810. However, some witnesses reported that he was deficient in the qualities that make anattractive lecturer, being harsh and indistinct in voice, ineffective in the treatment of his subject, and singularlywanting in the language and power of illustration.In 1810, Sir Humphry Davy asked him to offer himself as a candidate for the fellowship of the Royal Society, butDalton declined, possibly for financial reasons. However, in 1822 he was proposed without his knowledge, and onelection paid the usual fee. Six years previously he had been made a corresponding member of the French Académiedes Sciences, and in 1830 he was elected as one of its eight foreign associates in place of Davy. In 1833, Earl Grey'sgovernment conferred on him a pension of £150, raised in 1836 to £300.Dalton never married and had only a few close friends, all in all as a Quaker he lived a modest and unassuminglife.[10]

He lived for more than a quarter of a century with his friend the Rev. W. Johns (1771–1845), in George Street,Manchester, where his daily round of laboratory work and tuition was broken only by annual excursions to the LakeDistrict and occasional visits to London. In 1822 he paid a short visit to Paris, where he met many distinguishedresident scientists. He attended several of the earlier meetings of the British Association at York, Oxford, Dublin andBristol.

Death and legacy

Bust of Dalton by Chantrey

Dalton suffered a minor stroke in 1837, and a second one in 1838 left himwith a speech impediment, though he remained able to do experiments. InMay 1844 he had yet another stroke; on 26 July he recorded with tremblinghand his last meteorological observation. On 27 July, in Manchester, Daltonfell from his bed and was found lifeless by his attendant. Approximately40,000 people filed by his coffin as it was laid in state in the ManchesterTown Hall.[11] He was buried in Manchester in Ardwick cemetery. Thecemetery is now a playing field, but pictures of the original grave are inpublished materials.[12][13]

A bust of Dalton, by Chantrey, was publicly subscribed for[14] and placed inthe entrance hall of the Royal Manchester Institution. Chantrey also crafted alarge statue of Dalton, now in the Manchester Town Hall. The statue waserected while Dalton was still alive and it has been said: "He is probably theonly scientist who got a statue in his lifetime".[11]

In honour of Dalton's work, many chemists and biochemists use the (as yetunofficial) unit dalton (abbreviated Da) to denote one atomic mass unit, or1/12 the weight of a neutral atom of carbon-12. There is a John Dalton Street connecting Deansgate and AlbertSquare in the centre of Manchester.

John Dalton 7

Painting portrait of Dalton in later life

Manchester Metropolitan University has a building named after JohnDalton and occupied by the Faculty of Science and Engineering, inwhich the majority of its Science & Engineering lectures and classestake place. A statue is outside the John Dalton Building of theManchester Metropolitan University in Chester Street which has beenmoved from Piccadilly. It was the work of William Theed (afterChantrey) and is dated 1855 (it was in Piccadilly until 1966).

The University of Manchester has a hall of residence called DaltonHall; it also established two Dalton Chemical Scholarships, two DaltonMathematical Scholarships, and a Dalton Prize for Natural History.There is a Dalton Medal awarded occasionally by the ManchesterLiterary and Philosophical Society (only 12 times altogether).

Dalton Township in southern Ontario was named for Dalton. It has,since 2001, been absorbed into the City of Kawartha Lakes. Howeverthe township name was used in a massive new park: Dalton DigbyWildlands Provincial Park, itself renamed since 2002.

A lunar crater has been named after Dalton. "Daltonism" became a common term for colour blindness and"Daltonien" is the actual French word for "colour blind".The inorganic section of the UK's Royal Society of Chemistry is named after Dalton (Dalton Division), and theSociety's academic journal for inorganic chemistry also bears his name (Dalton Transactions).The name Dalton can often be heard in the halls of many Quaker schools, for example, one of the school houses inCoram House, the primary sector of Ackworth School, is called Dalton.Much of his collected work was damaged during the bombing of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Societyon 24 December 1940. This event prompted Isaac Asimov to say, "John Dalton's records, carefully preserved for acentury, were destroyed during the World War II bombing of Manchester. It is not only the living who are killed inwar". The damaged papers are now in the John Rylands Library having been deposited in the university library bythe Society.

References[1] Davis, Peter, "Robinson, Elihu" (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1093/ ref:odnb/ 53552), on the website of the Oxford Dictionary of National

Biography (subscription or UK public library membership (http:/ / www. oup. com/ oxforddnb/ info/ freeodnb/ libraries/ ) required),[2] Smith, R. Angus (1856). Memoir of John Dalton and History of the Atomic Theory (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ZOsAAAAAYAAJ&

pg=PP17& dq=angus+ smith+ john+ dalton). London: H. Bailliere. p. 279. ISBN 1-4021-6437-8. . Retrieved 24 December 2007.[3] George Hadley (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 251166/ George-Hadley) Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed 30 April

2009.[4] "Life and work of John Dalton – Colour Blindness" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ shared/ spl/ hi/ pop_ups/ 03/

sci_nat_the_life_and_work_of_john_dalton_(1766_1844)/ html/ 4. stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 2011-11-09.[5] "Dalton believed that his vitreous humour possessed an abnormal blue tint, causing his anomalous colour perception, and he gave instructions

for his eyes to be examined on his death, to test this hypothesis. His wishes were duly carried out, but no blue coloration was found, andDalton’s hypothesis was refuted. However, the shrivelled remains of one eye have survived to this day, and now belong to the ManchesterLiterary and Philosophical Society." see "John Dalton’s Colour Vision Legacy" Book Review by Benedict Regan at bjo.bmj.com (http:/ / bjo.bmj. com/ content/ 82/ 2/ 203. 5. full)

[6] J. Dalton (1802) "Essay IV. On the expansion of elastic fluids by heat," (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3qdJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA595#v=onepage& q& f=false) Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, vol. 5, pt. 2, pages 595-602; see page600.

[7] Roscoe, Henry E.; Arthur Harden (1896). A New View of the Origin of Dalton's Atomic Theory (http:/ / books. google. com/?id=0YwEAAAAYAAJ& printsec=frontcover& dq=Henry+ Roscoe+ John+ Dalton#PPP8,M1). London: Macmillan. ISBN 1-4369-2630-0. .Retrieved 24 December 2007.

[8][8] Laboratory notebook in ibid., p. 248

John Dalton 8

[9] Roscoe, Henry E.; Arthur Harden (1896). A New View of the Origin of Dalton's Atomic Theory (http:/ / books. google. com/?id=0YwEAAAAYAAJ& printsec=frontcover& dq=Henry+ Roscoe+ John+ Dalton#PPP8,M1). London: Macmillan. pp. 50–51.ISBN 1-4369-2630-0. . Retrieved 24 December 2007.

[10] "John Dalton" (http:/ / www. chemheritage. org/ discover/ chemistry-in-history/ themes/ the-path-to-the-periodic-table/ dalton. aspx).chemheritage.org. . Retrieved 2011-11-09.

[11] King, Kristine (10 October 2003). "Science celebrates 'father of nanotech'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 3178890. stm). BBCNews. . Retrieved 2011-11-09.

[12] Patterson, Elizabeth C. (1970). John Dalton and the Atomic Theory. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.[13] Elliott, T. Lenton (1953). "John Dalton's Grave" (http:/ / search. jce. divched. org/ JCEIndex/ FMPro?-db=jceindex. fp5& -lay=wwwform&

combo=dalton& -find=& -format=detail. html& -skip=12& -max=1& -token. 2=12& -token. 3=10). Journal of Chemical Education 30 (11):569. Bibcode 1953JChEd..30..569E. doi:10.1021/ed030p569. . Retrieved 24 December 2007.

[14] Millington, John Price (1906). John Dalton (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=S0cDAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA167& dq=Henry+ Roscoe+ John+Dalton#PPP13,M1). London: J. M. Dent & Company. pp. 201–208. . Retrieved 24 December 2007.

Bibliography

Statue of Dalton in the Manchester Town Hall.

• Greenaway, Frank (1966). John Dalton and the Atom. Ithaca, NewYork: Cornell University Press.

• Henry, William C. (1854). Memoirs of the Life and ScientificResearches of John Dalton (http:/ / books. google. com/?id=sWVKAAAAMAAJ& printsec=frontcover). London:Cavendish Society. Retrieved 24 December 2007.

• Hunt, D. M.; Dulai, K. S.; Bowmaker, J. K.; Mollon, J. D. (1995)."The Chemistry of John Dalton's Color Blindness". Science 267(5200): 984–988. Bibcode 1995Sci...267..984H.doi:10.1126/science.7863342. PMID 7863342.

• Lonsdale, Henry (1874). The Worthies of Cumberland: John Dalton(http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=pog6AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover). George Routledge and Sons: George.Retrieved 24 December 2007.

• Millington, John Price (1906). John Dalton (http:/ / books. google.com/ ?id=S0cDAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA167). London: J. M. Dent &Company. Retrieved 24 December 2007.

• Patterson, Elizabeth C. (1970). John Dalton and the Atomic Theory.Garden City, New York: Anchor.

• Rocke, A. J. (2005). "In Search of El Dorado: John Dalton and the Origins of the Atomic Theory" (http:/ /findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m2267/ is_1_72/ ai_n13807654/ pg_1). Social Research 72: 125–158. Retrieved24 December 2007.

• Roscoe, Henry E. (1895). John Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry (http:/ / books. google. com/?id=kmcSAAAAIAAJ& printsec=frontcover). London: Macmillan. Retrieved 24 December 2007.

• Roscoe, Henry E.; Arthur Harden (1896). A New View of the Origin of Dalton's Atomic Theory (http:/ / books.google. com/ ?id=0YwEAAAAYAAJ& printsec=frontcover). London: Macmillan. ISBN 1-4369-2630-0.Retrieved 24 December 2007.

• Smith, R. Angus (1856). Memoir of John Dalton and History of the Atomic Theory (http:/ / books. google. com/?id=ZOsAAAAAYAAJ& pg=PP17). London: H. Bailliere. ISBN 1-4021-6437-8. Retrieved 24 December 2007.

• Smyth, A. L. (1998). John Dalton, 1766–1844: A Bibliography of Works by and About Him, With an AnnotatedList of His Surviving Apparatus and Personal Effects. ISBN 1-85928-438-8.- Original edition published byManchester University Press in 1966

• Thackray, Arnold (1972). John Dalton: Critical Assessments of His Life and Science. Harvard University Press.ISBN 0-674-47525-9.

John Dalton 9

External links•  "Dalton, John (1766–1844)". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900.• Dalton, John (1834). Meteorological Observations and Essays (http:/ / books. google. com/

?id=Ot8KAAAAIAAJ& printsec=frontcover) (2 ed.). Manchester: Harrison and Crosfield. Retrieved 24December 2007.

• Dalton, John (1893). Foundations of the Atomic Theory (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=V5sEAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover). Edinburgh: William F. Clay. Retrieved 24 December 2007.– Alembic Club reprint withsome of Dalton's papers, along with some by William Hyde Wollaston and Thomas Thomson

• Dalton, John (1808). A new system of chemical philosophy (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/newsystemofchemi01daltuoft). ISBN 1-153-05671-2. Retrieved 8 July 2008.

Article Sources and Contributors 10

Article Sources and ContributorsJohn Dalton  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=523491408  Contributors: 09woodcr, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 3JSHMerryPippin, A. Carty, A. Nonymous, ABCD, ABF, AaronSchulz, Abhiramguda, Academic Challenger, Accurizer, Adam Bishop, Adashiel, AdjustShift, Agitate, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Ajrocke, Alansohn, Alex.tan, Alexius08, Alister Namarra, Am088,Amberroom, American Eagle, Amphion, Anabus, Anakotan, Andonic, Andre Engels, Andy Marchbanks, Andycjp, Anna Lincoln, Antandrus, Ante Aikio, Aoi, Apparition11, Apwoolrich, Arturo7, Astrochemist, Atif.t2, Avenue, Avi cri, Avicennasis, Avinash Sirjoosingh, AxelBoldt, BRG, Babajobu, Balla207, Barkjon, Bart133, Bavgang123, Benni111000, Bento00, Bergsten, BesigedB,Betacommand, Bethling, Bhadani, Bigblister, Billlion, Bishboshj, Bjmullan, Blainster, Blanchardb, Blarneytherinosaur, Blue520, Bobo192, Bogdangiusca, Bonadea, Bovineone, Bratsche,Breadchastick, BrianHansen, Brutannica, Bwwm, CQJ, Cactus.man, CalJW, Calabraxthis, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanDo, Canterbury Tail, Capricorn42, Carlj7, Carlosp420,Chamal N, Charles Matthews, CharlotteWebb, Chasingsol, ChemGardener, Chodorkovskiy, ChrisHamburg, Chrislk02, Christine1107, Ciaccona, Citizen Six, Cloudycap, Cocytus, Cometstyles,Connormah, CrazyVietDude, Crozitis, Crstar20, Cst17, Cubs197, Cureden, Curps, Cutler, Cwkmail, Cyan, D0762, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DJ Clayworth, DMacks, DSRH, DShamen, Daa89563,DanielRigal, Darkspots, David Gerard, David R. 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:John Dalton by Charles Turner.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Dalton_by_Charles_Turner.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Hsarrazin,Kilom691, Materialscientist, Mu, ScewingFile:John Dalton Signature c1827.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Dalton_Signature_c1827.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: John Dalton Created invector format by ScewingImage:Colorblind4.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Colorblind4.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Conscious, Qz10, Rocket000,Rursus, Saphalon, ShadowminionzFile:Gaylussac 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gaylussac_2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: KellyImage:Jacques Alexandre César Charles.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jacques_Alexandre_César_Charles.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: KellyImage:A New System of Chemical Philosophy fp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_New_System_of_Chemical_Philosophy_fp.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: haadeImage:Joule James Jeens engraving.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Joule_James_Jeens_engraving.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: C. H. JeensImage:Humphry Davy Engraving 1830.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown,based on a portrait by Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769 - 1830)Image:Dalton John Chantrey bust.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dalton_John_Chantrey_bust.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: William Charles Henry(author)File:John Dalton by Thomas Phillips, 1835.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Dalton_by_Thomas_Phillips,_1835.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Materialscientist, ScewingImage:JohnDaltonStatueManchesterCityHall20051020 CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JohnDaltonStatueManchesterCityHall20051020_CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:KaihsuFile:Wikisource-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: Guillom, Jarekt, MichaelMaggs, NielsF, Rei-artur,Rocket000

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