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How old is the Baikal Rift Zone? Insight from apatite fission track

thermochronology

M. Jolivet,1 T. De Boisgrollier,2 C. Petit,2 M. Fournier,2 V. A. Sankov,3 J.-C. Ringenbach,4

L. Byzov,3 A. I. Miroshnichenko,3 S. N. Kovalenko,3 and S. V. Anisimova3

Received 8 October 2008; revised 2 March 2009; accepted 10 April 2009; published 20 June 2009.

[1] Apatite fission track analysis (AFTA) data areused to bring new light on the long-term and recenthistory of the Baikal rift region (Siberia). We describethe evolution of the topography along a NW–SEprofile from the Siberian platform to the Barguzinrange across the Baikal–southern Patom range and thenorthern termination of Lake Baikal. Our results showthat the Baikal-Patom range started to form in theEarly Carboniferous and was reactivated in MiddleJurassic–Lower Cretaceous times during the orogeniccollapse of the Mongol-Okhotsk belt. Samples locatedin the Siberian platform recorded a continuoussedimentation up to the early Carboniferous butremain unaffected by later tectonic episodes. TheBarguzin basin probably started to form as early asLate Cretaceous, suggesting a continuum ofdeformation between the postorogenic collapse andthe opening of the Baikal Rift System (BRS). Theinitial driving mechanism for the opening of the BRSis thus independent from the India-Asia collision.AFTA show a late Miocene–early Pliocene increase intectonic extension in the BRS that confirms previousthoughts and might reflect the first significant effect ofthe stress field generated by the India-Asia collision.Citation: Jolivet, M., T. De Boisgrollier, C. Petit, M. Fournier,

V. A. Sankov, J.-C. Ringenbach, L. Byzov, A. I. Miroshnichenko,

S. N. Kovalenko, and S. V. Anisimova (2009), How old is the

Baikal Rift Zone? Insight from apatite fission track

thermochronology, Tectonics, 28, TC3008, doi:10.1029/

2008TC002404.

1. Introduction

[2] The Baikal Rift System (BRS) (Figures 1 and 2) is akey feature of the tectonic evolution of Asia but, despite alarge number of geological and geophysical studies, its ageand origin are still largely debated. Two main hypothesesare proposed [Sengor and Burke, 1978]: (1) the ‘‘active rift

hypothesis’’ considers that rifting is induced by the effectsof a wide asthenospheric diapir acting on the base of thecrust beneath the rift axis [e.g., Logatchev and Zorin, 1987;Windley and Allen, 1993; Gao et al., 2003; Kulakov, 2008]and (2) for the ‘‘passive rift hypothesis’’ the BRS is a kindof pull-apart basin opening in response to the India-Asiacollision to the south [e.g., Molnar and Tapponnier, 1975;Tapponnier and Molnar, 1979; Zonenshain and Savostin,1981; Cobbold and Davy, 1988; Petit et al., 1996; Lesne etal., 1998; Petit and Deverchere, 2006].[3] Recent geophysical investigations tend to demonstrate

that there is no hot mantle plume beneath the Baikal rift[e.g., Ivanov, 2004; Tiberi et al., 2003; Lebedev et al., 2006;Petit et al., 2008]. Furthermore, mantle plume activity ismost certainly not sufficient to produce rifting without aprerift favorable structural inheritance [Zorin et al., 2003].Problems also arise in the ‘‘passive rift hypothesis’’ becausethe indentation of Asia by India mostly generated compres-sive structures such as the Tibet plateau, the central Asianranges or large transpressive lithospheric faults like inMongolia. Only the occurrence of favorably orientedinherited structures along the eastern margin of the Siberiancraton can explain the development of extensional struc-tures in this general compressive context.[4] From the Eocene to the middle Miocene, distributed

extension prevailed in Asia within a wide region extendingfrom the Baikal rift to the Okhotsk Sea and to SE Asia andIndonesia. On the eastern and southeastern margins of Asia,major marginal basins opened above the western Pacificsubduction zones, and in interior Asia a number of conti-nental rifts developed in northern China and the Baikal riftregion. Several studies explored the far-field effects of theIndia-Asia collision in northeast Asia interacting withsubduction-related extension [Kimura and Tamaki, 1986;Davy and Cobbold, 1988; Jolivet et al., 1990, 1992;Delvaux, 1997; Worrall et al., 1996; Fournier et al.,1994, 2004].[5] Within all these different models, the chronology of

reactivation of the inherited structures is a first-orderparameter needed to constrain the geodynamic evolutionof central Asia. The chronology of the Baikal rift evolutionis based on sedimentology data acquired in the variousbasins forming the rift system, but the onset of formationand the evolution of the topography surrounding the BRS(in the Khamar Daban and Patom ranges for example) havepoorly been explored up to now. In the north Baikal rift, thistopography does not have a gravity signature compatiblewith rift shoulders [Petit et al., 2002] and may thus not bedirectly related to rifting.

TECTONICS, VOL. 28, TC3008, doi:10.1029/2008TC002404, 2009ClickHere

for

FullArticle

1Laboratoire Geosciences Montpellier, UMII, UMR 5243, UniversiteMontpellier II, CNRS, Montpellier, France.

2Laboratoire de Tectonique, UMR 7072, Universite Pierre et MarieCurie–Paris 6, CNRS, Paris, France.

3Institute of the Earth Crust, Irkutsk, Russia.4Total, Courbevoie, France.

Copyright 2009 by the American Geophysical Union.0278-7407/09/2008TC002404$12.00

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[6] The modality of development of the rift itself is alsodebated. The most frequently admitted idea describes aninitial ‘‘slow rifting’’ stage lasting from late Oligocene tolate Pliocene followed by a ‘‘fast rifting’’ stage from latePliocene to Present [e.g., Logatchev and Zorin, 1987;Logatchev, 1993, 2003; Mats, 1985, 1993; Mats et al.,2001; Petit and Deverchere, 2006]. However, this two-stagedevelopment has been questioned by ten Brink and Taylor[2002] on the basis of a deep seismic refraction profileacross Lake Baikal.[7] A first apatite fission track study by van der Beek et

al. [1996] highlights the importance of an Early Cretaceousdenudation event south of Lake Baikal, in the Primorskyrange, the Olkhon area and the Khamar Daban Mountains.However, these authors do not provide information on theolder and younger events that possibly affected the region.[8] In this work, we present new apatite fission track

thermochronologic results that help us constrain the time offormation and the evolution of the relief around the northernpart of Lake Baikal in the Baikal–southern Patom range and

in the Barguzin range. We reconstruct the thermal history ofsamples collected along a broadly W–E transect runningfrom the Siberian platform to the Barguzin basin across theBaikal–southern Patom ranges and the Baikal rift.[9] The new data presented in this work describe the

successive episodes of relief building, sedimentation anderosion that occurred from the Early Ordovician to Presentin the different tectonic units of the transect. They bring newinformation on the timing, amount and possibly themechanisms of relief building around the present-dayBaikal and Barguzin basins.

2. Geology and Tectonic Setting of the Baikal

Rift System

2.1. Archean and Proterozoic History

[10] The basement of the Siberian platform (Figure 1) ismade of Archean continental crust [e.g., Khain and Bozhko,1988; Dobretsov et al., 1992; Delvaux et al., 1995a; Gusevand Khain, 1996]. Around 1900–1700 Ma the Siberian

Figure 1. Simplified map of the various terranes and structures of eastern Siberia and northernMongolia. The major tertiary and quaternary basins are also indicated. Position of the structures andterranes were determined using maps from Delvaux et al. [1995a, 1997], Gusev and Khain [1996], andMalitch [1999].

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craton grows by the accretion of Archean blocks, whichinduces compressional deformation, plutonism, andmetamorphism [e.g., Gusev and Khain, 1996]. During theRiphean, rifting occurs in several places leading to theformation of intracontinental basins and of a passive marginalong the southern border of the craton, north of the Paleo-Asian ocean [Zonenshain et al., 1990a, 1990b; Dobretsov etal., 1992; Belichenko et al., 1994; Delvaux et al., 1995a;Gusev and Khain, 1996]. Several microcontinents arescattered in this ocean: the Khamar Daban, Barguzin,Tuva-Mongolia, and Kansk-Derba blocks (Figure 1)[Belichenko et al., 1994; Berzin et al., 1994; Melnikov etal., 1994; Delvaux et al., 1995a]. In the late Riphean, a thickseries of flysch deposited in the Bodaibo region marks theonset of passive margin inversion. However, this deforma-tion does not appear to affect the area extending southward

from the Patom zone to the Siberian platform [Gusev andKhain, 1996]. Docking against the craton of the variousterranes wandering in the Paleo-Asian ocean starts in theVendian [Delvaux et al., 1995a] and causes the formation oflarge foredeeps along the southern margin of the Siberianplatform, which accumulate sediments until the EarlySilurian [Melnikov et al., 1994].

2.2. Vendian and Paleozoic History

[11] Thick Vendian molasses deposits in the Mama-Bodaibo area (Figure 1), as well as a 600–550 Mametamorphic and plutonic event recorded in the Baikal-Muya ophiolite belt indicate that the Barguzin blockcollides with the Siberian platform in Vendian–EarlyCambrian times [e.g., Berzin and Dobretsov, 1994; Delvaux

Figure 2. General topography, geography, and fault pattern of the Baikal area with details of the areassampled in this work. Samples numbers and ages from our study are indicated. Ages from van der Beek etal. [1996] are also noted.

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et al., 1995a;Gusev andKhain, 1996]. In the Late Cambrian–Early Ordovician, the Tuva-Mongolia microcontinentcollides with the Angara-Lena plate (Figure 1) on thesouthern margin of the Siberian platform, separating thePaleo-Asian ocean in two branches: the paleo-Mongol-Okhotsk to the east and the western Paleo-Asian ocean tothe west [Zorin et al., 1993; Delvaux et al., 1995a]. Thisepisode coincides with a stage of regional metamorphismdated around 530–485 Ma along the eastern margin of theplatform [Bibikova et al., 1990; Sryvtsev et al., 1992;Bukharov et al., 1992; Fedorovskii et al., 1993]. ALate Silurian–Early Devonian deformation phase possiblyrelated to the collision between the Dzhida island arc andthe Tuva-Mongolia and Khamar Daban–Barguzin blocksaffects the area between the southeast margin of the Siberianplatform and the Khamar Daban–Barguzin block [Gibsheret al., 1993; Delvaux et al., 1995a]. After this episode, anew subduction zone develops behind the accreted terranes,followed by a massive granite emplacement (the Angara-Vitim batholith) (Figure 1) in the Dzhida, Khamar Daban–Barguzin and Stanovoy regions. Granites yielded U-Pb andRb-Sr ages ranging from 285 to 339 Ma [Yarmolyuk et al.,1997]. This magmatic episode marks the final closure of thePaleo-Asian ocean [Delvaux et al., 1995a]. By LateCarboniferous a subduction-accretion wedge develops southof the Dzhida, Khamar Daban–Barguzin and Stanovoyterranes, which is afterward dismembered along strike bylater tectonic movements [Zorin, 1999].[12] The main tectonic structures of the Baikal-Patom and

Zhuya fold-and-thrust belts seem to develop at the end ofthis episode of subduction and collision. However, exceptsome small outcrops of Devonian sediments along theremote northern edge of the Patom belt, no sedimentsderived from the erosion of these reliefs have remainedpreserved. Consequently the tectonics of the Baikal-Patombelt is not precisely dated.[13] The lack of post-Silurian sediments makes it very

difficult to describe the evolution of the Siberian platformduring middle-late Paleozoic. However, except on itsmargins, the Siberian craton remained stable during mostof the Paleozoic and the outcropping Ordovician andSilurian series are only weakly deformed [e.g., Gusev andKhain, 1996; Cocks and Torsvik, 2007].[14] West of the Khamar Daban area, western Mongolia

collides with Siberia in the Early Permian [Zonenshain etal., 1990a; Nie et al., 1990] which marks the beginning ofclosure of the Mongol-Okhotsk ocean (Figure 1). By earlyLate Permian–Early Triassic, north China collides withMongolia forming the Mongolia–north China continent[Zonenshain et al., 1990a; Zhao et al., 1990; Enkin et al.,1992; Zorin et al., 1993, 1994; Zorin, 1999; Lin et al.,2008].

2.3. Mesozoic History

[15] In the Khangay zone, granitoid magmatic activitycontinues from Late Permian to Early Jurassic times[Filippova, 1969] indicating continuous subduction of theMongolia–north China margin under Siberia and thickeningof the crust [Zorin et al., 1990].

[16] In the early Middle Jurassic, marine sedimentation inthe Trans-Baikal region is replaced by syntectonicconglomerates, gravels and sandstones of continental origin[Mushnikov et al., 1966; Ermikov, 1994]. This seems toindicate the final closure of the Mongol-Okhotsk ocean andthe development of the Mongol-Okhotsk orogen. However,using paleomagnetic data, Enkin et al. [1992] and Metelkinet al. [2007] calculated that by late Middle–early LateJurassic, the Mongol-Okhotsk ocean was not completelyclosed and might still be up to 1000 km wide. The oceanicbasin was closing from west to east due to a clockwiserotation of the Siberian block relative to Mongolia [e.g.,Kazansky et al., 2005; Metelkin et al., 2004, 2007]. Rotationof Siberia induced large strike-slip motion that inducedextension in the Trans-Baikal area [e.g., Delvaux, 1997;Metelkin et al., 2007]. Only by the Early Cretaceous, theconcordance between the paleomagnetic poles of Siberia,Europe and Southeastern Asia indicates the completeclosure of the Mongol-Okhotsk ocean [Kravchinsky et al.,2002; Metelkin et al., 2004, 2007] and the continentalcollision.[17] The compressive deformation associated to the

closure of the Mongol-Okhotsk ocean is recorded in thewhole Sayan-Baikal belt (Figure 1) [Ermikov, 1994;Delvaux et al., 1995a, Delvaux, 1997]. On the southernand eastern margins of the Siberian platform, the Sayan-Angara and Stanovoy foredeep basins develop and Early–Middle Jurassic continental molasses accumulate (Figure 1).[18] Apatite fission track data obtained from the southern

end of Lake Baikal suggest that synorogenic exhumationtakes place during the Early Cretaceous in that area [van derBeek et al., 1996]. Farther to the west, in the lake Teletskoyeregion (northern Altay) (Figure 1), apatite fission track data[De Grave and Van den haute, 2002] record a EarlyCretaceous cooling event that induced up to 1500–2000 mof denudation. As for the Late Carboniferous topography ofthe Patom range, there is no indication of Jurassic orCretaceous sediments preserved along the western marginof the Baikal range. This is largely inconsistent with theexistence of a tectonic relief in that area, but also with theevidences of denudation reported by van der Beek et al.[1996]. One possibility would be that the sedimentsproduced by erosion of the Patom and Baikal rangeshave been transported by a river system similar to thepresent-day Lena river system (i.e., the Lena river drain-age system including numerous tributaries draining thePatom and Baikal ranges), to the Vilui basin and theArctic ocean (Figure 1) where Jurassic and Cretaceousdetrital deposits are found [e.g., Prokopiev et al., 2008;Spicer et al., 2008].[19] In late Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, prior to or

possibly contemporaneously to the final collision along theeastern termination of the Mongol-Okhotsk suture zone,intensive extensional deformation leading to the formationof basins and metamorphic core complexes affects a hugearea encompassing the southern margin of the Baikal-Vitim terrane, the Transbaikal area of the Mongol-Okhotskbelt, southern Mongolia and northern China [e.g., Zheng etal., 1991; van der Beek et al., 1996; Davis et al., 1996,

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2001, 2002; Webb et al., 1999; Zorin, 1999; Darby et al.,2001b; Meng, 2003; Fan et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2006].This extension is associated with intensive magmatism andplutonism [e.g., Tauson et al., 1984; Rutshtein, 1992; Gusevand Khain, 1996; Chen and Chen, 1997; Graham et al.,2001]. The chemical and isotopic composition of thesemagmas indicates a mixture between a crustal and a mantlesource [Tauson et al., 1984; Shao et al., 2001; Yarmolyukand Kovalenko, 2001; Fan et al., 2003]. Collision betweenSiberia and the Mongolia–north China block leads to astrong compressive deformation recorded in Mongolia andnorth China [e.g., Zheng et al., 1996, 1998; Song and Dou,1997; Chen, 1998; Jin et al., 2000; Darby et al., 2001a;Yang et al., 2001; Lin et al., 2008]. The Mongolian crust isthen strongly thickened, reaching up to 60 km in theKhangai belt of central Mongolia [e.g., Zorin, 1999; Zorinet al., 1993, 2002; Suvorov et al., 2002]. This overthickeningof the crust probably causes large body forces responsiblefor postorogenic collapse [Graham et al., 2001; Fan et al.,2003].[20] However, the mechanism responsible for the late

Late Jurassic–Cretaceous extension is still debated andseveral alternative models have been proposed: back-arcextension caused by rollback of the subducting paleo-Pacific plate [Watson et al., 1987; Traynor and Sladen,1995], magmatic underplating [Shao et al., 2000; Ren et al.,2002], gravitational collapse of the overthickened crust[Graham et al., 2001; Fan et al., 2003], transtensionalfaulting related to extrusion tectonics [Kimura et al., 1990;Ren et al., 2002], break-off of the northward subductedMongol-Okhotsk oceanic slab [Meng, 2003], shear delam-ination of the lithosphere and mantle upwelling [Wang etal., 2006].

2.4. Cenozoic History

[21] During Late Cretaceous–Paleogene, a planationsurface develops in the southeastern Baikal and westernTransbaikal regions, covered by a lateritic-kaolinicweathering crust [Mats, 1993; Kashik and Masilov, 1994;Logatchev et al., 2002]. Meanwhile, the extension that wasactive during the Mesozoic is still going on. The formationof the South Baikal Depression in Late Cretaceous–earlyPaleogene [Logatchev et al., 1996; Logatchev, 2003] isconsidered by Tsekhovsky and Leonov [2007] as the onsetof extensional tectonics in the future Baikal rift.Other smaller depressions sometimes associated with weakvolcanism start to develop in the western Transbaikal region[e.g., Bazarov, 1986; Logatchev et al., 1996; Yarmolyuk andIvanov, 2000; Mats et al., 2001]. Late Cretaceous–Eocenesediments are found in the north Baikal and Tunkabasin [Mats, 1993; Scholz and Hutchinson, 2000], but areprobably derived from in situ erosion rather than real riftsedimentation [Kashik and Masilov, 1994].[22] In the late Oligocene–Miocene, rifting of the BRS

starts in the Tunka, north Baikal and central Baikal basins[e.g., Mats, 1993, 1985; Mats et al., 2001; Logatchev, 1993,2003]. From late Oligocene to early Pliocene, the ‘‘slowrifting’’ phase is characterized by the dismembering of the

planation surface by tectonic extension, leading to theformation of numerous grabens in Baikal and Transbaikalregion. Within the Baikal area, this initial phase is charac-terized by fine grained sandstones, coal- bearing molasses,lacustrine clays and siltstones typical of a slowly subsidingwide lakes environment [e.g., Nikohyev et al., 1985; Mooreet al., 1997; Levi et al., 1997; Mats et al., 2000]. Thesesediments are sometimes folded and faulted, especiallywithin Lake Baikal [e.g., Levi et al., 1997]. Simultaneously,thick alkaline and subalkaline basalt sequences (mostlyMiocene in age) are emplaced in the Udokan, Vitim andKhamar Daban region [Kiselev et al., 1978; Bazarov, 1986;S. V. Rasskasov et al., Late Cenozoic volcanism in theBaikal Rift System: Evidence for formation of the Baikaland Khubsugul basins due to thermal impacts on thelithosphere and collision-derived tectonic stress, paperpresented at SIAL III: The Third International Symposiumon Speciation in Ancient Lakes, Russian Academy ofSciences, Irkutsk, Russia, 2–7 September 2002]. Chemicaland isotopic data obtained from Mongolian basalts indicatethat these lavas formed at a depth of at least 70 km fromrecently metasomatised lithosphere [Barry et al., 2003].[23] The ‘‘fast rifting’’ phase, which is still going on,

starts in the late Pliocene with the rapid development of thewhole Baikal rift (deepening and extension), and the onsetof relief building in the Baikal and Transbaikal region [e.g.,Hutchinson et al., 1992; Delvaux et al., 1995b, 1997]. Thetransition between the first and second phase is marked bymiddle to upper Pliocene coarse-grained sandstones andconglomerates (the Anosov formation onshore) unconform-ably overlying the Miocene formations [Nikohyev et al.,1985]. These sediments are recognized in nearly all basinsof the rift system suggesting that the present-day geometrywas acquired at that time [Petit and Deverchere, 2006].However, Mats et al. [2000] suggested that the transitionbetween ‘‘slow rifting’’ and ‘‘fast rifting’’ is diachronous,starting in upper Miocene (10–7 Ma) in the deepest areasand progressively onlapping on the relief up to 4 Ma. The‘‘fast rifting’’ phase corresponds, in the deep north Baikalbasin to a thick series of turbidites [Kuzmin et al., 2000]appearing as parallel, continuous reflectors onlapping on theolder, coarser units with an angular and/or erosional uncon-formity [e.g., Moore et al., 1997]. Using paleomagneticdata, Kuzmin et al. [2000] dated the unconformity around2.5 Ma.[24] On the basis of fault slickenslides measurements in

recent sediments, Delvaux et al. [1997] proposed that fromOligocene to middle Miocene, a transpressive strike slipregime prevailed with a maximum horizontal stress orientedNW–SE in the Tunka basin and NE–SW in the Barguzinand central Baikal basins. The regional stress regimeswitches to transtension or pure extension during upperMiocene probably due to a general kinematic reorganizationof the Baikal rift system. Vassallo et al. [2007] and Jolivet etal. [2007] showed using fission track data that the Cenozoicuplift of the Gobi Altay initiated around 5 ± 3 Ma due thepropagation of the compressive deformation from the south.Similar evidences of increase in cooling rates are reported

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by De Grave and Van den haute [2002] from the lakeTeletskoye area of northern Altay and by Delvaux et al.[1995b] in the Kurai-Chuya depression again inAltay. Finally, Larroque et al. [2001] reported evidencesof Pleistocene-Holocene inversion of the north Tunkanormal fault, implying a continuing increase of the north–northeastward compressive stress.[25] It is again important to note that if Cenozoic topog-

raphy indubitably developed along the western margin ofthe Baikal rift, there are still only few evidences on theSiberian craton of Tertiary sediments that could derive fromits erosion. Only Quaternary detrital deposits are mappedalong that relief (if we do not take into account the small,thin outcrops of Neogene lacustrine sediments). Even if theinitial sedimentation rates were very slow and sedimentationwas very diffuse, some of these deposits should have beenpreserved. Nowadays, the large Lena and Vitim riversystems efficiently carry the sediments northward up tothe Vilui basin and the Arctic Ocean, whereas only a smallamount of the relief area is drained toward the variousbasins of the BRS.

3. Apatite Fission Track Analysis

3.1. Sampling and Methodology

[26] We collected samples west of Lake Baikal along anE–W section running from the Siberian platform to thelake’s shore across the Baikal range (Figure 2). East of thelake, samples were collected along three topographic pro-files in the Barguzin range: the Shamanka profile to thenorth, the Ulzika profile in the central part of the Barguzinrange and the Barguzin profile to the south (Figure 2). Thealtitude and position of the samples were monitored using aportable GPS and Russian topographic maps. Samples areessentially granites and gneisses except for samples BA09and BA10 which are Early Ordovician red sandstones(Table 1). Apatite samples were prepared for AFT analysisfollowing the standard method [Hurford, 1990]. Meanfission track ages were obtained using the zeta calibrationmethod [Hurford and Green, 1983] with a zeta value of358.96 ± 4.35 (T. Boisgrollier) or 342.04 ± 19.7 (M. Jolivet),obtained on both Durango and Mont Dromedary apatitestandards. Spontaneous fission tracks were etched using6.5% HNO3 for 45 s at 20�C. Induced fission tracks wereetched using 40% HF for 40 min at 20�C. Samples wereirradiated at the OSU facility, Oregon. Fission trackswere counted and measured on a Zeiss Axioplan 2 micro-scope, using a magnification of 1250 under dry objectives.All ages that will be discussed below are central ages. Theresults are given in Table 1 together with a completedescription of the analytical procedure.

3.2. Results

[27] The fission track ages can be divided in three groupscorresponding to three morphological zones (Figure 2):[28] 1. On the Siberian platform, the samples have

Devonian and Carboniferous ages.[29] 2. In the Baikal range, all samples except BA04 have

middle Jurassic to lower cretaceous ages. Sample BA04 is

slightly older (upper Triassic) but the ages of the individualgrains appear to be split in two populations which explainsthe P(c2) value close to 0. This may be due to variablechemical compositions of the apatite crystals [e.g., O’Sullivanand Parrish, 1995; Barbarand et al., 2003]. However, theyounger age population in this sample gives a mean valuearound 180 Ma, which is consistent with the ages of thesurrounding samples (Figure 3). The older age populationgives a mean value of circa 350 Ma, similar to the age of theSiberian platform. Besides different AFT ages, the Siberianplatform and the Baikal range are two different tectonicunits marked by a sharp step in the topography (Figure 2).Sample BA07 in the center of the Baikal range is youngersuggesting either internal differential movements, orstronger or later erosion in the center of the range.[30] 3. In the Barguzin range, ages are divided in two

groups depending on the altitude. The highest samples,between �2150 m (samples W1) and �1300 m (sampleb5) provided Paleocene to early Eocene ages. The samplesN25 and O13 which were collected at 900 m and 800 mrespectively provided early Oligocene (Rupelian) ages.There is no indication of Mesozoic ages in this area. SampleN14 has a slightly older age compared to the others andespecially to sample N13 located at a higher altitude andthus potentially older. This, like for sample BA04 may bedue to differences in chemical composition.[31] The three cooling periods are also well illustrated on

the age versus altitude and mean fission track lengths plotsof all the samples along the section (Figures 4a and 4b) witha first cooling episode during the late Jurassic–earlyCretaceous; a second, stronger cooling event in earlyPaleocene and finally a third, less documented cooling inearly Oligocene. When plotted on a similar graph, the dataobtained by van der Beek et al. [1996] confirm the lateJurassic–early Cretaceous episode (Figures 4c and 4d)which thus appears generalized around the Baikal lake.On the age versus altitude plot (Figure 4d), data from thePrimorski area provide a link between the Mesozoic andCenozoic denudation events.[32] The apatite fission track age integrates the whole

thermal history of the rocks between �110�C and 60�C. Inorder to better constrain the cooling history of the threemain zones described above, reverse modeling of tracklengths distribution has been performed using the AFTSolvesoftware [Ketcham et al., 2000] and the Laslett et al. [1987]annealing model. These models are only valid within thefission track partial annealing zone (PAZ), between 60 and110�C.

3.3. Low-Temperature Evolution of the SiberianPlatform

[33] Samples BA10 and BA09 (Figure 5a) experienced aperiod of heating from early Ordovician (the estimatedsedimentation age) up to late Devonian. This heating, dueto burying by continuous sedimentation is higher for sampleBA09, which is most probably completely reset. SampleBA09 crosses the 110�C isotherm between 350 and 320 Ma(early Carboniferous). Between 320 and 300 Ma the cooling

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Table

1.ApatiteFissionTrack

AnalysisDataa

Sam

ple

Rock

Type

Lat/Long

Alt

Nb

r d�

104

r s�

104

r i�

104

[U]

P(c

2)

Var

MTL(±1s)

FTAge(±2s)

SiberianPlatform

BA09

Ordovicianredsandstone

N55�460 26.700 /E108�150 35.8

00934

15

114.2

(10714)

344.3

(1033)

233.3

(700)

25

80

5.9

13.0

±0.2

(100)

295.6

±15.2

BA10

Ordovicianredsandstone

N55�490 51.800 /E108�040 54.0

00513

20

133.6

(12499)

309.5

(2074)

200.9

(1346)

19

11

1.2

12.3

±0.2

(108)

358.5

±15.6

Baikal/Patom

Ranges

BA02

Gneiss

N55�430 13.700 /E109�280 38.4

00462

19

110.1

(10714)

22.9

(120)

31.5

(165)

495

0.2

13.6

±0.4

(11)

142.1

±17.2

BA03

Granite

N55�460 27.400 /E109�330 24.9

00481

19

111.9

(10714)

100.2

(410)

117.8

(482)

15

100

1.4

13.3

±0.2

(57)

168.6

±11.6

BA04

Gneiss

N55�400 14.500 /E109�240 40.0

00469

20

107.1

(10714)

234.6

(875)

203.5

(759)

23

110.5

13.8

±0.3

(26)

217.9

±11.3

BA05A

Gneiss

N55�450 08.3

00 /E109�170 11.7

00582

20

104.8

(10714)

227.9

(1926)

309.1

(2612)

37

41

2.3

12.5

±0.1

(133)

137.2

±4.7

BA05B

Gneiss

N55�450 08.3

00 /E109�170 11.7

00582

16

97.7

(10714)

158.2

(1038)

197.7

(1297)

27

93

0.0

13.7

±0.1

(112)

138.8

±6.2

BA07

Granite

N55�450 32.400 /E108�480 31.0

00951

19

130.2

(12499)

75.5

(629)

156.5

(1304)

17

50

1.2

13.2

±0.2

(80)

111.4

±5.9

BA08

Granite

N55�440 17.500 /E108�440 05.2

00751

19

102.4

(10714)

123.0

(898)

172.1

(1189)

21

93

3.4

13.0

±0.2

(103)

137.3

±6.4

BarguzinRange

b1

Granite

N53�360 01.700 /E109�270 01.7

001676

20

106.1

(9963)

86.4

(654)

315.3

(2387)

36

32

1.4

13.4

±0.1

(102)

48.5

±3.6

b2

Granite

N53�350 49.300 /E109�270 05.3

001571

19

110.7

(9963)

114.0

(759)

374.2

(1492)

41

68

2.8

13.3

±0.1

(100)

56.4

±3.9

b3

Granite

N53�350 38.200 /E109270 22.700

1457

20

102.6

(9963)

50.8

(622)

181.1

(2218)

20

53

0.6

13.5

±0.1

(102)

48.2

±3.5

b4

Granite

N53�350 30.800 /E109�270 34.6

001371

20

107.2

(9963)

47.7

(629)

159.3

(2099)

18

17

1.6

13.2

±0.1

(101)

54.0

±4.0

b5

Granite

N53�350 18.800 /E109�270 42.0

001282

19

101.4

(9963)

118.0

(879)

358.4

(2670)

43

63.1

12.9

±0.2

(105)

55.9

±3.8

N13

Granite

N53�560 18.700 /E109�540 02.5

001844

25

108.4

(10796)

31.27(404)

117.3

(1516)

13

57

0.5

12.4

±0.2

(104)

48.4

±3.8

N14

Granite

N53�560 07.200 /E109�540 14.3

001740

20

108.0

(10796)

63.65(464)

200.7

(1463)

21

95

0.3

12.2

±0.1

(101)

57.3

±4.4

N25

Granite

N53�560 02.400 /E109�560 24.0

00900

19

116.5

(9963)

112.9

(1065)

632.4

(5964)

68

92.1

11.8

±0.2

(100)

34.9

±2.3

O13

Granite

N53�550 58.800 /E109�560 35.2

00800

16

113.0

(9963)

100.2

(416)

570.4

(2367)

75

23

2.4

11.6

±0.2

(101)

33.9

±2.8

W1

Granite

N54�330 26.8

00 /E110�240 32.9

002153

20

118.8

(9963)

17.07(198)

61.9

(718)

695

0.0

12.1

±0.4

(23)

57.2

±4.6

W2

Granite

N54�330 14.1

00 /E110�240 27.0

001968

25

107.3

(10796)

21.1

(275)

80.8

(1051)

923

0.2

12.1

±0.2

(40)

47.8

±4.6

aAltisthesamplingaltitudein

m;Nbisthenumberofcrystalsanalyzed;r d

istheCN5glass

dosimeterinducedtrackdensity

per

cm�2(number

inparentheses

isthetotalnumberoftrackscounted);r s

andr i

representsamplespontaneousandinducedtrackdensities

per

cm�2(number

inparentheses

isthetotalnumber

oftrackscounted);[U

]isthecalculateduranium

density

(inppm);P(c

2)istheprobabilityin

%of

c2forvdegrees

offreedom

(wherevisnumber

ofcrystalsminus1);Var

istheagedispersionin

%;MTListhemeasuredmeanfissiontracklength

inmm;erroris1s(number

inparentheses

isthetotalnumber

oftracksmeasured);FTageistheapatitefissiontrackagein

Ma(thepooledageisusedwhen

P(c

2)<10%

andthecentral

ageisusedwhen

P(c

2)>10%).Ages

havebeencalculatedusingtheTrackkey

software[D

unkl,2002].Erroris±2s.

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Figure 4. Different plots of the fission track data showing the relationships between (a and c) the meanfission track lengths (MTL) and the fission track ages and (b and d) the sampling altitude and the fissiontrack age. Figures 4a and 4b are only considering data from this study. Figures 4c and 4d include datafrom van der Beek et al. [1996] that complete the data set for the southern part of the Baikal zone. Bothsets of samples are coherent on the two types of graphs. See Table 1 in this study and Tables 1 and 2 ofvan der Beek et al. [1996] for a complete description of the data.

Figure 3. Radial plots for samples BA04 and BA03. The individual grain ages in sample BA04 can beroughly grouped in two distinct populations (circles) with respective mean ages of 350 Ma and 180 Ma(black lines). For comparison, the individual ages in sample BA03 are grouped within a single, consistentpopulation (except for one point with an age of about 250 Ma which we do not explain). See text forfurther discussion on these ages.

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Figure 5a

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rate decreases and sample BA09 slowly cools down untilreaching 60�C between late Jurassic and early Cretaceoustimes. Sample BA10 remains at temperatures not exceeding90�C at the end of the subsidence stage. From the lateDevonian, sample BA10 also displays a slow, regularcooling, which brings it to the upper part of the PAZ(60�C) in early Upper Cretaceous times. The model doesnot constrain the final cooling of the sample.[34] Modeling of fission track data provides a tempera-

ture versus time evolution of samples BA09 and BA10 thatreflects burying and exhumation periods. However, it doesnot give any direct indication on the vertical position ofthese samples within the sedimentary section. In order toestimate the amount of sediments deposited on samplesBA09 and BA10, we used the thermal history provided bythe fission track data as a reference and independentlycomputed the depth/temperature evolution of these samples,taking into account both thermal diffusion and advectionsuch as:

dT

dt¼ k

d2T

dz2� u

dT

dz

where T is the temperature, t is the time in seconds, z is thedepth, k is the thermal diffusivity, and u is the advectionvelocity (in m s�1), negative downward (Figure 6). Theinitial (before subsidence) thermal gradient is a steady stategeotherm for the cratonic crust with a low surface heat flowof 45 mW m�2. This thermal gradient is then modifiedduring calculation to take into account the advection ofmaterial. With those initial conditions, we assume that bothsamples are located �1000 m beneath the surface, i.e., at atemperature of about 40�C, which corresponds to the meanstarting point of the AFT model. We then use a trial-and-error method to compute the temperature-time evolution ofboth samples until it fits the one predicted by AFT tracklength models. Best fitting models show that sample BA09has been buried beneath 4800 m of sediments between itsinitial location at 460 Ma and its greater depth around365 Ma. This corresponds to a subsidence rate of0.05 mm a�1. Conversely, sample BA10 is only coveredby 2300 m of sediments during the same time span, whichgives a much lower subsidence rate (0.024 mm a�1).Therefore, around 365 Ma the two samples were verticallyoffset by about 2500 m.[35] From the late Devonian, sample BA10 displays a

slow, regular cooling which brings it to the upper part of the

PAZ (60�C) in early Upper Cretaceous times. The modeldoes not constrain the final cooling of the sample.[36] Sample BA09 crosses the 110�C isotherm between

350 and 320 Ma (early Carboniferous). Between 320 and300 Ma the cooling rate decreases and sample BA09, likesample BA10 slowly cools down until reaching 60�Cbetween late Jurassic and early Cretaceous times.

3.4. Low-Temperature Evolution of the Baikal Range

[37] Because of the small number of horizontal fissiontracks that could be measured, samples BA02, BA03, andBA04 were not modeled. Samples BA08, BA05A, andBA05B (Figure 5a and Table 1) present a rapid coolingevent starting between 170 and 150 Ma and ending around120–110 Ma when the samples either cross the upper limitof the PAZ (BA05B) or continue to cool slowly toward thesurface. Sample BA07 (Figure 5a and Table 1), younger inage but higher in altitude enters the PAZ later, between 130and 120 Ma suggesting either differential vertical move-ments between the three samples, a stronger or a laterexhumation in the axial zone of the range. The thermalhistory of sample BA07 indicates that the rapid coolingevent ends around 100 Ma and is followed by a period ofslower cooling that can be associated with erosion.

3.5. Low-Temperature Evolution of the Barguzin Range

[38] Samples b1 to b5 from the Barguzin profile (near themouth of the Barguzin basin toward the Centre Baikalbasin) cross the 110�C isotherm between 65 and 50 Maduring an episode of rapid cooling which probably bringsall the samples to the near surface (Figure 5b). Sample b5,located at the lowest altitude in the profile remains in thePAZ until late Miocene–early Pliocene times and seems tocool rapidly around 5 to 10 Ma. This last cooling event isalso recorded in other samples from this profile (b4, b3,and b1) following a period of reheating possibly up to�70�C after the Eocene cooling (Figure 5b). However,because it occurred at temperatures close to the upper limitof the PAZ, the Mio-Pliocene exhumation is not wellconstrained in those last three samples.[39] Samples from the Ulzika profile (Figure 5c) display

the same initial cooling event as samples from the southernprofile. Sample N13 located on top of the profile enters thePAZ around 65 to 60 Ma. Sample N14 located below N13crosses the 110�C isotherm slightly earlier (around 75 to65 Ma), but this, like its older fission track age, might bean artifact of the model due to the different chemical

Figure 5a. Reverse modeling of apatite fission track lengths for samples from the Siberian platform and the Baikal-Patomrange. Models were obtained using the AFTSolve1 software [Ketcham et al., 2000]. Alt is the sampling altitude, FT age isthe fission track age (see Table 1), and MTL is the measured mean track length. The dark gray area represents the envelopeof all the possible temperature-time curves falling within a 1s error interval from the best fit curve. The light gray arearepresents the envelope of all the cooling curves falling within a 2s interval. Only the area between 110�C and 60�C(designed as partial annealing zone or PAZ, between the dashed lines on the graphs) is representative. The track lengthshistogram is displayed for each sample. L is the track length in mm, Fr (%) is the frequency of measurements in %, and N isthe total number of tracks measured. For clarity, reasons the time scale (horizontal) of the temperature-time models variesbetween the various groups of samples. See text for discussion of the graphs.

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Figure 5b. Reverse modeling of apatite fission track lengths for samples from the Barguzin range(Barguzin and Shamanka profiles). See Figure 5a for key.

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composition of this sample. On the lower part of the profile,sample N25 enters the PAZ between 50 and 45 Ma, andsample O13 between 40 and 30 Ma. After this initial Eoceneto early Oligocene cooling, all the samples (except O13,which is exhumed later because of its position at the bottomof the section) remain in the PAZ between 90 and 80�C andthen reach the surface during a rapid cooling event (60 to70�C in 5 Ma) clearly identified around 5 Ma. This lastcooling event is also recorded in sample O13 by a strongincrease of the cooling rate. Considering a mean geothermalgradient of 30�C per kilometer, samples N25 and O13 arebrought toward the surface at a mean rate of �0.4 to0.45 mm a�1 within the last 5 Ma and at then 0.03 mm a�1

between 30 Ma and 5 Ma.[40] Sample W1 from the Shamanka profile was not

modeled because of the small number of horizontal fissiontracks that could be measured (Table 1). Sample W2(Figure 5b and Table 1) is also poorly constrained withonly 40 track lengths measurements. However, it displaysthe same thermal history as samples from the Ulzika profile:a first episode of rapid cooling starting around 60 to 50 Mafollowed by a period of slow cooling from late Eocene tolate Miocene times and finally a renewed exhumationstarting around late Miocene–early Pliocene times.

4. Discussion

4.1. Paleozoic Relief Building in the Baikal and PatomRanges

[41] On the Siberian platform, samples BA09 and BA10experience continuous sediment burying from their EarlyOrdovician deposition age to the Late Devonian–EarlyCarboniferous (Figure 5a). By that time (circa 360–350 Ma) sample BA10 collected well inside the platformis covered by about 3 km of sediments whereas sampleBA09 located closer to the Baikal and Patom ranges iscovered by about 4 km of sediments (Figure 6). This�100 Ma subsidence episode is coeval with the beginningof accretion of the remote Tuva-Mongolia (Late Cambrian–Early Ordovician) and Khamar-Daban blocks (Late Silurian–Early Devonian) [Fedorovskii et al., 1993; Zorin et al.,1993; Gibsher et al., 1993; Delvaux et al., 1995a; Gusevand Khain, 1996] and predates the onset of compressionaldeformation in the outer Patom region [de Boisgrollier etal., 2009].[42] Given the relatively wide distribution of Ordovician

detrital sediments, the volume of eroded material may havebeen important, which would suggests strong and/or wide-spread topography to the east and south. The lack of anunconformity or any other indication of synsedimentarydeformation in the basin indicates that the tectonic effectsof the collisions to the south did not affect the basin whichwas probably far from the mountain range.

Figure 5c. Reverse modeling of apatite fission tracklengths for samples from the Barguzin range (Ulzikaprofile). See Figure 5a for key.

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[43] The thermal history derived from track lengthsmodeling implies that burying stopped and exhumationstarted around Early Carboniferous (350–320 Ma). Thischange in thermal history is particularly well imaged onsample BA09, which crosses the 110�C isotherm with arelatively rapid cooling rate, which then decreases aroundthe Upper Carboniferous (320–300 Ma) (Figures 5a and 6).This cooling episode can be associated with the closure of

the Paleo-Asian ocean in the Carboniferous (Figure 7),which induced folding and thrusting in the Baikal andPatom belts. The rapid cooling rate recorded by sampleBA09 in the Early Carboniferous indicates that this defor-mation affected the Ordovician, Silurian and Devoniansediments of the Siberian platform. Sample BA10 doesnot displays that initial rapid cooling phase, suggesting thatthe Carboniferous deformation was less important in theouter domain than at the front of the Baikal-Patom range.[44] Finally, the thermal history of samples BA10 and

BA09 indicates that if subduction along the southern marginof the Dzhida, Khamar Daban-Barguzin, and Stanovoyblocks initiated in Late Silurian–Early Devonian, deforma-tion and relief building of the sedimentary cover of theAngara-Lena plate during Early Carboniferous is mostprobably related to the subsequent collision coeval to orpreceding the emplacement of the Angara-Vitim batholith.

4.2. Middle Jurassic–Early Cretaceous DenudationAround Lake Baikal

[45] On the Siberian platform, samples BA10 and BA09cool slowly and regularly through the late Paleozoic,Mesozoic and early Cenozoic, reaching the upper limit ofthe PAZ between Jurassic and Late Cretaceous times. Thisvery slow cooling can be related to slow, continuous erosionof the sedimentary cover.[46] Within the Baikal range, all samples have Mesozoic

ages and the four that have been modeled do not provideany indication on the pre-Mesozoic thermal history of therange (Figure 5a). These results are consistent with the dataobtained by van der Beek et al. [1996] in the Primorskyrange, the Olkhon block and the Khamar Daban mountains(Figures 2, 4c, and 4d); van der Beek et al. [1996] describeda rapid cooling of three modeled samples (2 from theOlkhon block and 1 from the Khamar Daban Mountains)around 140–120 Ma that brought the samples from temper-atures higher than 120�C to less than 60�C. They interpretedthose results as the consequence of a rapid cooling episodeduring the Early Cretaceous, associated with the closure ofthe Mongol-Okhotsk ocean and the collision between thesouthern margin of Siberia and the Mongolia–north Chinablock (Figure 7). Finally, they suggested that the randomvariation of their AFT data may be due to local variations inthe geothermal gradient mostly driven by magmatic activity[e.g., Ermikov, 1994; Yarmolyuk and Kovalenko, 2001].[47] In the Baikal range, our data indicate that the rapid

cooling event starts even earlier, during the Middle Jurassic(170–150 Ma) and ends, like reported by van der Beek etal. [1996] during the late Early Cretaceous, around 120–110 Ma (Figure 5a). The onset of rapid cooling is contem-poraneous with the change from marine to continental-derived sedimentation in the Trans-Baikal region [Mushnikovet al., 1966; Ermikov, 1994] and with basin inversion anderosion in China and Mongolia [e.g., Meng, 2003], whichmark the onset of the Mongol-Okhotsk orogenesis. Unlikethe data presented by van der Beek et al. [1996] the meanfission track ages of our samples are very consistent acrossthe Baikal range (Figure 2 and Table 1) and display (1) anabrupt change in ages between the Siberian platform and the

Figure 6. Model of depth evolution history for theOrdovician detrital samples BA09 and BA10 from theSiberian platform. Depth versus time paths are computedusing the mean temperature time path calculated usingfission track data (Figure 5a and Table 1) and taking intoaccount both thermal diffusion and advection. See text fordiscussion of the models and results.

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Figure 7. Synthetic cross sections showing the tectonic evolution of SE Siberia and NE Mongolia fromthe Siberian craton to Mongolia across the actual BRS, Barguzin block and Mongol-Okhotsk belt. Onlythe major blocks have been identified. See text for discussion of the main tectonic events.

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range, corresponding to the sharp step in the morphologyalong the West Patom Thrust; (2) ages of 137 ± 5 Ma and139 ± 6 Ma on the ‘‘external’’ parts of the range; a youngerage of 111 ± 6 Ma (sample BA07) in the central part of therange; and (3) older ages of 169 ± 12 Ma and 218 ± 11 Maimmediately near Lake Baikal.[48] Modeling of sample BA07 (Figure 5a) shows that it

crosses the 110�C isotherm around 130–120 Ma later thanthe other samples from the Baikal range, and would thushave a thermal history similar to the samples analyzed byvan der Beek et al. [1996]. The younger age obtained forsample BA07 (Table 1) implies either weaker erosion in thatpart of the range if sample BA07 comes from a depthsimilar to the others samples, or differential movementsalong internal structures during the formation of the relief.The internal part of the range is presently a region of hightopography. If the situation was similar during the Mesozoicthen we should consider that erosion may have effectivelybeen higher in the central part of the range, therefore, thatsample BA07 was exhumed from deeper levels than theother samples. Indeed, sample BA07 was collected veryclose to the Paleozoic North Baikal Fault (Figure 2), whichmay have been reactivated as a thrust fault duringthe Mesozoic deformation episode, leading to differentialexhumation within the range. This second hypothesisexplains the later onset of cooling for sample BA07 butalso the fact that cooling of this sample ended slightly laterthan for the others.[49] Unlike west of the Baikal range, there is no sharp

morphological step between the samples located near theshore of Lake Baikal and those of the ‘‘external’’ part of therange to the east (not considering the steep Cenozoic normalfaults) (Figure 2). Still, there is a change in fission trackages implying that the samples located close to the lakehave been less affected by the Middle Jurassic–EarlyCretaceous cooling. This favors the hypothesis of a reacti-vation of the North Baikal Fault, which induced renewedexhumation close to the fault and low-relief building asso-ciated with low erosion near the present-day lake.[50] Relief building around Lake Baikal thus starts in the

Middle Jurassic in relation with the Mongol-Okhotskorogeny to the SE. In the Baikal range, relief building islimited to the west by the West Patom Thrust (Figure 2) onwhich is located the present morphological step between therange and the Siberian platform. Inside the range, the NorthBaikal Fault is most probably reactivated leading to east-ward tilting of the eastern part of the range and differentialrelief building and exhumation. Cooling due to the activityof this fault (relief building and associated erosion) lastsuntil circa 100 Ma.[51] Building of a wide relief in the Baikal–southern

Patom ranges is contemporaneous with the large-scaleextension that follows the closure of the Mongol-Okhotskocean SE of the Baikal-Vitim terrane and down to Mongoliaand China [e.g., Zheng et al., 1991; van der Beek et al.,1996; Davis et al., 1996, 2001, 2002; Webb et al., 1999;Zorin, 1999; Darby et al., 2001b; Meng, 2003; Fan et al.,2003; Wang et al., 2006]. However, the sharp change infission track ages across the topographic step corresponding

to the West Patom Thrust clearly indicates that this fault hasbeen reactivated during the relief building episode. As thereis no evidence of normal motion on that fault [Delvaux etal., 1995a, 1997], the Mesozoic West Patom fault was mostprobably a thrust fault. Similarly, movement along theNorth Baikal Fault and eastward tilting of the eastern blocksuggest a reverse motion on this fault.[52] The fate of the sediments that are generated during

the Middle Jurassic –Early Cretaceous erosion stageremains unsolved. Our fission track data indicate that ifany, only a thin (less than a few hundreds meters) sedimen-tary cover can have been deposited on the Siberian platformto the west. Fission track data from van der Beek et al.[1996] show that during Early Cretaceous, the SW and SEborders of the Baikal rift were submitted to erosion, whichprecludes any possibility for sedimentation in that area.Farther to the west on the platform and to the south in theSayan–Angara there is no indication of Late Jurassic orCretaceous sediments. The only potential sedimentationareas are the Vilui basin north of the Patom belt andthe Arctic Ocean. Sediments eroded from the Baikal andPatom ranges would have been transported by a riversystem similar to the actual Lena and Vitim systems. Thishypothesis suggests that the river network remainsvery constant across Late Mesozoic and Cenozoic times[Prokopiev et al., 2008].

4.3. Late Cretaceous to Quaternary Evolutionof the Barguzin Range and Basin

[53] Similar to the samples analyzed by van der Beek etal. [1996], our data obtained in the Baikal ridge do notprovide any indication on the Cenozoic thermal history ofthe area (Table 1 and Figure 5a). All of them either cross the60�C isotherm shortly after the Middle Jurassic–EarlyCretaceous event or slowly cool down toward the surfacewith no marked thermal event. This is consistent with thepaleogeographic reconstruction of Mats et al. [2001]: fromPaleocene to early Oligocene times, the present-day Baikalrange, north Baikal depression and Patom region areoccupied by a ‘‘slightly elevated’’ denudation plateau withMesozoic inherited reliefs and covered by a laterite-kaolinite weathering crust.[54] The results are very different in the Barguzin area

(Figure 2), in which only Cenozoic ages are found (Table 1).Fission track lengths modeling provide a complete thermalhistory of the eastern side of the Barguzin range from lateLate Cretaceous to Quaternary (Figures 5b and 5c).[55] The Barguzin basin (Figure 2) belongs to the BRS

and is limited to the northwest by a series of SW–NEdirected en echelon active normal faults that separate thebasin (�500 m high) from the up to 2600 m high Barguzinrange (Figure 2) [e.g., Florensov, 1960; Solonenko, 1968,1981; Delvaux et al., 1997; Epov et al., 2007; Lunina andGladkov, 2007]. To the east, the basin is separated from theIkat mountains by another set of small-offset SW–NEnormal faults. The basin infill is asymmetric with a greatersediment thickness (up to 2.5 km) on its western side nearthe Barguzin range [e.g., Solonenko, 1981; Nevedrova andEpov, 2003; Epov et al., 2007]. A borehole within the

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central Barguzin basin crossed the entire Quaternary andCenozoic series and reached the basement at 1400 m[Florensov, 1982]. The oldest recognized sediments aremiddle Pliocene clay siltstones and sandstones. Sarkisyan[1958] and Florensov [1960] inferred the existence of aMiocene lake within the basin, but no Miocene sedimentshave been identified. The recognized upper Pliocene sectionis made of conglomerates and sandstones. Finally, theQuaternary series aremade of unconsolidated conglomerates,gravels, sandstones and siltstones. Several blocks of upliftedbasement have been identified within the basin [Florensov,1960; Nevedrova and Epov, 2003; Epov et al., 2007]. Fromsedimentary data, the evolution of the Barguzin basin startedduring middle Pliocene times when the ‘‘fast rifting’’ stageinitiated in the Baikal rift. The apatite fission track datapresented in this work are consistent with the occurrence ofa Pliocene phase in the evolution of the basin, and alsoaccount for a much longer history.

4.3.1. Late Cretaceous–Eocene[56] Along the three profiles of the Barguzin basin, all

samples located now at the highest altitude cross the 110�Cisotherm between about 65 Ma and about 50 Ma during aphase of rapid cooling (Figures 5b and 5c). This eventappears more strongly marked in the Barguzin profile, southof the Barguzin range, where most samples reach the nearsurface by Eocene times. The other samples do not reach thenear surface but remain in the apatite PAZ (b5, N13, N14, orW2) and record a period of slow cooling after the Eocene.[57] The stronger exhumation in the south of the basin

(Barguzin profile) (Figure 5b) cannot be driven by externalprocesses such as different climate conditions leading tostronger erosion, because the distance between the profilesis too small. It is thus interpreted as the result of differentialtectonic uplift between individual basement blocks separatedby the SW–NE faults mapped within the Barguzin range.[58] On the basis of sediment analysis, the onset of rapid

rifting in the Tunka, north Baikal and central Baikal basinsis dated around late Oligocene–Miocene [e.g., Mats, 1985,1993; Mats et al., 2001; Logatchev, 1993, 2003; Petit andDeverchere, 2006]. However, Late Cretaceous–Eocenesediments are found in and around the Tunka and northBaikal basins [Mats, 1993; Scholz and Hutchinson, 2000].A precursor of the South Baikal Depression started toform in Late Cretaceous–early Paleocene [Tsekhovsky andLeonov, 2007]. To the SE, in the southern Vitim area, smallgrabens such as the Eravna basin contain Late Cretaceousclastic sediments known as the Mokhei Formation[Rezanov, 2000; Skoblo et al., 2001; Tsekhovsky andLeonov, 2007]. These sediments rest with an erosionalcontact on the Cretaceous kaolinic weathering crust. Rezanov[2000] indicates that during the Paleogene, the northern edgeof the Eravna depression was bordered by reliefs while itssouthern edge was connected with a planation surface.[59] The strong cooling event recorded by apatite fission

track analysis implies that exhumation in the Barguzinrange started in the Late Cretaceous. We suggest that thisuplift was accommodated, like in the present-day, byvertical motions on the Barguzin fault, though the absence

of fission track data east of the Barguzin basin does notallow confirming this hypothesis. In this case, the Barguzinfault could have been in the continuity of the large offsetMorskoy fault that bounds the central Baikal basin [e.g.,Hutchinson et al., 1992; Petit and Deverchere, 2006].[60] The extension that was thought to be restricted to

the southern and central Baikal zone and the Vitim areauntil Oligocene times thus probably reached the northernBarguzin basin in the Late Cretaceous – Paleocene(Figure 7). South of the Barguzin basin, extension wasprobably localized in the South Baikal Depression[Tsekhovsky and Leonov, 2007].[61] The results of van der Beek et al. [1996] do not show

any evidence of late Late Cretaceous–Paleocene denudationNE of the Selenga delta, in the Khamar Daban range. Thepresent-day topography of this area is much lower than thatof the Barguzin range, and no large extensional basins arepresent (Figure 2). The Late Cretaceous–Paleocene exten-sional deformation thus appears to have been localized onareas relatively similar to the late Tertiary–Quaternarydeformation.[62] The initiation and development of the Baikal rift

zone is generally thought to be either the surface effect of awide asthenospheric diapir beneath the rift axis [e.g., Zorin,1981; Windley and Allen, 1993; Logatchev and Zorin, 1987;Gao et al., 2003; Zorin et al., 2003; Johnson et al., 2005;Kulakov, 2008] or more frequently a direct consequenceof the far-field effects of the collision between India andAsia farther south [e.g., Molnar and Tapponnier, 1975;Tapponnier and Molnar, 1979; Delvaux et al., 1997; Petitet al., 1996; Petit and Deverchere, 2006]. Alternativemodels explain the initiation and development of the Baikalrift by complex interactions between the India-Asia colli-sion and the Pacific–east Asia subduction associated toprerift crustal heterogeneities inherited from the long-lastingtectonic history of the region [e.g., Delvaux, 1997].[63] If extension does initiate in the Barguzin area during

the late Late Cretaceous, prior to the India-Asia collision[e.g., Patriat and Achache, 1984; Besse et al., 1984; Patzeltet al., 1996; Ali and Aitchison, 2006] the driving mecha-nism of this initial stage cannot be related to the far-fieldeffects of this collision. As most rift-related volcanism isyounger than the Paleocene (S. V. Rasskasov et al.,presented paper, 2002), asthenosphere-driven extension isunlikely too. An alternative explanation is that a mechanismsimilar to the one responsible for the Late Jurassic–EarlyCretaceous general extension in the Transbaikal region wasstill active in the Late Cretaceous and induced the structur-ing of the Barguzin range and basin, like in the Eravnadepression �10 Ma before. This transitional stage wasfollowed by a ‘‘true rifting’’ stage during which some ofthe old depressions were rejuvenated (north and CentreBaikal, Barguzin), others were abandoned (Eravna) andnew ones were created (north Baikal basins). Rassakov[1993] proposed that during late Oligocene–early Pliocene,the variations of the stress field in the eastern Baikal RiftZone might be linked to the Pacific–east Asia activemargin. Delvaux [1997] also suggested that compressiveintraplate stress field generated by the Pacific–east Asia

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subduction zone during Oligocene-Miocene times may be atthe origin of the ‘‘slow rifting’’ stage.

4.3.2. Oligocene[64] The Paleocene-Eocene rapid cooling event recorded

by the apatite fission track data is followed by a period ofvery slow cooling for the samples located in the upper partof the profiles (samplesN13,N14, b5,W2 (Figures 5b and 5c)).By that time those samples are only submitted to erosion andno more to tectonic exhumation. Simultaneously, the sam-ples located in the lower part of the profiles (N25 and O13)continue to be exhumed both through erosion and tectonicdenudation (Figure 5c). Sample N25 located at 900 m coolsdown to �85�C by early–middle Oligocene and then stopscooling. Sample O13 located lower down at 800 m crossesthe 110�C isotherm around 35 to 30 Ma (early Oligocene).This cooling pattern implies a rapid, tectonic denudation ofthe lowest samples while the uppermost samples, rapidlyexhumed previously, are only submitted to slow coolingthrough erosion. We interpret it by the progressive exhu-mation of the samples along a continuously active normalfault. The fact that cooling rates strongly decrease after theinitial cooling that brings the samples within the apatite PAZindicates that surface erosion was probably very low. This,in turn, implies that the relief created in the Barguzin rangewas mostly preserved and that sediment flux within theBarguzin basin may have been limited. This is consistentwith the low sedimentation rates observed in the north andcentral Baikal basins during the same period [e.g., Nikohyevet al., 1985; Moore et al., 1997; Levi et al., 1997; Mats etal., 2000].

4.3.3. Late Miocene–Quaternary[65] Final cooling of the samples happens in the late

Miocene–early Pliocene (i.e., around 5 Ma). A dramaticincrease in cooling rate is recorded around 5 Ma by samplesb5, N13, N14, and W2 located in the upper part of the threeprofiles (Figures 5b and 5c). The last cooling event is notstrongly constrained in these samples because it takes placein the uppermost part of the apatite PAZ. On the contrary,the 5 Ma event is clearly visible on samples O13 and N25located in the lower part of the profiles. This increase incooling rate along the eastern margin of the Barguzin rangeis contemporaneous with the onset of the ‘‘fast rifting’’phase in the Baikal [e.g., Hutchinson et al., 1992; Delvauxet al., 1997; Petit and Deverchere, 2006; Mats et al., 2000]and the initiation of the north Baikal basin [e.g., Hutchinsonet al., 1992; Delvaux et al., 1997; Petit and Deverchere,2006] (Figure 7). At a regional scale, the early Pliocenemarks the onset of renewed tectonic activity in Gobi Altay,Altay, and Sayan ranges generated by the northwardpropagation of the compressive stress generated by theIndia-Asia collision [Delvaux et al., 1995b; De Grave andVan den haute, 2002; Vassallo et al., 2007]. Pleistocene-Holocene inversion of the north Tunka basin implies thatthe SW–NE directed compression reaches the Baikal RiftZone at that time [Larroque et al., 2001]. The initiation ofthe ‘‘fast rifting ‘‘ phase may thus follow an initial‘‘lithosphere weakening’’ stage that initiated in the late LateCretaceous–early Paleocene and result from the arrival ofthe SW–NE compression generated by the India-Asia

collision to the south. Compared to the wide Cretaceouscollapse area, the present-day rift is much more localized.Therefore, if Cretaceous extension did initiate some earlyrift basins, only those which were favorably located andoriented could further develop during the true rifting stage.Their location close to the border of the Siberian craton isprobably the key factor that controlled their long-liveddevelopment.

5. Conclusion

[66] The main phases of tectonic deformation and reliefbuilding recorded in the Baikal Rift Zone by apatite fissiontrack thermochronology can be summarized as follows(Figure 7):[67] 1. To the west, the Siberian platform experiences a

continuous but slow sedimentation from at least the EarlyOrdovician to the Late Devonian. During that time, amaximum of about 4 km of sediments are deposited alongthe Baikal and southern Patom ranges. However, given therelatively wide spreading of those sediments over theplatform, the volume of eroded material may have beenimportant, which would indicate strong and/or widespreadreliefs to the east and south.[68] 2. Exhumation of the Early Ordovician series starts

in the Early Carboniferous due to a continental collision thatfollows the subduction initiated in the Late Silurian–EarlyDevonian by the subduction along the southern margin ofthe Dzhida, Khamar Daban, Barguzin and Stanovoy blocks.The deformation front is probably located along the Baikalfault zone. No sediments associated to this tectonic phaseare preserved on the platform.[69] 3. A second phase of deformation that does not affect

the Siberian platform is then recorded in the Baikal range. Itstarts during Middle Jurassic times, around 170–150 Macontemporaneously with the onset of the Mongol-Okhotskorogeny to the west. Deformation and relief building aremostly driven by reactivation of inherited faults such as thefrontal Baikal fault zone and the more internal North BaikalFault. Those movements lead to differential exhumation.This deformation and relief building episode probably endsaround 100 Ma in the Baikal–southern Patom area. Like inthe Carboniferous, the sediments derived from the erosionof the Jurassic–Cretaceous reliefs are not identified on theplatform around the Patom range but may have been trans-ported northward to the Vilui basin.[70] 4. The third tectonic event is recorded in the samples

from the Barguzin range. It initiates in late Late Cretaceous–early Paleocene contemporaneously with the formationfarther south and SE of the South Baikal Depression orthe Eravna basin. Deformation appears localized on discretefaults and probably restricted, in the Baikal Rift Zone, to theSouth Baikal Depression and the Barguzin basin. This LateCretaceous–early Paleocene extension episode suggeststhat there has been a continuum between the orogeniccollapse of the Mongol-Okhotsk belt that leads to theformation of numerous grabens toward the SE and theinitiation of the Baikal Rift Zone. It also implies that

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the initial driving mechanism for the formation of the BaikalRift Zone is not a far-field effect of the India-Asia collision.[71] 5. Finally, the apatite fission track data confirm the

increase in tectonic activity in the Baikal Rift Zone aroundlate Miocene–early Pliocene. This period is also marked bythe onset of a strong compressive deformation in GobyAltay, Altay, and Sayan ranges due to the northwardpropagation of the compressive stress generated by theIndia-Asia collision. The conjunction between this new

mechanism and the initial, postorogenic extension mightexplain the increase in tectonic deformation in the BaikalRift Zone.

[72] Acknowledgments. This work has been supported by Total.Samples from the Barguzin range were collected with partial financialsupport from the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Science(grant IP 10.7.3) and from the Russian Fund for Basic Research (grant 08-05-00992). Constructive and detailed reviews by D. Delvaux and oneanonymous reviewer have been greatly appreciated.

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