Introduction to Computers, Problem Solving, and
ProgrammingChapter 1
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Computer - “A device for counting or computing” Dr. John Atanasoff - 1st computer (1930). ENIAC 1946 at U of Penn (30 Tons, 30-by-50 foot space,
data in memory, programmed by connecting switches and wires)
Dr. John Von Neumann - Princeton– Stored program concept– Memory rather than wires and switches.
Evolution– 1970s: Apple microcomputers– Minicomputers – Mainframes (time-sharing systems)– Supercomputers: for very computing-intensive tasks– Personal computers/Workstations– Laptops
1.1 Overview of Computers
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Von Neumann architecture basis for today's computers
VLSI Technology made computers affordable, small and available to the public
How programming has changed over time
Overview of Computers
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Every computer is organized roughly into six parts– CPU - central processing unit
• Where decisions are made, computations are performed, and input/output requests are delegated
– Main Memory• Stores information being processed by the CPU
– Secondary Memory• Stores data and programs
1.2 Computer Hardware
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– Input devices• Allows people to supply information to computers
– Output devices• Allows people to receive information from
computers
– Network connection• Modems / Ethernet interface
Computer Hardware
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Computer Components
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Main Memory
-27.2
354
.005
75.62
Address Contents
0
1024
1
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Main Memory
Stores – programs– data– results
Types– RAM– ROM
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Secondary Memory & Storage
Semi permanent data-storage capability– Tape or Disk– Hard disk– CD ROM
Secondary memory has much more storage capacity
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CPU
“Brains” of the computer– Arithmetic calculations are performed using the
Arithmetic/Logical Unit or ALU– Control unit decodes and executes instructions
Arithmetic operations are performed using binary number system
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CPU Fundamental building block is a switch
– Switches are made from ultrasmall transistors Examples
– The Pentium ® processor contains about three million transistors
– The Pentium Pro ® has about 5.5 million transistors
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Input / Output Devices Accessories that allow computer to perform
specific tasks– Receiving information for processing– Return the results of processing– Store information
Common input and output devices– Printer Joystick CD-ROM– Keyboard Monitor
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Computer Networks
LAN - Local area network– Organizational
WAN - Wide area network– Internet
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World Wide Web
Introduced 1989 Developed by CERN
– European Laboratory for Particle Physics Web browser
– GUI– Netscape– IE
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Application software– Programs designed to perform specific tasks that
are transparent to the user System software
– Programs that support the execution and development of other programs
– Two major types• Operating systems• Translation systems
1.3 Computer Software
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Application Software Application software is the software that has
made using computers indispensable and popular Common application software
– Word processors– Desktop publishing programs– Spreadsheets– Presentation managers– Drawing programs
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Controls and manages the computing resources Important services that an operating system provides
– File system
– Commands that allow for manipulation of the file system
– Ability to perform input and output on a variety of devices
– Management of the running systems Examples
– MSDOS ®, Windows ®, Unix ®
Operating System
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Programming Languages Machine Language
– “Native tongue” of the computer– Binary 0s and 1s that specify what to do
• 0010 0000 0000 0100• 1000 0000 0000 0101• 0011 0000 0000 0110
Assembly language– Mnemonic code
High - Level Languages– Resemble human language (C++, C, Pascal)
• cost = price + tax;
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Programming Languages Language Standard
– Syntax (grammatical form) (=> rules)– Portability
• programs ideally need no modification when moved from one machine to another
Source Program Object Program Executable Program
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Object Oriented Programming OOP derived from C Bjarne Stroustrup (AT&T) Since mid-1980s, standard 1998 Popular a.o. because of:
– Reuse of Classes and objects
– Efficiency Class
– Definition of attributes and methods of an object Method
– An operation that uses the object data
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OO Programming and Structured Programming
Object– An instance of a class that has all the attributes and
methods included in the class definition C++ is organized in a hierarchy
– Super Classes (“Father Classes”)• It includes some of attributes and methods of a subclass
– Sub Classes (Son Classes)• It is derived from a super class and it may contain own
attributes and methods Object-oriented design and programming supports good
software engineering– Algorithms operate on well-defined data
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OO Programming and Structured Programming
Object-oriented design promotes thinking about software in a way that models the real world– Objects may model real things
Algorithms are the basis for the procedural sections (Structured Programs)– Highly structured– Top-down design– Step-wise refinement
Procedural languages (e.g. C, Pascal, Fortran):– No clear relationship between algorithms and data– OO tries to fill this gap
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Object Oriented Design Abstraction (Different views on the same object!)
– Extract the relevant properties of an object while ignoring inessential details
– Ignore irrelevant properties Encapsulation (Access only through interfaces!)
– Breaking down an object into parts, hiding and protecting its essential information, and supplying an interface to modify the information in a controlled and useful manner
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Object Oriented Design Modularity
– Dividing an object into smaller pieces or modules such that the object is easier to understand and manipulate
– E.g. “Consists–of” relationship! Hierarchy
– Ranking or ordering of objects based on some relationship between them
– E.g. “Is-A” relationship!
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Process of extracting only the relevant properties of an object
Extracted properties define a view of the object
Different contexts may have different views or abstractions
Abstraction
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Examples:– Car dealer views a car from selling features
standpoint • Price, warranty, color, etc.
– Mechanic views a car from systems maintenance standpoint
• Oil, oil filter, spark plugs, etc.
– Abstraction depends on the context
Abstraction
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Encapsulation Breaking down an object into parts, hiding
and protecting its essential information, and supplying an interface to modify the information in a controlled and useful manner
By hiding the information its representation and content can be changed without affecting other parts of the system
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Encapsulation
Example - car radio– Controlled by switches and buttons– The details of how it works is hidden– No manipulation of the car radio is allowed
except using the provided switches and buttons Encapsulation restricts the use to interfaces
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Modularity Dividing an object so that the object holds
useful information and it is easier to understand
Most complex systems are modular– Cooling System– Ignition System– Fuel System
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Modularity Example - Automobile can be decomposed into
subsystems– Cooling system
• Radiator
• Thermostat
• Water pump
– Ignition system• Battery
• Starter
• Spark plugs
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Hierarchy
Ranking or ordering of objects based on some relationship between them
Hierarchies facilitate understanding complex organizations and systems– Example - a company hierarchy helps
employees understand the structure of their company and their positions
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Hierarchy
Example: Means oftransportation
Train Car
BMWVW
- Color- Year
- Type- # Wagons
- # Doors- Fuel type
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OO Classes
Later we will use data abstractions– C++ language
Will apply OO techniques – Structured Programming– Object Oriented Programming
Model our own objects or abstractions
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1.4 Processing a High-Level Language Program
Set of programs used to develop software A key component is a translator Types of translators
– Compiler– Linker
Examples– g++, Borland C++ ®, Microsoft Visual C++ ®
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Processing a Program Editor used to enter the program
– Source program (file.cpp)– UNIX vi text editor
Compiler translates the source program– Displays syntax errors (not descriptive)
Linker/Loader to combine object file with other object files– Executable program
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Processing a Program Major activities
– Editing– Compiling– Linking with pre-compiled files
• Object files
• Library modules
– Loading and executing– Viewing the behavior of the program
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Process Cycle
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1.5 Software Development Method
Steps for any Software development process– 1. Specify the problem requirement– 2. Analyze the problem– 3. Design an algorithm for solving the problem– 4. Implement the algorithm– 5. Test and verify the program– 6. Maintain and update the program
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Software Development Method
Problem requirement– What is the problem exactly?– Eliminate irrelevant aspects– Clear and unambiguous problem statement– Needs interaction with the person who posed the problem
Problem Analysis - (Correct Problem)– Identify data objects– Determine Input / Output data– Identify constraints on the problem/solution
These two steps are very important for avoiding to solve the wrong problem
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Software Development Method
Example– Problem:
Compute and display the total cost of apples given the number of pounds of apples and the cost per pound of apples
– Analysis:• Inputs:
– Quantity of apples in pounds– Cost per pound
• Output:– Total costs (in dollars)
• Main formula:– Total cost = Cost per pound * Pounds of apples
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Software Development Method
Design– Problem solving step– Decompose into smaller problems– Top-down design (divide and conquer)– Develop Algorithm
• Algorithm: List of steps to solve a problem• Algorithm refinement: Developing a sub-algorithm for a
particular step in the main algorithm
– Desk check• Simulate the algorithm execution for simple interesting cases
using pencil and paper
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Software Development Method
Implementation
– Writing the algorithm in a special programming language e.g. C++
– Requires understanding the algorithmic notation as well as the details of the respective programming language
Testing
– Verify that the program meets its requirements
– Unit test (only one sub-problem)
– System test (whole problem)
– Test coverage! Documentation
– Key part in the development process
– Accompanying activity in each phase
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Software Development Method
Maintenance:– Modify a program to remove errors– Modify a program in order to extend it– Initial programmer is very often not the person who
does maintenance!– Understandability of code, use of guidelines
Failure is a part of the process– The step-by-step development help avoid failures– But there are no guaranties– Importance of documentation
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Software Development Method
Software engineering– Area of computer science concerned with:
• Building large software systems
• Providing solutions for efficient and effective software development
Challenge– Tremendous advances in hardware have not been
accompanied by comparable advances in software
– => Software crisis
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Software Engineering Goals Reliability
– An unreliable life-critical system can be fatal– Software is in general more expensive and less reliable
than hardware– E.g. Year 2000 problem– Maintenance affects availability
Understandability– Future development becomes very difficult if software is
hard to understand Cost Effectiveness
– Cost to develop and maintain should not exceed profit
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Software Engineering Goals
Adaptability
– Ease of modification in the program or in its environment
– System that is adaptive is easier to alter and expand Reusability
– Reduces development costs
– Improves reliability and maintainability
– (Exception: Reuse of unreliable software)
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1.6 Applying the Software Development Method
Case Study: Converting Miles to Kilometers
– Problem Your summer surveying job requires you to study some maps that give distances in kilometers and some that use miles. You and your coworkers prefer to deal in metric measurements. Write a program that performs the necessary conversion.
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Applying the Software Development Method
– Analysis The first step in solving this problem is to determine what you are asked to do. You must convert from one system of measurement to another, but are you supposed to convert from kilometers to miles, or vice versa? The problem states that you prefer to deal in metric measurements, so you must convert distance measurements in miles to kilometers.
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Applying the Software Development Method
– Design The next step is to formulate the algorithm that solves the problem. Begin by listing the three major steps, or sub problems, of the algorithm.
• 1. Get distance in miles
• 2. Convert to kilometers
• 3. Display distance in kilometers
Refinement of step 2:
• The distance in kilometers is 1.609 times the distance in miles
Desk check
• 10 miles * 1.609 = 16.09 km (this would be displayed)
– Implementation To implement the solution, you must write the algorithm as a C++ program.
– Testing How do you know the sample run is correct?
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Applying the Software Development Method
C++ code:#include <iostream>Using namespace std<int main() {
const Km_Per_Mile = 1.609;float miles, kms;// Get distance in milescout << “Enter distance in miles: ”;cin >> miles;// convert to kilometers
kms = Km_Per_Mile * miles;// display distance in kilometerscout << “The distance in kms is “ << kms << endl;return 0;
}
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1.7 Professional Ethics for Computer Programmers
Privacy and Misuse of Data
– Falsifying data in a database
– Computer thefts Computer Hacking
– Breaking secure systems e.g. for amusement
– Spreading viruses in a network Plagiarism and Software Piracy
– Using foreign programs without permission
– Violating copyright agreements Misuse of a Computer Resource
– Illegal sharing of accounts and passwords in order to access special systems and databases
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1.8 Summary
History– 1930 first computer– Eniac: programmed by hand– Von-Neumann: stored program concept
Components of computers– CPU (Central processing unit)
• Control Unit• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
– Main Memory• Addresses• Data: Bytes, Bits, Words
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1.8 Summary
– Secondary storage (unit is file)• Disks• Tapes• Floppy• CDs• Removable disks
– I/O devices• Keyboard (i)• Monitor (o)• Printer (o)• Modem (i/o)
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1.8 Summary
Computer networks– LAN– WAN– WWW
Software– Operating system– Compilers – Application software
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1.8 Summary
Programming Languages– High level language (e.g. procedural, oo, logic,
functional)– Assembly language– Machine language
Tools for program development– Editor– Compiler– Linker– Loader
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1.8 Summary
Basic concepts of OO programming– Class– Object– Method– Abstraction– Encapsulation– Modularity– Hierarchy
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1.8 Summary
Basic steps of software development– Specification of the problem– Analysis– Design– Implementation– Test– Maintenance
Failures ! Software Engineering Goals (e.g. reliability, cost
effectiveness, reusability) Ethics in the use of computers
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