The Research Journal of United Institute of Management, Allahabad, U.P., India
SAMIKSHA
United Institute of ManagementAllahabad
ISSN No. 0975-7708
Bi – Annual Journal
Volume IV No. 1 January - June 2013
The Effects of Demographic Characteristics on Organizational Commitment of EmployeesDr. Vivek Tiwari, Dr. S. K. Singh
Construction of an Optimum Equity Portfolio with Reference to Banking and Finance Sectors in IndiaP Varadharajan
Hospital Administrators’ Perception towards Healthcare Services of Specialty Hospitals in North IndiaDr. Maithili R.P. Singh
E-Commerce Based Websites: Complications And Perception GapGaurav Chandhiok, Baldev Kr. Asnanie
6 T’s of An Effective Performance Management System (PMS)Abdul Qadir
Stress in Teachers Engaged in Higher Educational Institutes: A studyDurga wati Kushwaha, Dr. R. K. Lodhwal
Employee Engagement- Building Positive Employment Relations At M/S. Heritage Foods, HyderabadProf. Dr. Y. Vinodhini
Facebook Gaming - An Indian Perspective Sub-Theme: Social NetworkingDr. Vijay Kumar Chaurasiya, Gyanendra Pratap Singh, Mayank Tandon
Women in Technology - Empirical Analysis of Role ConflictDr. B. Aiswarya, Dr. G. Ramasundaram
Book Review Sarpanch Sahib: Changing the Face of IndiaNidhi Choudhari
EDITORIAL BOARD
Printed and Published by Dr. Jagdish Gulati on behalf of the United Institute of Management, UPSIDC Industrial Area, Naini, Allahabad (U.P.) India. Printed by Shantanu Publishers, Mumfordganj, Allahabad, 211002.
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Editor: Prof. T.B. Singh
Volume IV, No. 1, January - June 2013United Institute of Management, Allahabad
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SAMIKSHA
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EDITOR-IN-CHIEFProf. T.B. Singh
PrincipalUIM, Allahabad
Bi – Annual Journal
CHIEF PATRONMr. Girdhar Gopal Gulati
ChairmanUnited Group of Institutions
PATRONDr. Jagdish Gulati
PresidentUnited Group of Institutions
EDITORIAL REVIEW BOARD
Mr. Gaurav GulatiVice-President, UGI Allahabad
Mr. Vikas MehrotraAsst. Prof. (HR & Supply Chain Mgmt.)
Dr. Rahul RajanAsst. Prof (Accounting & Finance)
Dr. Vishnu Prakash MishraAsst. Prof (Marketing & I.T.)
Mr. Amitabh SrivastavaAsst. Prof (Operation Research)
Mr. Prakash KundnaniLecturer (Accounting & Finance)
Ms. Sarika YadavLecturer (Strategic Management)
Mr. Rohit Kumar VishwakarmaLecturer (Marketing)
Mr. Ajay Kumar YadavLecturer (Computer Application)
ADVISORY BOARD
Prof. S.K. SinghHead & Dean, FMS, BHU
Prof. A.K. TripathiProfessor, Computer ScienceInstitute of Technology, BHU
Prof. K.M. SharmaFormer Director, MONIRBA,University of Allahabad
Prof. A.S. SahayChairman - NMP, MDI, Gurgaon
Mr. M.P. GargExecutive DirectorRecron Synthetic Ltd., Allahabad
Prof. B.N. Asthana Former Vice ChancellorKanpur University
Mr. Naresh AgrawalChairman, Sunstar Overseas Ltd.
Mr. A.K. JainChairman & Managing DirectorBPCL, Naini, Allahabad
SAMIKSHAJournal of UIM, Allahabad
From the Editorial Board
feel privileged in presenting our Research Journal SAMIKSHA Volume IV No. 1 which
is intended to bring out the hidden literary talents in the academicians, corporate Iprofessionals, research scholars and students. I would like to place on record my
gratitude and heartfelt thanks to all those who have contributed to make this effort a
success.
This Journal provides a glimpse into a few of the many high quality research activities
conducted by the talented faculty from different institutions like IIM, IIT, IIIT, NIT and
other renowned management & technical institutions. The Journal is a compilation of
outstanding papers from numerous disciplines submitted by professors, corporate
professionals and research scholars who have been involved in academics, faculty-
mentored research, and creative activities.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to prominent academicians related to
esteemed Organizations/Institutions and is greatly appreciable and essential for the
advancement of academic environment and improved learning process. We would like to
thank all the contributing authors for providing such a rich variety of outstanding research
papers, articles and book review on a broad range of exciting and latest topics.
The review committee of our Journal SAMIKSHA is positively valuable by helping the
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quality and pertinence of our journal SAMIKSHA also. Their validity, relevance,
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The Journal SAMIKSHA is valuable to the dissemination of knowledge
about the latest research in the field of business, management science and
technology.
We would like to take this opportunity to thank you most sincerely
for your ongoing interest and support for our Journal.
Prof. T.B. Singh
Editor-in-Chief
Contents
Volume IV, No. 1, January - June 2013
SAMIKSHA
The Effects of Demographic Characteristics on Organizational Commitment of Employees 01Dr. Vivek Tiwari, Dr. S. K. Singh
Construction of an Optimum Equity Portfolio with Reference to Banking and Finance Sectors in India 09P Varadharajan
Hospital Administrators’ Perception towards Healthcare Services of Specialty Hospitals in North India 17Dr. Maithili R.P. Singh
E-Commerce Based Websites: Complications And Perception Gap 25Gaurav Chandhiok, Baldev Kr. Asnanie
6 T’s of An Effective Performance Management System (PMS) 36Abdul Qadir
Stress in Teachers Engaged in Higher Educational Institutes: A study 40Durga wati Kushwaha, Dr. R. K. Lodhwal
Employee Engagement- Building Positive Employment Relationsat M/S. Heritage Foods, Hyderabad 47Prof. Dr. Y. Vinodhini
Facebook Gaming - An Indian Perspective Sub-Theme: Social Networking 55Dr. Vijay Kumar Chaurasiya, Gyanendra Pratap Singh, Mayank Tandon
Women in Technology - Empirical Analysis of Role Conflict 70Dr. B. Aiswarya, Dr. G. Ramasundaram
Book Review Sarpanch Sahib: Changing the Face of India 75Nidhi Choudhari
*Assistant Professor, Rajarshi School of Management & Technology, U.P. College, U.P., India.
**Professor, Ex Head/Dean, Faculty of Management Studies, Banaras Hindu University,
INTRODUCTION
It is well said my Peter F. drunker that "Unless
commitment is made, there are only promises and hopes; but
no plans". Organizational Commitment is highly valuable.
Studies have highlighted that commitment has a great impact
on the successful performance of an organization. This is
because a highly committed employee will identify with the
goals and values of the organization, has a stronger desire to
belong to the organization and is willing to display greater
organizational citizenship behaviour i.e., a willingness to go
over and beyond their required job duties.
Organizational commitment is a significant research topic
having both real-world and theoretical implications.
Organizations are intended to have extra highly committed
workers, because the research results display that
organizational commitment leads to vital outcomes such as
higher motivation, higher organization citizenship behavior,
decreased turnover and organizational support (Kwon and
Banks, 2004). Managers could benefit from understanding the
predictors of committed manpower because they can initiate
the interventions when the problem exists. They can adopt, for
example, the appropriate leadership behavior in order to
improve the level of organizational commitment and, in turn,
the levels of job satisfaction and job performance (Yousef,
2000). Research shows that understanding organizational
commitment can provide insight into how organizational
commitment is related to the intentions to leave. The turnover
is always costly to the organizations in all sectors given the
large investment made in the selection, training and
development of personnel (Stallworth, 2004, 2003). Also there
are some findings that any effort to improve organizational
commitment is beneficial in lowering stress levels in the job
concerning areas such as staffing and the perceived pressure of
the job (Savery and Syme, 1996).
Organizational commitment has been studied in the
public, private, and non-profit sector, and more recently
internationally. Early research focused on defining the concept
and current research continues to examine organizational
commitment through two popular approaches, commitment-
The present investigation is directed to examine
empirically the impact that demographic factors have on the
organizational commitment level of employees. Age, Tenure,
Education level and Marital Status of employees have been
treated here as independent variables and their impact has been
check on the organizational commitment level of employees one
by one. The respondents were the employees of Diesel
Locomotive Works, Varanasi, India and the data has been
collected from 600 employees (300 each from White and Blue
collar employees) who belong to different age groups, work
experience and having different educational backgrounds,
working in the different department of the organization
through disproportionate stratified sampling. Primary data
has been collected by the researcher through a standard
structured questionnaires based on likert scale.
The results of the investigation indicate that except
education level rest of the three demographic variables viz.
Age, Tenure and Marital Status do affect the Organization
Commitment of employees. Further it has been found that
employees showing higher level of commitment in case of (i)
Age are those who are 25 years above, (ii) Tenure, employees
who have 10 years plus experience and (iii) those who are
married. The level of commitment is same for different
employees possessing different levels of education.
Keywords: Organizational Commitment, Age, Tenure,
Education level, Marital Status, T-test, ANOVA, Post Hoc.
The Effects of Demographic Characteristics onOrganizational Commitment of Employees Dr. Vivek Tiwari*
Dr. S. K. Singh**
related attitudes and commitment-related behaviors. A variety
of antecedents and outcomes have been identified in the past
thirty years (Angle and Perry, 1981; Mowday et al (1979; Hall,
1977).
The present study deals with a few demographics
antecedents and checks whether they are a significant force in
determining the commitment level of employees towards their
organizations or in other words whether level of commitment
varies (or depends) with these demographic factors.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Abdulwahab Pourghaz et al (2011), worked on the topic
Do Demographic Characteristics Make a Difference to Job
Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment and Burnout among
Travel Agency Drivers? (A Case Study in Iran).Results
revealed that the mean scores of job satisfaction and affective
commitment in 21-28 years old group were higher than 29-39
years old and 40 years old and upper. Females showed
significantly higher mean scores on job satisfaction in
comparison to males, but males obtained higher mean scores
on emotional exhaustion and depersonalization than did
females. Drivers who had 1-4 years job tenure obtained higher
mean scores in comparison to those drivers had 5-8 years and 9
and upper years job tenure on job satisfaction, affective,
normative and total scores of organizational commitment. But
drivers who had 9 years and upper job tenure showed higher
mean scores in comparison to drivers who had 1-4 years job
tenure on emotional exhaustion.
Adnan Iqbal (2010) did a study in the name; An Empirical
Assessment of Demographic Factors, Organizational Ranks
and Organizational Commitment. The results of the data
showed that length of service is significantly associated with
organizational commitment, whereas, education level is
negatively correlated with organizational commitment.
Furthermore, no significant correlation was found between
organizational commitment and age. The results of this study
also showed that the managers and the supervisors are more
committed than the workers.
In another important study by Syed Mohammad Azeem
(2010), on the topic Job Satisfaction and Organizational
Commitment among Employees in the Sultanate of Oman
found that the mean values of job satisfaction and
organizational commitment are at moderate side. A moderate
significant positive relationship was found among job
satisfaction facets, demographic factors, and organizational
commitment. Supervision, pay, overall job satisfaction, age,
and job tenure were the significant predictors of organizational
commitment.
Fikri Pala et. al. (2008) did an empirical study on the
effects of demographic characteristics on organizational
commitment and job satisfaction on turkish health care staff.
The results showed that gender, education, title and institution
are effective on the organizational commitment level. In terms
of job satisfaction, education, title, institution, duration of
occupation and working in the same institution can be stated as
diagnostic factors.
In an study on “Demographic and Psychological Factors
Predicting Organizational Commitment among Industrial
Workers” done by Samuel O. Salami (2008) and Results
showed that emotional intelligence, work-role salience,
achievement motivation, job satisfaction and all demographic
factors except gender significantly predicted organizational
commitment of the workers. Findings suggest the need for
organizational managements and psychologists to consider
the factors investigated when designing programs for
increasing the organizational commitment of the workers.
Let us look at a few more studies related to the same
variables, we can see some more results: Örs’s et al study
(2003), investigated the effects demographic variables on
organizational commitments of doctors and nurses; Cengiz’s
study (2002) investigated the association between
demographic variables and organizational commitment
among health care staff; Güçlü’s study (2006) examined the
effects of demographic characteristics on organizational
commitment in tourism sector; Gümüþ’s et al. Study (2003)
examined the association between demographic variables and
organizational commitment in hotel businesses.
However, if we look at the overall literature, the literature
shows that commitment antecedents are studied in the form of
personal characteristics, attitudes or what the employee
contributes to the workplace. There have been mixed findings
regarding what characteristics influence greater commitment.
DeCotis and Summers, (1987), argued that a commitment
profile does not exist therefore there can be no connection
between one‘s personal characteristics and their commitment
to an organization. However though, Mowday et al (1982),
Steers (1982), all investigated the role of personal
characteristics and found that the characteristics and
experiences that a person brings to an organization can predict
their commitment to the organization.
Organizational commitment has been extensively
researched; however, the relationship between demographic
factors and attitudinal commitment has not been fully explored
(Mathieu & Zajac, 1990). In this paper, the relationship
between demographic factors (age, education, tenure and
Marital Status) and altitudinal commitment has been exposed
in Diesel Locomotive works, Varanasi, India.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Statement of the Problem
There has been a lot of study in the area of Organizational
Commitment still it remains unexplored to some extent and yet
a general understanding has not been developed when it
comes to studies conducted at different times and in different
work environment. One of the greatest challenges
organizations face today is how to manage turnover of work
force that may be caused by migration of a lot of industrial
workers. Therefore, it has become an important area of
research that how to reduce turnover and absenteeism and
improve performance of an organization. Moreover, it has
been observed many a times that employees who are satisfied
with their jobs are still not good performers. This may be
02 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
This section reproduces the results of investigation
obtained through a careful analysis of the response scores with
the help on the SPSS software. The raw scores of the present
study are the responses of workers on the standardized
measuring devise, namely, Organizational Commitment Scale.
The appropriate statistics which has been used in this
study are Box Plot, t-test, ANOVA and Post-hoc. These
statistics are expected to test all the hypotheses of study
outlined in the previous section and to explain in unambiguous
terms how and to what extent the Organizational Commitment
of Workers gets impacted by the demographic factors under
study.
Impact of Marital Status on Organizational Commitment (OC):
The impact has been first checked through the box plot
(Figure (i)) (at the last) to first visualize if there is any difference
between the medians of the OC scores of the two groups based
on Marital Status of the respondents viz. married and
Unmarried. By visual inspection the difference is clearly
visible. Also, the mean scores of OC of Married and Unmarried
groups have been shown in table (i) (at the last), which also
shows that there are differences in the mean scores of the
variable under study. But, whether it is significant or not has
been tested with the help of a parametric test, namely, t-test.
The value of the t-static comes out to be significant clearly
indicating the differences in the mean to be significant and
hence we reject our first hypothesis and alternatively establish
that Marital Status does impacts the OC level of employees and
also from table (i) (at the last) we can say that married
employees are more committed towards the organization as
compared to unmarried employees.
Impact of Education Level on Organizational Commitment (OC):
In this case also the impact of Education on OC has been
first visualized through second box plot shown in figure (ii) (at
the last). A visual inspection shows very minor differences
between the means of different groups of employees belonging
to different educational levels and when those differences were
analyzed with the help of ANOVA (Table (ii) (at the last) they
were found to be insignificant. The insignificance of the
differences indicates clearly that education level does not
impact the OC level of employees in this particular
organization. This leads us to the conclusion that we cannot
reject our second hypothesis i.e., there is no significant
difference in the level of organizational commitment of
employees having different education levels.
Impact of Tenure on Organizational Commitment (OC):
Similar to what we have been doing, we move ahead and
first make a visual inspection of the box plot shown in figure
(iii) (at the last), which clearly indicate the differences in the
median of OC scores of three groups of employees possessing
different levels of experience. To check the significance of these
differences we go for ANOVA again shown in table (iii) (at the
last), which shows that the differences are significant and
because of their lack of Motivation and commitment for the
organization; this point of view emphasizes the importance of
the study of Organizational Commitment.
Objectives:
The present study aims at exploring the relationship
between Job Satisfaction and Motivation of the employees in an
organizational set-up. The objectives of the study are
enumerated below:
1. To find out whether the organizational commitment level
of employees vary with the various demographic factors
viz. Age, Tenure, Education and Marital Status
Hypotheses:
1. There is no significant difference in the level of
organizational commitment of employees belonging to
different Marital Status groups.
2. There is no significant difference in the level of
organizational commitment of employees having
different education levels.
3. There is no significant difference in the level of
organizational commitment of employees possessing
different level of experience (Tenure).
4. There is no significant difference in the level of
organizational commitment of employees belonging to
different Age groups.
RESEARCH DESIGN
In the present study Organizational Commitment has
been taken as a Dependent Variable and the impact of various
demographic variables like Age, Tenure, Education and
Marital Status (which are the independent variables of the
study) have been checked on the organizational commitment
level of employees with the help of tests like, t-test, AVOVA
and Post-hoc.
Measures:
The study, utilized one standard questionnaires for
Organizational Commitment developed by C. Balaji, also it has
been tested for very high reliability with coefficient of alpha
=.91 and an intrinsic validity score of 0.95 and the
Questionnaire has been used many times successfully in
various industrial and banking setups. The demographic
factors under study have also been asked at the beginning of
the Questionnaire.
Sample:
The investigation was conducted at Diesel Locomotive
Works, Varanasi, U.P., India, which is a government
undertaking possessing both rural and urban characteristics.
The investigation is related to 600 employees who were
selected through disproportionate stratified sampling from a
total of approximately 6000 workers working in different
departments of the unit, viz., administration, quality control,
engineering, electrical, stores, production, marketing, design
etc.
The Effects of Demographic Characteristics on Organizational Commitment of Employees 03
hence we reject our third hypothesis and alternatively state
that employees possessing different levels of experience or
employees who have served the organization for different
tenures differ in their level of commitment towards the
organization.
To find out which group is the most/least committed we
check it with the help of a test named Post Hoc (table (iv)) (at
the last), which calculates the differences among the mean
scores of the three groups and compares them together and
also finds out the significance of these differences. After the
Post Hoc analysis of table (iv) (at the last), it can be easily stated
that employees who have an experience ranging from 10-20
years are more committed as compared to the employees who
have an experience of less than 10 years. Also, employees
possessing experience of more than 20 years are more
committed towards the organization as compared to
employees having experience less than 10 years. While, the
difference in the mean commitment scores of employees
belonging to 10-20 years’ experience group and 20 years above
experience group is insignificant. Hence, indicating that
employees belonging to experience group less than 10 years are
least committed.
Impact of Age on Organizational Commitment (OC):
Again we continue in the fashion of the interpretation, we
move ahead and first make a visual inspection of the box plot
shown in figure (iv) (at the last), which clearly indicate the
differences in the median of OC scores of three groups of
employees belonging to different Age groups. To check the
significance of these differences we go for ANOVA again
shown in table (v) (at the last), which shows that the differences
are significant and hence we reject our fourth and final
hypothesis and alternatively state that employees belonging to
different age groups differ in their level of commitment
towards the organization.
To find out which group is the most/least committed we
again check it with the help of the Post Hoc test (table (vi)) (at
the last), which calculates the differences among the mean
scores of the three groups and compares them together and
also finds out the significance of these differences. After the
Post Hoc analysis of table (vi)(at the last), it can be easily stated
that employees belonging to the age groups 25-45 years and 45
years above are more committed as compared to the employees
who are under the age group of less than 25 years. While, the
difference in the mean commitment scores of employees
belonging to 25-45 years’ age group and 45 above years age
group is insignificant. Hence, indicating that employees
belonging to age group less than 25 years are least committed.
CONCLUSION
Organizational commitment and its relationship to
demographics in this case shows that the level of commitment
of employees does gets affected with most of the demographic
variables under study viz. Marital Status, tenure and Age of the
employees, the only exception being the education level of the
employees. This shows that demographic variables also can
work as important antecedents to the organizational
commitment level of employees. Also, here it has been seen
that employees who are married and having age of 25 years
and above and possessing experience of more than 10 years are
more committed as compared to the employees who are
unmarried, less than 25 years of age and possessing less than 10
years of working experience.
From the present study we can say that the organization
should derive commitment strategies for the employees who
are married, possessing experience of more than 10 years and
having crossed the 25 years of age such that they are able to
retain them and also to further enhance their commitment level
as they are already committed to the organization. While, on
the other hand for employees who are unmarried, having an
age of less than 25 years and possessing an experience of less
than 10 years, strategies to bring their level of commitment up
at least to their counterparts as these are the young dynamics
work force of the organization and can be a cause major success
in future as they are the one who are going to last in the
organization for the longest period of time as compared to the
others who are already committed and loyal.
Further, researches should be directed towards the
exploration of the influences of other demographic factors not
considered in this study on the commitment level of industrial
workers in order to have a better understanding of this
phenomenon in the present industrial setup and also in other
industries around the world.
REFERENCES
• Pala, Fikri, et. al., (2008). The Effects of Demographic
Characteristics on Organizational Commitment and Job
Satisfaction: An Empirical Study on Turkish Health Care Staff.
The Journal of Industrial Relations and Human Resources, 10
(2).54-75.
• Ors’set. al., (2003).Commitment of doctors and nurses in an
hospital. Journal of Ankara University Faculty of Medicine, 56
(4), 217-224.
• Cengiz, Aytul Bu (2002). Determinants of Organizational
Commitment, Organizational Life in the Eskisehir region
between the Doctor and Nurse Occupation Groups: A
Comparative Study. Proceedings of the 10th National
Management Congress, 23-25, May 2002, 805-817.
• Guclu, Hatice, (2006). Organizational Tourism Sector
Situational Factors: Effect of commitment. Republic of Turkey
Anadolu University Publications, No. 1681, Eskisehir, 211.
• Gumus, (2003). "Organizational Commitment: A Research on
Determining the Relationship of Business Excellence in Hotel
Management ", 11th National Management and Organization
Congress, Afyon: AfyonKocatepe University, (22 to 24 May
2003), 987-998.
• Iqbal Adnan, (2010). An Empirical Assessment of Demographic
Factors, Organizational Ranks and Organizational
Commitment. International Journal of Business and
Management, 5(3), 16-27.
• Salami, Samuel O. (2008). Demographic and Psychological
Factors Predicting Organizational Commitment among
Industrial Workers. Anthropologist, 10(1), 31-38.
• Pourghaz, Abdulwahab, et. al., (2011). Do Demographic
04 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
Characteristics Make a Difference to Job Satisfaction,
Organizational Commitment and Burnout among Travel
Agency Drivers? (A Case Study in Iran). J. Basic. Applied.
Scientific. Research., 1(8),916-923.
• Mathieu, John E. and Zajac, Dennis M., (1990). A Review and
Meta-Analysis of the Antecedents, Correlates, and
Consequences of Organizational Commitment. Psychological
Bulletin 108 (2),171-194.
• Azeem, Syed Mohammad, (2010). Job Satisfaction and
Organizational Commitment among Employees in the
Sultanate of Oman. Scientific Research Psychology, 1, 295-299.
• DeCotiis, T.A. and Summers, T. P. (1987), A path analysis of a
model of the antecedents and consequences of organizational
commitment. Human Relations, 40 (7), 445-470.
• Mowday, R.T., Porter, L.W., and Steers, R.M., (1982).
Employee-organization linkages: the psychology of
commitment, absenteeism and turnover. New York: Academic
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05
• Kwon, I.G. and Banks, D. W. (2004). Factors related to the
organizational and professional Commitment of internal
auditors. Managerial Auditing Journal, 19(5), 606-622.
• Yousef, D. A. (2000). Satisfaction with job security as a predictor
of organizational commitment and job performance in a
multicultural environment. International Journal of
Manpower, 19(3), 184-194.
• Stallworth, H.L. (2003). Mentoring, organizational
commitment and intentions to leave public accounting.
Managerial Auditing Journal, 18(5), 405-418.
• Stallworth, H. L. (2004). Antecedents and consequences of
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The Effects of Demographic Characteristics on Organizational Commitment of Employees
Figure (i): Box Plot for Organizational Commitment on the basis of Marital Status of the Respondents
Figure (ii): Box Plot for Organizational Commitment on the basis of Education of the Respondents
06 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
Figure (iii): Box Plot for Organizational Commitment on the basis of Tenure of the Respondents
Figure (iv): Box Plot for Organizational Commitment on the basis of Age of the Respondents
Table (i): t-test between Organizational Commitmentand Marital Status of the Respondents
Marital Status N Mean Organizational
Commitment Scores
t-static Sig.
Married 526 73.3783
-4.194 .000
Unmarried 74 67.9865
07The Effects of Demographic Characteristics on Organizational Commitment of Employees
Table (ii): ANOVA between Organizational Commitment and Education Level of the Respondents
Sum of Squares Degree of
Freedom
Mean
Square
F Sig. (P)
Between Groups 543.343 2 271.671
2.477 .085 Within
Groups 65467.351 597 109.661
Total 66010.693 599
Table (iii): ANOVA between Organizational Commitment and Tenure of the Respondents
Sum of Squares Degree of
Freedom
Mean
Square
F Sig. (P)
Between Groups 2504.047 2 1252.023
11.770 .000 Within
Groups 63506.647 597 106.376
Total 66010.693 599
Table (iv): Post Hoc test for Multiple Comparisons for Organizational Commitment and Tenure
(I) years of
experience (J) years of experience Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig.
less than 10 years 10-20 years -4.33481* .96608 .000
20 above -3.72537* 1.09059 .002
10-20 years less than 10 years 4.33481* .96608 .000
20 above .60944 1.14885 .856
20 above less than 10 years 3.72537* 1.09059 .002
10-20 years -.60944 1.14885 .856
Table (v): ANOVA between Organizational Commitment and Age of the Respondents
Sum of Squares Degree of
Freedom
Mean
Square
F Sig. (P)
Between Groups 1712.442 2 856.221
7.950 .000 Within
Groups 64298.251 597 107.702
Total 66010.693 599
08 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
Table (vi): Post Hoc test for Multiple Comparisons for Organizational Commitment and Age
(I) age of the
respondent
(J) age of the
respondent
Mean Difference
(I-J) Std. Error Sig.
less than 25 25-45 -9.39534* 2.72183 .002
45 above -11.26903* 2.85189 .000
25-45 less than 25 9.39534* 2.72183 .002
45 above -1.87369 1.08688 .197
45 above less than 25 11.26903* 2.85189 .000
25-45 1.87369 1.08688 .197
*Assistant Professor, PSG Institute of Management, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India.
INTRODUCTION
Financial sector reforms have long been regarded as an
integral part of the overall policy reforms in India. The reforms
have been driven by a thrust towards liberalization and several
initiatives such as liberalization in the interest rate and reserve
requirements have been taken on this front. At the same time,
the government has emphasized on stronger regulation aimed
at strengthening prudential norms, transparency and
supervision to mitigate the prospects of systemic risks. Today
the Indian financial structure is inherently strong, functionally
diverse, efficient and globally competitive. The banking sector
is the most dominant sector of the financial system in India.
Significant progress has been made with respect to the banking
sector in the post liberalization period. The financial health of
the commercial banks has improved manifolds with respect to
capital adequacy, profitability, and asset quality and risk
management.
Traditionally investor’s needs regarding current income
and capital appreciation are evaluated and appropriate
securities are selected in the construction of portfolio. However
modern Portfolio theory helps the investors to calculate the
amount of return as well as risk for any investment portfolio
(Punithavathy pandian). Modern Portfolio theory was first
proposed by Harry M. Markowitz from University of Chicago.
William Sharpe, following Markowitz, developed the single
index model, which provides an alternative expression for
portfolio variance, which is easier to calculate than in the case
of the Markowitz analysis. This alternative approach can be
used to solve the portfolio problem as formulated by
Markowitz determining the efficient set of portfolios. It
requires considerably fewer calculations. The single index
model relates returns on each security to the returns on a
common index, that is it considers both systematic and
unsystematic risk for the construction of portfolio. The focus of
this study is to find out an optimal portfolio using single index
model.
Need for the study
The return which a person can get in a stock market can be
very very high. It made Azeem Premji a very wealthy person
The purpose of the research is to investigate the risk-
adjusted performance of stock portfolios through the
application of the single-index model. In this research the daily
closing prices of 24 companies from banking and finance sector
listed in National Stock Exchange (NSE) and S&P CNX nifty
index over the period of 4 years (01-04-2008 to 31-04-2012)
were used and ranked them based on excess return to beta ratio.
Four companies were selected from both sectors. The cut-off
point was calculated and highest value is to be taken as a base
for calculation of money to be invested in each stocks.
Furthermore, the paper offers better options for decision
making process in choosing optimal portfolios.
Keywords: risk, return, beta, market variance, residual
variance, portfolio, sharpe.
Construction of an Optimum Equity Portfolio with Reference to Banking and Finance Sectors in India P Varadharajan*
when Wipro’s share went high in the late 90s. It can even
reduce the wealth of the promoter which is recently been seen
by Vijay Mallya where Kingfisher’s shares are exceedingly
low. So how does a normal person invest in stock market given
its huge volatility? Here again, it depends upon the type of
return the person wants from his investment. Remember,
largest returns come from taking the biggest risk. But, failing
there can bring huge losses which we as small or medium
investors can not afford to take. Portfolio is constructed to
maintain perfect negative correlation between the
combinations of securities in order to mitigate the entire risks.
Framing portfolio by selecting securities from banking and
finance sector based on the capital market performance of the
Indian banks, PSU Banks and other financial institutions. This
paper is built around cooking up the portfolio by balancing the
positive and negative correlation existing between the
securities and in turn getting returns closer to the anticipated
results.
Objectives
• To study the relative market performance of twenty-four
companies belonging to Banking and Finance sectors,
listed in National Stock Exchange, India.
• To construct an optimal portfolio which gives maximum
return for the particular level of risk.
• To identify stocks and proportion of stocks to be included
in portfolio.
• To guide investors to find out the company that gives the
maximum return with minimum risk.
Limitations
• Portfolio is constructed based only on risk and return.
• Study offers better options for decision making process in
choosing optimal portfolios in only NSE.
• Study is restricted to only 24 stocks from Banking and
Finance sectors, which are constituents of market portfolio
that is, NSE NIFTY.
• Stock prices considered are restricted to only the previous
4 year’s closing prices.
• All the calculations could not be brought into the report.
Review of literature
Kent Danie l , David Hirsh le i fer , Avanidhar
Subrahmanyam (1998) explained a theory of securities market
under- and overreactions based on two well-known
psychological biases: investor overconfidence about the
precision of private information; and biased self-attribution,
which causes asymmetric shifts in investors' confidence as a
function of their investment outcomes. It shows that
overconfidence implies negative long-lag autocorrelations,
excess volatility, and, when managerial actions are correlated
with stock mispricing, public-event-based return
predictability. Biased self-attribution adds positive short-lag
autocorrelations (“momentum”), short-run earnings “drift,”
but negative correlation between future returns and long-term
past stock market and accounting performance. The paper also
offers several untested implications and implications for
corporate financial policy. William F. Sharpe (1963) described
the advantages of using a particular model of the relationships
among securities for practical applications of the Markowitz
portfolio analysis technique. A computer program has been
developed to take full advantage of the model: 2,000 securities
can be analyzed at an extremely low cost-as little as 2% of that
associated with standard quadratic programming codes.
Moreover, preliminary evidence suggests that the relatively
few parameters used by the model can lead to very nearly the
same results obtained with much larger sets of relationships
among securities. The possibility of low-cost analysis, coupled
with a likelihood that a relatively small amount of information
need be sacrificed make the model an attractive candidate for
initial practical applications of the Markowitz technique.
Rakesh Mohan (2005) investigated the story of Indian financial
sector reforms in terms of a number of segments such as
banking, debt markets, forex markets, and others like non-
banking financial companies. This apart, as an offshoot of the
financial sector reform, changes in the monetary policy are
discussed. In this light, the paper looks at various performance
indicators of different segments of the Indian financial sector.
In general, it is found that there has been an improvement in
efficiency, competitiveness and health of all the segments of the
Indian financial sector. The paper raises some issues for the
future of this sector. Tarapore S. S. (2000) explained about the
various Financial crises, weaknesses in financial systems and
their supervision contribute to macro instability and gave
suggestions to solve it. the author suggest, Not only is stronger
supervision necessary but the discipline of the market needs to
be reinforced. Corporate governance needs to be strengthened
and bankruptcy legislation made more robust. With rapid
technological changes, the leaders in innovation would claim
the best business. Banks and financial institutions which resist
change would, like dinosaurs, become extinct. Further the
paper describes that the financial system would need to be
guided by three requirements, viz, transparency, rigorous
norms and appropriate incentives. Ram Mohan T. T. (2003)
evaluated the performance of public sector banks (PSBs)
consequent to disinvestment by comparing the returns to PSB
stocks with returns to the Sensex. The author do so on an
unadjusted as well as risk-adjusted basis. He also compute the
relative returns of private sector banks with respect to the
Sensex and use these to compare public and private sector bank
performance. He find that PSB stocks' performance on the
average was not significantly different from that of the Sensex
or from that of private sector bank stocks. Mohammed
Hossain, Masrur Reaz (2007) reported the results of an
empirical investigation of the extent of voluntary disclosure by
38 listed banking companies in India. It also reports the results
of the association between company specific characteristics
and voluntary disclosure of the sample companies. The study
reveals that Indian banks are disclosing a considerable amount
of voluntary information. The findings also indicate that size
and assets-in-place are significant and other variables such as
age, diversification, board composition, multiple exchange
listing and complexity of business are insignificant in
explaining the level of disclosure. However, this paper has
contributed to the academic literature that financial
institutions provide voluntary corporate information
including social information as discharging their social
responsibility and corporate citizenship. Barathi Kamath G.
(2007) said to estimate and analyze the Value Added
Intellectual Coefficient (VAIC™) for measuring the value-
based performance of the Indian banking sector for a period of
five years from 2000 to 2004. The VAIC™ method is applied in
10 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
and Classic. Heuristic methods are supposed not to “get stuck”
in local optima, in which classics often do get stuck. Heuristic
algorithms perform a wide random search; consequently, the
chance of being trapped in local optima is deeply decreased.
Therefore, in this study, Genetic Algorithm, a heuristic
evolutionary method, and a classic solver are applied to
construct and optimize portfolios in a sample market of five
stocks. The research findings indicate that Genetic Algorithm,
in contrast to classic methods, is more adaptable to the
portfolio selection problem and has a better performance in
contrast to its classic optimization counterparts. Richard B .
Spurgin (2001) described a derivative structure that can
induce an upward bias in the measurement of the Sharpe ratio.
The structure accomplishes this by shifting returns from the
highest monthly return each year to the lowest one. This
smoothes observed returns-and lowers observed volatility-
without significantly altering the annual return. The objective
of the article is to demonstrate how adding derivatives can
appear to improve risk-adjusted return without actually doing
so. Murthi, B.P.S. Yoon K. Choi, Preyas Desai (1997) proposed a
new measure of performance that seeks to address the
limitations of the earlier indices such as Jensen's alpha and the
Sharpe index.. The new index is calculated by employing a well
known method in operations research called data
envelopment analysis. The paper shows the benefits of the
proposed approach and assesses the performance of mutual
funds. They compare the results with traditional indices of
performance. An interesting result obtain is that the mutual
funds are all approximately mean-variance efficient. AJ du
Plessis and M Ward (2009) this research endeavours to apply
the theory of Markowitz to the Johannesburg Securities
Exchange (JSE) to establish whether an optimal portfolio can be
identified and used as an effective trading rule. Here Weekly
data over 11 years on the top 40 JSE listed companies was
analysed to construct Markowitz mean-variance optimised
portfolios using ex-ante data. The optimal portfolio was then
selected and re-balanced periodically, and the returns
compared against the FTSE/JSE ALSI40 index. The study
found that the trading strategy significantly outperformed the
market in the period under review. Lubos Pastor (2000)
explained portfolio selection in a Bayesian framework that
incorporates a prior degree of belief in an asset pricing model.
Sample evidence on home bias and value and size effects is
evaluated from an asset-allocation perspective. The paper
explains that the U.S. investors' belief in the domestic CAPM
must be very strong to justify the home bias observed in their
equity holdings. The same strong prior belief results in large
and stable optimal positions in the Fama–French book-to-
market portfolio in combination with the market since the
1940s. Varadharajan P (2011 ) explained how to construct an
optimal equity portfolio with help of the sharpe index model.
In this paper, Banking and Information Technology sectors
have taken into consideration for construction of equity
portfolio. Five companies were selected from each sector and
ranked them based on excess return to beta ratio. The cut-off
point was calculated and highest value is taken as a base for
calculation of money to be invested in each stocks. This
research findings and suggestions would be helpful to
investors.
order to analyze the data of Indian banks for the five-year
period. The intellectual or human capital (HC) and physical
capital (CA) of the Indian banking sector is analysed and their
impact on the banks' value-based performance is discussed in
this paper. The study confirms the existence of vast differences
in the performance of Indian banks in different segments, and
there is also an improvement in the overall performance over
the study period. There is an evident bias in favour of the
performance of foreign banks compared with domestic banks.
Lingjie Ma & Larry Pohlman (2008) investigated in finance
there is growing interest in quantile regression with the
particular focus on value at risk and copula models. In this
paper first present a general interpretation of quantile
regression in the context of financial markets. Then it explore
the full distributional impact of factors on returns of securities
and find that factor effects vary substantially across quantiles
of returns. Utilizing distributional information from quantile
regression models, they propose two general methods for
return forecasting and portfolio construction and show that
under mild conditions these new methods provide more
accurate forecasts and potentially higher value-added
portfolios than the classical conditional mean method. Ulf
Herold (2003) explained about the structured approach for
portfolio construction leads to a more consistent
implementation of market views and to more balanced
portfolios in terms of risk profile. The vast majority of active
portfolio managers use a fundamental investment approach.
They do not generate quantitative forecasts but instead express
their market views in a qualitative manner. The portfolio
construction approach in practice is usually overweighting
assets with a bullish outlook by some pre specified amount,
and underweighting assets for which the view is bearish. The
author recommends that the structured approach incorporates
several diagnostic tools and a Bayesian model. It also allows a
portfolio manager to compute the shrinkage in the information
ratio when implementing a suboptimal portfolio. This
mitigates the need for transactions and hence reduces
transaction costs. Bhagirathi nayak, Nahak C Dr..& Arun KR.
Misra Dr (2011) investigated to forecast financial market
indicators using rule based fuzzy system. The fuzzy system has
been applied on Gold commodity future market, Carbon credit
and CNX Nifty Index. The report is devoted to articulate the
impact of rule based fuzzy system for forecasting the above
mentioned parameters. Fuzzy rule have been designed by
considering the standard deviation of the above parameters as
a rule input variable and is applied on the moving average of 2
days, 7 days and 15 days of the input variable that is the future
commodity gold prices, carbon credit and the CNX Nifty
Index. Around 42 rules have been designed by considering the
bullish, bearish, near bullish, near bearish and active bullish
and active bearish etc. The article effectively forecast future
gold price and the bullish and bearish nature of market. It also
forecast the Index along the cycle of bullish and bearish. In-
sample prediction has supported the rule based fuzzy system
as an effective methodology of forecasting. Arash Talebi,
Mohammad Ali Molaei, Bozorgmehr Ashrafi (2011) reviewed
Modern Portfolio Theory and describes the problems and
solutions, which have been put forward in the Theory. In this
paper, selection of a portfolio is optimized via two different
methods from two major optimization approaches, Heuristic
Construction of an Optimum Equity Portfolio with Reference to Banking and Finance Sectors in India 11
METHODOLOGY
This is a descriptive study on the construction of portfolio
of stocks. The data taken for the study is secondary in nature
because it pertains to historical analysis of reported financial
data. The daily closing price of the shares and Index value and
the 91-day Government of India treasury bills rate has been
used for the study. These data has been collected from various
websites like National Stock Exchange (NSE), Reserve Bank of
India (RBI), etc., and also from the databases of Ebsco and
Proquest. The study is conducted with the financial data for the
past four years from 1st April 2008 to 31st March 2012. The
sampling technique adopted is purposive sampling and the
sample size of the study is limited to 24. They are a combination
of stocks from two different sectors namely Banking and
finance. This study takes all the 12 shares which are part of
CNX Bank Index and all the 12 PSU bank shares which are part
of CNX PSU Bank Index and 12 selected shares which are part
of the CNX Finance Index. The collected data were
consolidated as per study requirements.
Tools used for data analysis
Return
A particular amount of money as a profit or loss that an
investment can produce for given period of time. It is the ratio
of capital appreciation plus income earned on such investment
and the value at the beginning period of such invested financial
asset.
Return = Today's market Price - Yesterday's market Price x 100
Yesterday's market price
Risk-free rate of return (RF)
Risk-free rate of return is the required return on a risk free
asset, typically a 91 days treasury bill rate.
Correlation
Correlation is a statistical technique that can show
whether and how strongly pairs of variables are related. It is a
single number that describes the degree of relationship
between two variables.
Beta Coefficient
A measurement of how much the price of a share has
changed in a particular period of time, compared with the
average change in the price of all shares in the market.
â = Correlation x ó(Y)
ó(x)
Where, ó (Y) = Standard Deviation of Individual Stock
ó(x)= Standard Deviation of Market
Excess Return-Beta Ratio
It is to know which security gives maximum return, based
on the risk free rate of return.
Excess Return-Beta Ratio = Ri - Rf
â
Where, Ri = the expected return on stock
Rf = the return on a riskless asset
âi = the expected change in the rate of return on
stock associated with one unit change in the market return.
Cut-off point:
Where, ei = variance of the market index.
2 m = variance of a stock’s movement that is not
associated with the movement of market index that is stock’s
unsystematic risk.
Optimum portfolio
The combination of securities with perfect negative
correlation can generate an optimum portfolio that can
eliminate the entire risk in such portfolio of securities. A Set of
portfolio which generate maximizes return for a particular
level of risk is termed as optimum Portfolio. The percentage of
funds to be invested in each security can be estimated as
follows:
Where, Xi = the proportion of investment of each stock.
Where, C*= the cut-off point.
Analysis and interpretation:
For constructing an optimal portfolio, a sample of size 24
securities selected form the Banking and finance sector listed
on NSE. NSE NIFTY MIDCAP 50 is taken as the market index.
Daily closing price of each securities from 1st April 2008 to 31st
March 2012 were collected from NSE website. The average risk
free return is considered as 8.20% p.a (91-day Government of
India treasury bills). Using this stock price the folowing
variables are calculated.
12 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
Indusind bank yielded the maximum return among the
companies selected following that MM finance ltd and Bank of
Baroda yielded higher return and Kotak Mahindra Bank
yielded lower return following that IDBI ltd and State Bank of
India yielded lower return. Beta is greater than 1 in IndusInd
Bank Ltd, Bank of Baroda, Allahabad bank, etc. which shows it
more risk and at the same time the reward per unit of risks also
13
more. But in case of other companies with regards to beta it is
less than 1 which shows it is less risky when compared to
market risk. Beta of some companies like Mahindra and
Mahindra Finance ltd is less than 1, which has less rick but the
return of such company is more compare to other securities.
Table 1
Construction of an Optimum Equity Portfolio with Reference to Banking and Finance Sectors in India
Table 1: Return, Standard Deviation and Beta of Individual Stock
Scrip’s RETURN Residual Variance â
Allahabad bank 0.125204 2.669441 0.944643
Andhra bank 0.080779 2.53629 0.911591
Axis bank 0.088541 3.199409 1.202862
Bank of Baroda 0.137167 2.572502 0.788047
Bank of India 0.082005 3.024825 1.015624
Canara bank 0.112782 2.727724 0.860371
HDFC ltd -0.00887 3.79106 0.915551
hDFC bank ltd 0.013488 3.448311 0.783969
ICICI Bank ltd 0.07203 3.389788 1.307743
IDBI ltd 0.060988 3.004925 1.224295
IndusInd Bank Ltd 0.194938 3.256389 1.137049
Indian Overseas Bank 0.007451 2.961379 1.050632
Kotak Mahindra Bank Ltd 0.055366 3.565863 1.18632
LIC Housing finance ltd 0.126941 4.150391 1.063851
MM finance ltd 0.120238 2.555643 0.421011
Oriental Bank of Commerce 0.077605 2.890168 0.891017
Power Finance Corporation ltd 0.052855 2.827295 0.892568
Punjab National Bank 0.090625 2.471331 0.84582
Reliance capital ltd -0.04272 3.817805 1.514227
State Bank of India 0.06437 2.733683 1.037185
Shriram Transport Finance Co. Ltd. 0.087419 2.421076 0.394767
Syndicate bank 0.073696 2.597908 0.920278
Union bank of India 0.087135 2.648144 0.800781
Yes bank ltd 0.138544 3.463156 1.347174
Table 2: Excess return to beta ratio
Scrip (Ri-Rf/â) New ranking
Allahabad bank 0.045736 IndusInd Bank Ltd
Andhra bank -0.00134 MM finance ltd
Axis bank 0.005438 Bank of Baroda
Bank of Baroda 0.070005 Allahabad bank
Bank of India 4.53E-06 LIC Housing finance ltd
Canara bank 0.035777 Yes bank ltd
HDFC ltd -0.09925 Canara bank
hDFC bank ltd -0.08739 Shriram Transport Finance Co. Ltd.
ICICI Bank ltd -0.00762 Punjab National Bank
IDBI ltd -0.01716 Union bank of India
IndusInd Bank Ltd 0.099325 Axis bank
Indian Overseas Bank -0.07096 Bank of India
Kotak Mahindra Bank Ltd -0.02245 Andhra bank
LIC Housing finance ltd 0.042244 Oriental Bank of Commerce
MM finance ltd 0.090824 ICICI Bank ltd
Oriental Bank of Commerce -0.00493 Syndicate bank
Power Finance Corporation ltd -0.03265 State Bank of India
Punjab National Bank 0.010197 IDBI ltd
Reliance capital ltd -0.08237 Kotak Mahindra Bank Ltd.
14 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
State Bank of India -0.017 Power Finance Corporation ltd
Shriram Transport Finance Co. Ltd. 0.013727 Indian Overseas Bank
Syndicate bank -0.00902 Reliance capital ltd
Union bank of India 0.006412 HDFC bank ltd
Yes bank ltd 0.041972 HDFC ltd
The single index model assumes that co-movement
between stocks is due to movement in the index. For selection
of appropriate securities in portfolio, the average returns of
individual returns or portfolio are adjusted to that of risk free
return (here 8.20 percent is considered as risk free rate based on
91-day Government of India treasury bills). The selection of
any stock is directly related to its excess return to beta ratio.
Based on the excess return to beta ratio the scrip’s are ranked
from 1 to 24, with Indusind bank being in the first rank and
Kotak Mahindra Bank being in the last. Table 2
Table 3: Cut-off point calculation
Scrip (RiRf)/â (RiRf)â/ á²ei
á²m* Ó(Ri-Rf)â/á²ei
â²/á²ei 1+á²mÓâ²/á²ei Ci
IndusInd Bank 0.099 0.0121 0.0454 0.1218 1.4566 0.0311
MM finance ltd 0.091 0.0025 0.0546 0.0271 1.5582 0.035
Bank of Baroda 0.07 0.0066 0.0792 0.0937 1.9097 0.0415
Allahabad bank 0.046 0.0057 0.1006 0.1251 2.3786 0.04231
LIC Housg fin ltd 0.042 0.0028 0.111 0.0656 2.6247 0.04230
Yes bank ltd 0.042 0.0063 0.1348 0.1512 3.1914 0.0422
Canara bank 0.036 0.0036 0.1481 0.0994 3.564 0.0416
Shriram Tran Fin 0.014 0.0004 0.1495 0.0266 3.6636 0.0408
PNB 0.01 0.0012 0.154 0.117 4.1022 0.0375
UBI 0.006 0.0006 0.1562 0.0913 4.4447 0.0351
Axis bank 0.005 0.0008 0.1591 0.1412 4.974 0.032
Bank of India 5E-06 6E-07 0.1591 0.1126 5.3962 0.0295
Andhra bank -0.001 -0.0002 0.1584 0.1291 5.88 0.0269
OBC -0.005 -0.0005 0.1567 0.0949 6.236 0.0251
ICICI Bank ltd -0.008 -0.0011 0.1524 0.1487 6.7934 0.0224
Syndicate bank -0.009 -0.0011 0.1482 0.1254 7.2633 0.0204
SBI -0.017 -0.0024 0.139 0.1438 7.8024 0.0178
IDBI ltd -0.017 -0.0028 0.1283 0.1658 8.4241 0.0152
Kotak Mahindra -0.022 -0.0025 0.119 0.1106 8.8386 0.0135
Power Fin Corp -0.033 -0.0033 0.1068 0.0996 9.2118 0.0116
IOB -0.071 -0.0089 0.0734 0.1257 9.6832 0.0076
Reliance capital -0.082 -0.0129 0.0249 0.1572 10.272 0.0024
HDFC bank ltd -0.087 -0.0045 0.008 0.0516 10.466 0.0008
HDFC ltd -0.099 -0.0058 -0.0137 0.0583 10.684 -0.001
Cut-off point
The selection of the stocks depends on a unique cut - off
rate such that all stocks with higher ratios of excess return to
beta are included and the stocks with lower ratios are left out.
The cut - off point is denoted by C*. The highest Ci value is
taken as the cut – off point C*. The stocks ranked above C* have
high excess return to beta than the cut - off Ci and all the stock
below C* has low excess returns to beta. Table 3
The highest value of Ci is taken as the cut-off point that is
C*. Here Allahabad has the highest the cut-off rate of C*=
0.04231. All the stocks having greater than C* can be included
in the portfolio.
Table 4: Selection of stocks among 24 companies and Proportion of Investment in each Stock
Stocks Cut-off points Proportion of Investment
IndusInd Bank 0.0311 0.47
MM finance ltd 0.035 0.24
Bank of Baroda 0.0415 0.25
Allahabad bank 0.04231 0.03
15Construction of an Optimum Equity Portfolio with Reference to Banking and Finance Sectors in India
FINDINGS
From the empirical analysis, Out of 24 companies taken for
the study, 2 companies are showing negative return and the
other 22 companies are showing positive returns. Out of 24
companies, 15 companies where market beta is above 1, show
that the investments in these stocks are outperforming than the
market. the stocks of higher risk yield higher return; Indusind
bank has higher risk and yields higher return. However,
significance of the beta is not consistent with all security return,
Mahindra & Mahindra Financial Services has lesser risk and
yields higher return. Leading to the conclusion that every
security depends to some extent on the overall performance of
the market.
Recommendations
The first choice for the investor from the selected
companies in the portfolio is Indusind bank which has the
highest proportion of investment. The proportion of about 47%
of the investment has to be made and it has maximum return
and risk compare to the market and other companies in the
portfolio. The companies like Mahindra & Mahindra Financial
Services ltd and Bank of Baroda have beta value less than one,
which means risk is comparatively low, But the return of such
companies are closely equal the return of other two companies
selected in the portfolio. So diversification of portfolio may
help the investor to eliminate the controllable risk associated
with all these companies stocks. The lower proportion of
investment of about 4% has to be invested in Allahabad Bank.
index model for the construction of portfolio. The top 4 stocks
which have been selected are: IndusInd Bank, Bank of Baroda,
Mahindra & Mahindra Financial Services Ltd and Allahabad
bank. As the price, return and risk involved in investment of
securities in the stock market is determined by various external
factors such as economic, political and psychological factors,
investors should take special care when selecting their
portfolios. We hope that these results are useful to individual
and institutional investors, managers, and policy makers in
making decision and adopting new investment policies in the
construction of portfolio.
SCOPE FOR FURTHER STUDY
• The study analyses securities in banking and finance
sectors only. Further research can be done involving all
sectors which would be a more optimal portfolio rather
than from specific sectors.
• Sharpe Index model has its own limitations so in order to
constract an optimal portfolio sharpe index model alone is
not sufficient. Portfolio construction can be done with
consideration of other models.
REFERENCES
• AJ du Plessis and M Ward (2009) "A note on applying the
Markowitz portfolio selection model as a passive investment
strategy on the JSE" Investment Analysts Journal - No. 69,
pages. 39 - 46.
• Arash Talebi, Mohammad Ali Molaei, Bozorgmehr Ashrafi
(2011) "Performance Investigation of Classic and Heuristic
Methods in Portfolio Optimization" Journal of American
Science,7(11), pages. 339-349.
• Barathi Kamath G, (2007) "The intellectual capital performance
of the Indian banking sector", Journal of Intellectual Capital,
Vol. 8, Issue.1, pages. 96 - 123.
• Bhagirathi nayak, Nahak C. Dr & Arun KR. Misra. Dr (2011)
"forcasting of financial markets - application of fuzzy
association rules" international journal of research in
commerce, it & management, volume no. 1, issue no. 5, page. 1.
• Kent Daniel, David Hirshleifer, Avanidhar Subrahmanyam
(1998) "Investor Psychology and Security Market Under- and
Overreactions" The Journal of Finance Volume 53, Issue 6,
pages 1839-1885.
• Lingjie Ma & Larry Pohlman (2008) "Return forecasts and
optimal portfolio construction: a quantile regression approach"
The European Journal of Finance, Volume 14, Issue 5, pages.
409-425.
• Lubos Pastor (2000) "Portfolio Selection and Asset Pricing
Models" The Journal of Finance, Volume 55, Issue 1, pages
179–223.
• Mohammed Hossain, Masrur Reaz (2007) "The determinants
and characteristics of voluntary disclosure by Indian banking
companies" Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental
Management, Volume 14, Issue. 5, pages. 274-288.
• Murthi B.P.S. Yoon K. Choi, Preyas Desai (1997) "Efficiency of
mutual funds and portfolio performance measurement: A non-
parametric approach" European Journal of Operational
Research, Volume 98, Issue 2, 16 April, Pages. 408-418.
The maximum investment should be made in IndusInd
Bank with a proportion of 47%. Following that Bank of Baroda
with 25%, Mahindra & Mahindra Financial Services with 24%
and Allahabad bank with 4%. Among four securities selected
for the investment three companies belongs to banking sector
and one company is belongs to Finance Sector. Evidently, the
companies chosen for the investments are growing at a steady
rate in the recent years
CONCLUTION
Initially we were selected 24 stocks from banking and
finance sector and we selected top 4 stocks based on the return
and risk associated with each stock by using Sharpe's single
IndusInd Bank 47%
MM finance Ltd.24%
Bank of Baroda25%
Allahabad bank
4%
Figure: 1.1: Proposition of Investment
16 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
• Rakesh Mohan (2005) "Financial Sector Reforms in India:
Policies and Performance Analysis" Money, Banking and
Finance, Vol. 40, Issue.12, pages. 1106-1112+1115-1121.
• Ram Mohan T. T. (2003) "Long-Run Performance of Public and
Private Sector Bank Stocks" Banking and Finance, Vol. 38,
Issue.8, Money, pages. 785-788.
• Richard B. Spurgin (2001) "How to game your sharpe ratio",
The Journal of Alternative Investments, Vol. 4, No. 3, pages.
38-46.
• Tarapore S. S. (2000) "Malaise of Indian Financial System:
Need for Reforms"Economic and Political, Vol. 35, Issue.32,
pages. 2821-2826.
• Ulf Herold (2003) "Portfolio Construction with Qualitative
Forecasts" The Journal of Portfolio Management, Vol. 30,
Issue.1, pages. 61-72.
• Varadharajan P (2011) "Portfolio construction using the Sharpe
index model with reference to banking and information
technology sectors" Journals of Business Administration and
Management, ISSN: 2251-1261, Vol. 1(12), pages. 392-398.
• William F. Sharpe (1963) "A Simplified Model for Portfolio
Analysis" Journal of Management Science, Vol. 9, Issue. 2,
pages. 277-293.
*Associate Professor, Department of Management, Central University of Rajasthan, Kishangarh, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India.
INTRODUCTION
The health care system in India is as old as Indian
civilization. In fact before the advent of the western system of
medicine each nation had its own indigenous medicine system,
which offered medical care to their citizens. These systems
expanded independent of one another. Each system developed
its own underlying principle of treatment. The existence of
Ayurveda in India most likely dates back to the period of the
Indus Valley Civilization. Jivaka, Charka, Susrata, Vaghbhata,
Dhanvantri were some of the medical specialists of ancient
time in India. It was also India that offers the world the first
hospital service around 320 B.C., when the great ruler Ashoka
built the first hospital. It was specially planned to treat diseases
(Parsad, 1992).
In the last five years hospitals have been equipped with
world class infrastructure, latest sophisticated technology and
world class surgeons to undertake high end procedures, Indian
need not go abroad for treatment. Multimodality
comprehensive treatment of cancer, heart, bone-marrow
transplant, organ transplant and treatment of almost all kind of
other diseases are available with the advance diagnostic
facility. Increase in the strength of trained nursing staff,
keeping pace with the changing need of the patients, more
infrastructure and finance, continuous up-gradation of
technology, and national or more particularly international
accreditation is required for further improvement in the
quality of healthcare services. Hospitals assess their services
from patients’ perspective collect feedback information from
patients and their relatives for further enhancement in quality.
Many specialty hospitals are known for their quality of
treatment and for high end procedures like cardiac, cancer,
organ transplant, orthopedic and neurosurgery. Patients’
inflow is increasing more and more, however, if the existing
capacity is increased they can treat more number of patients.
Since patients’ inflow is increasing extra space, infrastructure,
accommodation, and more equipment are needed and hence
more finance is required.
Private and charitable hospitals advertise their services
and are spending an average of 5 percent of their budget on
The Indian Healthcare sector scenario has undergone
profound changes during last decade. In the last five years
hospitals have been equipped with world class infrastructure,
latest sophisticated technology and world class surgeons to
undertake high end procedures, Indian need not go abroad for
treatment. Multimodality comprehensive treatment of cancer,
heart, bone-marrow transplant, organ transplant and
treatment of almost all kind of other diseases are available with
the advance diagnostic facility. Increase in the strength of
trained nursing staff, keeping pace with the changing need of
the patients, more infrastructure and finance, continuous up-
gradation of technology, and national or more particularly
international accreditation is required for further
improvement in the quality of healthcare services. Hospitals
assess their services from patients’ perspective collect feedback
information from patients and their relatives for further
enhancement in quality. Many specialty hospitals are known
for their quality of treatment and for high end procedures like
cardiac, cancer, organ transplant, orthopedic and
neurosurgery. Patient’s inflow is increasing more and more,
however, if the existing capacity is increased they can treat
more number of patients. The present study highlights the
perception of administrators of Specialty Hospitals in North
India regarding the current state of healthcare services and
need of marketing for growing competition in specialty
healthcare sector.
Keywords: Specialty Hospital, Hospital administrators,
Word of mouth, Hospitality
Hospital Administrators’ Perception towards Healthcare Services of Specialty Hospitals in North India Dr. Maithili R.P. Singh*
promotion/advertisement of services, while government
hospitals are not spending on advertisement because they are
not provided any fund for advertisement by government.
Accreditation is symbol of quality, international patients prefer
accredited hospital, in India some hospitals are accredited
from Joint Commission International; many hospitals are
seeking accreditations form National accreditation Board for
Hospital (NABH), hospitals already accredited from NABH
are applying for JCI. Accreditation is necessary for to create
brand image of the hospital at national and international
healthcare market. Hospitals are investing best input in the
technology and manpower and are trying to creating star
facility.
With the entry of big business houses in healthcare sector,
large corporate hospitals are being setting up giving a new
light to the existing competition. Number of hospitals applying
for national accreditation with NABH is increasing; those
already accredited with NABH are applying for international
accreditation from Joint commission International. With the
emerging of national & international accredited hospital
competition in health sector is going up. More particularly
competition is increasing among hospitals of private sector.
Fortis healthcare recently bought 90 percent stake in Escorts
hospital for Rs. 585 crore and is acquiring another 250 bed
hospital in the Bangalore city. Wockhardt hospital under its
expansion and diversification plan is setting up a 200 bed
hospital in Devanhalli, Bangalore. Manipal healthcare group is
considering a 350 bed hospital in Bangalore. St John’s hospital
is setting up a large super-specialty corporate hospital in the
same campus where it runs a 1000 bed missionary hospital.
Fortis is acquiring another newly built Imperial hospital in
Bangalore city.
Besides adding more facilities at their domestic units
Apollo, Max, Wockhardt and Fortis healthcare groups are
planning for overseas expansion also. Apollo hospital group
has planned to set up and manage hospital projects in Fiji and
Mauritius. Max healthcare another leading hospital of India is
trying an entry in to the US, UK, and far-east markets besides
the expansion of its operations in countries like Bangladesh
and Afghanistan. Wockhardt is eyeing markets of Europe,
more particularly UK, the company is already building its
brand presence through tie-ups with leading healthcare
insurance providers in the US, UK, and Singapore.
Competition on costs could also make healthcare affordable for
more people in India. India has cost advantage. It is only one-
fifth of the costs in the West. The price of certain high-end
procedures is already coming down. A heart bypass surgery
for instance could cost Rs. 3.5-4 lakh five years ago, and cost
today not more than Rs. 2 lakh. For the first time travel industry
partners tour operators, hotel and airlines and premium
corporate hospitals are busy forging tie-ups to attain more
market share in India and from overseas as well (Rao, 2005).
At present telemedicine is gaining ground, doctors are
consulting globally to provide their patient best care,
healthcare providers are joining hands, and quality treatment
is now available in Africa and Asian continent also which was
previously poor as compared to west. Tie ups between major
players in the world is increasing, healthcare industry is taking
the shape of medical tourism. Besides US, UK and Middle-East,
Singapore and Thailand are emerging as low cost treatment
destination in other parts of the world, creating tough
competition in healthcare market. Now hospitals want to
acquire other countries share in healthcare sector (Sinha, 2008).
The present study is based on the assumption that the
administrators of specialty hospitals are pivotal to hospital
management, quality assurance and all marketing efforts. The
perception of hospital administrators are utmost important for
overall development of specialty hospitals. They are key to
success for any hospital by performing the desired activities for
the all round improvement and development of specialty
hospitals.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Narasimham (1981) emphasizes that a pre-requisite for
organizing a comprehensive and continued service from the
home or community to the hospital and vice versa, there
should be a good recording system. Such facilities exist only in
a few institutions at present. Such efforts have to be made to
obtain the staff, physical facilities and co ordination, in
favourable situation where there is scope, there is need for
sincere experimentation of the comprehensive services and
follows up.
Yesudian (1988) concludes that according to the planning
commission of India, the 20 percent of the population living in
urban areas have the facilities of 70 percent of the total hospital
beds and 80 percent of the doctors in the country. However,
though all varieties of health services are available in our cities,
not all sections of the community are benefited by these
facilities. There is a wide gap in the utilization of health services
between the various sections.
Joseph (2000) reveals that 15 years ago, cataract surgery
involved staying in the hospital for 7 days for each eye. Today,
it is a total of 3 hours for both eyes. Besides, with intra-ocular
lens implants, one emerges with new eyes and brilliant vision.
Scientific achievements and rapid technological advances have
also escalated healthcare expenditure throughout the world.
Although healthcare still remains a cottage industry, during
the last 20 years, it has witnessed a tremendous growth in the
private sector of institutional healthcare, a mushrooming of
hospitals, medical colleges, nursing homes, and diagnostic
centers.
McKinsey (2004) pinpoints the healthcare markets in
India are on the verge of a rapid growth phase. Corporate
hospitals have realized the need to transform themselves into
efficient profit-making organizations to survive the increasing
competition. The perceived threat of global competition has
also compelled the healthcare industry to re-orient itself to face
the challenge. Increasing competition both global and local,
with the entry of private players will be one aspect which will
drive this change.
Choudhury (2004) speaks about Indian healthcare
federation the apex body of healthcare services providers in the
country is planning to introduce an accreditation system for
18 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
Rao (2005) describes that a substantial number of
foreigners are coming to India to avail the quality medical
treatment at a cost much lower than that of other countries of
the world, particularly in the field of cardiology, cardiac
surgery, joint replacement, ophthalmology, pathology and
Indian systems of medicine etc. The government of India has
constituted a task force to promote India as a health destination
for persons across the globe so as to gainfully utilize the
healthcare expertise and infrastructure available in the
country.
Jha (2006) writes that apart from hosting the best and state
of art medical facilities, Medicity will be positioned as a one
stop destination for medical tourism in the country. Gurgaon
may have more than 3,000 beds in the premium organized
private medical sector. Medicity will have separate units for
Ayurvedic and Unani medicine as well. The integrated
hospital chain is also likely to get into tie-ups with medical
universities in the US and Germany.
OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY
The objective of the study is to know the perception of
administrators of Specialty Hospitals in North India regarding
the current state of healthcare services and need of marketing
for growing competition in specialty healthcare sector.
The study covers 25 hospitals (government, private and
charitable) in all of north India from the states of Delhi,
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, Punjab, Uttrakhand, U.P.
and union territory Chandigarh. The sample size for primary
data includes one administrator from each hospital. The
secondary data is collected from published reports, magazines,
newspapers, journals, websites of the hospital, medical
colleges, institutes etc. across the country.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The Result obtained through analysis, have been
presented in the following Tables (Table No 1 to Table No 17 in
this section.)
1. Provision of feedback regarding services: Hospital try to know public opinion about their services, they ask the patients regarding any sort of problem and during their departure feedback form are given to fill up, few hospital organize talk shows for to collect information regarding their facility, many hospitals try to collect information from patients’ suggestions and complaints.
In spite of these promotional efforts specialty hospital
usually have provision to know the public opinion about
hospital and services and they try to identify the need of
the patients. The marketers of specialty hospital now-a-
days are carrying out marketing research activity to
identify the need of the patient as it is shown in table 1
and 2.
healthcare institutions soon. IHCF is working closely with the
US-based accreditation organization, joint commission
international to set the parameters of the system. The
accreditation will set standards for infection control, continuity
and quality of care, adhering to standard procedures of drug
delivery, hospital safety infrastructure, design of patient
facilities like beds and toilets and other set of similar
parameters.
Seth & Mathew (2005) write that Indian healthcare is all
set to go global. The overseas expansion plans of hospital
majors, including Apollo, Max, Wockhardt and Fortis, are
being planned even as these groups are adding more facilities
at their domestic units to woo patients in large numbers. The
healthcare majors in India are planning something like their
counterparts in IT are doing: a mix of ‘offshoring’ and
‘onshoring’. They are also making ambitious plans to deliver
‘quality’ and ‘affordable’ healthcare delivery services to
overseas patients at their door steps. Our long term plan is to
emerge as a leading global player in providing quality
healthcare at affordable costs, and as part of this, we have plans
to enter a number of overseas markets.
Mathiyazhagan (2005) says India’s health sector is
currently at a crossroads and presents tremendous
opportunities. In terms of market size, India’s private health
sector is enormous, accounting for almost 4.2 percent of the
country’s GDP. In 2001, India had only seven beds per 1,000
people, with public hospitals contributing 4 beds per 1,000
people. Recent healthcare utilization surveys in India show
that private healthcare providers contribute to 60 percent of the
countries curative health services needs. Even lower and
middle income groups in the areas bypass supply constrained
government healthcare services to seek medical care from the
private sector.
Sharma (2005) points out that Indian healthcare sector has
never been known to be a good marketer. It is always said that a
satisfied customer is the biggest advertiser. This is true with the
healthcare sector also. Satisfied customers are the brand
ambassadors of any healthcare organization. Branding and
marketing in the healthcare sector has always taken the back
seat. In the era of localization, privatization and globalization
the world has become one market place. Seeing the potential of
the Indian Healthcare market foreign healthcare companies are
also entering the Indian market.
Pande & Dey (2005) feel that the Indian hospitals have
realized that the big bucks would come from the West. Hence
there’s a rush among the hospitals to make themselves
attractive to medical tourists from Europe and the US. Some
hospitals are packing extra perceived value proposition by
augmenting treatment regiments to include Yoga and other
forms of Traditional Indian healing which have always
fascinated the people in the West. Much of this is being driven
to attract foreign patients from the developed economies
which are a trickle at the moment. Most big private hospital
chains believe, they can rake in greenbacks if they do it right.
Hospital Administrators’ Perception towards Healthcare Services of Specialty Hospitals in North India 19
Table 1 exhibits that all the specialty hospital wants to
know the public opinion about their services.
Table 2: Marketing research to identify the need of the patient
Table 2 depicts that 72 percent hospitals conduct
marketing research to identify the needs of the patients, while
28 percent hospitals do not carry out marketing research.
2. Word of mouth: Conscious marketer knows that mouth to
mouth publicity is the most important tool of promotion in
services marketing. A satisfied and happy customer is the
best ambassador of healthcare marketing as it is evident
from table 3.
Table 3: Word of mouth advertise more than any other type of media
Table 3 depicts that 60 percent administrator of specialty
hospital were strongly agree, 16 percent were agree and 24
percent were neither agree nor disagree that words of mouth
advertises more than any other type of media.
It is clear from the above table that majority of hospitals are
either strongly agree or agree believe that words of mouth
advertise more than any other type of media, a few were
neither agree nor disagree.
3. Provision of concession on medicines for promotion of
services: As promotional efforts some hospitals are
offering concession on the medicine dispensed by them as
shown in table 4.
Table 4: Provision of concession on themedicines dispensed by hospital
Table 4 exhibits that 68 percent hospitals do not provide
concession on the medicine dispensed by the hospital, while 32
percent hospitals have provision of concession on the medicine
dispensed by the hospital.
The table clearly shows that majority of hospitals do not
provide concession on the medicines dispensed by them. A
small number of hospitals provide concession on medicines for
to woo patients towards their services. They provide up to 10
percent discount on medicine dispensed by them.
4. Efforts to attract patients from abroad: Hospitals have
intensified their marketing efforts eying patients from
international healthcare market by providing world class
treatment. Hospitals are tying up with healthcare
institution overseas to widen the scope of marketing,
interest to cater more patients from abroad, and special
apartments for foreign patients etc. as shown in the table 5
and 6.
Table 5: Hospitals tie up with healthcare institution overseas
Table 5 shows that only 4 percent hospitals have tie up
with other hospital/healthcare institution overseas, 44 percent
do not have any tie up overseas, 52 percent hospital are under
consideration tie up healthcare institution overseas.
It is clear from the table that a small number of hospital
already have tie up with healthcare institution overseas while a
majority of hospital’s tie up with healthcare institution
overseas is under consideration.
20 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
Statements Frequency Percentage
Yes 25 100.0
No 0 0
Total 25 100
Source: Primary data.
Statements Frequency Percentage
Yes 18 72.0
No 7 28.0
Total 25 100
Statements Frequency Percentage
Strongly agree 15 60.0
Agree 4 16.0
Neither agree nor disagree
6 24.0
Disagreed 0 0
Strongly Disagreed 0 0
Total 25 100
Table 1: Provision to know the public opinionabout your hospital and services
Source: Primary data.
Source: Primary data.
Statements Frequency Percentage
Yes 8 32
No 17 68
Total 25 100
Source: Primary data.
Statements Frequency Percentage
Yes 1 4
No 11 44
Under 13 52
consideration
Total 25 100
Source: Primary data.
Table 6 shows that 92 percent hospitals do not have special
apartment for foreign patients, while only 8 percent hospitals
have special apartment for foreign patients.
It is clear from the above table that majority of specialty
hospitals do not have special apartment for foreign patients
while a few hospitals have special apartment for foreign
patients. However, to promote patients from overseas they
have special arrangement like deluxe suite, deluxe room, super
deluxe room etc.
5. Special arrangements for VIP, celebrities and affluent
class of society: To promote patients from affluent class of
society, VIP, and celebrities, there are special
arrangements like deluxe suite, deluxe room, super
deluxe room etc as shown in table 7.
Table 7 shows exhibits that all the specialty hospitals have
arrangement for VIP’s, celebrities and affluent class of society.
6. Tying up with hospitality services providers: In order to
facilitate patients coming from distant places in India and
abroad, hospitals are tying up with hospitality industry
like hotels and Airlines etc. as is shown in the table 8.
Table 8 depicts that 68 percent hospitals are tying up with
allied services provider like hospitality Inc. like hotel industry,
32 percent hospital were not tying up with allied service
providers.
21
7. Suggestion and complaints popularize the services: For
effective promotion and satisfaction of their patients,
hospitals entertain suggestion and complaints regarding
their services and try speedy removal of complaints as
shown in table 9.
Table 9 clearly shows that all the hospitals entertain
complaints and suggestions regarding services of hospital.
8. Availability of sufficient medical staff: Employment of
sufficient number of medical and other staff ensures the
smooth discharging of services. Table 10 and 11 shows
whether the medical staff is adequate and total number of
doctors and nursing staff on permanent and temporary
basis.
Table 10 clearly exhibits that all the specialty hospitals
have adequate medical staff.
Nursing staff on permanent and temporary basis
Hospital Administrators’ Perception towards Healthcare Services of Specialty Hospitals in North India
Table 6: Special apartment for foreign patients
Statements Frequency Percentage
Yes 2 8
No 23 92
Total 25 100
Source: Primary data.
Table 7: Types of arrangement for VIPs, celebrities and affluent class of society
Statements Frequency Percentage
Yes 2 8
No 23 92
Total 25 100
Source: Primary data.
Table 8: Tying up with services provider like hotel industry, Airlines etc
Statements Frequency Percentage
Yes 17 68
No 8 32
Total 25 100
Source: Primary data.
Table 9: Whether suggestions and complaints regarding services of hospital are entertained
Statements Frequency Percentage
Yes 25 100
No 0 0
Total 25 100
Source: Primary data.
Table 10: Whether Medical staff is adequate in the hospital
Statements Frequency Percentage
Yes 25 100
No 0 0
Total 25 100
Source: Primary data.
Table 11: Number of doctors and nursing staff employed on permanent & temporary basis
Hospitals
On permanent basis
On temporary basis
Doctors Nursing
staff Doctors
Nursing staff
RMCH 160 400 - -
PGIMS 125 450 - -
IGMCH 110 280 - -
PGI 200 400 - -
AIIMS 500 1450 - -
JMC 200 500 - -
GDH 48 128 - -
Artemis 40 200 20 -
22 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
Table 11 shows AIIMS, has maximum number of
permanent doctors and nursing staff followed by Apollo, JMC,
PGI and PGIMS respectively.
9. Employment of visiting medical staff: Hospitals mostly
private and charitable also employ visiting medical staff
as shown in table 12.
Table 12 exhibits that 60 percent hospitals were employing
visiting medical staff, while 40 percent hospitals do not employ
visiting medical staff.
10. Reasons for employment of visiting medical staff:
Hospitals have some reasons behind employing the
visiting medical staff as shown in table 13.
Table 13 shows that 73.3 percent hospitals were employing
visiting medical staff because it is economical to retain them as
visiting medical staff, 20 percent hospital employ visiting
medical staff because most of them are specialist and are in
short supply, 6.7 percent hospital employ visiting medical staff
because they are from other countries.
It is clear from the table that majority of hospital employ
visiting medical staff because It is economical to retain them as
visiting medical staff and secondly most of them are specialist
and are in short supply.
11. Maintaining disease record: For better treatment
hospitals maintain and keep the record of the disease of
the patients. Some hospital keep the record of the disease
of the patient for short period of time and some hospital
keep the record of the disease for longer period of time as
shown by table 14 and 15.
Table 14 shows that 96 percent hospitals always keep the
record of the disease of their patients, 4 percent hospitals
seldom keep the record of the disease of their patients.
QRG 20 68 15 -
Max 20 90 10 -
Apollo 325 1329 43 -
Yashoda 42 250 15 -
Gracian 10 52 5 12
Kailash 42 90 37 -
Amandeep 15 40 5 -
Fortis 65 98 - -
Tagore 13 35 5 -
RGCIRC 47 230 20 -
Jaipur Golden
30 90 50 -
Mah.
Agarsen 60 300 48 -
Sir GangaRam
72 185 20 -
Batra 93 250 100 -
DMC 91 400 - -
CMC 80 390 - -
SGRRMC 35 125 27 30
Source: Primary data.
Table 12: Employment of visitingmedical staff in the hospital
Statements Frequency Percentage
Yes 15 60
No 10 40
Total 25 100
Source: Primary data.
Table 13: Reasons for employment of visiting medical staff in hospitals
Source: Primary data.
Statements Frequency Percentage
It is economical to retain
them as visiting medical staff.
11 73.3
Hospital /Institution
cannot financially afford to employ them on permanent position.
0 0
Most of them are specialist and are in short supply
3 20.0
They are already employed in leading hospital/Institution and are not willing to join your hospital.
0 0
They are from other countries
1 6.7
Total 15 100.0
Table 14: Record keeping of the disease of the patient
Statements Frequency Percentage
Always 24 96.0
Seldom 1 4.0
Never 0 0
Total 25 100.0
Source: Primary data.
Factors Categories Mean Scores
Std. Deviation
Test statistic
(t / F
value)
Sig.
Gender Male 3.55 1.317
t = -0.724 0.494 Female 4.00 1.225
Age
(in years)
20-40 5.00 .000
F = 5.766 0.010 40-60 3.71 .920
60 & above 4.80 .447
Types of
Hospital
Private 4.14 .949 F = 24.089
0.000 Government 2.00 .000
Charitable 4.75 .500
23Hospital Administrators’ Perception towards Healthcare Services of Specialty Hospitals in North India
Table 15 shows that 48 percent hospitals keep the record of
the disease of the patient up to one year. Another 48 percent
hospitals keep the record up to 5 years, and only 4 percent of
them keep the record up to 10 years.
12. Provision of separate fund for advertising and
marketing: In growing competition there is a need of
provision of separate fund for advertising and marketing
as shown in table 16.
are highly favourable that there is a provision of separate fund
for advertising and marketing where as administrator of
middle aged group (40-60) are not so supportive to the
statement. So ages have an impact on the statement.
The mean score of private and charitable hospital depicts
that they want to have provision of fund for advertising and
marketing while the government hospitals administrators are
quite averse to the statement, they are not in favour of
provision of separate fund for advertising and marketing. The
F-statistic for measuring impact of types of hospitals is 24.089
which is significant at 0.05 level of significance. Hence the null
hypothesis is rejected. It implies that there is significant
difference between the views of administrator of different
types of hospital. So it constitute that types of hospital have an
impact on the statement. The mean score of three types of
hospital again confirm the outcome of hypothesis.
13. Charges of services in hospitals: There is a variation in the
prices of different types of hospital, prices at government
specialty hospital is far less in comparison to charitable
and private hospitals. Higher fee can be charged for better
services by the hospitals as shown in table 17.
The table 16 highlights the result based on test statistic and
mean scores for the statement regarding ‘there is a provision of
separate fund for advertising and marketing’. The t-test value
for measuring gender effect is -.724 which is statistically not
significant at 0.05 level of confidence. So the null hypothesis is
accepted. The mean score of female shows that female is highly
supportive in views that there is a provision of separate fund
for advertising and marketing. Although male is also
supportive to the statement. Hence genders do not have impact
on the statement.
The F-ratio on age effect is 5.766 which is significant at 0.05
level of significance. Hence the null hypothesis is rejected. This
reveals that there is significant difference in the views of
administrator of different age group. The mean score of young
administrator (20-40) and old aged administrator shows they
Table 15: Duration to keep the record of the disease of the patients
Statements Frequency Percentage
Up to one year 12 48.0
1 to 5 years 12 48.0
5 to 10 years 1 4.0
Total 25 100.0
Source: Primary data.
Table 16: Summary of test statistics for the statement ‘There is a provision of separate fund
for advertising and marketing’
Source: Primary dataSignificance at 5% level.
Table 17: Summary of test statistics for the statement ‘Higher fee can be charged for better
services by the hospitals
Factors Categories Mean Scores
Std. Deviation
Test statistic
(t / F value)
Sig.
Gender Male 3.65 1.461 t = -1.452 0.177
Female 4.40 .894
Age
(in years)
20-40 4.67 .577
F= 2.321 0.122 40-60 3.41 1.502
60 & above 4.60 .548
Types of Hospital
Private 4.60 .516
F= 6.455 0.006 Government 2.57 1.397
Charitable 3.88 1.458
Source: Primary data.Significance at 5% level.
The table 17 depicts the result based on test statistic and
mean scores for the statement regarding ‘Higher fee can be
charged for better services by hospital’. The t-test for
measuring gender effect is -1.452 which is statistically not
significant at 0.05 level of confidence. So the null hypothesis is
accepted. This implies that there is no significant difference
between male and female administrator on the statement.
The F-ratio for measuring age effect is 2.321 which is
statistically not significant at 0.05 level of significance. Hence
the null hypothesis is accepted. This reveals that there is no
significant difference in the views of different age groups of
administrator. The minor differences in the mean score also
confirm the hypothesis.
24 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
The mean score depicts private hospitals are more
favorable to the statement in comparison to charitable
hospitals that higher fees can be charged for better services.
However, the government hospitals are not supportive in
views. The F-statistic for measuring impact of types of hospital
is 6.455 which is statistically significant at 0.05 level of
significance. Hence the null hypothesis is rejected. It implies
that there is a significant difference in the views of
administrator of different types of hospital regarding the
statement. So types of hospital constitute an impact on the
statement.
CONCLUSION
It may be concluded from the study that all the specialty
hospital wants to know the public opinion about their services,
entertain complaints and suggestions regarding services of
hospital, always keep the record of the disease of their patients
and majority of them conduct marketing research to identify
the needs of the patients. Word of mouth is believed to be most
effective for promotion of healthcare services.
Majority of hospitals do not provide concession on the
medicines dispensed by them, a small number of hospitals
provide concession on medicines up to 10 percent. A small
number of hospital already have tie up with healthcare
institution overseas while a majority of hospital’s tie up with
healthcare institution overseas is under consideration.
Hospitals are tying up with allied services provider like
hospitality Inc. like hotel industry and allied service providers.
Majority of specialty hospitals do not have special
apartment for foreign patients while a few hospitals have
special apartment for foreign patients, however, they have
arrangement for VIP’s, celebrities and affluent class of society.
All the specialty hospitals have adequate medical staff,
however, majority of hospital employ visiting medical staff
because it is economical to retain them as visiting medical staff
and secondly most of them are specialist and are in short
supply.
Private and charitable hospitals want to have provision of
fund for advertising & marketing and believe that higher fees
can be charged for better services; however, the government
hospitals are not supportive in views.
REFERENCES
• Choudhury, J. R. (2004, February 17). IHCF to set up
accreditation system for healthcare units. Health News, Express
Pharma Pulse, 13.
• Jha, M. S. (2006, May 1). Gurgaon to become hospital hub. The
Economic Times, 4.
• Joseph, N. (2000, April). Healthcare- Indian and Global Trends,
the Challenge Ahead. Management and labour studies, 25(2),
122.
• McKinsey, C.I.I. (2004, April 18). It’s all about healthcare. The
Economic Times, 5.
• Mathiyazhagan, M.K. (2005, September 16). India’s next big
thing: healthcare. The Hindu Business Line, 8.
• Narasimham, V.L. (1981). Community health services through
hospitals. In Sahni, A. (1981). Role of hospitals in Health Care,
Publishers Indian Societies of Health Administrators, p. 63.
• Pande, B. & Dey, S. (2005, September 23). Five-star hospitality
for medical tourists. The Economic Times, 26.
• Parsad, P. B. (1992, September). Marketing of Health Services
in Maternity Care- A managerial approach, Doctoral Thesis,
Venkateshwara University, Tirupati, 1-5, 12, 13, 41, 42.
• Rao, V. M. (2005, October). Rural health facilities.
Kurukshetra, 53(12), 72.
• Seth, D. & Mathew, J. (2005, December 7). Healthcare chains
going global to keep in shape. The Economic Times, 7.
• Sharma, G. (2005). Service industry management. Chandigarh:
IIFT Research-consultancy & Publication division.
• Sinha, K. (2008, April 4). Medical tourism booming in India.
The Times of India, p.19.
• Yesudian, C.A.K. (1988). Health services Utilization in Urban
India. Delhi: Mittal publications, 1.
*Asstt. Professor (Sr.) and HOD, Department of Information Technology, Amity Business School, Amity University, UP, India.
**Student, Pursuing MBA, Amity Business School, Amity University, UP, India.
INTRODUCTION
Modern Information Technology has changed our lives
entirely, of which one important part is shopping. Emergence
of Internet, Mobile Phone Technology, Mobile Phone
Broadband and creation and largely reliable high speed
Network Support and continuous development in the
Information Technology infrastructure has largely fuelled the
growth of e-commerce transactions. Although such practices
have existed since long in the technologically advanced
developed countries, this concept has started developing roots
in developing countries like India and other countries.
Individuals and Governments in South East Asia & Pacific
region have also started experimenting with this concept, due
to its unique advantages.
Another major factor; other than the social & work
environment of Banking Infrastructure and Networking
Support, behind the acceptance of this model is the changing
cultural scene. Today people are spending more time in
travelling to office, working in night shifts; organizations are
working seven days a week. This has forced the people to look
for other alternatives of shopping because of paucity of time.
Another reason is the availability of worldwide
communication and publicity media like TV and Internet. Now
the people are able to find out about any new products
launched all across the world. Naturally the next step is
purchase of the desired product. e-commerce model comes
handy here. People can purchase the product from anywhere
in the world from home without going to that particular part of
the world where the product is available.
This model enables companies to deal directly with the
consumer and removing the middlemen, thus helping in
cutting costs. e-commerce model is the precise model the big
retailers wanted. It was immediately accepted by the industry.
Governments are promoting the e-commerce model due
to many reasons. Major reasons being:-
1. Cash Transactions are reduced which is good for the
economy. Malpractices are discouraged automatically.
2. Due to purchasing being done from home, environmental
Electronic commerce (e-Commerce) relates to the
purchasing and selling or products or services, with the help of
electronic interfaces meant for reaching the masses such as
Internet and other computer networks. Consistently revised
security protocols such as Secure Socket Layer (SSL) and anti-
spyware services ensure safe browsing and transactions over
the World Wide Web. The emergence of e-Commerce has
transformed business corporations around the world into
much more sophisticated and technology driven units. Modern
electronic commerce is supported by a wide range of
technologies including e-mail, mobile phones etc. e-
Commercehas existed for a long time as a model of commerce. It
is only recently that it has achieved such wide recognition due
to multiple factors like globalization ushered in by Information
Technology all across the world. E-commerce may not be
taking off as yet on the regional level. The sudden surge in
availability and acceptance of credit cards, IT assisted Banking
(Internet Banking, Telephone Banking etc.) made way for yet
newer innovations in the field of e-Commerce. By the end of
2000, most of the European and American business companies
started offering their services via the World Wide Web.
Although e-commerce is the model of the future, there are still
some problems being faced by the users of the model (sellers and
buyers both). This paper aims to point out distinct problems
relating to e-Commerce and its applications. For this purpose,
exploratory research was conducted by collecting data using
Structured Questionnaire. Separate Questionnaires were
presented to customers and owners of e-Commerce based
Websites. The size of the sample is 111 (customers) and 20
(owners). The sampling technique used is Non-probabilistic
Convenience sampling, with Delhi NCR as the sampling
frame.The results highlight a major perception gap between the
mindsets of customers and owners of e-commerce websites.
Also, it is observed that some of the encouraging factors for
using e-commerce websites are Gender specific. Based on the
findings, it is highly recommended that customers should
demand quality and be careful at the time of delivery of items or
products purchased online.
Keywords: E-Commerce, World Wide Web, SSL, Online
shopping, Transaction, Network, EDI, Downloading,
Problems
E-Commerce based Websites:Complications and Perception Gap Gaurav Chandhiok*
Baldev Kr. Asnanie**
pollution; road traffic density and fuel consumption is
considerably reduced.
3. Due to less time being spent on travelling, the GDP (Gross
domestic product) automatically increases.
The e-commerce model is being accepted by
individuals(buyers) due to the following reasons:-
1. Availability of vide variety at one place (Customer doesn’t
have to visit different markets for a variety of a product
e.g. shoes.). Also the customer gets an unlimited market
place and can shop anywhere in the world.
2. Time and money cost of travelling to outlet is nullified.
3. Work time / Open hours constraints are nullified. If the
free time of customers and open hours of the brick and
mortar store don’t match, the customer can’t do the
purchasing. There is no such problem in c-commerce.
4. Customer gets the product cheaper due to elimination of
middlemen.
The businesses are promoting ecommerce model because
of the following reasons:-
1. Lower cost of doing business than having brick and
mortar stores.
2. The business gets an unlimited market place. E-commerce
site attracts customers from all corners of the world unlike
the local customers in case of brick and mortar store.
3. As the middlemen are eliminated in this model, the
businesses are able to provide the product to customers at
much lesser prices.
The customers can take purchase decision right at home
with ease, while looking at variety of products at reasonable
prices that can be easily compared with other similar products
in the market, enabling them to arrive at a suitable decision. E-
Commerce offers the customer a wide range of products and
services, with an interactive feature for comparing the price
quoted by different suppliers or vendors to choose the deal best
suited to their needs and wants.
Most people believe that e-Commerce is just constrained
to online shopping, whereas it is just one of the many features
offered by e-Commerce. Other features include online trading
of stock and bonds, buying and downloading software,
electronic funds transfer, Electronic Data Interchange (EDI),
Inventory Management systems and so on. Moreover, e-
Commerce includes business-to-business interaction packages
that make purchasing in bulk easier and economical for big
corporations.
Despite the technological superiority and ease of access, e-
Commerce has been facing tough challenges and loopholes.
The problems related to e-Commerce observed through
analysis of secondary data during research are listed below:
• Undisclosed or Unsubstantiated charges.
• Failure to Honor warranty or guarantee by vendor.
• Misrepresentation of product information.
• Merchandise or service delivered not in conformity with
the purchase order.
• Non-availability of proper contact information of the
vendor.
• Unauthorized use of identity or Account information by
the vendor.
• Billing for unordered Merchandise or service.
• Failure to honor refund policy on the part of the vendor.
• Non-delivery of Merchandise or service.
• Defective/poor Quality of products purchased online.
The focus of this paper is to find out the problems faced by
the customers and the vendors using the e-commerce model.
This paper is divided into various informative sections.
The following section discusses various theoretical as well as
figurative contributions in the field of e-commerce from
various authors and researchers. The section after that is titled
research methodology, and describes the various research
design considerations of our study including demographic
profile of the customers being interviewed through
Questionnaires. Moreover, the next sections lists down various
data analysis tools employed with their respective
interpretations. The next section tries to bring the attention of
the reader to the conclusions drawn and recommendations
based on our research. Last but not the least, all the references
and citations being quoted in our study are listed down as
Bibliography. An Appendix section with the research
Questionnaires is provided in the end for reference.
LITERATURE REVIEW
In 1990, Tim Berners-Lee invented the WWW Web
browser and transformed an academic telecommunication
network into a worldwide everyman everyday
communication system called internet/www.Commercial
enterprise on the Internet was strictly prohibited by National
Science Foundation (NSF) until 1995(Kelly, 2005).
In 1979, Michael Aldrich invented online shopping(Tkacz
& Kapczynski, 2009). In 1984, Gateshead SIS/Tesco is first
Business-to-customer (B2C) online shopping and Mrs.
Snowball, 72, is the first online home shopper (Aldrich, 2009).
In April 1984, CompuServe launched the Electronic Mall in the
USA and Canada. It was the first comprehensive electronic
commerce service (Online Today, 1984). Thursday 27 April
1995, the purchase of a book by Paul Stanfield, Product
Manager for CompuServe UK, from W H Smith’s shop within
CompuServe’s UK Shopping Centre is the UK’s first national
online shopping service secure transaction. The shopping
service at launch featured WH Smith, Tesco, Virgin/Our Price,
Great Universal Stores/GUS, Interflora, Dixons Retail, Past
Times, PC World (retailer) and Innovations (IMRG Special
Report).In the year 2012, US e-Commerce and Online Retail
sales are projected to reach $226 billion, an increase of 12
percent over 2011 (Mulpuru, Sehgal, Evans, Hoar, & Roberge,
2012).
In the United States, some electronic commerce activities
are regulated by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). These
activities include the use of commercial e-mails, online
advertising and consumer privacy. The CAN-SPAM Act of
2003 establishes national standards for direct marketing over e-
mail. The FTC Act regulates all forms of advertising, including
online advertising, and states that advertising must be truthful
and non-deceptive(Department of commerce, 1914).
26 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
9. Sampling size: 111 for customers and 20 for owners.
10. Sampling Technique: Non probabilistic Convenience
sampling.
11. Scales used: Likert Scale.
12. Pilot Survey: 10% of the population.
13. Data Analysis: Cross-tabulation.
14. Testing Techniques: Independent t-test and Correlation.
D E M O G R A P H I C P R O F I L E O F T H E RESPONDENTS (CUSTOMERS)
DATA ANALYSIS WITH INTERPRETATIONS
1) Reliability Check(Checking accuracy of data for all variable scales in Questionnaire designed for Customers)
This study adopted the value of Cronbach’s coefficient
alpha for identifying the reliability of the measurement and
scale items. Reliability can reflect the internal consistency of the
indicators measuring a given factor. The item reliability for
each scale was examined using Cronbach’s coefficient alpha to
confirm internal consistency of the measures. Nunnally (1978)
suggested that a scale can be considered to have high reliability
if Cronbach’s alpha is greater than 0.70 and should be removed
if it was lower than 0.35. High reliability value ensures that the
responses are suitable and authentic. Also, since the response
values of different respondents isn’t widely distributed (less
variance and standard deviation), the data analysis results are
also assumed to be more accurate and reliable.
Scale: ALL VARIABLES
Business models across the world also continue to change
drastically with the advent of e-Commerce and this change is
not just restricted to USA. Other countries are also contributing
to the growth of e-Commerce. For example, the United
Kingdom has the biggest e-Commerce market in the world
when measured by the amount spent per capita, even higher
than the USA. The internet economy in UK is likely to grow by
10% between 2010 and 2015. This has led to changing dynamics
for the advertising industry(Robinson, 2010).
Amongst emerging economies, China's e-Commerce
presence continues to expand. With 384 million internet users,
China's online shopping sales rose to $36.6 billion in 2009 and
one of the reasons behind the huge growth has been the
improved trust level for shoppers. The Chinese retailers have
been able to help consumers feel more comfortable shopping
online (Olsen, 2010). E-Commerce is also expanding across the
Middle East. Having recorded the world’s fastest growth in
internet usage between 2000 and 2009, the region is now home
to more than 60 million internet users. Retail, travel and
gaming are the region’s top e-Commerce segments, in spite of
difficulties such as the lack of region-wide legal frameworks
and logistical problems in cross-border transportation
(Thomas White International, 2012). E-Commerce has become
an important tool for businesses worldwide not only to sell to
customers but also to engage them(Eisingerich & Kretschmer,
2008).
Google, in 2007, earned 48% of its revenues from
international operations (Google, 2007), operating and
providing localized Information-related content in more 134
more developing countries than Yahoo. Using its authority
under Section 5 of the FTC (Federal Trade Commission) Act,
which prohibits unfair or deceptive practices, the FTC has
brought a number of cases to enforce the promises in corporate
privacy statements, including promises about the security of
consumers’ personal information(Department of commerce,
1914).
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Objectives
1. To find out problems related to e-Commerce websites
from customers and owner point of view.
2. To determine the impact of these problems on success of e-
Commerce websites.
3. To find out possible solutions to existing drawbacks of the
e-commerce based selling models.
Research Design
1. Research Type: Exploratory.
2. Type of Data: Primary and Secondary.
3. Data Collection Tool: Structured Questionnaire.
4. Data collection Method: Survey Method (Personal
Interviews and through e-mails).
5. Analysis tools: SPSS 19.0 and MS Excel.
6. Type of Survey: Sample Survey.
7. Sampling frame: Vendors and customers using the e-
commerce model.
8. Sampling Area: Delhi NCR.
E-Commerce based Websites: Complications and Perception Gap 27
Graph 1: Combined Graph of Customer respondents demographics
Table set 1: Reliability Analysis
Case Processing Summary
N %
Cases Valid 111 100.0
Excludeda 0 .0
Total 111 100.0
a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure.
Convenience
Availability of large
variety at one place
24X7 access
Saving of time
Better Information Availability
Ease of comparision
among products
N Valid 20 20 20 20 20 20
Missing 0 0 0 0 0 0
Std. Deviation
.000 .489 .444 .308 .000 .503
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items
.697 51
The result of our research study showed high reliability of
the questionnaire. All the questions used in this survey have
been validated in previous studies. Results showed that every
construct of this research model had strong reliability with all
Cronbach’s alpha approximately equal to 0.70 (as shown in
Table set 1 above).
2) Analysis 1 (Perception Gap between Customers and Owners pertaining to encouraging factors for using e-commerce)
28 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
Reliability Statistics
Graph 2: Encouraging factors for using e-commerce (Owners)
Graph 3: Encouraging Factors for using e-commerce (Customers)
Table Set 2: Frequency Distribution of results of encouraging factors for using e-Commerce by customers (Owners opinions)
FREQUENCIES FOR OWNERS (Statistics)
Convenience
Availability of large verity at
one place 24x7
access saving of
time
Better Information Availability
Ease of Comparison
among products
N Valid 111 111 111 111 111 111
Missing 0 0 0 0 0 0
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid Yes 8 40.0 40.0 40.0
No 12 60.0 60.0 100.0
Total 20 100.0 100.0
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid No 20 100.0 100.0 100.0
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid Yes 18 90.0 90.0 90.0
No 2 10.0 10.0 100.0
Total 20 100.0 100.0
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid Yes 5 25.0 25.0 25.0
No 15 75.0 75.0 100.0
Total 20 100.0 100.0
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid Yes 13 65.0 65.0 65.0
No 7 35.0 35.0 100.0
Total 20 100.0 100.0
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid Yes 20 100.0 100.0 100.0
29E-Commerce based Websites: Complications and Perception Gap
Convenience
Availability of large variety at one place
24X7 access
Saving of time
Better Information Availability
Ease of comparison among products
Table Set 3: Frequency Distribution of results of encouraging factors for using e-Commerce by customers (Customer’s Opinions)
FREQUENCIES FOR CUSTOMERS (Statistics)
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid Yes 90 81.1 81.1 81.1
No 21 18.9 18.9 100.0
Total 111 100.0 100.0
Convenience
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid Yes 57 51.4 51.4 51.4
No 54 48.6 48.6 100.0
Total 111 100.0 100.0
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid Yes 42 37.8 37.8 37.8
No 69 62.2 62.2 100.0
Total 111 100.0 100.0
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid Yes 81 73.0 73.0 73.0
No 30 27.0 27.0 100.0
Total 111 100.0 100.0
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid Yes 75 67.6 67.6 67.6
No 36 32.4 32.4 100.0
Total 111 100.0 100.0
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid Yes 57 51.4 51.4 51.4
No 54 48.6 48.6 100.0
Total 111 100.0 100.0
30 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
Interpretation
The statistics displayed above indicates significant
difference between the perceptions of customers and owners
with respect to encouraging factors for using e-commerce by
customers. This could mean that the e-Commerce Website
owners and service providers are not able to communicate
properly with their customers. If the owners understand such
encouraging factors better, they will be able to understand the
needs and wants of the customers well in advance, so that
effective and desirable products & services are produced.
3) Analysis 2 (Frequency of usage of credit/ Debit cards by customers for online transactions)
Availability of large variety at one place
24x7 access
saving of time
Better Information Availability
Ease of Comparison among products
Graph 4: Debit/ credit card usage frequency by customers
N Valid 111
Missing 0
Statistics
Card Usage
Number of hits
Updation Time
Total Daily Weekly Fort night
<50 Category Communication Provider 0 1 1
Lifestyle 2 2 4
Grocery 0 1 1
Electronic goods 1 0 1
Total 3 4 7
50-100 Category Travel Convenience 1 1 2 4
Lifestyle 3 0 0 3
Grocery 2 0 0 2
Electronic goods 1 1 0 2
Total 7 2 2 11
>200 Category Online Banking 2 2
Total 2 2
Total Category Online Banking 2 0 0 2
Travel Convenience 1 1 2 4
Communication Provider 0 1 0 1
Lifestyle 5 2 0 7
Grocery 2 1 0 3
Electronic goods 2 1 0 3
Total 12 6 2 20
Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
Category * Updation Time * Number of hits
20 100.0% 0 .0% 20 100.0%
Case Processing Summary
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid Never 9 8.1 8.1 8.1
Daily 3 2.7 2.7 10.8
Weekly 39 35.1 35.1 45.9
Biweekly 15 13.5 13.5 59.5
Monthly 45 40.5 40.5 100.0
Total 111 100.0 100.0
31E-Commerce based Websites: Complications and Perception Gap
Interpretation
The statistics displayed above indicates that almost 41 % of
the respondents prefer using their credit/ debit cards on a
monthly basis for carrying out transactions online, followed by
approximately 35 % for Weekly. The banks issuing credit/
debit cards to their customers can take a special note of this
result to promote their plastic cards, with special reference to e-
Commerce Websites in their Advertisements. The results also
suggest that online purchase models are still at a nascent and
developing stage. Thus, customers are required to be
encouraged to use online modes of shopping more over
traditional ways requiring their physical presence.
4) Analysis 3 (Cross Tabulation of Type of e-commerce Websites, Number of hits and updating time of websites from owner’s perspective)
Table Set 4: Frequency Distribution of Card Usage responses by customerCard Usage
Graph 5: Bar diagram showing Updating time in rows, Number of hits as category axis and category of websites in clusters
Table Set 5: Cross tabulation showing category of websites and Updating time with Number of hits in the layer variable
Category * Updating Time * Number of hits Cross tabulation Count
Education
Income level
Total <1L 1-5L 5-10L >10L
GRADUATE No physical Examination Yes 0 15 3 6 24
No 3 0 3 3 9
Total 3 15 6 9 33
POST GRADUATE No physical Examination Yes 6 21 15 6 48
No 6 9 15 0 30
Total 12 30 30 6 78
Total No physical Examination Yes 6 36 18 12 72
No 9 9 18 3 39
Total 15 45 36 15 111
Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
No physical Examination * Income level * Education
111 100.0% 0 .0% 111 100.0%
32 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
Interpretation
The above Table Set 5 result indicates that e-commerce
website owners are more likely to receive high site visit hits if
they update websites on daily basis. For Example, almost 64 %
respondents reported to have observed high site visits due to
daily updating of websites.
5) Analysis 4 (Cross-tabulation between Income level, Education and Discouraging factors for not using e-Commerce Websites by Customers)
people about the reliability and authenticity of the purchased
products. Also, they need to be convinced about the
advantages that e-Commerce offers.
6) Analysis 6 (Study to determine co-relation between two variables of experience while shopping online by customers)
Graph 6: Multilevel graph showing Income level, Educational Qualification and Discouraging factors
for not using e-Commerce Websites
Case Processing Summary
Table Set 6: Cross tabulation showing Income Level, Discouraging factors with Educational Qualification as Layer variable
No physical Examination * Income level * Education Cross tabulation Count
Interpretation
Results in Table Set 6 suggests that 15 respondents (almost
46%) who are Graduates and 21 respondents (almost 27%),
having income ranging from 1 to 5 lakhs per annum, are
discouraged by the fact that e-Commerce based websites do
not provide the facility of physical examination of the product
before purchase. Special efforts should be made to assure such
Bad
delivery service
Bad after sale service
Bad delivery service
Pearson Correlation
1 .444**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 111 111
Bad after sale service
Pearson Correlation
.444** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 111 111
Table Set 7: Correlation between Bad sale service and Bad after sale serviceCorrelations
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
33E-Commerce based Websites: Complications and Perception Gap
Interpretation
The above analysis is performed to determine whether
bad after sales service is co-related with bad delivery service.
The result suggests that there is a moderate co-relation
between the two attributes. This implies that if a customer is a
victim of bad delivery service, then he is most likely to
experience bad after sales service & support too. It is highly
recommended that customers should be very demanding and
careful at the time of delivery of items or products purchased
online.
7) Analysis 7 (Testing of Hypothesis)
Ho| µo: There is no significant difference between the
mean values of Male and Female response fields with respect to
the choice of response for importance level of various
attributes, as mentioned in the questionnaire.
H1 | µ1: There is a significant difference between the mean
values of Male and Female response fields with respect to the
choice of response for importance level of various attributes, as
mentioned in the questionnaire.
Confidence Interval: 0 - 95%
Level of Significance (Tabulated): 5%
Eligibility for accepting µ1: p-value or significance
(Calculated) < 0.05
Table Set 9: Z-Test Statistics determining the authenticity of H1 (claim) for significant difference between means of both Genders with respect to the choice of importance level for various attributes
Group Statistics
Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Website design MALE 66 1.91 .854 .105
FEMALE 45 2.33 1.087 .162
Website Updation MALE 66 1.77 .675 .083
FEMALE 45 1.87 .894 .133
Speed of up/downloading MALE 66 1.73 .814 .100
FEMALE 45 1.33 .603 .090
Access to information MALE 66 1.55 .587 .072
FEMALE 45 1.60 .889 .133
Security MALE 66 1.50 .846 .104
FEMALE 45 1.40 .889 .133
Price Transperancy MALE 66 1.64 .777 .096
FEMALE 45 1.67 .798 .119
Tracking of order status MALE 66 2.00 .804 .099
FEMALE 45 1.73 .780 .116
Delivery Service MALE 66 1.95 .831 .102
FEMALE 45 1.60 .720 .107
34 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
Interpretation
Data in Table Set 8 and Figure 1 indicates that there is a
significant difference in the mean values of some of the priority
choices made for various attributes, with respect to the gender
of the respondents. The attributes qualifying the Alternate
hypothesis criteria are: Website Design, Speed of Uploading/
downloading and Delivery service. The e-Commerce Website
owners and service providers should focus on providing
special Gender specific features for the above mentioned
attributes, to increase brand awareness and satisfaction of
customers, which would eventually result in increased sales
and site visits.
CONCLUSION
1. The result of our research study showed high reliability of
the responses collected. All the questions used in this
survey have been validated in previous studies. Results
showed that every construct of the research model had
strong reliability with all Cronbach’s alpha approximately
equal to 0.70 (as shown in Table set 1).
2. A huge perception gap was observed in the perceptions of
customers and owners. For Example: As per most owners
(8 respondents), customers are encouraged by Time
saving and Convenience features of e-Commerce
Websites. Whereas, as per customers (only 2 respondents)
agree gave similar responses.
3. Almost 41% of the respondents prefer using their credit/
debit cards on a monthly basis for carrying out
transactions online, followed by approximately 35%
weekly.
4. Table Set 5 result indicates that e-commerce website
owners are more likely to receive high site visit hits if they
update websites on daily basis. Almost 64% respondents
reported to have observed high site visits due to daily
updating of websites.
5. Results in Table Set 6 suggest that 15 respondents (almost
46%) who are Graduates and 21 respondents (almost 27%),
having income ranging from 1 to 5 lakhs per annum, are
discouraged by the fact that e-Commerce based websites
do not provide the facility of physical examination of the
product before purchase.
6. The co-relation analysis is performed to determine
whether bad after sales service is co-related with bad
delivery service. The result suggests that there is a
moderate co-relation, precisely .444, between the two
attributes. This implies that if a customer is a victim of bad
delivery service, then he is most likely to experience bad
after sales service & support too.
7. The Testing of Hypothesis result indicates that attributes
like Website design (p-value=.024), Speed of
downloading/uploading (p-value=.007) and Delivery
service (p-value=.022) are greatly influenced by Gender of
the customers.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. The owners of Websites should try to reduce the
perception gap about factors that encourage customers to
use e-Commerce based websites by utilizing and
enhancing existing communication channels. This in turn
will enable them to understand the needs and wants of the
customers well in advance, so that effective and desirable
products & services could be produced.
2. The results suggest that online purchase models are still at
a nascent and developing stage. Thus, customers are
required to be encouraged to use online modes of
shopping more over traditional ways that require their
physical presence.
3. The data analysis results indicate that e-commerce website
owners are more likely to receive high site visit hits if they
update websites on daily basis. Thus, website owners
should make consistent updating of their e-Commerce
models a general practice to ensure customer satisfaction
and brand patronage.
4. Special efforts should be made to assure people about the
reliability and authenticity of the products purchased
online. Also, they need to be convinced about the distinct
advantages that e-Commerce offers.
5. It is highly recommended that customers should demand
quality and be careful at the time of delivery of items or
products purchased online.
6. The e-Commerce Website owners and service providers
should focus on providing special Gender specific
features for the above mentioned attributes, to increase
brand awareness and satisfaction of customers, which
would eventually result in increased sales and site visits.
LIMITATION
1. As the budget for research was limited, the survey was
performed only in Delhi NCR region. Thus, the results
may not represent the actual scenario outside NCR.
2. Due to time constraint, only 111 responses from e-
commerce customers and 20 responses from owners of
websites could be collected which may not be the exact
replication of entire scenario.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
• Aldrich, M. (2009, March). "Finding Mrs Snowball". Retrieved
April 2012, from The Michael Aldrich Archive Website:
http://www.aldricharchive.com.
• Department of Commerce (1914) "Advertising and Marketing
on the Internet: Rules of the Road". Federal Trade Commission.
• Eisingerich, A. B., & Kretschmer, T. (2008, March). "In E-
Commerce, More is More". Harvard Business Review 86, 20-
21.
• Google. (2007) Google announces third quarter 2007 results.
I n v e s t o r r e l a t i o n s , p u b l i s h e d 1 8 O c t o b e r .
[WWWdocument].URL http://investor.google.com/releases/
2007Q3_google_earnings.html (accessed 13 May 2012).
• IMRG Special Report. (n.d.). "£100 bn spent online since
1995". Interactive Media in Retail Group (IMRG).
• Kelly, K. (2005, August). Archive: Issue 13.08: "We Are the
Web". Retrieved April 2012, from WIRED Website:
http://www.wired.com
• Mulpuru, S., Sehgal, V., Evans, P. F., Hoar, A., & Roberge, D.
(2012). "US Online Retail Forecast, 2011 To 2016". Forrester
Research Inc.
35E-Commerce based Websites: Complications and Perception Gap
• Olsen, R. (2010, January 18). "China's migration to
eCommerce". Forbes.com.
• Online Today. (1984, April). "The Electronic Mall".
CIS/CompuServe nostalgia.
• Robinson, J. (2010, October 28). "news". Guardian.co.uk.
• Tkacz, E., & Kapczynski, A. (2009). "Internet - Technical
Development and Applications". Springer.
• Thomas White International (2012, January 6)."Now a Digital
Mall Boom in the Middle East". Retreived in April, 2012 from
Website: http://www.thomaswhite.com.
(n.d.) Dept. of Commerce. "Enforcing Privacy Promises:
Section 5 of the FTC Act". Federal Trade Commission
*Assistant Professor, Jaipuria Institute of Management, Noida (U. P.) India.
INTRODUCTION
Of-late, performance appraisal systems (PMS) have
become laughing stock and subsequently termed as main
reasons for the significant dissatisfaction of employees. Some
examples of comments that often being heard about
performance appraisals are shared below:
• "Performance appraisals are a sheer wastage of time – who
cares for them anyway."
• "There is no relation between the job that I do and the
ratings that I get."
• "Pay hikes are inversely related to the rating of your
performance – your work may not speak, but your
relationships with appraisers surely do."
• "Good ratings are not for men – while women can get top
ratings without much effort."
• “Women often go unnoticed for their shoddy
performance, as the bosses have soft corners for female
fraternity”.
• "Whom can I speak to, that my boss is high on discretion."
Although performance appraisals are often complained
about, yet they provide vital stats to managers making
decisions on the following:
• Pay for performance
• Influencing performance of employees
• Hiring, allocating and firing employees
• Identifying “hi-po” (high potential) employees for their
career advancement
Managers are responsible for employees` performance
appraisal which is one of their prime duties while managing
human resources. Despite this, managers and employees both
have been found to be noticeably dissatisfied with the
performance appraisal systems as they have been badly affected
by many of their deficiencies. Taking cues from experience and
views of practicing managers and personal experience at work,
court rulings, this article provides a framework as an
important benchmark in the form of 6 T’s to make any
performance appraisal system effective and focused to its value
and relevance.
This article serves as an important insight for managing
and making performance appraisal effective in particular and
leveraging its overall management in general for the present
and future managers dealing with performance management.
Keywords: “Performance”, “Appraisal”, “PMS”
6 T’s of An Effective Performance Management System (PMS) Abdul Qadir*
• HR planning for future organizational requirements.
In addition, an effective performance appraisal system can
leverage organizations’ competitiveness. For instance, through
an effective performance appraisal system, managers can get
the precise assessments of employees` yield and quality of
work. Such assessments can be used to motivate employees for
their further higher degrees of performance with the help of a
good feedback mechanism. Also, the nation’s growing trend at
the work place suggests that women, ethnic groups, minorities
and the physically otherwise-abled are becoming significant
parts of organizations` work force. This rising diversity in
employees’ ratio calls for even better and discrimination-free
performance appraisal systems, which concentrate on the jobs
and their clear and direct relation with the performance
benchmarks. Further, it’s very important for employers to
carefully workout the evaluation and reward system for good
performance of employees particularly when they are part of
groups and teams.
W H A T M A K E S A P E R F O R M A N C E APPRAISAL SYSTEM (PMS) EFFECTIVE?
Well, to answer this question, is probably a tough task,
however, many works in the past ranging from articles to
research papers and expert opinions have answered this query
from varied angles. Establishing a good performance
management system cannot occur in a day or two or by chance.
An exhaustive planning, a comprehensive design, its
functionality and integration with other subsystems of HR and
lastly its implementation; all these need to be addressed before
HR team and other parties to that system start using it.
Therefore, a PMS can be an effective one and the tool that has
the potential to do that, is 6 T’s of an effective Performance
Management System.
6 T ’ s O F A N E F F E C T I V E P E R F O R M A N C E MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (PMS)
The abbreviation 6 T stands for;
T - Time
T - Tools
T - Talents
T - Training
T - Temperament
T - Transparency
1. Time
First and the foremost in the priority of 6 T’s, is time.
Almost every organization, be it small, medium or large sized,
having a PMS, sets some or the other standard for meeting the
deadline for completing appraisals. Of late, its has been
observed that despite several notices, memos and deadline
mails, departments do not adhere to it or either are left scot-free
by the management in the wake of their business obligations.
Another irony is, the PMS has no set time for uniform appraisal
of all the departments, falling prey to flexibility. So, honor time
and deadlines, without fail.
The idea is, once the deadline is set, HR alongwith
Management will have to ensure that no matter, how busy or
burdened an individual/department might be, one has to
respond to the deadline of completing the appraisal of it’s
employees. Alongwith this, the stakeholders also need to
decide how frequent this appraisal would be as the part of
appraisal policy. Whatever is the cycle (Quarterly, By yearly,
Yearly), deadlines will not be compromised with.
2. Tools
Another key issue is, the instruments that are used in PMS,
set the success or failure premises. They are roughly more than
five to six different methods and tools that are used in PMS but
all not may be relevant to all or say one size does not fit all.
Organizations are made up of different tall and flat structures
and different set of employees with varied skills and expertise.
One has to use right kind of technique and method to suit the
requirement of the appraisal. Using irrelevant method or tool
in a PMS will not only defeat the purpose of PMS rather, it will
affect the performance and motivation among employees
adversely. Employees may not either improve or sustain
his/her performance rather; he/she intentionally becomes
indifferent about it.
6 T’s of An Effective Performance Management System (PMS) 37
5. Temperament
One of the key personality traits of any individual is his
temperament. Emotional Intelligence provided necessary
impetus to decode one’s own temperament and side by side
helps unveiling other’s mood and feelings. Appraisers should
always keep in mind that they are not appraising an individual
but appraising and individual’s work performance against a
pre-established benchmark. Any biasness arising out of an
appraiser’s own mood swing will adversely affect the rating of
the appraisee. On the contrary to this, the appraiser should also
keep in mind that appraisees are human being and they are
prone to err. Appraiser may give a negative rating to an
appraisee because on any fine occasion the employee may not
have done well on his/her job because he/she was down with
a bad patch. Although this perspective is a little challenging,
but surely if pursued cleverly, can do wonder in getting the
best from the subordinates.
3. Talents
Next in the queue is the talent. Talents may be seen here in
two folds; one is the appraiser and the other is appraisee. Who
is appraising whom is an important proposition wherein,
authorized and the competent managers or supervisors should
ensure that they are fully honest and upto the job of appraising
their subordinates. Often it is observed that the seniors are
either not competent or they don’t pay much attention to this
job of appraisal, which lead to many errors in appraisal.
Appraisal and feedback both should be honored and the
recipients should feel like they are taken care of by the
mechanism of PMS. Once it is ensured that appraisers are right
appraisees would automatically fall in the right corner,
eliminating all the felonies in PMS.
4. Training
No matter how good a system is, its success solely depends
on its users. Managers lacking in interpersonal skills and poor
communication can always undermine the potential of an
excellent PMS and worst could be the sole purpose of having a
system will be defeated. All stakeholders, be it managers,
supervisors, other functional users and obvious HR team, all
these people need training on how to commune and carry out a
lenient and reliable appraisals in a professional manner.
If the appraisers are well equipped with all the relevant
tools used in a modern PMS, the overall process of appraisal
would become smooth and focused. Organizations should
ensure that the proper training is organized for the appraisal
team so that the objective of any PMS is served for which it was
conceived.
38 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
6. Transparency
Last but not the least T in the sequence, infact one of the
most significant factors, is transparency in PMS. In an
organizational setup, we often overhear or come across
through different sources as “comments” from employees
down the line, that our PMS is not transparent. Often there is no
feedback mechanism used in an appraisal system trough
which appraisees could be explained where they have gone
wrong. Appraisees are flatly told that they are not up to the
mark and your performance is a cause of concern without
explicitly sharing the deviation from benchmarks. This
approach often has some truth of discrepancies in the system
which hampers the image of the appraisers in particular and
organization in general. Keeping the performance open to the
appraisee and showing him/her ways to align with the
expected performance will pave the path for a two way benefit;
the goodwill of the system and employees faith in it will
increase whereas, employees will tend to uplift and match
themselves with the company’s objective of ideal performance.
CONCLUSION
It is critical to get performance management right, because
HR issues are dragging down business performance and
impacting on businesses ability to grow. Effective performance
management has been proven to increase staff moral and
productivity.
If wee look at these above 6 T’s from an organization’s
point of view, we will surely be in the favour of implementing
this in our PMS. They are simple yet very effective for making a
PMS significant and successful. It is the responsibility of
managers and stakeholders to integrate these 6 T’s in the
system as soon as possible and work around these factors to
achieve the purpose of establishing a PMS in the organization.
REFERENCES
Books:• Cynthia D. Fisher, Lyle F. Schoenfeldt & James B. Shaw (2009),
Human Resource Management – 6th Edition, Biztantra, Delhi,
Pp 429-433.
• Snell, Bohlander, Vohra (2010) “Human Resource
Management: South Asian Perspective”, 7th Edition, Cengage
Learning, New Delhi, Pp 307-311, 349.
• Mirza S. Saiyadain (2010), Human Resource Management - 4th
Edition, Tata MacGraw Hill, New Delhi, Pp 257-258.
• Wayne F. Cascio and Herman Aguinis (2010), Applied
Psychology in Human Resources Management - 6th Edition,
Prentice Hall, Delhi, Pp 83-85.
Other Resources:• http://www.allbusiness.com/human-resources/workforce-
management/479508-1.html accessed on 27 Dec. 2012 IST
11.50 am.
• http:/ /www.sibson.com/publications-and-resources/
articles/WAW-effective-perf-mgt-drives-high-performing-
orgs.pdf accessed on 17 Dec. 2012 IST 09.30 am
• Personal Interview; Shabbir Ahmad, Manager HR - Hamdard
Wakf Labs, New Delhi.
• Personal Interview; Shweta Sharma, HR Head, BMA Wealth
Creator, New Delhi.
• Personal Interview; Jagdish Mutharia, Sr. Manager - IT, TERI,
New Delhi.
6 T’s of An Effective Performance Management System (PMS) 39
*Research scholar, Faculty of Management Studies, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, UP, India.
**Associate Professor, Faculty of Management Studies, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, UP, India.
INTRODUCTION
Stress is the complex phenomenon that alters both mental
and physical nature of the body - forces from the inside or
outside world affecting the individual. At every stage of life a
person experience different kind of stress of different level.
Suppose when we were Students then we faced stress such as
to clear our academic exam & to secure some position & even if
we are in job we experience a stress of different nature which
arises out of our job responsibility, job attribute, position &
differential role requirements in different situations. Stress
occurs because of various reasons &basically when any
challenge exceeds the coping abilities of the individual.
Hans Selye first introduced the concept of stress in to the
life science in 1936. He Defined stress as "The force, pressure, or
strain exerted upon a material object or Person who resist these
forces and attempt to maintain its original state."
Stress:
In the physical sciences stress is thought of as an external
pressure applied to an object...and if too much pressure is
applied the object breaks.
Stress is the mental, physical and emotional reactions one
experiences as a result of demands of life.
Stress is derived from Latin word “ stringi” which means
to be drawn tight.
In medical terms stress is described as, "a physical or
psychological stimulus that can produce mental tension or
physiological reactions that may lead to illness."
According to Richard S Lazarus, stress is a feeling
experienced when a person thinks that "the demands exceed
the personal and social resources the individual is able to
mobilize."
Stress arise when perceived demands exceed the
perceived ability to cope with these demands. Unrelenting
pressure at work, concerns over money and the economy,
Stress is anything which is undesirable for each & every
individual. Stress is related to both external and internal
factors. The impact of stress in the workplace on the employee's
physical health, mental well-being and effectiveness in the
workplace has been increasingly recognised in recent year.
Anyone who has worked in a helping profession such as
teaching will appreciate how stressful such professions can be.
Everyday interactions with students can trigger the
experience of stress in teachers. The reality is that the teacher is
normal but the work situation is often unpredictable and
sometimes even abnormal from a professional point of view.
This study is focussed on teachers engaged in higher education
i.e. engaged in teaching at university level or associated with
institutes which run engineering& management courses in
poorvanchal region basically around Varanasi district.
Keywords: Stress, Teacher’s stress, Occupational stress
Stress in Teachers Engaged inHigher Educational Institutes: A study Durga Wati Kushwaha*
Dr. R. K. Lodhwal**
overwhelming responsibilities at work and home...stress feels
like a fact of life.
The father of stress research, Hans Seyle, argued that stress
is not all bad. He said "it all depends on how you take it."
Thus any stress definition has to take into account that
stress is in the eye of the beholder.
Stress is one of the most common phenomena prevalent in
present society & generally unavoidable in modern life style.
With the advancement in the field Information technology
stress has crept everywhere, it has not been confined to the jobs
which involve high degree of technicalities & corporate. This
stress has also been observed amongst the professional & non-
professional in Education field. So this has Given birth to
concept of occupational stress for the teacher in higher
education.
Occupational stress:
Occupational stress as the term highlights is nothing but
stress which occurs because of work & other things which are
closely associated with it. It can also be termed as JOB Stress.
Job stress can be defined as the harmful physical and emotional
responses that occur when the requirements of the job do not
match the capabilities, resources, or needs of the worker. Job
stress can lead to poor health and even injury. The concept of
job stress is often confused with challenge, but these concepts
are not the same. Challenge energizes us psychologically and
physically, and it motivates us to learn new skills and master
our jobs. When a challenge is met, we feel relaxed and satisfied.
Thus, challenge is an important ingredient for healthy and
productive work. The importance of challenge in our work
lives is probably what people are referring to when they say "a
little bit of stress is good for you.
Causes of Occupational Stress:
• Meeting out the demands of the job.
• Relationship with colleagues.
• Controlling the staff working under supervision.
• Training the staff and taking work from them.
• Excessive work pressure.
• Meeting out the dead lines.
• Giving Results.
• Conducting & producing new researches (if you are in
research area).
• Working overtime and on holidays.
• New work hours.
• Delay in promotion or junior preferred for promotion first.
• Argument or heated conversations with co-workers or
boss.
• Change of job.
• Work against will.
• Harassment.
The above mentioned causes of work place stress are
outcome of various studies conducted in different sectors.
Teacher’s Stress:
While there are many different occupations in education
sector, teaching is identified as a particularly stressful job
(smith et al 2000). Stress among teacher is a contributor to
illness as well as a cause for leaving the profession (Cited in
Verdugo & vere). Teachers are not the only workers in
education sector, but are the most visible. One of the studies
ranked teachers highest among occupational groups in terms
of chronic stress. Various studies conducted over teaching staff
reveals that major sources of stress are pupil’s misbehavior,
teacher’s workload ,time & resource constraint /difficulties ,
interpersonal relationships & recognition etc.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Beehr & Newman (1978) defines occupational stress as “A
condition arising from the interaction of people & their jobs &
characterized by changes within people that forces them to
deviate from the normal functioning.”
Ganster & Loghan (2005) said that stress is an unwanted
reaction, people have severe pressures or other types of
demands placed upon them. A huge & multi fields literature
points a lot of key factors such as work environment
management support, workload etc in determining the
stressful the work can be & its effect on employee physical &
mental health.
Ivancevich & Matteson has defined stress as follows,
“stress is an adoptive response mediated by individual
characteristics &/or psychological process, that is a
consequences of any external action, situation, or event that
places special physical &/or psychological demand upon a
person.”
Brook (1973) reported that qualitative changes in the job
create adjustmental problems among employees. The
interpersonal relationship within the department & between
the departments creates qualitative difficulties within the
organization to a great extent.
Brief & Aldag (1976); said that there is evidence that role
incumbents with high levels of role ambiguity also responds to
their situation with anxiety, depression, physical symptoms, a
sense of futility or lower esteem, lower levels of job
involvement & organizational commitment, & perceptions of
lower performance on the part of organization, of supervisors,
& of themselves.
Anderson (2002) work to family conflicts is also a
predecessor which creates stress in employees of an
organization.
Kahn et al (1964) & Selye (1956) viewed stress as an
environmental stimulus to an individual & defined stress as an
individual’s reaction to an environmental force that effect an
individual performance.
D’Arcy (2007) emphasizes that everyone experiences
stress a little differently, it can be a good thing, but overload of
Stress in Teachers Engaged in Higher Educational Institutes: A study 41
Bhagawan (1997) studied on job stress among 53 male and
47 female teachers from 20 schools in Orissa. It was found from
the results that male teachers experienced more Stress
compared to female teachers.
Virk et al. (2001) conducted a study on occupational stress
and work motivation in relation to age, job level and type-
behaviour. He reported that age and job level can have strong
influence on job stress.
De Nobile & McCormick, (2007); Jepson & Forrest, (2006); Kyriacou, (2001); Muchinsky, 2000; Spector, (2000)
Occupational stress has been linked to decreased job
satisfaction and job commitment, absenteeism (some of it
probably due to illness), turnover and reduced performance .
Sultana (1995) in her study investigated the level of
organizational role stress among male and female teachers of
professional and non-professional courses.
PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVE
The purpose of study was to examine the level of stress
among the teachers engaged in higher education institutes
located in areas near by Varanasi district & in Varanasi .In
order to understand about this following research objectives
were formulated.
1. To describe the demographic characteristics of selected
teachers of Institutes.
2. To determine the level of stress among teachers.
3. To establish relationships between level of stress and
demographic characteristics of teachers
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Instrument and Measurement
This is an exploratory study based on primary data; the
data have been collected through survey. The survey
instrument used was standard questionnaire developed by
Udai Pareek (Occupational Role Stress, ORS) to assess the
stress level of teachers. This questionnaire was constructed on
the scale ranging from Zero (0) rarely feel this way to Four (4)
frequently feel this way. Personal demographic information
was also collected in this survey.
Population and Sampling
This questionnaire was distributed amongst the teachers
who came to attend one of the programm organised in the
department. Thus sampling or the selection of respondents
was based on the convenience of the researcher. The
questionnaire was distributed randomly to the teachers thus
simple random technique was used. Total in all 80
questionnaires were distributed of which 72 were fit for study.
Analysis & Interpretations
it is a different story. He explains that stress overload is caused
by the overreaction or failure of the stress response to turn off
and reset itself properly
Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1978a), presented a model of
teacher stress which conceptualized teacher stress as “a
response syndrome mediated by an appraisal of threat to the
teacher's self-esteem or well-being and by coping mechanisms
activated to reduce the perceived threat”.
Many studies have researched occupational stress among
university faculty (and staff) in several parts of the world,
including Australia, India, the United Kingdom and the
United States. These researches indicates that university
faculty members around the globe experience various kinds of
occupational stress (e.g., role ambiguity, role overload,
unreasonable group pressure, powerlessness, and peer
relationship issues), and that these stressors have significant
negative impacts on diverse aspects of their lives-most notably,
their physical and psychological well-being.
According to Faridah Karim dan Zubaidah Aman (1998),
teaching is attributed as an occupation that always disclosed to
high stress level. Gold dan Roth (1993) indicated that change is
one of the sources of stress among teachers.
Ahsan, Abdullah, Fie and Alam (2009) identified stress
inducing factors in academic staff to include: work overload,
home work interface, role ambiguity and performance
pressure. In support of stress on academic staff, Abouserie
(1996) found workload and conducting research as factors of
stress. Listing the most related stressors on academic staff,
Ahmandy, Changiz, Masiello and Bromnels (2007), included
workload, conflict, demands from colleagues and supervisors,
incompatible demands from different personal and
organization roles, inadequate resources for appropriate
performance, insufficient competency to the demands of their
role, inadequate autonomy to make decision on different tasks
and feeling of underutilization.
Selye, (1956), stress can affect either positively or
negatively to employee performance.
Positive qualities are those in which the individual may
feel more excited and agitated and Perceive the situation
positively as a form of challenge
Tharakan (1992) studied on occupational stress and job
satisfaction among working women. He observed that
professional women experienced greater work related stress
than non- professional women. The expectation of technocrats
was much higher than the non technocrats.
Ushashree et al. (1995) on their study considered 80 male
and 80 female high School teachers in the age group of 25-40
year (adult) and 41-60 years (middle) age to know The effect of
gender on teacher’s experience of job stress and job satisfaction.
Analysis of Data indicated significant effect of gender on job
stress.
42 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
The graphic presentation of the age distribution of the
sample is presented in Figure 1. The majority of the
respondents (n = 20 or 27.8 %) fall in the age category 25- 30 &
36-40 years. This is followed by 16 (22.2 %) of the respondents
in the age category 41-45 years. The age category 31-35 years
constitutes 11.1% (n = 8) of the sample. Least number of
teachers fall in the age group of 45-50 & 51-55 years ( n= 4 or
5.6% ) From the ensuing results it can therefore be concluded
that the majority of the teachers who are participating in the
study are belonging to age groups i.e. 25-30 & 36-40 years.
The graphic representation of gender wise distribution of
teachers is depicted in figure 2. It is clear from the chart that
major section of the respondents were male contributing up to
67% (n = 48) for the purpose of study Remaining 33% of
respondents were Female teachers working in different
institute at different level.
Descriptive of the demographic profile of teachers selected for study:
Demographic variables
Group N Percentage (%)
Age <= 30 20 27.8
31 - 35 8 11.1
36 - 40 20 27.8
41 - 45 16 22.2
46 - 50 4 5.6
51 - 55 4 5.6
Gender Male 48 66.7
Female 24 33.3
Education
Post Graduate 8 11.1
Phd 44 61.1
PG + Net 16 22.2
phd+net 4 5.6
Marital status unmarried 16 22.2
married 56 77.8
Organisational Ranking
Assistant Professor
48 66.7
Associate Professor
24 33.3
Total Experience
<= 5 20 27.8
6 - 10 20 27.8
11 - 15 8 11.1
16 - 20 8 11.1
21 - 25 12 16.7
26 - 30 4 5.6
Total experience in Present Job
<= 5.0 48 66.7
5.1 - 10.0 16 22.2
10.1 - 15.0 4 5.6
20.1 - 25.0 4 5.6
Figure 1: Age distribution of Teachers
05
10152025
<= 30 31 - 35 36 - 40 41 - 45 46 - 50 51 - 55
Nu
mb
er o
f re
spo
nd
ents
Age group of respondents
Age distribution of teachers in sample
67%
33%
Gender wise distribution of teachers
Male
Female
Figure 2: Gender wise distribution of teachers
11%
61%
22%
6%
Educational qualification of teachers
Post Graduate
Phd
PG+Net
phd+net
22%
78%
Marital status of teachers
unmarried
married
Figure 3: Education wise distribution
The graph depicted above clearly indicates the
distribution of teachers on the basis of their educational
qualification. It is quite clear from figure 3 the respondents of
the study were highly qualified having the Doctoral degree.
About 61% (n=44) of the total respondents were having Ph.D
degree followed by those who were having their post graduate
qualification along with NET ( National eligibility Test which
issues certificate of eligibility as lecturers). They contributed
about 22% (n= 16) of the sample. The remaining portion was
occupied by those respondents who were either post graduate
(n= 8, 11%) or were Doctorate with NET (n = 4, 6%)
Figure 4: Distribution based on marital status
The above graph shows the marital status of respondent’s
.It is quite apparent from the graph that the majority of the
respondents under study were married. About 78% i.e. 56 out
of the 72 respondents were married & only 22% of them were
Stress in Teachers Engaged in Higher Educational Institutes: A study 43
<= 30 31 - 35 36 - 40 41 - 45 46 - 50 51 - 55 Total
Mean 79 51 67.2 56.75 95 59 67.44
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Mea
n v
alu
e o
f st
ress
variation of stress with age
Independent Variable N Total stress
Significance Level
Age 72 -.024 .843
Sex 72 .172 .148
Marital status 72 .044 .176
Total experience 72 -.310** .008
Experience in organisation
72 -.568* .000
Education Organisational ranking
72 72
.163 -.385**
.172
.001
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
67%
33%
Organisational ranking of teachers
Assistant Professor
Associate Professor
The graph present above depicts the person’s experience
in current organisation/present job. Most of the respondents
are new to the organisation i.e. having an experience of less
than 5 years & number of such respondents is about 67%
(n= 48) followed by experience of 6-10 years which about 22%
(n=16). However the persons with experience of 10-15 years &
20-25 contribute towards the remaining portion i.e. 11% (5% &
6% respectively). One of the major outcome as apparent here is
that there are no persons which belong to the experience group
of 15-20 years.
Overall level of stress level among teachers:
The mean of overall stress level among teachers is 67.44
which reveal that the stress among the respondents is more
than the least median score of standard questionnaire but it fall
in the medium score. This leads to a conclusion that teachers
are moderately stressed which is in accordance with the review
of literature that teaching job is comparatively less stressful.
unmarried. This shows that majority of the respondents have
to fulfil many of the roles at times.
Figure 5: Distribution Based on organisational position
From figure 5 it is very clear that respondents under study
were belonging to mainly two groups i.e. assistant professor &
associate professor although in education system of higher
education there is a three tier system i.e. chain of command
flows from professor to associate professor to assistant
professor. The majority of the respondents were belonging to
the cadre of assistant professor contributing to about 67%
(n=48) of respondents while 33% (n=24) were belonging to
associate professor level.
28%
28%11%
11%
17%
5%
Total experience wise Distribution of teachers
<=5
6.0 - 10.0
11.0 -15.0
16.0-20.0
21.0- 25.0
26.0-30.0
67%
22%
5% 6%
Experience in current organisation
<= 5.0
5.1 - 10.0
10.1 - 15.0
20.1 - 25.0
Figure 6: Total experience in career
The figure above clearly shows that most of the
respondents under study were belonging two major
experience groups i.e. in category of less than 5 years & in
group of 6 to 10 years of experience contributing about 28%
each followed by the experience of 21-25 years contributing
about 17%. However persons in experience group of 11-15
years & 16-20 years contribute about 11% each towards the
respondents. Only few of the respondents (n= 4, 5%) were
representing the experience group of 26-30 years.
Figure 7: Experience in current organisation /Present job
Table 1: One-Sample Statistics
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Total
stress 72 67.44 20.883 2.461
Correlation Between various Demographic variables with the level of stress:
Table 2: Correlation Between various Demographic variables with the level of stress
Age & total level of stress:
Figure 8: Variation of Stress with age
44 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
<= 5.0 6.0-10.0 10.0-15.0 16.0 - 20.0 21.0 - 25.0 26.0 - 30.0
Mean 79 68.8 47 72 59.33 59
0
20
40
60
80
100
stre
ss l
evel
variation of stress with Total experience
Post Graduate Phd PG + Net phd+net
Mean stress level 70 61.73 84.25 58
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
stre
ss l
evel
variation of stress with education
Male Female
Mean 64.92 72.5
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
Str
ess
lev
el
Variation of stress with gender
The correlation statistics reveal that there is a negative
correlation between the two factors viz. age & stress & also the
relationship between the two is insignificant. Moreover the
further analysis of this when done to find out the variation of
stress with age it was found that the persons in the age group of
46-50 are highly stressed (mean stress level = 95) followed by
the persons in age group of less than 30 ( mean stress level = 79).
The persons who are in the age group 36- 40 are having a stress
level as near about 67.20
Stress & Gender:
satisfied if one is in the teaching profession. Moreover the
correlation studies reveal that there is a positive & insignificant
relation between the two factors viz. stress & education level.
Stress & organisational position:
Figure 11: Variation of Stress with organisational Position
It is apparently visible from the above graph that the
persons / respondents who are at assistant professor level are
more stressed as compared to those at associate level. This
variation in the stress level is also justified from the values of
correlation coefficient where it appears to be highly significant
relationship with negative orientation this implies that the
stress level of the person decreases with raise in hierarchical
position in turn supplemented by the increase in experience in
coping up with difficult situations.
Stress & Total experience:
Graphs below shows a variation in stress level with total
experience (here total experience refers to the number of years
for which one has been serving any organisation). The image
which is reflected seems to be like initially the stress level
appears to decrease with increase in experience of the person
.But after certain point the stress level appears to increase this
could be due to change in nature of the job responsibility &
duties. Moreover the correlation statics prove that there is a
significant but negative relationship between the two factors
which implies that with increase in experience the stress level
will decrease.
Figure 9: Variation of Stress with Gender
The above graph depicts that the stress level experienced
by the female is more than that of the males. The mean stress
level among females is approx.72.5 (= 73) & that among males it
is approx.64.92 (= 65). However the correlation statistics
indicate that the overall level of stress is positively but
insignificantly associated with the gender of the respondents.
There are various reasons which can explain this variation in
stress among both genders the most important one which can
explain it-is the dual role of women where they have to fulfil
the responsibility towards organisation as well as their family
with different active role.
Stress & Education
Figure 10: Variation of stress with Education
In survey basically there were four kinds of respondents in
terms of their educational qualification of which the highly
stressed category was that of the persons / teachers who were
Post graduate as well as NET qualified & the level of stress was
84.25 ( approx. 84) .On the contrary the people who were PhD
as well as NET qualified were least stressed. The most probable
reason for such a variation in stress level can be explained in
terms of the minimum eligibility criterion which is to be
Figure 12: Variation of Stress with Total experience
Assistant Professor Associate Professor
Mean 73.08 56.17
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Str
ess
lev
el
Variation of stress with organisational position
Stress in Teachers Engaged in Higher Educational Institutes: A study 45
• Brook, A. (1973). Mental Stress at Work. The Practitioner, Vol
210, pp. 500-506.
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Journal of Applied Psychology, 61, 486-472.
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Occupational Stress in Catholic Primary Schools: Implications
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May10, 2010.
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di Kalangan Guru Terhadap Sistem Pendidikan. Prosiding
Seminar Isu-isu Pendidikan Negara. November 26–27.
Malaysia: University Kebangsaan Malaysia, 317-333.
• Gold, Y. dan Roth, R. A. (1993). Teachers Managing Stress and
Preventing Burnout - The Professional Health Solution.
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Stress & organisational Experience:
Figure 13: Variation of stress with experience in organisation
The graph above represents the variation of stress level
with experience in organisation (here experience in
organisation refers to the number of years for which the person
has been in current organisation). There is a decrease in the
level of stress with increase in experience & it is also seen by the
correlation study that there is a significant but negative
relationship between the two.
FINDINGS & CONCLUSION
1. The data analysis reveals that the stress experienced by the
teachers is moderate as stress experienced among the
respondents is more than the least median score of
standard questionnaire but it fall in the medium score.
2. The correlation studies among the stress experienced by
the respondents & the demographic variables clearly
reflects insignificant relation between the factors such as
age, sex, marital status, education.
3. However the stress experienced has a significant but
negative correlation with the variables such as
organisational ranking, total experience & experience in
organisation.
REFERENCES
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<= 5.0 5.1 - 10.0 10.1 - 15.0 20.1 - 25.0
Mean 72.58 66.5 57 20
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
stre
ss le
vel
Variation of stress with experience in organisation
46 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
*Professor & Principal, Al-Qurmoshi Insittute of Business Management, Hyderabad, India.
INTRODUCTION
Employee engagement is a complex concept, with many
issues influencing engagement levels consequently, there are
many pathways to foster engagement, with, and with no one
‘Kit’ that fits all organizations. While each company may
define employee engagement differently, ultimately, the key to
effective engagement will be rooted in the flexibility of
approach most appropriate for each individual firm. For
example, the company may consider a best practice and then
determine the likely outcome of this practice in its workplace.
This Research Quarterly is written to provide HR professionals
and other business leaders with the knowledge and
understanding of the many concepts and aspects of employee
engagement as well as offers recommendations to foster
engagement.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Most often employee engagement has been defined as
emotional and intellectual commitment to the organization
(Baumruk 2004, Richman 2006 and Shaw 2005) or the amount
of discretionary effort exhibited by employees in their job.
Beardwell and Claydon (2007). It was found that, after the
workers were given the training and freedom to make repairs
to their own equipment rather than having to call a supervisor
every time they experienced a problem, they reported fewer
occupational injuries. This would suggest that workers who
feel they have control over their destiny at work, a key aspect of
employee engagement, are more likely to stay focused and less
likely to make preventable mistakes.
The related construct to engagement in organizational
behavior is the notion of flow advanced by Csikszentmihalyi
(1975, 1990). Csikzentmihalyi (1975) defines flow as the
‘holistic sensation’ that, people feel when they act with total
involvement. Flow is the state in which there is little distinction
between the self and environment. When individuals are in
Flow State little conscious control is necessary for their actions.
Today global competition slow growth economies are
focusing towards customer focused organizations as the
Organization structures comprising the formal structure and
the coordinating mechanisms are continually seeking
equilibrium Employee engagement has an emerged as critical
drivers of business success in today’s competitive marketplace.
The extent to which employees commit to something or
someone in their organization, how hard they work and how
long they stay as a result of that commitment.” This paper
investigated employee engagement and has incorporated
statistical tools such as frequency analysis, chi-square test and
the results of the same have been expressed and it was found
that Career Related, Compensation Related, Organizational
Climate and Morale are the four major factors have been
influencing on employee engagement.
Keywords: employee, organization, engagement,
involvement, tenure, designation experience
Employee Engagement- Building PositiveEmployment Relations atM/s. Heritage Foods, Hyderabad Prof. Dr. Y. Vinodhini*
Frank (2004) Although it is acknowledged and accepted
that employee engagement is a multi-faceted construct, as
previously suggested by Kahn (1990).
Fox (1974) argued that despite an elaborate external
controlling structure being in place, no role can be totally
diffuse or totally specific; even in jobs which are tightly
controlled, some outstanding element of discretion always
remains. In cases where employees have been given some
control over how they do their jobs, positive benefits have
appeared to emerge. For example, previous research in the UK
has looked at job redesign and the impact this has had on
engagement. In 1990 research was carried out by the University
of Sheffield on factory workers and the number of injuries they
reported given the differing levels of control over their work
Goddard (1999) describes engagement with the
organization and the task to be associated with time use.
Difference in skills, abilities and disposition variables are also
expected to impact the levels of employee engagement. Gender
difference have been found to impact employee engagement
.personal values, culture and climate of organizations also
influence employee engagement. climate includes aspects such
as systems and satisfaction with organization while culture
includes accepts such as community. There also exists a strong
correlation between complex feeling and emotions. The focus
should be on personality, cognition and environment forces
that determine an individual behavior in organizations.
The Gallup organization (2008) deduced conclusively
from their annual employee engagement survey that engaged
employees are the only employees an organization needs
because of their far higher levels of commitment and
performance.
Halbesleben (2003) examined a number of issues as to the
measurement and process of burnout and engagement.
Halbesleben investigated the role of perceptions of politics as
an antecedent of burnout, as well as assessing the role of
motivation as a mediator in the relationship between burnout
and job performance.
Engagement at work was conceptualized by Kahn, (1990)
as the ‘harnessing of organizational members’ selves to their
work roles. In engagement, people employ and express
themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally during
role performances.
Khan (1990) first mentioned the concept of employee
engagement. It was observed that engagement is a
multidimensional construct, in that employees could be
emotionally, cognitively or physically engaged.
Khan (1990) pp692-724 characterized engagement as
consisting of physical cognitive and emotional components
(when linking the engagement of students to the classroom
environment and the success of implementing engagement
strategies into facilitation learning success this having a clear
synergy with organizations).
48 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
According to Lawler and Worley (2006) for a high-
involvement work practice to be effective and for it to have a
positive impact on employee engagement, employees must be
given power They argue this will lead to employees having the
ability to make decisions that are important to their
performance and to the quality of their working lives, thus
engaging them in their work. Furthermore, Lawler and Worley
(2006) contend that power can mean a relatively low level of
influence, as in providing input into decisions made by others
or it can mean having final authority and accountability for
decisions and their outcomes. Involvement is maximized when
the highest possible level of power is pushed down to the
employees that have to carry out the decision, resulting in
gaining the maximum level of engagement possible from
employee.
McCashland (1999) defined EE as ‘commitment or
engagement - an emotional outcome to the employee resulting
from the critical components of the workplace.
Miles (2001) described it as intensively involving all
employees in high-engagement cascades that create
understanding, dialogue, feedback and accountability,
empower people to creatively align their subunits, teams and
individual jobs with the major transformation of the whole
enterprise (Miles, 2001).
Purcell 2006 and Truss et al 2006.
Moreover, engaged employees have been found to
outperform their disengaged counterparts. However, recent
research in the UK and other countries shows that there are
more disengaged employees than there are engaged
employees in today’s organizations. Employee engagement
can and has been found to make a difference. However there is
great disagreement surrounding how to define engagement,
how it should be operationalised and whether or not it is
actually a valid construct at all. Furthermore, it is evident that
sound, academic research lags somewhat behind practice
given that the literature is under developed, and the concept of
engagement is still in its infancy.
Robinson (2004). In the recent years, there has been a great
deal of interest in employee engagement and it has become a
widely used and popular term many have claimed that
employee engagement predicted employees outcomes,
organizational success, and financial performance (e.g. total
share holders return).
Saks (2006) argues that one way for individuals to repay
their organization is through their level of engagement. In
other words, employees will choose to engage themselves to
varying degrees and in response to the resources they receive
from their organization. Bringing oneself more fully into one’s
work roles and devoting greater amounts of cognitive,
emotional, and physical resources is a very profound way for
individuals to respond to an organization’s actions, as
suggested earlier by the work of Kahn (1990). Thus, employees
are more likely to exchange their engagement for resources and
benefits provided by their Organization.
Kahn (1990), and captures the common theme running through
all these definitions.
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
Truss et al (2006) define employee engagement simply as
‘passion for work’, a psychological state which is seen to
encompass the three dimensions of engagement discussed by
Employee Engagement- Building Positive Employment Relations at M/s. Heritage Foods, Hyderabad 49
Table 1: EXPERIENCE * Involvement of employee in decision making Cross tabulation
Experience
Cross tabulation between experience & Involvement of employee in decision making
Most Frequently Frequently Sometimes Rarely Never Total
Before 6 months
0 12 4 5 0 21
6 months – 4 years
4 34 18 4 3 63
4 – 8 years 0 11 1 0 0 12
8- 12 years 0 0 0 0 0 0
12 years and above
0 4 0 0 0 4
Total 4 61 23 9 3 100
a. 0 cell (.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The
minimum cell frequencies is 25.0
b. 0 cell (.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The
minimum cell frequencies is 20.0
INTERPRETATION
The above table shows the Calculation value of the
Experience and involvement in decision making and chi-
square results has Calculation value 0.14 value is Acceptance
hence both are independent. Form the table value is 3.84.
CHI-SQUARE RESULTS
H : Experience and involvement in decision making are o
independent of each other.
H : Experience and involvement are not Independent of A
each other.
Test Statistics
Experierience Involvement in decision
making
Chi-Square 82.800a 117.800b
df 3 4
Asymp. Sig. .000 .000
Table 2: CROSS TABULATION between Income and satisfied with position
Satisfied with position Highly
satisfied Satisfied
Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
Dis satisfied Highly
dissatisfied Total
Income
4000-10000 5 58 18 1 1 83
10000-20000 0 9 1 1 0 11
20000-30000 0 3 0 0 0 3
30000 and above
0 3 0 0 0 3
Total 5 73 19 2 1 100
CROSS TABULATION between AGE and satisfied with salary
Satisfied with salary Extremely
Satisfied Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Total
AGE
20-25 1 24 7 6 38
25-30 1 36 10 5 52
30-40 0 6 2 0 8
40-45 0 2 0 0 2
Total 2 68 19 11 100
Interpretation:
From the above given table we analyzed the income
satisfied with the position of the employees working in M/s
Heritage Foods, Hyderabad where, the majority of the
50 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
employees are satisfied with their income provided with their
position in the company, i.e., out of 100%, 58% of the employees
are satisfied.
5
58
18
1 10
91 1 00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Income
4000-10000
10000-20000
20000-30000
30000 and above
Table 3: CROSS TABULATION between AGE and satisfied with salary
0
24
36
6
20
7
10
200
6 5
0 00
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
AGE 20-25 25-30 30-40 40-45
SATISFIED WITH SALARY
EXTEREMELY SATISFIED
SATISFIED
NETURAL
DISSATISFIED
Figure: AGE * Satisfied with salary Cross tabulation
Foods (India) Limited where, the age group of the employees
between 25-30 says that, the career development programs are
provided.
Interpretation:
The above table identifies about the satisfaction level of
income of the employees working in M/s Heritage Foods,
Employee Engagement- Building Positive Employment Relations at M/s. Heritage Foods, Hyderabad 51
Hyderabad where, the majority of employees between the age
of 25-30 are satisfied and the second highest of the employees
between the age group of 20-25 are satisfied with their salary.
Interpretation:
The above mentioned table is analyzed about the career
development of the employees who are working in Heritage
Table 4: Cross tabulation between AGE & Career development
AGE Cross tabulation between AGE & Career development
YES NO Total
20-25 28 10 38
25-30 44 8 52
30-40 7 1 8
40-50 2 0 2
Total 81 19 100
Education Career development
Yes No Total
10th 17 2 19
10+2 27 3 30
Graduation 22 8 30
Dip in FD 5 2 7
MBA 10 4 14
Total 81 19 100
0 0
28
44
7
20
108
1 0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
AGE 20-25 25-30 30-40 40-50
CAREER DEVELOPMENT
YES
NO
Figure: AGE* Career development Cross tabulation
Table 5: EDUCATION * Career development Cross tabulation
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .635
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity
Approx. Chi-Square 297.006
Df 55.000
Sig. .000
0 0
17
27
22
5
10
02 3
8
24
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
CAREER DEVELOPMENT
YES
NO
Interpretation:
The above mentioned table describes about the employees
preference to the education that are being recruited into the
organization. Employees have to be graduates, 60% of the
employees are graduates.
52 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
measure of sampling adequacy is greater that 0.6. Therefore, it
is appropriate to proceed with the factor analysis.
Figure: EDUCATION * Career development Cross tabulation
FACTOR ANALYSIS
Factor Analysis is been used to reduce the data and to
know the major influencing factors The 11 Factors which
influence EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT are Career
development, Achievements are Recognized, Satisfied with
Salary, Working Conditions, Morale, Free flow of
Communication, Career Advancement, Opportunities to learn
and Grow, Interpersonal Relationship, Satisfaction with the
Company, Involvement of Employee in Decision Making.
Table 6: KMO and Barlett’s Test
The above table revealed that the Barlett’s Test of
Spehericity is significant and that the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
Source: The figures are compiled from primary data
Component
Initial Eigen values Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
Total
% of Variance
Cumulative %
Total
% of Variance
Cumulative %
Total
% of Variance
Cumulative %
1 2.657
24.157
24.157
2.657
24.157
24.157
2.563
23.300
23.300
2 1.637
14.885
39.043
1.637
14.885
39.043
1.540
13.996
37.296
3 1.504
13.671
52.714
1.504
13.671
52.714
1.523
13.846
51.142
4 1.088 9.894 62.608 1.088 9.894 62.608 1.261 11.467 62.608
5 .994 9.034 71.642
6 .939 8.535 80.177
7 .669
6.086
86.263
Table 7: Factor Analysis-Eigen Values Total Variance Explained
accounts for 62.608 percent of the variance of relationship
between the variables.
Large communalities indicate that a large range of
variance has been accounted for by the factor solution.
Varimax related factor analytical results are shown in below
table.
Employee Engagement- Building Positive Employment Relations at M/s. Heritage Foods, Hyderabad 53
4 Components Extracted
After the standards indicated that the data are suitable for
factor analysis, Principal component analysis was employed
for extracting the data, which allowed determination of the
factors underlying the relationship between 11 variables. The
Total Variable Explained suggested that it extracts four factors
8 .610
5.550
91.813
9 .449
4.084
95.897
10 .350
3.185
99.082
11 .101 .918 100.000
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Table 7: Name of the Factors
Factor I
Career Related
Factor II
Compensation Related
Factor III:
Organizational Climate
Factor IV
Morale
Career development Satisfied with Salary Working Conditions Morale
Career Advancement Satisfaction with the
Company Free flow of
Communication Achievements are
Recognized
Opportunities to learn and Grow
Interpersonal Relationship
Involvement of Employee in Decision
Making
Figure : Factor Analysis-Scree-Plot
Source: The figures are compiled from primary data
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Factor – I ---- Career Related
Factor –II---- Compensation Related
Factor- III---- Organizational Climate
Factor IV---- Morale
SUGGESTIONS
• The company shall take steps to recognize the employee’s
achievements and they may reward immediately to
improve morale to boost the productivity levels.
Otherwise, the employees will be disgusted and their
morale levels will be decreased causing dip in
productivity levels of the company.
• Based on the existing personnel policies, incentive
schemes and facilities, the employees are more committed
to the organization for achieving the organization goals by
improving the productivity levels.
• The Company shall take further steps to enrich the career
development schemes.
• The company shall take certain measures to further
involve the employees in decision making.
• The company can further improve the morale rate of the
employees by using the concepts of various HR
interventions.
• The organization has to provide equitable and fair
remuneration to the employees so that they can retain
valuable employees.
REFERENCES
• Baumruk, R. (2004) ‘the missing link: the role of employee
engagement in business success’, Workspan, Vol 47, pp48-52.
• Beardwell, J. and Claydon, T. (2007) Human Resource
Management, A Contemporary Approach. 5th ed. Harlow,
Prentice Hall.
• Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975) Beyond boredom and anxiety. San
Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
• Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990) Flow: The Psychology of Optimal
Experience. New York Harper.
• Frank, F.D., Finnegan, R.P. and Taylor, C.R. (2004) ‘The race
for talent: retaining and engaging workers in the 21st century’,
Human Resource Planning, Vol 27, No 3, pp12-25.
54 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
• Fox, A. (1974) Beyond Contract: Work, power and trust
relations. London, Faber and Faber.
• Goodard, R.G. (1999) ‘In-time, out-time: A qualitative
exploration of time use by managers in an organization’
Dissertation Abstracts International. University Microfilms
International, USA.
• The Gallup Organization (2008) [online] Available at:
www.gallup.com.
• Halbesleben, J. R. B. (2003). Burnout and engagement:
Correlates and measurement. Dissertation Abstracts
International: Section B: the Sciences & Engineering, US: Vol
64(1-B), 451Univ Microfilms International, 64(1-B), 451.
• Kahn, W.A. (1990) ‘Psychological conditions of personal
engagement and disengagement at work’, Academy of
Management Journal, Vol 33, pp692-724.
• Khan, W.A. (1990). Psychological Conditions of Personal
Engagement and Disengagement at Work. Academy of
Management Journal, 33(4).
• Lawler, E and Worley, C.G. (2006) ‘Winning support for
organizational change: Designing employee reward systems
that keep on working’, Ivey Business Journal, March/April,
ppBeardwell.
• McCashland, C. R. (1999). Core Components of the service
climate: Linkages to customer satisfaction and profitability.
Dissertation Abstracts International US: Univ Microfilms
International. 60 (12-A), 89.
• Miles, R. H. (2001). Beyond the age of Dilbert: Accelerating
corporate transformations by rapidly engaging all employees.
Organizational Dynamics 29(4), 313-32.
• Purcell, J. (2006) Change Agenda, Reflections on Employee
Engagement. London, CIPD.
• Robinson (2004). Most often it has been defined as emotional and
intellectual and intellectual commitment to the organization.
• Robinson, D., Perryman, S. and Hayday, S. (2004) The Drivers
of Employee Engagement. Brighton, Institute for Employment
Studies.
• Saks, A.M. (2006) ‘Antecedents and consequences of employee
engagement’, Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol 21, No 6,
pp600-619.
• Truss, C., Soane, E., Edwards, C., Wisdom, K., Croll, A. and
Burnett, J. (2006) Working Life: Employee Attitudes and
Engagement 2006. London, CIPD.
*Associate Professor, IIT, Allahabad, India.
**Students of MBA (IT), IIT, Allahabad, India.
***Students of MBA (IT), IIIT Allahabad, India.
INTRODUCTION
Today, as we all know that internet is the need of the hour.
It is ubiquitous and forms the basis of most of the businesses
around the globe. There are some developing countries which
are still struggling and cannot afford this technology. Off late,
improvement in the living statuses and the growing literacy
created awareness among the masses due to which world has
witnessed a paradigm shift and internet has gained more
popularity. Now the educated section of the society relies on
internet for various things. In the last decade terms like e-
commerce and social networking earned more value.
According to a survey, maximum internet usage in India is
in the name of youth population. Majority of the users are
students and the rest is the earning crowd. Online shopping
has gained importance and so does the social networking.
Today in the era where people hardly find time to stay
connected to their beloved ones, social networking websites
came to their rescue. Now people can easily keep in touch with
their friends, family e.t.c. Facebook emerged out to be the
biggest social networking website running on the planet in
terms of number of users. Today, Facebook is the most
promising destination for the other websites to advertise their
products and services because of its large customer base.
Facebook gaming is one of the important components that
adds revenue to the corporation. Approximately 30% of the
revenue is extracted from the social games that Facebook
offers. Recently there have been problems with the IPO of
Facebook and they incurred losses. In order to overcome the
situation and to retain their customers some serious
modifications is the call of the situation. There is still untapped
market in India and abroad which can be capitalized by sincere
efforts.
There is a lot of scope for research in this area which will
help the social networking giant to a greater extent. People get
bored of playing the same games again and again on Facebook.
A revamp in the games section of Facebook could possibly help
them to increase their market penetration which will
apparently be fruitful in increasing the revenue, thereby
improving the business model and revenue model.
This research revealed the inclination of Indian
population towards existing Facebook games i.e. time spent,
frequency of playing games e.t.c. and proposes methods to
increase the market penetration and revenue by adding Indian
currency, and prepaid cards as a more secured mode for paying
Facebook games and games of Indian taste.
The literature review stresses on the need to revitalize the
gaming arena of Facebook and for that we have gathered the
data in two stages from existing Facebook game users.
In first stage, we have tried to determine the gender,
education, occupation, internet usage, time spent on Facebook
games, and device used for accessing Facebook account by
Indian users.
After that we have put in efforts to analyze whether
existing Indian Facebook game users want any new game of
Indian flavor and Indian currency to be added on the website.
Here we have also tried to find out the need of more secured
payment method such as prepaid cards and the extent to which
the majority agrees to pay.
For this purpose we designed a questionnaire and
collected the responses of 202 existing Indian Facebook game
users. We analyzed the data collected and performed various
types of testing techniques which helped us to prove our
hypotheses and marked the way for the success of our research.
In brief, by customizing games according to Indian
perspective, adding Rupees as an option for payment and
prepaid cards as a more secured mode for paying Facebook
games will arouse more interest and lead to an increase in the
time spent and number of Indian people playing games on
facebook which in turn increases the market penetration and
this will ultimately lead to the increase in revenue thereby
improving the business model and revenue model of Facebook.
Keywords: Customization, Business Model, Revenue
Model, Market Penetration.
Facebook Gaming - An Indian PerspectiveSub-Theme: Social Networking
Dr. Vijay Kumar Chaurasiya*Gyanendra Pratap Singh**
Mayank Tandon***
LITERATURE REVIEW
According to Socialbakers website January 2013 statistics,
total number of Facebook users in India is 61,499,220 which put
India on 3rd position in the overall ranking of all country wise
Facebook statistics. Facebook penetration in Indian population
is 5.24% and 66.96% is the total online penetration in India.
India registered an increase of 8,102,160 Facebook users in the
past 6 months. If we do a comparison of the nearest countries,
India witnesses 0.13% higher penetration than Cambodia and
0.15% lower Facebook penetration than Russia. The age group
in the range of 18-24 years with a total of 29,449,780 users is the
largest followed by the age group 25-34. 75% are male users
and 25% female users in India. India Facebook demographics
also reveal that the average CPM is $0.05 and average CPC is
$0.23.
According to Quintly website January 2013 statistics,
except for China, Facebook is the largest social networker in
Asia currently. In the top 10 rapidly growing countries on
Facebook, India bags the 2nd place. As per the country stats of
Facebook January 2013, India marked an increase of 1.78
million new users on Facebook displaying a significant growth
of 2.93%.
XIN msn news website on 01/31/2013 quoted that
Facebook reported a profit of $64 million in the 4th quarter
portraying a steep decline compared to $302 million in the
same period of 2011. There was an increase in revenue by 40%
to $1.585 billion and expenses rose by 82% to $1.06 billion.
Facebook emphasized that number of mobile users raised 57%
compared a year ago to 680 million, and crossed the personal
computer users for the first time, at 618 million on an average
for December 2012. Mobile devices contributed to
approximately 23% of Facebook’s ad revenue. About 1.06
billion Facebook monthly users marked an increase of 25%
from the previous year.
SFgate website on January 30, 2013 doubted the social
networks vulnerability reporting a theft of the login details of
16,000 Facebook users by a botnet called Poker Agent. Mostly
Israel was hit by this threat, but seems inactive now. The
programmed bot use to log into Facebook users accounts, and
collect statistics of Zynga Poker and the number of saved
payment methods in the Facebook account. In this way a
command would be received by the infected computers to
enter in to a user’s Facebook account thereby attracting the
user’s friends to a phishing website in order to steal their login
credentials, as well. Thus in this manner users credit card
numbers got exposed which calls for a more secured payment
method such as prepaid cards e.t.c.
On Feb 1, 2013 Reuters website advocated that Facebook is
planning to launch 10 high quality games created by third
party developers targeting hardcore gamers. Facebook is
coming up with more action battle games which will be more
time consuming as compared to the casual games such as
‘Farmville’. Social networking giant grabs 30% revenue share
from game developers and more than a quarter of 1.06 billion
monthly active users play games.
56 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
According to Bloomberg Businessweek website, with a
growth of 22% every six months, India will be the biggest
country on Facebook having the maximum number of users on
the planet by 2015. The growth would be explosive attributing
to the large amount of untapped market.
Method & Findings
The proposed Hypotheses are:
H1: Indian currency will attract more users to pay for
Facebook games.
H2: Games of Indian flavor will increase the time spent on
Facebook.
H3: Prepaid cards as more secured mode of payment will
attract more users to pay for Facebook games.
For this research we constructed a questionnaire. Our
target was 250 people but only 202 responses got registered.
We developed the questionnaire and floated that on Facebook
and also conducted surveys personally in our college IIIT
Allahabad.
We have tried to find out the education, occupation,
gender, usage of internet in hours, time spent on Facebook
games and device used to access Facebook in first part of our
questionnaire. After that we seek the willingness of users to
add any new game of Indian flavor to Facebook, prepaid cards
as a more secured payment method and Indian currency for
paying Facebook games in the second part. Based on these
questions we proposed three hypotheses and in order to prove
them we have used bivariate techniques (correlation and
regression) and measure of association (chi-square test) after
doing reliability test. SPSS 20 is used for the purpose of
analysis.
Reliability Test
First of all we checked the internal consistency of test items
by applying reliability test.For a good research the value of
Cronbach’s Alpha should be greater than 0.7 and in our case
the value is 0.819 which proves that there is a good
intercorrelation among test items and the degree of reliability is
appropriate.
H1: Time spent on Facebook will be affected if Indian
currency is added for paying Facebook games.
Test for our first hypothesis- Indian currency will attract
more users to pay for Facebook games
H0: Time spent on Facebook will not be affected if Indian
currency is added for paying Facebook games.
Facebook Gaming - An Indian Perspective Sub-Theme: Social Networking 57
two variables between 4 and 5 i.e. somewhere between agree
and strongly agree.
Descriptive statistics show that the mean is between 4 and
5 for both the variables. This signifies that majority rated these
regression as primary condition (high correlation) is fulfilled.There is 61.7% correlation between the two variables
which is linear, strong, positive and high. Now we can apply
58 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
The coefficient of determination is 0.381; therefore, about
38.1% of the variation in the time spent on Facebook is
explained by the addition of Indian currency for paying
Facebook games.
At 95% level of confidence, significance should be less
than 0.05.Since p-value = 0.000 < 0.05, we shall reject the null
hypothesis. We are 95% confident that the slope of the true
regression line is somewhere between 0.476 and 0.682 which
means that with 95% confidence we can say that if Indian
currency is added for paying Facebook games the time spent
on Facebook will increase somewhere between 47.6% to 68.2%.
At @=0.05 significance level, there pertains enough evidence to
conclude that regression line slope is not 0 and hence time
spent on Facebook will be affected if Indian currency is added
for paying Facebook games. The regression equation is
Y= 1.892 + 0.579X
which shows that X has a significant and positive impact
on Y i.e. if X will change by 1% then there will be a change of
57.9% in Y. Hence, we can say that Indian currency will attract
more users to pay for Facebook games.
Test for our second hypothesis- Games of Indian flavor will increase the time spent on Facebook
H0: Time spent on Facebook will not be affected if any new
game of Indian flavor is added to Facebook.
H1: Time spent on Facebook will be affected if any new
game of Indian flavor is added to Facebook.
Descriptive statistics show that the mean is between 4 and
5 for both the variables. This signifies that majority rated these
Facebook Gaming - An Indian Perspective Sub-Theme: Social Networking 59
two variables between 4 and 5 i.e. somewhere between agree
and strongly agree.
There is 64.0% correlation between the two variables
which is linear, strong, positive and high. Now we can apply
regression as primary condition (high correlation) is fulfilled.
The coefficient of determination is 0.410; therefore, about
41.0% of the variation in the time spent on Facebook is
60 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
56.5% in Y. Hence, we can say that games of Indian flavor will
increase the time spent on Facebook.
Test for our third hypothesis- Prepaid cards as more secured mode of payment will attract more users to pay for Facebook games
H0: Time spent on Facebook will not be affected if prepaid
cards are added as a more secured payment method for paying
Facebook games.
H1: Time spent on Facebook will be affected if prepaid
cards are added as a more secured payment method for paying
Facebook games.
explained by the addition of any new game of Indian flavor to
Facebook.
At 95% level of confidence, significance should be less
than 0.05.Since p-value = 0.000 < 0.05, we shall reject the null
hypothesis. We are 95% confident that the slope of the true
regression line is somewhere between 0.471 and 0.660 which
means that with 95% confidence we can say that if any new
game of Indian flavor is added to Facebook the time spent on
Facebook will increase somewhere between 47.1% to 66.0%. At
@=0.05 significance level, there pertains enough evidence to
conclude that regression line slope is not 0 and hence time
spent on Facebook will be affected if any new game of Indian
flavor is added to Facebook. The regression equation is
Y= 1.983 + 0.565X
which shows that X has a significant and positive impact
on Y i.e. if X will change by 1% then there will be a change of
Descriptive statistics show that the mean is between 4 and
5 for both the variables. This signifies that majority rated these
two variables between 4 and 5 i.e. somewhere between agree
and strongly agree.
Facebook Gaming - An Indian Perspective Sub-Theme: Social Networking 61
There is 64.9% correlation between the two variables
which is linear, strong, positive and high. Now we can apply
regression as primary condition (high correlation) is fulfilled.
The coefficient of determination is 0.421; therefore, about
42.1% of the variation in the time spent on Facebook is
explained by the addition of prepaid cards as more secured
mode of payment for paying Facebook games.
62 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
At 95% level of confidence, significance should be less
than 0.05.Since p-value = 0.000 < 0.05, we shall reject the null
hypothesis. We are 95% confident that the slope of the true
regression line is somewhere between 0.468 and 0.651 which
means that with 95% confidence we can say that if prepaid
cards are added as a more secured payment mode for paying
Facebook games the time spent on Facebook will increase
somewhere between 46.8% to 65.1%. At @=0.05 significance
level, there pertains enough evidence to conclude that
regression line slope is not 0 and hence time spent on Facebook
will be affected if prepaid cards are added as a more secured
payment mode for paying Facebook games. The regression
equation is
Y= 2.054 + 0.559X
which shows that X has a significant and positive impact
on Y i.e. if X will change by 1% then there will be a change of
55.9% in Y. Hence, we can say that prepaid cards as more
secured mode of payment will attract more users to pay for
Facebook games.
Cross Tabulations1)
63
This crosstabulation grid provides us the count and the
expected count in each category as well as the percent with
willingness to add any new game of Indian flavor to Facebook
and the percent within gender.
Facebook Gaming - An Indian Perspective Sub-Theme: Social Networking
There is no significant effect. The chi-square probability is
0.222 (greater than 0.05) which signifies that we are accepting
the null hypothesis that the column variable is unrelated (that
is, only randomly related) to the row variable. That means
there is no association between the two variables and there is
no difference between the gender and their willingness to add
any new game of Indian taste to Facebook.
64 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
A chi-square test of independence was applied to analyze
the data with willingness to add any new game of Indian flavor
to Facebook as one variable and the gender of the respondent
as the second variable. There was no significant effect between
the two variables i.e. no difference is spotted between the two
genders and their willingness to add any new game of Indian
flavor to Facebook. The figure shows the data in graphical
form.
2)
65
This crosstabulation grid provides us the count and the
expected count in each category as well as the percent with
willingness to visit Facebook more frequently if any new game
of Indian flavor is added and the percent within gender.
Facebook Gaming - An Indian Perspective Sub-Theme: Social Networking
There is no significant effect. The chi-square probability is
0.205 (greater than 0.05) which signifies that we are accepting
the null hypothesis that the column variable is unrelated (that
is, only randomly related) to the row variable. That means
there is no association between the two variables and there is
no difference between the gender and their willingness to visit
Facebook more frequently if any new game of Indian taste is
added.
66 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
A chi-square test of independence was applied to analyze
the data with willingness to visit Facebook more frequently if
any new game of Indian flavor is added as one variable and the
gender of the respondent as the second variable. There was no
significant effect between the two variables i.e. no difference is
spotted between the two genders and their willingness to visit
Facebook more frequently if any new game of Indian flavor is
added. The figure shows the data in graphical form.
3)
67
This crosstabulation grid provides us the count and the
expected count in each category as well as the percent with
time spent on Facebook games daily and the percent within
gender.
There is no significant effect. The chi-square probability is
0.453 (greater than 0.05) which signifies that we are accepting
the null hypothesis that the column variable is unrelated (that
is, only randomly related) to the row variable. That means
there is no association between the two variables and there is
no difference between the gender and their time spent on
Facebook games daily.
Facebook Gaming - An Indian Perspective Sub-Theme: Social Networking
A chi-square test of independence was applied to analyze
the data with time spent on Facebook games daily as one
variable and the gender of the respondent as the second
variable. There was no significant effect between the two
variables i.e. no difference is spotted between the two genders
and their time spent on Facebook games daily. The figure
shows the data in graphical form.
After considering the above three cross tabulation analysis
for variable independence, we have found that there is no
significant relationship between the variables taken. Thus, we
can say that male and female both are equally willing to spend
more time on Facebook if any new game of Indian flavor is
added to Facebook. This calls for efforts to add games falling in
the taste of both the sexes.
CONCLUSION
This study reveals that time spent by Indian users on
Facebook will increase if any new game of Indian flavor is
added to Facebook. There are lots of game lovers in India who
are willing to pay but they don’t turn up because of the
transaction insecurities. Hence, a more secured payment mode
such as prepaid cards should be added to Facebook for paying
Facebook games. Indian market is driven by emotions and
sentiments to a larger extent and the people here are cost
conscious. So, if Indian currency (Rupees) is added on
Facebook as another option for payment of Facebook games
and the payment amount is reduced to a satisfactory level (less
than Rs. 20), there would be an increase in the number of Indian
users ready to part with their money for playing Facebook
games. Emotions play an important role in India to capture
customer attractiveness towards a particular product or
service. We have also seen that men and women, both are
equally willing to see a new game of Indian flavor on Facebook.
Hence, this calls for efforts to add games falling in the taste of
both the sexes.
68 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
There is ample amount of untapped market in India,
having a lot of potential and scope, which can be capitalized by
sincere efforts. In brief, by customizing games according to
Indian perspective, adding Rupees as an option for payment
and prepaid cards as a more secured mode for paying
Facebook games will arouse more interest and lead to an
increase in the time spent on Facebook. By a word of mouth,
there would be an increase in the number of Indian people
playing games on facebook which in turn increases the market
penetration and this will ultimately lead to the increase in
revenue thereby improving the business model and revenue
model of Facebook.
REFERENCES
• About Facebook https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Facebook.
• About Facebook games
https://company.zynga.com/ games/facebook-games
• Zynga shares fall as Facebook terms change, Wall Street Journal,
https://online.wsj.com/article/SB1000142412788732375110
4578149653809194778.html.
• Adaptable Facebook gaming chat software briefly launched by
Chatwing.com.
https://www.beaumontenterprise.com/business/press-
releases/article/Adaptable-Facebook-Gaming-Chat-Software-
Briefly-4094964.php#ixzz2NT3VB4e6.
• Coming soon to Facebook - more action and battle games
https://in.reuters.com/article/2013/02/01/facebook-games-
idINDEE9100GM20130201.
• Reasons for games being the killer app for social networks
https://mashable.com/2010/08/10/social-gaming-business/
• Games on the go
https://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/
Games-on-the-go/Article1-602207.aspx.
• The gamble in gaming
https://www.financialexpress.com/news/The-gamble-in-
gaming/614046.
• Zynga plays alone for now
https://www.reuters.com/article/2009/12/02/us-media-
summit-zynga-idUSTRE5B1592200 91202.
• Gaming and the future of Facebook
https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/4076/the_facebook_
doctrinegaming_and_.php.
• Even Facebook must change
https://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887323829504
578272233666653120.html
• Facebook in privacy breach
https://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304772804
575558484075236968.html
• Facebook 'unfriends' Zynga
https://digitaljournal.com/article/338085
• List of countries on Facebook
https://www.socialbakers.com/facebook-statistics/
• India Facebook statistics
https://www.socialbakers.com/facebook-statistics/india
• States Facebook statistics
https://www.socialbakers.com/facebook-statistics/united-states
• An end to close relationship of Facebook and Zynga
https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-20554441
• There are 425 million mobile users monthly active on Facebook
out of which 46 million are Indian users
https://www.techknots.com/mobiles/facebook-has-425-million-
mobile-users-46-million-indian-users/
• The Future of Facebook is in India
https://www.businessweek.com/articles/2012-05-31/the-
future-of-facebook-is-in-india
69
• Facebook: A brilliant business model
https://www.web-strategist.com/blog/2012/05/19/facebook-a-
brilliant-business-model/
• Facebook boosts mobile, gets lukewarm response
https://news.xin.msn.com/en/world/facebook-boosts-mobile-
gets-lukewarm-response-2
• Security researchers raise alarm about credit cards on Facebook
https://www.sfgate.com/technology/businessinsider/article/Sec
u r i t y - R e s e a r c h e r s - R a i s e - A l a r m - A b o u t - C r e d i t -
4235426.php#ixzz2NU3UXEwu
• 4 ways social media sites make money
https://lauraleewalker.com/2012/03/28/4-ways-social-media-
sites-make-money/
• Sorry Zynga, Farmville needs Facebook
https://www.pcworld.com/article/196010/Farmville.html
• Business model Facebook and Linkedin
https://www.forbes.com/sites/darcytravlos/2012/04/10/linkedi
n-and-facebook-applied-social-networking-could-push-
linkedin-to-120-by-summer/
• Social gaming industry in India
https://www.indiasocial.in/social-games-now-every-indian-
will-play/
• Facebook country statistics January 2013- Brazil and India are
adding millions
https://www.quintly.com/blog/2013/01/facebook-country-
stats-january-2013-brazil-and-india-are-adding-millions/
Facebook Gaming - An Indian Perspective Sub-Theme: Social Networking
*Professor, Dept. of Management Studies, Sathyabama University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
**Professor, Department of Management Studies, St.Joseph’s College of Engineering, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
INTRODUCTION
Work and family are the two central domains forming the
back bone of an individual’s life (Howard, 1992). They are
work domain (employment) and non-work domain (family).
These two inevitable institutions namely work and family have
historically coexisted, simultaneously as discrete spheres in
one’s life. But this separation between work and life began to
fade with changes in societal demographics.
The traditional nuclear family where the husband works
out side and the wife cares for the home and children is the
system which no longer apply to majority of families in the
recent few decades. There has been an accelerated influx of
women into paid employment roles that have taken place in
the recent past.
Now more women are entering the labour workforce
which was once considered to be meant for men only. A
majority of women want everything that men have
traditionally wanted - success, power, status, money, as well as
committed relationship, love, children and happiness.
In most studies, researchers have found that carrying out
these dual roles often leads to work family conflict for both men
and women. The profound demographic trends have elevated
the need to understand and manage the interface between
work and family (Fraser., 2001).
ABOUT THE INDUSTRY
The Indian Information technology and Business
Processing Outsourcing (IT-BPO) Industry has emerged as the
largest private sector employer in the country, with direct
employment of 2.23 million professionals and indirect
employment of over eight million people in different industry
sectors. While the percentage of women in the IT-BPO
workforce at the entry level is commensurate with graduate
profiles anecdote evidence suggests that this is not the case at
middle and senior management positions. Skill sets and
designations in the organizational hierarchy women
contribute significantly to the success of companies and the IT-
BPO industry as a whole.
An important issue our society is facing in the recent past
is the changing work and family roles of Indian women.
Women, today, function within multiple roles simultaneously
operating in both work and family domains as a mother,
spouse, housekeeper, and as well as maintain a full time
employment outside the home. The relationship between these
dual roles has thus become a topic of interest among
organizational researchers. The article deals with the select
antecedents and its influence on the role conflict is analyzed in
the study. Sample size of 598 was taken for the study and result
has been obtained using statistical analysis.
Women in Technology -Empirical Analysis of Role Conflict Dr. B. Aiswarya*
Dr. G. Ramasundaram**
The IT-ITES industry’s contribution to the national GDP is
estimated to increase from 6.0 per cent in 2008-09 to 6.1 per cent
in 2009-10. The total number of IT and ITES -BPO professionals
employed in India have grown from 0.52 million in 2001- 02 to
2010 million in 2008-09.
In addition, about one fifth of the female employees in the
IT-BPO industry are at the managerial level or above indicating
the numerous opportunities provided to them by the industry.
The increase can be attributed to the gender agnostic
requirements of the industry and the flexible work
environment provided by the IT-BPO companies.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Work Life Conflict
Greenhaus and Beutall (1985) defined work and family
conflict as a form of interrole conflict in which the role
pressures from the work and family domains are mutually
incompatible in some respect. Work and family are two central
domains in most adult’s lives.
Researchers in this area have distinguished between two
types of work family conflict, work interfering with family and
family interfering with work. The second work family conflict
strain-based, conflict arises when strain in one role affects one’s
performance in another role. The last type is behaviour based
conflict which refers to incompatibility between the behavioral
patterns that are desirable in the two domains.
Some of the more prevalent antecedents and outcomes of
work life conflict identified in the literature include role
commitment, role salience and satisfaction parenting
(Rousseau, 1984), marriage and spousal support (Barnette and
Marshall, 1991) and supervisory and company support
(Bowen, 1988).
CAUSES
Organizational Commitment
Organizational commitment refers to the extent to which
employees like and feel a part of the organization for which
they work for. It is the relative strength of an individual’s
identification with and involvement in a particular
organization (Mowday et al., 1982).
Work life balance is positively associated with
organizational commitment. This finding is consistent with
work family conflict. Research that found, employees who
experience excess work to family conflict and family to work
conflict will be less committed to their work organization
(Allen et al., 2000).
Grover and Crooke (1985) studied multiple family
responsive policies together and found that employees with
access to more of these benefits showed greater commitment
and lower intentions to leave. Their study also supported the
idea that flexible working hours offered by organizations
influence organizational commitment of employees.
Organizational Climate
Organizational climate is defined as the recurring patterns
of behaviour, attitudes and feelings that characterize life in the
organization more related to atmosphere tone and ethos. An
organizational climate is a relatively new concept and refers to
the extent to which work environment is supportive with
regards to employees work and family needs (Allen, 2001).
These individual perceptions are often aggregated or
collected for analysis and understanding at the team or group
level, or the divisional, functional, or overall organizational
level. Since positive work family climate is a specific form of
organizational supportiveness and work family conflict
constitutes a stress factor at work, we can conclude that
supportive work family climate would alleviate the negative
impact of work family conflict on the job related attitudes of the
employees, thus improving the productivity of the
organization (Thompson et al., 1999).
Work Exhaustion
Work exhaustion is about the work itself and reflects a
salient frustration about job outcomes (Moore, 2000).
Employee will likely decrease their organizational
commitment as their work exhaustion increases because they
will lose faith that the company can take care of them by
providing an acceptable work life.
Research has linked perceived work interference family to
increased burn out. Moreover, it is stated that perceived
conflict from family responsibilities interfering with work will
also be associated with emotional exhaustion (Bacharach,
Bamberger and Conley, 1991).
Employment in Information Technology Industry in India
Year/ Item 2001- 02 2002-03 2003- 04 2004- 05 2005- 06 2006- 07 2007- 08 2008- 09
IT Services and Exports 0.17 0.21 0.30 0.39 0.51 0.69 0.86 0.92
BPO Exports 0.11 0.18 0.22 0.32 0.42 0.55 0.70 0.79
Domestic Market 0.25 0.29 0.32 0.35 0.38 0.38 0.45 0.50
Total Employment 0.52 0.67 0.83 0.06 0.29 0.62 0.01 2.21
Source: NASSCOM Report 2009.
Women in Technology - Empirical Analysis of Role Conflict 71
restructuring, on the contrary Karambayya and Reilly (1992)
determined that family involvement correlated positively with
work restructuring for both the husbands and wives in their
dual earner sample. Moreover family involvement is the
impact of those family roles which have on an individual’s
image, self -concept and commitment to the roles.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Design: The design applied in the study is
descriptive research design. It is appropriate to use this method
in this which research describes the relationship among
different variables.
Questionnaire: A set of suitable questions were framed to
satisfy the objective of the study with the help of the previous
studies and literature review for the selected variables.
Questionnaire consists of both qualitative and quantitative
items.
Sampling: In this study, population refers to women
employees in IT and ITES firms located in Chennai city.
Therefore, convenience sample technique is adopted for
selecting the sample units. Among the collected
questionnaires, only 598 filled questionnaires are taken into
account for the research.
Work Thought Interference
Work thought interference is the inability to stop dwelling
on work matters or simply an inability to stop thinking about
work. An unforeseen and illogical consequence of a single
sided segmentation has been the amalgamation or blurring of
the borders between home and work for the worker, enhancing
the intrusion of the work role into the non-work domain (Louis
and Sutton 1991).
Thus, the work thought interference leads to an
identifiable behavioural manifestations and social
repercussions. It may otherwise be described as the failure of
one’s role transition, in border crossing behaviour. In case of
career women, post child bearing is an especially painful
manifestation of work’s all consuming nature (Sarason, et al.,
1996).
Perceived Work and Family Demand
Perceived demand is a global perception of the level and
intensity of responsibility within the family and the work
domains. It is posited that perceived demand will be
identifiable to researchers and perceived by the individuals.
It Voydanoff (1988) decreased both work and family
demand concepts that included variables such as number of
hours worked, schedule role conflict, role ambiguity, role
overload, stress from work, marital status, spouses working
hours, number of children and age of children. Finally, many of
these measures are indicators for demand such as hours
worked rather perceived demand levels.
Job Autonomy
Job autonomy is defined as “The degree to which the job
provides substantial freedom, independence and discretion to
the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the
procedure to be used in carrying it out (Ilgen and Hollenbeck,
1992).
Another perspective of job autonomy as stated by Ettner
and Grzywacz (2001) found that workers who reported higher
levels of dissatisfaction with working conditions and lack of
autonomy had more negative health effects. Thus job
autonomy as impact not only on the organizations and family
but also on the health of the employee.
Job Involvement
The work involvement represents the degree to which the
individual’s job is central to his / her self-concept and identity.
Lodahl and Kejner (1965) conceptualized job involvement as
an internalization of work values such that an individual
derives self-esteem from involvement in the job.
The fact that women still assure greater responsibility for
family may help explain their lesser degree of work
involvement (Spence, 1985). Paradoxically, married women
individuals generally report greater levels of work
involvement probably due to their family responsibilities.
Family Involvement
Although, Brett and Yogev (1988) concluded that family
involvement was not significantly correlated with
Causes
Organisation commitment 0.851
Job autonomy 0.762
Job involvement 0.809
Family involvement 0.898
Organisational climate 0.847
Perceived workload 0.817
Perceived family demand 0.793
Work thought interference 0.748
Work exhaustion 0.814
Work family conflict 0.923
Reliabilty values of the variables
As for the causes organizational commitment (Mowday,
Steers and Porter., 1979), Job Autonomy (Beehr., 1976), Job
involvement (Lodhal and Kejner., 1965), Family involvement
(Lodhal and Kejner., 1965), Organizational climate (Patterson
et al., 2005), Perceived workload (Moore., 2000), Perceived
family demand (Sudman.,1982), Work thought interference
(Friedmann and Greenhaus., 2000), Work exhaustion (Moore.,
2000).
Segmentation of the causes of role conflict
In order to group the statements based on causes for
work life conflict, explorative factor analysis is used KMO
Bartletts test have been used for measuring sampling
adequacy.
72 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
The results in the table show that the sample size of this
study is adequate to conduct factor analysis. Moreover, the
correlation between the variables under each factor is
significantly strong and that is justified with the chi-square
value in the table.
Around thirty-seven statements, barring three, are
grouped under nine factors. For extraction purpose principle
component analysis is applied. Varimax rotation method is
needed for rotating the matrix. Factors, which score eigen
value of more than one, are only taken for analysis purpose and
statements with loading factor less than 0.5 are suppressed.
Influence of Causes on Role Conflict
Based on previous literature it has been found that role
conflict is caused by many factors. However, the predominant
factors are organizational commitment, organizational
climate, and work exhaustion, perceived workload, perceived
family demand, family involvement and job autonomy. For
understanding the significance of influence and the level of
influence of these factors, stepwise regression is employed. As
dimension of role conflict is divided as time, strain and
behaviour, for each dimension, the regression line is estimated.
Influence of causes on work family conflict time
Predictors : Constant, Work Exhaustion.
Predictors : Constant, Work Exhaustion,
Work Thought Interference.
Predictors : Constant, Work Exhaustion,
Work Thought Interference,
Perceived Workload.
Dependent
Variable : Work family conflict time.
The output of stepwise regression explains with the help
of three regression equations that have been evolved by
incorporating only the significant independent variable one by
one. It is evident from R square and adjusted R square values in
the table that the level variance explained by the independent
variables is increasing significantly due to successive addition
of causes. Totally 41 percent of variance of time dimension of
work family conflict is explained by work exhaustion, work
thought interference and perceived workload. Among them,
the highest variance is accounted by work exhaustion (33.3
percent) followed by work thought interference (5.4 percent)
and perceived workload (.2.6 percent).
Coefficients and Collinearity Statistics
KMO and Bartlett's Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of
Sampling Adequacy 0.841
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity, Approx.
Chi-Square 1.009E4
Degree of freedom 666
Significance .000
Model Summary
Model
R R Square Adjusted R
Square
Std. Error Change Statistics
R Square
change
F change df1 df2 Sig. F
1 .577a .333 .332 .65642 .333 297.679 1 596 .000
2 .622b .387 .385 .62988 .054 52.275 1 595 .000
3 .643c .413 .410 .61695 .026 26.199 1 594 .000
Model Unstandardized Co-
efficients
Standardized Co-
efficients
t Sig Collinearity Statistics
B Std. Error Beta Tolerance VIF
1 Constant 1.601 .108 14.830 .000
Wrk Extn .561 .033 .577 17.253 .000 1.000 1.000
2
Constant 1.166 .120 9.732 .000
Wrk Extn .500 .032 .514 15.457 .000 .931 1.074
Wrk Thgt Int .249 .034 .240 7.230 .000 .931 1.074
Women in Technology - Empirical Analysis of Role Conflict 73
The unstandardised co-efficients reveals that the highest
level of influence is contributed by work exhaustion. Every
one’s unit change in work exhaustion leads to in 0.46 unit
change in work family conflict. However, the contribution of
work thought interference and perceived workload to change
of work family conflict are 0.242 and 0.199 respectively.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The impact of antecedents on the dimension of work family conflict -Time
Work life conflict time
Though there are several causes for the occurrence of
work family conflict, three predominant factors that influence
work family conflict - time dimension are work exhaustion,
work thought interference and perceived workload in the
order of merit. It is work exhaustion that influences the time
dimension of work family conflict the highest followed by
work thought interference and perceived workload the least.
The influence of organizational commitment, organizational
climate, perceived family demand, family involvement, job
autonomy and job involvement is less and not considered as a
cause for the occurrence of work life conflict time.
REFERENCES
• Allen. S. (2001),” What Is Work For? The Right to Work and the
Right to BE Idle,” in The Changing Shape of Work, ed. Richard
K. Brown (New York : St. Martin’s Press.
• Barnett, R. C., and Marshall, N. L. (1991). The relationship
between women’s work and family roles and subjective well-
being and psychological distress. In M.Frankenhaeuser, U.
Lundbert, and M. Chesney (Eds.), Women, Work and Health:
Stress and Opportunities (pp.111-136). New York: Plenum.
• Beehr, T. (1976). Perceived Situational Moderators of the
Relationship between Subjective Role Ambiguity and Role
Strain. Journal of Applied Psychology 61, 35-40.
• Brett, J. M. and Yogev, S. (1988). Restructuring work for family:
How dual-earner couples with children manage. In Elizabeth B
Goldsmith (ed), Work and Family: Theory, Research and
Applications. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 159-174.
• Ettner, S. L., and Grywacz, J. G. (2001). Worker’s perceptions of
how jobs affect health: A social ecological perspective. Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology, 6, 101-113.
• Friedman, S. D. and Greenhaus, J. H., (2000). Work and Family:
Allies or Enemies? What happens when Business Professionals
confront life choices (New York: Oxford University Press.
• Greenhaus, J. H., and Beutall, N. J. (1985). Sources of conflict
between work and family roles. Academy of Management
Review, 10, 76-88.
• Grover, S. L., & Crooker, K. J. (1995). Who appreciates family
responsive human resource policies: The impact of family -
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Job design and roles. In M. D. Dunnette and L. M. Hough
(Eds.), Handbook of Industrial and Organisational Psychology
2, 65-207.
• Karambayya, R., and Reilly, A. H. (1992). Dual earner couples:
Attitudes and actions in restructuring work for family. Journal
of Organizational Behaviour, 13, 585-601.
• Karambayya, R., and Reilly, A. H. (1992). Dual earner couples:
Attitudes and actions in restructuring work for family. Journal
of Organizational Behaviour, 13, 585-601.
• Lodhal, T. M., and Kejner, M. (1965). Definition and
measurement of job involvement. Journal of Applied
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measurement of organizational commitment. Journal of
Vocational Behaviour, 14, 224-247.
• Mowday, R., Porter, L. & Steers R. (1982). Employee
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T.D., Herst, D.E.L., Bruck, C.S., & Sutton, M. (2000).
Consequences associated with work-to-family conflict: A review
and agenda for future research. Journal of Occupational Health
Psychology, 5,278-308.
• Patterson, M. G., West, M. A., Shackelton, V. J., Dawson, J. F.,
Lawthom, R., Maitlis, S., Robinson, D. L., and Wallace, A. M.
(2005). Validating the organizational climate measure: Links to
managerial practices, productivity and innovation. Journal of
Organizational Behaviour, 26, 379-408.
• Spence, T. J. (1985). Achievement American Style: The Rewards
and Costs of Individualism, American Psychologist. 40, 12.
• Sudman, S. (1982). Asking Questions. San Francisco:Jossey
Bass Publishers.
3
Constant .553 .168 3.297 .001
Wrk Extn .460 .033 .473 14.109 .000 .879 1.138
Wrk Thgt Int .242 .034 .234 7.170 .000 .930 1.075
Prcd Wrk load .199 .039 .167 5.118 .000 .933 1.072
74 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
Book Review
Reviewed by:Nidhi Choudhari
IAS, Shri Krishna Kunj, Nagaur Road,Near Gayatri Mandir, Didwana, District-Nagaur,
Rajasthan, India.Email: [email protected]
Sarpanch Sahib: Changing the Face of India
Author: Manjima BhattacharjyaPublisher: HARPER COLLINS PUBLISHERS INDIA LTDYear of Publication: 2009Price: Rs. 175
India’s single greatest achievement since the proclamation
of Constitution and its amendments of 1992 relating to local
self-governance, has been the empowerment of over 1.2 million
women through Panchayati Raj. It is an achievement without
precedent in the world and has often been termed as a “silent
revolution”, “the greatest social experiment of our time” and
“one of the best innovations in grassroots democracy in the
world” etc. In the Panchayati Raj structure, woman Sarpanch
stands at the cutting edge wherein their lives are caught
between democracy and the boundaries of traditions, caste and
class. She carries the burden of millennia of patriarchy and also
is a harbinger of change. The opportunity to enter the
forbidden world of power politics has helped her push spaces.
In this book, the reader traces her journey through the swirling
waters of politics, administration and society.
In 1993, when women started this journey in Panchayats,
many persons had thought that this would not change
anything, men will continue to decide and rule as usual, using
their wives or mothers or daughter-in-laws as a cover. Initially
almost all the women who entered the political arena because
of this policy, were in some way forced by their families. Most
of them did not receive any training for the roles they were
asked to take on. In spite of all the cynicism and active
obstruction by old political power-brakers, the experiment has
started to bring about a change. The profiles in this book
“Sarpanch Sahib” vividly bring out the effective role which
women in hundreds of thousands of India’s villages are
playing to bring power to the people and change the fabric of
rural India.
ABOUT THE BOOK
The book “Sarpanch Sahib - Changing the face of India”,
edited by Manjima Bhattacharjya, tells incredible stories about
seven gutsy women in seven far flung villages of India:
Deepanjali, the adivasi graduate sarpanch treading new waters
in Kalahandi; Chinapappa, the non-literate panchayat
president in Tamil Nadu making education accessible to
children; Sunita, struggling against a corrupt system in
Madhya Pradesh; Maya, comingg to terms with sudden
electoral defeat in the hills of Uttarakhand; Maloti, finding
innovative ways of governing her constituencies in tea estate in
Assam; Veena Devi, young widow and seasoned politician,
navigating the criminalized politics in Bihar; and Kenchamma,
the first Dalit woman president of Tarikere panchayat in
Karnataka.
What is more interesting is that each of these stories is
written by a different female journalist who had to get out of
her metropolitan existence to meet her subject in a far off
village. Edited by Manjima Bhattacharjya, this book shows a
completely different and honest face of the Indian woman.
“The history of women in south Asian politics is beset with
contradictions,” writes Manjima Bhattacharjya, editor of the
book, pointing out that while the region has had strong female
prime ministers and presidents, the participation of women in
grassroots politics has still been meagre. The book, sponsored
by The Hunger Project, is a collection of encounters with brave
women who are trying to make a difference. Writers and
journalists like Manju Kapur and Sonia Faleiro traveled to
remote villages to speak with these ladies about their career as
panchayat members. The stories depict a true and objective
picture of the struggle of women Sarpanch in rural India. It
gives sometimes depressing but often inspiring insight into
how social change slowly, painfully comes about in even the
most backward areas and societies.
STORYLINE
Since 1993, over three million Indian women have become
politically active and one million are elected to political office
every five years. Despite large representation, the role of
women in politics is still looked upon with doubts. This book
travels through all the trials and triumphs associated with a
woman leader and put them across honestly, without even a
hint of dramatic feminism. The stories of the book are told by
women like Manju Kapur, Indira Maya Ganesh, etc. and are
immensely readable. They talk of villages from different parts
of India. To understand what these women went through and
continue to pass through, what it means for them to live lives of
poverty and yet strive for better governance against all odds,
makes for a humbling experience. The stories of following
women leaders have been told in the book:
A Suitable Candidate: Deepanjali-Deepanjali Majhi is
raw and fresh into her term as Sarpanch of the Rupra Road
village in Kalahandi (Odisa). She is 28 years old and has
studied first two years of BA which she could not complete
because of marriage. She is an Adivasi and contested from an
open seat and won against 8 men for the post of Sarpanch. She
is bringing about societal change in her village.
Small Wonders: Chinapappa- The illiterate Chinapappa
is the Sarpanch of Pachikanapalli, Tamil Nadu. She helped
twenty one kids of the nomad Irular tribe with enrollment in a
nearby school. She takes us through the struggles of being an
illiterate Dalit woman. Each adjective adding a new constraint
to her efficiency.
Sarpanch Sahib: Sunita- Sunita, an Adivasi woman, was a
landless labourer before becoming a Sarpanch of a Brahmin
dominated Tighra village in Madhya Pradesh. It took her about
a year and nine months just to open her own account and access
the funds granted to her for developmental work. She had to
fight with men of power, men of higher castes and initially men
(and women) of her own family. All of this just to start working
as a Sarpanch after being elected by people. Journalist Manju
Kapur narrates Sunita's journey from a ghunghat-clad skinny
daughter-in-law to a fuller Sarpanch who looks into her
opponent's eyes. She even jokes that “all the fighting made her
put on weight!”
The End of a Term: Maya-Maya Bhakhuni is the former
Sarpanch of Boonga village in Himachal Pradesh. The author
of her story Ms. Abhilasha Ojha visits her on the heels of her
loss in the elections. Maya’s tenure is sparked with progress
and she has demonstrated that she is an efficient and dedicated
Sarpanch, yet she loses election by 50 votes, a crucial election
that would have helped her consolidate the work achieved in
her first term. Maya feels that she has lost because the other
candidates gave bribes, distributed alcohol to buy votes etc. It
highlights the fundamental problem of elections that are
woman-unfriendly: unsafe, undemocratic, criminalized and
characterized by strategies ‘typical of those institutions that
men control’ such as free liquor, money and other incentives
(mostly for men).
The Ballet Dancer: Maloti-In Chamong tea estate in
Assam, Maloti Gowalla, a panchayat leader has been finding
innovative ways of governing her constituency. She has learnt
how to strike a balance over seven years of her experience in
different levels of local politics. Everyday development work is
kept on its toes, as Maloti rides her bicycle through the estate,
making sure that the workmen don’t fall asleep during
working hours. Maloti was instrumental in building a dam in
her area that not only saved the lives of people, but their paddy
fields too. Maloti feels that women have a different way of
governing: they work through persuasion and dialogue, rather
than coercion and violence. Even before entering politics she
persuaded 12 other women to help her pave a main road going
through the tea estate.
The Mukhiya of Loharpura: Veena- She is the mukhiya of
Loharpura in Nawada district of Bihar- the state though being
notorious for corruption and criminality, boasts of highest
percentage (54%) of women in local governance. Veena Devi,
13 years old was married to a man in his 40s with two grown
sons. She became a mother at 15 and a widow at 17. Her
transformation from a child bride to a widow to a seasoned
politician with aspirations for the Parliament is well narrated
by the author Kalpana Sharma.
76 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
The Night Before the Elections: Kenchamma-
Kenchamma, a dalit woman, who continues to shell betel nuts
for a living, even while she is into her second term in the Gram
Panchayat has earned respect from all members of community
i.e. Dalits and Lingayats. In her first term as Sarpanch in 1993, it
is told that Kenchamma cried for not being able to utter a word
in her first meeting as a Sarpanch. Now her status has
undergone a remarkable change because of her political
participation, but her life as such, remains eerily unchanged.
She is still the poor Dalit woman overburdened with
responsibilities, toiling for daily wages, supporting her family,
and also looking after the development needs of the village.
FINAL ANALYSIS: A MUST READ
The book throws many questions that linger while we go
through the pages of this book. As the stories progress from
Deepanjali Majhi to Kenchamma, the reader breathes the
trajectory of women in local politics in India. A trajectory beset
by pitfalls and obstacles, but at the same time, illuminated by
heartening possibilities and carving into the fabric of Indian
society some deep cuts from which there can be no turning
back.
As regards, women in local governance are concerned; the
book makes us understand that we should learn to measure
their success relatively. For example, Sunita who was married
at ten, entered politics at twenty two years of age from a mute
Adivasi background is much more emancipated than any
metropolitan Indian or even Western woman. Not getting
things done with bribes, getting out of her house to go to court
because she has been accused on fake charges and silencing
higher caste men are her achievements. They are probably
bigger than any known politician. Then there is Maya who has
persuaded 12 other women to construct a road even before
becoming a Sarpanch. Her riding a bicycle to monitor the
development works is a revolution more significant than even
a woman becoming the head of the state. Kenchamma, the poor
Dalit woman undergoes death threats in her first election.
Deepanjali Majhi is disillusioned with the system, tense with
the inter-personal minefields that must be tread in local
politics, and has just come to terms with the reality that women
are always vulnerable in unique ways. If these struggles are
delaying developmental work, it is like latent heat being
absorbed to make something invisible happen- the
empowerment of these women. Once they are powerful
enough not to care, development will take place with a greater
speed and honesty.
The book manifests in more than one ways that every
humble woman is an abode of great power. Mostly because
they have to deal with struggles that would never cross the
path of an educated, modern woman. Their expectations are
humble and their everyday life makes it impossible for them to
dwell on their problems. It is not so important to be better than
everyone else. The true beauty of a life well lived is to be better
than what you were yesterday and also to help others on your
way, achieve that dream!
entrenched social hierarchies can react back with terrible fury if
they feel that the status quo is being challenged. They know
that they cannot count on any one else to protect them. So they
bide their time, they accept to continue to living lives of poverty
and marginalisation, even while achieving small changes,
providing education for their children. They are not aiming for
revolutions, they are aiming for a change.
All the women in this book are succcess stories, even if
they show that nothing is easy and at times, the idea of
“success” does not quite express what they have achieved.
They show that change in the unchanging world of rural
poverty, could be almost imperceptible. The boundaries have
been pushed, but still only from the limits of the home to the
village. Kenchammas of this world are wise, they know that
Sarpanch Sahib: Changing the Face of India 77
78 SAMIKSHA - Volume IV, No. 1, January-June 2013
GUIDELINES FOR AUTHORS
We invite original empirical research papers, articles, review papers, executive experience sharing, book
reviews and case studies on managerial issues and problems from functional areas of management and
Information Technology for publication in our half yearly journal.
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Ogilvy David 2005 Marketing Management Tata Mc Grow Hill Pp-30-35
Volume IV, No. 1, January - June 2013
SAMIKSHA
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Volume IV, No. 1, January - June 2013
SAMIKSHA
1. The Effects of Demographic Characteristics on Organizational
Commitment of Employees
2. Construction of an Optimum Equity Portfolio with Reference to
Banking and Finance Sectors in India
3. Hospital Administrators’ Perception towards Healthcare
Services of Specialty Hospitals in North India
4. E-Commerce Based Websites: Complications and Perception Gap
5. 6 T’s of An Effective Performance Management System (PMS)
6. Stress in Teachers Engaged in Higher Educational Institutes: A study
7. Employee Engagement- Building Positive Employment Relations
At M/S. Heritage Foods, Hyderabad
8. Facebook Gaming - An Indian Perspective Sub-Theme: Social Networking
9. Women in Technology - Empirical Analysis of Role Conflict
10. Book Review: Sarpanch Sahib: Changing the Face of India
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