H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviewsVolume8,No.6(2018)https://networks.h-net.org/h-environment
Publicationdate:December12,2018RoundtableReviewEditor:MelanieA.Kiechle
DagomarDegroot,TheFrigidGoldenAge:ClimateChange,theLittleIceAge,andtheDutchRepublic,1560-1720(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2018).ISBN:9781108419314.ContentsIntroductionbyMelanieA.Kiechle,VirginiaTech 2CommentsbyNicholasJ.Cunigan,CalvinCollege 4CommentsbyJamesBergman,TempleUniversity 7CommentsbyKatrinKleemann,RachelCarsonCenter/LMUMunich 12CommentsbyThomasWickman,TrinityCollege 16 ResponsebyDagomarDegroot,GeorgetownUniversity 20AbouttheContributors 28Copyright©2018H-Net:HumanitiesandSocialSciencesOnlineH-Netpermitstheredistributionandreprintingofthisworkfornonprofit,educationalpurposes,withfullandaccurateattributiontotheauthor,weblocation,dateofpublication,H-Environment,andH-Net:Humanities&SocialSciencesOnline.
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 2
IntroductionbyMelanieA.Kiechle,VirginiaTechswefaceclimatechange,isthereanyhope?Mystudents,dismayedbythehistorytheyhavelearnedandalarmedbythenewstheyread,askthisquestionattheendofeveryenvironmentalhistorycourseIteach.Idonothaveagoodanswerforthem—untilnow,thatis.DagomarDegroothas
writtenahistorythatwillletmeoffermystudentssomecomfort.AsitexploresandexplainsthenuancedrelationshipbetweenclimatechangeandthesuccessoftheDutchRepublic,TheFrigidGoldenAge:ClimateChange,theLittleIceAge,andtheDutchRepublic,1560-1720teachesusthatsocietiescansurviveandeventhriveinthefaceofclimateextremes.Degrootaccomplishesthisfeatbydrawingupontextualsourcescommontoallhistorians—letters,intelligencereports,diaryentries,andshiplogs—whichheintegrateswithscientificreconstructionsofthepast.Bringingscienceandhistorytogetherinthiswayenrichesbothfieldsofinquiryandisacompellingexampleofhowhumanistsandscientistscanlearnfromoneanother.Ofcourse,scientistsandhistoriansoftenworkatdifferentscales.DegrootnavigatesthesescalesnotonlytorevealtheconnectionbetweenglobalclimateandlocalweathereventsintheLowCountries,butalsotoruminateonhowhistoriansmightthinkabouttherelationshipbetweentheshort,localscaleofhumanactionsandlong-term,globalclimatechanges.Thekeychallengeiswheretolocateandhowtodiscusscausality.Degrootencourageshistorianstoborrowprobabilityfromscientists,andtoopenlydiscusstheprobablecausalityofnumerousfactorsinspecificevents.Degroothasmoretosayaboutthisapproachinhisresponsetotheroundtable,sopleasereadon.ThereviewersinthisroundtablealsoseizedonthehopethatDegroot’sbookoffers,evenastheyaskedprobingquestionsaboutmethodology,approach,andhowfarweshouldextendthisoptimism.Inwhatquicklyemergedasacommontheme,NicholasJ.Cuniganbeginsbynotingthatthefocusonsocialprosperityisanewdirectioninclimatehistory.AsahistorianofrelationsbetweenindigenouspeoplesandtheDutchWestIndiaCompany,CunigandrawsonhissubjectexpertisetosuggestwhatincludingreligionmighthaveaddedtoTheFrigidGoldenAge,andtorecognizethatthishistoryisasominousasitishopeful—whiletheDutchprospered,otherssuffered.JamesBergmanfollowsthispointbydiscussingresilienceandrepressionintheLittleIceAge.Ahistorianofsciencewhostudiesthegenerationanduseofclimatedatainthetwentiethcentury,BergmanasksaboutthelimitsoftheclimatereconstructionsthatDegrootemploys.BergmanalsowonderswhathappenedontheperipheryoftheDutchempire,andifwecanuseDegroot’shistorytothinkaboutenvironmentaljusticeonaglobalscale.EarlymodernhistorianKatrinKleemanncontinuestheconversationbyhighlightingthemanycontributionsthatDegroothasmadethroughhisinterdisciplinaryworkbeforefocusingonaspecificgroupofactorsandtheir
A
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 3
possibleunderstandingofclimatechange.Whenconsideringtherichdocumentationthatpreviousgenerationskeptabouttheweather,canhistorianstalkaboutaclimatechangeconsciousness?ThomasWickmanroundsouttheconversationwithhisreflectionsonthefieldofclimatehistory.Asascholarofpeopleincoldclimates,WickmandeeplyappreciatesDegroot’srecognitionthatpeoplereacttosimilarconditionsinvastlydifferentways—andsuggeststhatmorehistoriansshouldlookforexceptions,asDegroothas,forwhattheycanteachusaboutthepast.Therearemanystoriesyettotell.Beforeturningtothefirstsetofcomments,Iwouldliketopausehereandthankalltheroundtableparticipantsfortakingpart.Inaddition,Iwouldliketoremindreadersthatasanopen-accessforum,H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviewsisavailabletoscholarsandnon-scholarsalike,aroundtheworld,freeofcharge.Pleasecirculate.
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 4
CommentsbyNicholasJ.Cunigan,CalvinCollege
SocialProsperity:ANewDirectioninClimateHistoryinceitsinception,climatehistoryhaslargelyfocusedonthenegativeconsequencesofclimatechangeonsocietiesacrosstheglobe.Historianshavelinkedchangingclimateandextremeweathertosocietalcrises,catastrophe,
andcollapse.Thistrendhashighlightedtheimpactofextremeweatheronagriculture,harvestfailures,famines,anddisease.GeoffreyParker’sGlobalCrisisisthemostwell-knownexampleofthisdecades-longtradition.1HistorianssuchasGeorginaH.Endfieldhavereframedthediscussionbyfocusingonsocietaladaptationsandresilienceduringtimesofabnormalclimateregimes.2Degrootbuildsontheworkpioneeredbytheseandotherswhileadvancingthefieldinimportantnewdirections.Ratherthanfocusonsocietalvulnerabilities,DegrootexploresthebeneficialconsequencesoftheLittleIceAgeonDutchbusiness,warfare,andculturalexpressionsduringtherepublic’sseventeenth-centuryGoldenAge(5-6).Thisisamuch-neededandwelcomeddeparturefromthetypicaldeclensionistnarrativesofclimatehistory.TheFrigidGoldenAgeisessentialreadingforanyoneinterestedinpursuingresearchinthefieldofclimatehistory.Throughoutthebook,Degrootoffersguidance,suggestions,andmini-lessonsonhowtomergethehumanarchiveofwrittenrecordswiththenaturalarchiveofclimatescience,insistingalongthewaythatclimatehistoriansmustbecautiousindrawingconnectionsbetweenstatisticaltrendsandhumanevents(17).Degroot,meticulousinhisownmethodology,appliesthislogicmostfullyinhisanalysisofDutchseventeenth-centurywinterlandscapes.HearguesthatwhileitmightseemobvioustodrawconnectionsbetweentheweatheroftheLittleIceAgeandthewinterlandscapesofDutchpainterslikeHendrickAvercamp,theseconnectionsarenotasstraightforwardasthemightappear(263-268,276).Instead,Degrootrightfullyinsiststhathistoriansmust“contextualizehoweachartworkwascreated”(266).Indoingso,hehighlightsthepossibilitiesaswellasthelimitsofconnectingclimatechangeandweathertothepast.DegrootadeptlycontextualizeshisanalysisoftheimpactofclimatechangeandweatherontheDutchRepublicwithinthecultural,socioeconomic,andpoliticalstructuresofthetime.Indoingso,heavoidsfallingintothetrapofclimatedeterminismandinsteadshowsthecapacityofweathertolimitorexpandhumanchoices(16).ThiscontextualizationshinesinDegroot’sanalysisoftheimpactof
1GeoffreyParker,GlobalCrisis:War,ClimateChangeandCatastropheintheSeventeenthCentury(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2013).2GeorginaH.Endfield,ClimateandSocietyinColonialMexico:AStudyinVulnerability(Malden,MA:BlackwellPublishers,2008);GeorginaH.Endfield,“TheResilienceandAdaptiveCapacityofSocial-EnvironmentalSystemsinColonialMexico,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences109(2012):3676–81,https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1114831109.
S
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 5
changingwindpatternsonnavalbattlesandmovementsduringtheDutch-AngloWarsandGloriousRevolution.ShiftingwindpatternswouldeventuallyprovidetheDutchnavywithanadvantageovertheEnglish,butasDegrootwrites,“[c]limatechanges…wereacatalystfor,butrarelyacauseof,militaryvictoriesanddefeats”(195).Degroot’sabilitytocontextualizeweatherwithinthe“bigstructuresthatgiveshapetohumanhistory”makehisworkrelevanttoawideaudiencethatextendsbeyondclimatehistorians(16).DegrootpairshisargumentthattheLittleIceAgewasanactiveagentinDutchGoldenAgehistorywithaconvictionthatthecomplexityofhuman-climateinteractionsbeliesstraightforwardrelationships.Throughout,Degroottempershisconclusionsbyinsistingthatweather“mayhave”impactedthingsaswiderangingasthecostandtimingofroadmaintenance(145),Dutchunderstandingsofnature(149),themutiniesofSpanishtroops(168),andGoldenAgeliterature(285)tonameafew.Degrootrightlycautionsreadersfromdrawingaclearlineofcausation.Yet,inrepeatedlydeployingamodalsentenceconstruction,Degrootrisksleavingreaderswithandimpressionthatthesignificanceofclimatechangeandweatheronhumaneventsisopen-endedandspeculative.Howcanclimatehistoriansuntangletheconnectionsbetweenclimateandhumaneventsinawaythatmovesawayfromconclusionsof“probablecausality”towardsconclusionsofgreatercertainty,whilealsorecognizingthelimitationsofthefield(17)?Greatercertaintywillsurelyrequiremoreworktobedoneinthefieldsofhistoricalclimatologyandclimatehistory.Degrootisattheforefrontofanewwaveofinterdisciplinaryscholarscapableofnavigatingthesciencesandhumanitiesinfluid,novel,anddynamicways.Inordertoensurethiswavecontinuesandexpands,abroaderacceptanceamongsthumanistsandperhapsinsistenceuponcollaborativescholarshipisneeded.Degrootacknowledgeshistemptationtowriteamoreexpansivebookthatmighthavecoveredmoregroundwhilesacrificingdepth(9).AndonecannotfaultDegrootforreigninginthistemptation;however,thereligiousattitudesanddifferencesofDutchCatholicsandProtestantsseemnotablyabsentinDegroot’sanalysisofDutchculturalresponsestotheLittleIceAge.Inhisdiscussionofseventeenth-centurywitch-hunts,DegroothighlightsDutchReformedpastorBalthasarBekker’sbiblicalexegesisthatledhimtotheconclusionthatscripturalreferencestowitcheswereinfactfigurativeallegoriesofsin(289).Bekkerfoundsupportforhisviewsamongstthe“enlightened”public,buthislocalAmsterdamconsistoryandthepublicChurchreceivedhisinterpretationwithhostilityanddemandedhebestrippedofhisministry.3OneisleftwonderinghowadeeplyreligiouspeopleliketheDutchregistered,interpreted,orrespondedtothechangingclimatearoundthemandtowhatextentDutchProtestantsexhibitedthesame“pragmaticattitude”thatDegrootfinds“typicalofGoldenAgeculture”(297).
3JonathanI.Israel,TheDutchRepublic:ItsRise,Greatness,andFall1477-1806(NewYorkCity:OxfordUniversityPress,1995),925-927.
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 6
DegrootconcludesTheFrigidGoldenAgewithanominousandprescientwarning.“[E]venmoderateclimatechangeshelpedshapethecourseofhumanhistory,andwhatourfuturehasinstoreisanythingbutmoderate.Ifwearenotcareful,warmingmayeventuallyoverwhelmevenourbesteffortstoadapttoit”(309).JustdaysbeforeIsatdowntowritethisreview,theIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)releasedtheirassessmentreportontheimpactof1.5-and2.0-degreesCelsiuswarmingabovepre-industriallevels.Sincetheearth’sclimatehasalreadywarmedonedegreesincethisperiod,theworldisonlyone-halfdegreeaway.Theassessmentofferedasoberingportraitoftherisksglobalsocietiesfaceevenifhumanscurtailtheroughly50billiontonsofCO2releasedintotheatmosphereeachyear.Inlightofthisreport,perhapsthemostpressinglessonDegrootoffersisthateven“moderateclimatechangescanhaveveryunequalconsequencesfordifferentsocieties”(308).Climatehistoriansshouldandmustprovideexamplesofhowpastsocietiesfaredasaresultofchangingclimate.Thesewillincludenarrativesofcrisis,collapse,adaptation,andresiliency.Now,thankstoDegroot,wecanalsolearnsomethingabouthowsocietiesprospered.IftheDutchRepublicprosperedduringtheLittleIceAgewhilemuchoftheworlddescendedintoaglobalcrisis,whowillprosperandwhowillsuffertoday?
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 7
CommentsbyJamesBergman,TempleUniversity
ResilienceandRepressionintheLittleIceAgesIfinishthiscomment,aheadlineappearedontheAtlantic’s“Citylab”newsletter:“TheDutchCan’tSaveUsfromRisingSeas.”4ThearticlereferredspecificallytothehydraulicexpertisethathasmadetheDutchfamousand
maybeingreaterneedassealevelsrise,butI’vebeenmullingovertheroleoftheDutchindealingwithclimatechangesincereadingDagomarDegroot’sFrigidGoldenAge.Degroot’sbookcapturedmyimaginationfortworeasons.First,heskillfullytranslatesregionalandglobalpatternstolocallandscapes,seascapes,andcityscapes.Byintroducingathirddimension—theatmosphere—tothestudyofhybridlandscapesandwaterscapes,hecreatesanenvironmentthatis,touseawordDegrootfrequentlyuses,dynamicintheshorttermandlongterm.ThesecondreasonDegroot’sworkissosuggestiveandfertileisthatitexaminesastoryofprosperityinthefaceofclimatechange.HeiscarefulnottolethisaccountminimizethethreatofclimatechangeintheAnthropocene—theLittleIceAge,forallthehavocitwrought,wastheresultoflessthanadegreeCelsiusofcooling,versusthe1.5-Cormorewarmingwehaveinstore.Infact,thebookcommunicatestheurgencyofclimatechangeallthemoreclearlybyusingtheDutchRepublicasacasestudyinresilience.Degroot’sDutchrepublicwasnotjustculturallyprolific,orrich,orpowerful,butagileinitsadaptationstoachangingclimate.Inadditiontosoil,water,roads,dikes,andcanals,Degrootconsidersrain,snow,ice,andwind,andheconsidersthemalongsidetraderoutes,shipdesign,andcommunityrituals,allimportantfactorsinDutchresilience.DegrootcontrastshissuccesscasewithGeoffreyParker’ssuccesscase,Japan,whichdidjustabouttheoppositeoftheDutch,turninginward,cuttingofftrade,andimposingarigidlyautocraticsocialandpoliticalsystem.5Degroot’ssympathiesclearlyresidewiththeDutch,asdomine,ifgiventhischoice.Atthesametime,therearenumerousreasonstothinkoftheDutchcaseasacautionarytale.AfteraconcisebutcarefulexpositionontheLittleIceAgeandthescienceandsourcesheusestoreconstructthelocalweatheroftheperiod,Degrootconsiderstheimpactsofcoolingthroughinthreedifferentpointsofinfluence:commerce,war,andculture.Thestrongestandmostinterestingpart,tomymind,ishisconsiderationoftheimpactsoftheLittleIceAgeontransportationnetworksandthecirculationofcommodities.InDegroot’sanalysis,water,wind,andiceblendwiththeconstructionoflow,sturdyships,thewarehousingofsurplusgrainstocks
4BillyFleming,“WhytheU.S.Can’tApproachClimateAdaptationLiketheNetherlands,”CityLab,October17,2018,https://www.citylab.com/perspective/2018/10/the-dutch-cant-save-us-from-rising-seas/573079/.5DagomarDegroot,TheFrigidGoldenAge :ClimateChange,theLittleIceAge,andtheDutchRepublic,1560-1720,n.d.,304;seealsoGeoffreyParker,GlobalCrisis:War,ClimateChangeandCatastropheintheSeventeenthCentury,FirstEditionedition(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2013),484–506,https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/templeuniv-ebooks/detail.action?docID=3421144.
A
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 8
incaseofcropfailure,andtheconsolidationofoverseasventurestobetterabsorbrisk.Dutchmercantileprowessisanoldstory,butbyweavinginyear-to-yearchangesofwinddirection,icemass,andprecipitation,DegrootaddsafargreaterprecariousnessandcomplexitytothecommercialempireoftheDutchGoldenAge.HeredistributestheagencyfromtheDutch,themselves,tothechangingice,water,andwindthatphysicallyembodied,andoftenimpeded,thetraderelationshipstheDutchcultivated.Inthesecondpart,ahistoryoftheeightyyearsandAnglo-Dutchwars,Degrootremindshisreadersthatcommercialprowesshasoftenbeenbackedupbyconsiderablemilitarypower.Onceagain,though,Degroot’sfocusonclimateimmersesusinmuchmorethanmilitarystrategy.WelearnofthewaysinwhichDutchlandscapesweremilitarizedduringsieges,theadvantagesanddisadvantagesofrainfallandfloodingduringsieges,andthedecisionstheDutchmadetofloodthefieldsoftheirowncitizenstogainadvantages.Navalbattles,aswell,wereamixtureofcalculatingtheprobabilitiesofdifferentwinddirectionsandhavingabitofluck.Thisisonecaseinwhichtheanswerwas,indeed,blowinginthewind.Consideringthatcommerceandwarfarewereoftenmutuallyconstitutiveintheseventeenthcentury,IwonderhowDegrootmightsituateDutchprosperityinthebroaderhistoryofglobalization,exemplifiedbytheworkofscholarssuchasImmanuelWallersteinandKennethPomeranz.6DegroothasmadeaconsciouschoicetofocusontheDutchRepublic,itsshippingroutes,anditsexpeditions,ratherthanits“oftenbrutalexpressionsofDutchcommercialmight.”7Thiswaslikelynecessarytomakehiscasefortheimportanceofclimateandforthemanywaysinwhichclimatechange’seffectsarerefractedthroughhumanchoices.HeisrightthatGeoffreyParker’sinvaluableglobalsurveyoftheLittleIceAgeistoobroadforthekindofin-depthanalysisDegrootwantedtodo.Butistherestillawaytogoin-depthwhilestillconsideringadaptationtoclimatechangeinmultiplenodesintheDutchtradingnetwork?InTheGreatDivergence,KennethPomeranzfindsthat,toaccountforthedivergenceineconomicdevelopmentbetweenWesternEuropeandtherestoftheworld,networksofcoercionandexploitationhadtobeconsideredinadditiontointernaleconomicfactors,andavarietyofcomparativeapproacheshadtobetakentounderstanddivergingpathsofdevelopment.8TheDutchwerenottheonlycolonizers,ofcourse,butitisworthgoingdeeperintotwocomparisons,first,howDutchcoerciondifferedfromotherstates,andsecond,whatadaptationtoclimatechangelookedlikefromthestandpointoftheirtrading“partners,”particularlythoseintheEastIndies.
6Iamthinking,specifically,ofImmanuelWallerstein“ProtectionNetworksandCommodityChainsintheCapitalistWorld-Economy"inFrontiersofCommodityChainResearch,JenniferBair,ed.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,2009,pp.83–89andKennethPomeranz,TheGreatDivergence-China,Europe,andtheMakingoftheModernWorldEconomy(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2001).7Degroot,8.8Formoreondifferentapproachestocomparativeanalysis,seePomeranz,5,10.
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 9
WhatwouldthehistoryoftheDutchRepublicintheLittleIceAgelooklikeiftoldfromitsperiphery,ratherthanitscore?Whatwoulditlooklikeifwethoughtlessabouttheconsequencesofclimatechangetoaparticularlocality,andthoughtmoreabouttheconsequencesofclimatechangeforglobalenvironmentaljustice?AlthoughDegrootcreditsdynamismandversatilityforDutchprosperity,healsomentionsthatDutchmerchantscontrolledtheBalticGraintradeandprofitedhandsomelyfromgrainshortageselsewhereinEurope;theyencouragedcashcropmonoculturesinIndonesiaandlaterseizedcontrolofregionaltraderoutesintheIndianOcean;andtheyfloodedtheirownfieldsformilitaryadvantage.9Theseeventsbegthequestion:HowoftendidcoercionofthesetypeshinderopportunitiesforDutchtradingpartnerstoadapttoclimatechange?Toparaphraseanotherinnovatorandbeneficiaryofadynamiceconomy,theDutchRepublicmovedfastandbroke(quiteafew)things.WouldaglobalhistoryoftheDutchGoldenAgelooklikeasuccessstoryoranothercautionarytale?Thethirdpartofthebookistheweakestofthethreeparts—itiscertainlytheshortest—butitisstillfascinatingandopensawholenewsetofquestions.DegrootexaminesthemanyculturalmanifestationsoftheLittleIceAgeintheDutchRepublic.HeisappropriatelycautiousaboutascribingtoomuchcausalinfluencetoclimatewhenDutchculturewasactuallyfarmorecomplex.Paintingsoficylandscapesmayhavebeeninfluencedbyclimatechange,butDegrootwarnsthatmuchofithadtodowithpublicdemandforparticulargenresofpaintingsandmetaphoricalimagerythatwasemployedinpainting.But,ifyouwillforgivethepun,Degrootpaintswithtoobroadabrushinthisthirdpart,especiallyinhistantalizingeffortstoteaseoutaconsciousness,amongtheDutch,ofthelong-termcoolingoftheclimate.Hecertainlyhintsatthisquestionearlieroninthebook.Heaskswhethershipmasters,merchants,andnavalcommanders“perceive[d]thatweatherpatternschangedoverdecades,”andhesuggeststhattheydid.10Buthetacklestheissuehead-oninthethirdpartbyidentifyingreferencestolong-termweatherchangesinavarietyofsources—diaries,letters,paintings,and,mostintriguingly,waterleveltables.Hefindsthatobservers“developedanunderstandingofmeteorologicalvariabilitythatwaspreciseenoughtobearudimentaryformofclimatehistory.”11Degroothasuncoveredafascinatingelementofclimatehistory,anditisatestamenttohisarchivalprowessthathehasfoundthistreasuretroveofobservationsfromavarietyofsources,andthatthesesourceswereprobablynotallsittinginthesamearchive,muchlessinafolderlabeled“Weather.”ButcouldDegroothavegonefurtherinteasingoutthemeaningoftheseweatherobservations?Whatdiditmean,fortheDutchintheseventeenthcentury,thattheclimatewaschanging?Degroot’sfrustrationwiththeoftensparsementionsofweatherinthecorrespondenceofmerchantsandshipcaptainsisapparentandsharedbyhisreaders.Atthesame
9Degroot,126,304–305,172.10Degroot,247.11Degroot,257.
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 10
time,thesesilencesare,themselves,fascinatinganddeservemoreattention.Why,forinstance,wouldseventeenth-centuryobserversbeinterested,atall,inchroniclingdecadaltrendsintheweather?Theanswerdependedgreatlyonwhowasnoticingthechange,whotheywerewritingto,whentheywerewriting,andwhethertheyhadaninterestinmakingtheirobservationknownorinkeepingittothemselves.First,thereisthequestionofwhatkindsofpeoplerecordedandtransmittedknowledgeabouttheclimate,andwhattheirinterestswereindoingso.WeseethatliterateDutchmenoftenrecordedtheirimpressionsoftheirchangingclimate,painterspaintedicescapes,and“IceCultures”developedinresponsetoparticularlycoldwinters.Butmoregeographicandsocialdifferentiationseemstobewarranted,here.Sailors,evencaptains,mightnothaverecordedtheirobservationsaboutclimatechange,giventhatsailors,accordingtohistorianMargaretSchotte,werefiercelyindependentandresistanttosurrenderingtheirtacitknowledgetothosewhomightgainanadvantageoverthem.12Overthecourseoftheseventeenthcentury,Schottenotes,logbooksbecameincreasinglystandardizedandusedbygovernmentofficials,VOCauthorities,andscholarstodiscernbetterroutesandbroadtrendsinweather,amongotherthings.13AsDegrootmentions,theVOChadavasttreasuretroveofships’logsbywhichtheycoulddecide,forinstance,howtostandardizeroutestotheEastIndies.Buttherecordersofthelogs,themselves,wouldneverberecognizedasinterpretersoflong-termtrends.14WhenconsideringtheknowledgeoftheDutchauthoritiesabouttheweather,itismoreusefultodeterminehowtheseobservationsoflong-termtrendscirculatedinsocialandpoliticalnetworks.Theotherquestiononemightaskiswhethertherewasanincentivetoresistrecordingorcirculatingobservations.AsAnyaZilbersteinhasnoted,ideasaboutclimatewereofteneconomicallyandpoliticallycontingent.15Itwasintheinterestofexplorers,boosters,andmerchantstoportrayaclimateasfavorablyaspossible,anditmayhavebeenintheinterestofmerchantstobemuteaboutpotentiallyhazardousclimatechangethatcoulddampeninvestmentorencouragethestockpilingofgraininotherlocalities.ThisisnottomentiontheincreasingcommodificationofknowledgeduringtheDutchGoldenAgethatDanielMargócsyexaminesinhisbook.16Thismeantthatweatherknowledgemayhavehadapriceattachedtoit,andthat,aswithspicesorgrain,profitdependedonthecarefulcontroloftradethroughAmsterdam.Whenexaminingweatherobservations,we
12MargaretSchotte,“ExpertRecords:NauticalLogbooksfromColumbustoCook,”Information&Culture:AJournalofHistory48,no.3(August29,2013):285,https://doi.org/10.1353/lac.2013.0015.13Schotte,298.14Schotte,285.15AnyaZilberstein,ATemperateEmpire:MakingClimateChangeinEarlyAmerica(OxfordUniversityPress,2016).16DánielMargócsy,CommercialVisions :Science,Trade,andVisualCultureintheDutchGoldenAge/,n.d.,https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/templeuniv-ebooks/detail.action?docID=3038620.
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 11
shouldnotonlyconsiderindividualobservations,butalsonetworksofknowledgeproductionandtheirpoliticaleconomy.InwritingabouttheDutchrepublic,andbyaddinganewlayer—theatmosphere—tothewaterscapesandbuiltenvironmentforwhichitwassofamous,Degrootalsoaddednewcontingencies,andoccasionalhaphazardness,totheeconomicandpoliticalhistoryoftheseventeenthcentury.Moreimportantly,however,Degroothasputforwardaboldcontentionthatwehavemuchtolearnfromsuccessandprosperityinthefaceofuncertainty,andthatwecanlearnfromaplacewithoutresortingtosentimentalityorcelebration.Additionally,andmostimportantly,hehaslaidoutapathtowardunderstandingtheroleofclimateinglobalizationoverthelonguedurée,arolethatisattheveryheartofourpoliticaldiscoursesontheAnthropocene.
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 12
CommentsbyKatrinKleemann,RachelCarsonCenter/LMUMunich
ThrivingintheFaceofClimateChange—LessonsfromtheLittleIceAgeheearlymodernperiodwascharacterizedbycrises.Religiousconflicts,socialunrest,wars,harvestfailures,commoditypriceshocks,famines,andboutsofdiseasesshapedthistime.Extremeweather,mademorelikelybytheclimate
changethatwastheLittleIceAge,playedasubstantialrole.TheLittleIceAgewasaperiodof cooling that causedglacial surges around the globe and lasted from thethirteenth to the nineteenth century. It triggered weather extremes that affectedmillions. Itwas not a periodof constant cold, itwas heterogeneous and also sawmild winters and hot summers, but overall it saw a greater extreme of colderseasons with less predictable weather. This was particularly true for two of thecoldest periods, the Grindelwald Fluctuation (1560-1628) and the MaunderMinimum(1645-1720),bothofwhichDagomarDegrootfocusesoninhisbookTheFrigidGoldenAge.AsDegrootputsit,“[t]heconceptofglobalcrisisgivesusapowerfuldevicetomakesense of the traumatic earlymodern period and provides a clearwarning forourfuture”(p.304).Previously,manyenvironmentalhistorieshavefocusedonsocietaldisastersorevencollapse triggeredby theunpredictableandunstableweatheroftheLittle IceAge.Millionsofpeople lost their lives—butnotall communitiesandsocietiescollapsedduringtheLittleIceAge.Manysurvived:somebychance;someby developing a sort of resilience to the change in average weather; most by acombinationofboth.DegrootbreakswiththeassumptionthattheLittleIceAgeonlyspelledcrisis forsocietiesaroundtheglobeand, instead,shedslightonhowsomethrived.OverallthepopulationoftheDutchRepublicseemedtodoparticularlywellduringthesetwocoldspells,whichalmostperfectlycoincidewiththeDutchGoldenAge(1590-1715).TheLowCountrieswerenostrangertobeingchallengedbytheirenvironment;thecoastalregionswerelocatedroughlytwometersbelowsealevelandlandhadtobeprotectedfromstorms,stormsurges,andfloodingbydrainingandbybuildingandmaintaining dikes. In this regard, the Little Ice Age was perhaps just another“damagingenvironmentalcircumstance”theDutchhadtofaceandendure(p.304).Interestingly, theLowCountriesdidnotonlybattle theelementsduring this timebutwerealsoatwar formostof thisperiod:TheEightyYearsWarwasragingonfrom1568to1648andtheAnglo-DutchWarstookplacebetween1652and1688.Degroottakeshisreadersonajourneythatspanstheglobe:fromtheLowCountriesontheNorthSea,totheicyshoresofNovayaZemlyaintheArcticOcean,allthewayto the warm waters around Batavia in the Dutch East Indies. The book coversclimate,weather,war,trade,nutrition,transportation,ecosystems,andcolonialism.Hetracesclimatechangefromtheglobaltothelocallevel.Heusesawiderangeofsources:theanalysisofthousandsofjourneysundertakenbyshipsoftheDutchEast
T
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 13
India Company (VOC) to the study of famouspaintings andmaps from theDutchGoldenAgetolettersanddiaryentries,tonamebutafew.TheFrigidGoldenAge isitselfahighlyinterdisciplinarybookthatstartsoffwithanintroductiontothelatestscientificresearchandclimatereconstructionsoftheLittleIce Age. It becomes clear that the climate regime is a very complex and at timescounterintuitive system that is interconnected on a global scale. The climate isdetermined by the complex interplay between oceanic and atmospheric currents,solarforcing,volcaniceruptions,andtheEarth’sorbit.Degrootreferstothestateofthe different oscillations throughout the bookwhen he explains how a particularclimatic regimewas influenced by the complex interactions between atmosphere,hydrosphere,cryosphere,andbiosphere.TheLittleIceAgesawtemperaturesthatwereonedegreeCelsiusbelowthe1900to1960norm (p. 2). Todaywe are roughly already one degree above pre-industriallevels. In the field of climate history, it is extremely difficult to define thesetemperature differences because there is no neutral time when the climate wasstable. The further we go back in time, the less reliable the instrumentaltemperaturerecordsare.Itallboilsdowntowhatthebaselineisthatonerefersto.Thebaselineisareferenceperiodfromwhichonecalculatesthedeviationoffutureclimate change, whether it be 1720-1800, 1850-1900, or 1900-1960, etc. ThebaselineisnotonlyimportantforunderstandinghowmuchcoldertheLittleIceAgewas, but also in order to understand how much the world has warmed sinceindustrializationbegan.This brings us to one extraordinary and fresh aspect of Degroot’s work: he askswhether the people shivering through the chilliest phases of the Little Ice Agenoticedthedecadallevelchangeinweatherpatterns.Ofcourse,thecontemporariesregistered whether a winter was extremely cold, but did they also notice theaccumulation of extremely cold winters? Degroot asks this question in severalchapters and concludes that sometimes they noticed something, “but nevermorethanavagueawarenessthatthepresentwasunusualinthecontextofthepast”(p.257).Whatmakesthisstudyspecialisthathedoesnotjustlookattheintellectualelite’spointofviewbutincludesexplorers,whalers,artists,authors,andinventors.It is,ofcourse,aquestionthat isdifficult toanswer: It isnotpossible toconcludethattheywereawareofclimaticchange,evenwhenweconsiderthattheyinventedtheiceskate,because“culturalresponsestoclimatechangedonotrequireexplicitawareness of climate change” (p. 299). Even if, unconsciously, they invented newtechnologies that helped them cope, endure, and even exploit the weather, wecannot draw a definite conclusion. A fine example of the “when life gives youlemons, make lemonade,” was how the commercial value of ice blocks (to storeperishablesincellarsinatimebeforetheinventionoftherefrigerator)financedtheicebreakingofriversandlakestoenabletransportationinwinter.Sledsandskateswereusedtomovearound inthe frozenworldof thechilliestwintersof theLittle
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 14
IceAge.Itisclear,asDegrootpointsout,thattheDutchwerenotpassivevictimsoftheclimatechangetheyendured(p.138,276).Itwouldbevery interesting if futureenvironmentalhistoriesof theLittle IceAgecould examine this question for other societies around the globe. In the face ofadverseclimaticconditionswhenone’sverysurvivalisatstake,wouldn’tanybodybecomecreative trying toprotectoneselfbymitigating the impendingdisaster? Itwouldbeinterestingtoseewhatstrategiesothergroupsorsocietiescameupwith,whether they were similar to or different from the Dutch example. Interestinglythough, this prompts the question of whether today’sworld population could bedescribed as passive victims considering the ongoing ignorance of scientificconsensus?Scientificpublicationshaveoverwhelminglyproventhathuman-causedfossilfuelemissionsdrasticallyaltertheclimateandwillcontinuetodoso,themostimportantcourseofactionistoreducefossilfuelemissions—andyetthisdoesnothappenonthescaleorwiththesortofcommitmentthatisnecessarytopreventtheworstconsequencesofanthropogenicclimatechange.Inhis conclusion,Degrootbrings theargument full circle toourpresent, inwhichclimatechangeisthemostpressingmatterofourtime.In300pages,onelearnshowlivesaroundtheworldwereseverely impactedby“modestclimatechange”ofonedegree Celsius on a decadal scale. This downturn of “only” one degree Celsiuswroughthavoconcommunitiesglobally.EventheDutch,whocopedwellduringthecoldestperiods,stilloccasionallysuffered,withaccountsofindividualscrashingintofrozen rivers or lakes and dying in icy waters, freezing in their homes or in thestreet,attimesbeingfamishedandsick,dyingonbattlefieldsordrowninginfloodscausedbyicedamsorstormsurges.Today, we are already experiencing more severe andmore common heat waves,wildfires,droughts, and flooding.At theendof the century, thepopulationonourplanetmightwellfaceglobalaveragetemperaturesfourdegreesCelsiushigherthanpre-industrial levels. It is almost unimaginable how much worse it could get,comparedtothe impactsofclimatechangewehaveseen illustrated indetailhereforsocietiesduringtheLittleIceAge.Unlikeourearlymodernancestors,weknowwhatishappeningandwhy.Howcanwe,ashistorians,communicatetheresultsofourresearchdifferentlytonotonlypreachtothechoirbutalsoreachpeopleoutsideourcircles?Inhisbook,DagomarDegrootmakesastrongargumentforbringingthehumanitiesand the natural sciences closer together to produce interdisciplinary studies thatcangeneratenewperspectives.TheclimateofplanetEarthhasneverbeenstable.Climatehistoryisafairlyyoungdiscipline,itselfroughlyhalfacenturyold.Itisaninterdisciplinary field that usually looks at topics other scholars have not yetcovered and therefore it produces newworkwith fresh insights on howhumanshavecopedwiththeclimatechange inthepast thatmayhelpuswithourcurrentpredicamentonthiswarmingplanet.Degrootpointsout thathistoriansarerarelyinvolved in the debate about global warming and uses his book to make a very
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 15
powerfulcasethathistoriansshould,infact,beconsulted(p.307).Historianshaveimportantinsightsthatshouldbeconsidered,lessonswecanlearnfromthepastinordertobemoreresilientinthefuture.Inthepast,historianshavelookedonlytothepastandnottothefuture,butperhapstodayinarapidlywarmingworldclimatehistoriansnolongerhavethatluxury.Degrootraisesanimportantandoftenignoredaspect,thatmightmotivateresidentsofwealthy,developedcountriesandtheirleaderstotakeactionassoonaspossible:WhereastheDutchthrivedduringtheLittleIceAge,manyofthewealthiestsocietiesdidnot:MingChina,theOttomanEmpire,theSpanishEmpire,andMughalIndiaallproved to be less resilient than the Dutch. Can lessons be learned from theunravelingofthesesocieties?Perhapsstudyingthesesocietiesnotjustattheirpeakbutalsoattheirdownturnorcollapsecanshowushowmuchchange—climaticorother—canbetoomuchtobear?Thelessonfortodayis:Ourcollectivewealthmightnotprotectusfromtheconsequencesofanthropogenicclimatechange(p.308-309).It is all a question of howmany resourceswe need to prosper, judging from theecologicalfootprintofmostdevelopedcountries,weusemuchmorethanwehave,whichwillnotbesustainableinthelongrun.In this context, it is very interesting that Degroot argues the citizens of the LowCountries during the Little Ice Age had a shared experience of the Little Ice Age.That,forinstance,onthefrozenriversduringfairsmenandwomenfromallsocialbackgroundswouldmingle(p.287).Today,perhapsdifferentpeopleacrossnationaland socialboundaries should fostera sharedexperienceof living in and trying tomitigate the consequences of a warming world. Essentially, “we are all in thistogether”isthekeymessageoftheIPCC’sassessmentreporton1.5°CwarmingthatwaspublishedinOctober2018.Unfortunately,toooftenclimatechangestillappearstoratherbeanotionofanabstractfutureproblemthatdoesnotseemtoaffectmostpeople personally. Are there concepts or ideas, developed during this sharedexperience of the Little IceAge thatwe can apply today to the national and eveninternationaldebateonclimatechange?PerhapsthesharedexperiencewasoneofthecopingmechanismsthatallowedtheDutchtothriveduringthistime.DagomarDegroot“hopestoprovideanovelperspectiveonhumanity’slongexperiencewithclimatechange”(p.9).WithTheFrigidGoldenAge,hecertainlymanagedtodothatfortheDutchRepublicintheDutchGoldenAgeduringthecoldestpartsoftheLittleIceAge.Futureclimatehistoriescanelaborateonthehumanexperiencewith(hi)storiesofclimatechangeinothertimesandplacesaroundtheglobe.
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 16
CommentsbyThomasWickman,TrinityCollege
SignsofChangeinClimateHistoryhatifclimatehistorianscheckedfirstforevidenceofprosperityduringpastperiodsofclimaticinstability,asaprecautionagainstlettingnarrativesofcrisisorcollapsebecomethedefault?DagomarDegroot’s
FrigidGoldenAgeshowsthatcoldtemperaturescouldbeaboonforsomepeopleinthepast.Thishighly-originalbookquestionsareflexamongscholarstoassumethatchillytimeswereusuallybadforcentralized,stratified,agriculturally-basedsocieties.Degrootisnotjustdiscussingresilience,whichforsomeclimatehistoriansisreducedtoasimpleassessmentofsocieties’comparativebreakingpoints.Degrootwantstoknowhowpeoplecouldthriveinthemidstofchangeandwhytheymightwelcomeconditionsthatotherswouldcallsevereoradverse.Insomeways,Dutchfortunesfromthelatesixteenthtoearlyeighteenthcenturyrestedonwar,colonialism,andeconomiccompetitionforlimitedresources.YetasDegrootexplains,Dutchculturalresourcesalsoservedpeoplewellinlocalcommunitiesandwithinregionalrelationshipsofreciprocalbenefit.17Ithardlyneedstoberestatedthatclimatehistorianshavewrittenmuchaboutmisery,crisis,catastrophe,andcollapse.GeoffreyParkerdevotesthebulkofGlobalCrisistothe“fatalsynergy”betweenclimateandconflict.Itismainlyinthebook’sfinalsectionthatParkerconsidersacombinationofhistoricalcontingenciesandconstructivestatepoliciesthatallowedsomepeopletoescapeperpetualcrisis,evenduringperiodsofadverseweather.Whenbettertimescameforafewnations,Parkerarguestowardtheendofthebook,theimprovedsituationsresultedpartlyfroma“phoenixeffect,”inwhichgrowthandcreativityemergedfromdestruction.Thecumulativeimpactofthatlandmarktextistoemphasizehumanvulnerabilityandsufferingduetocooling,evenifoneofParker’sintentionsistosuggestthatwisepoliciescanfundamentallychangesocial,political,oreconomicoutcomesduringperiodsofclimaticextremes,producingbenignratherthanfatalsynergies.18Bycontrast,Degroot’sbookaddressesbeneficialadaptationinthebeginning,middle,andendofthestory,andintroducesnuancedandcounterintuitivewaystothinkaboutearlymodernclimatehistory.HeperiodizestheLittleIceAgewithparticularattentiontotheGrindelwaldFluctuation(1560-1628)andMaunder 17Formycritiqueselsewhereof“climatehistorians’reflexivetendencytotellstoriesaboutcrisisandcollapse,”seeThomasWickman,SnowshoeCountry:AnEnvironmentalandCulturalHistoryofWinterintheEarlyAmericanNortheast(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2018),esp.15;ThomasWickman,“NarratingIndigenousHistoriesofClimateChangeintheAmericasandPacific,”PalgraveHandbookofClimateHistory,eds.ChristianPfister,SamWhite,andFranzMauelshagen(London:PalgraveMacmillan,2018),387-411.18GeoffreyParker,GlobalCrisis:War,ClimateChange,andCatastropheintheSeventeenthCentury(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2013),xxv,589(“fatalsynergy”),612(“phoenixeffect”),641(“benignsynergy”).AsDegrootremarksinhisconclusion,Parkeralsodedicatesachaptertotheexceptionalcaseofseventeenth-centuryJapan.
W
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 17
Minimum(1645-1720).Healsopointstotheunevennessofcoolingbyseasonandsub-region,whichdecisivelymattered,forexample,forDutchwhalersinSvalbard(60,78-9).Thebookwellmaybepraisedmostforstudyingclimatechangeasexperiencedatsea.Degrootassiduouslyexaminesships’logbooksandrecordsofseatollsforchangingvolumes,calendars,androutesofnavigation.SeaicepresentsoneformidablelimitatseainDegroot’snarrative.Buttheheadlinefindinginthisbookisthatwindpatternsatseacanbehistoricizedwithinthecontextofglobalclimatechange,andthatpeople’sadaptationstothewinds(orfailurestoadapt)changedhistory.WinddirectionsandvelocitiesintheMaunderMinimummayhavefacilitatedtheDutchEastIndiaCompany’svoyagestoAsia(52,83,106).YetthesinglemostimportantvariablethatmostaffectedeventsinDegroot’snarrativeisasuddenshiftinthewindduringanavalconflict.Thesidethattooktheweathergageoftenprevailed(159,231).Morebroadly,thebookseemstochallengea“terracentric”biasamongclimatehistoriansstudyingagrariancommunitiesforwhomglobalcoolingprimarilycausedcropfailuresordeepenedfuelshortages.AsDegrootobserves,“weatherthatunderminedthesupplyofuseableenergyforfarmersandpastoralistsactuallyincreasedhowmuchenergytheDutchcoulduseontheirships”forcommerceorbattle(18).19Degrootnarrateseventsvividly,butwithoutsensationalism,anddoessointheserviceofeducatingreadersaboutclimaticsystems.Degrootexpectsallreaderstobecomescientificallyliterate—andheoverseesthatlearningprocesswithadmirablepatienceandskill.Alistof“ClimateTerms”immediatelypriortotheintroductioniswellplaced(xvi-xvii).Thefirstchapterofthebookisanespeciallyusefulprimerforstudentswhowanttounderstandclimatehistorians’methodsandsources.Intheremainingchapters,Degrootstandsouttomeasanauthorwhoisalwaysteaching.Itisrareinthehumanitiesforanauthortoposequestionssoclearly,continuallylayoutthedatabeforethereader,andthenassesssoopenlytheresults,whetherthoseresultsproveconclusiveorambiguous.Inthissense,Degrootismodellingtheapplicationofthescientificmethodtotheworkofahumanist—acharacterizationthatbestappliestochapterstwotofive,thecoreofthebook.Atthesametime,Degrootpromptsscientifically-literatereaderstocarefullyinterpretarchivaldocumentsandtointegrate“bigdata”with“qualitativeaccountsofshort-termeventsonalocallevel”(17).Healsointegratesnuancedinterpretationsofmapsandpaintings,refusingtotreatthesesourcesasmereclimatologicalindices.Inunifyingscienceandhistorytoexplaincomplexandunpredictableshiftsinnaturalcontextsandinhumandecision-making,Degroot’schronicleshareswithJohnMcNeill’sMosquitoEmpiresthedualcapacitytoeducateandsurprise.Describingharshpreindustrialconditionsandassessingthelimitedknowledgeavailabletopastactors,bothauthorscalibratethebalanceofpowerbetweennatureandpeoplein
19Foracritiqueof“terracentric”history,seeJohnR.Gillis,TheHumanShore(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2012).
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 18
everyhistoricalsituation,whileatthesametimedemonstratinghowquicklypeople’sadvantagesovereachothercouldturntodisadvantages,orvice-versa.20IsFrigidGoldenAgeabookforoptimists?Iposethequestionwiththestudentsof2018andbeyondinmind.DoesDegrootgiveundergraduatesawayforward,ifyoungpeopleborninthetwenty-firstcenturyreadhisbookthinkingabouttheirownfutures?Inscrutinizingdomesticadaptationsandinternationalstrategy,Degrootseemstobesearchingforproblemsolversinthepastandtobeweighingthebenefitsanddrawbacksofincreasingconnectivity.Cognizantofthefoiblesofleaders,attentivetothedepthofearlymodernreligiousconflict,andsensitivetorealitiesofoppression,Degrootneverthelessrecoversauseablepastinwhichsomepeoplerespondedpragmaticallytounstableorextremeweatherpatterns.Thestoryisneverapocalyptic.IfoundendlesslyinterestingDegroot’sattentiontotechnologiessuchasturnandpullferries(130),icebreakers(138,292),milkboats(140),sleds(141),skates(142-3,166),andice-wagons(291).Heatingpatentsareawonderfulsource(291).Somepracticesandtechnologieswereintegraltowarsfoughtathome,includingtacticalfloodingandtheconstructionofstar-shapedforts(156,172).YetequallyimportantforDegrootwastheflexibleandthoughtfulschedulingoftransportationformaximalsafety,convenience,andprofit.Thefinalchapterwillchallengetechno-optimiststothinkmorebroadlyaboutculture,memory,andimagination.Degrootunearthsrichdocumentsshowinghowpeoplehistoricizedtheirownexperiences,suchasalengthypoemaboutthewinterof1666/7writtenbytheheadoftheDutchherringfleet’sguildofpilots—andpostedtohisdoor(286).AsAnyaZilbersteinhasargued,peoplechronicledandcommentedonearlymodernclimatechangeasithappened,notjustaccessingcollectivememorybutcreatingarchivesandenactingvaluejudgments.DegrootjoinsZilbersteininlookingfor“rudimentaryform[s]ofclimatehistory”(257).Surely,thereareotheraspectsofordinaryDutchpeople’sknowledgeandcopingstrategiestoberesearchedfurther—forexample,soldiers’well-timeddesertionsfrommilitaryservice,women’svillage-levelsocialstrategiesinwartime,orDutchphenologyandethnobotanyforcoldseasons.BycombiningafocusedstudyoftheDutchrepublicfromwithinandaselectiveexaminationofthemaritimelogisticsofcommerceandwar,DegrootlargelyoptsnottoaddressDutchcolonialism’shumanconsequencesoverseas.Degroot’sFrigidGoldenAgeisaninvaluablemodelforscholarsdoingclimatehistory,butitishardlythelastword,anditspublicationshouldcreateopportunitiesforscholarsofgender,indigeneity,orempiretopushforwardtheresearch.21 20JohnR.McNeill,MosquitoEmpires:EcologyandWarintheGreaterCaribbean,1620-1914(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2010).21AnyaZilberstein,ATemperateEmpire:MakingClimateChangeinEarlyAmerica(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2016).Foranargumentaboutearlyclimatology,seeSamWhite,“UnpuzzlingAmericanClimate:NewWorldExperienceandtheFoundationsofaNewScience,”Isis106:3(2015):544-66.FornewworkonDutchcolonialisminclimaticcontext,seeNicholasCunigan,“WeatheringExtremes:Climate,Colonialism,andIndigenousResistanceintheDutchAtlantic”(PhDdissertation,UniversityofKansas,2017).
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 19
Everyshiftinclimatetestspeople’sresilience,whetherwarmerorcolder,wetterordrier,windsblowingmoreofteninonedirectionorinanother,andmanylocalpeopleshavecopedokaywithalloftheabove.Whythenhavescholarstendedtotellsomanytalesaboutabundanttimesforlargeagriculturalsocietiesduringstable,temperateperiods,followedbydownturnifnotworsewhentheweathercooledordroughtsoccurred?TheRomanClimateOptimuminKyleHarper’sTheFateofRomeisthelatestinstanceofawarm,wet“optimum”narratedinepicfashionasaprologuetodisaster.22Bycontrast,Degroot’sintroductionpromises(andthebookdelivers)subduedanalysisof“crisisandopportunityinachangingclimate.”Degroot’sbiggestcontributionishisclear-headedinsistenceonthediversityofhumanresponsetovariableclimate.Mostclimatehistorianstryhardtoidentifycontingencyandtoresistdeterminism,butmoreneedtolookfordivergentvalues,tactics,strategies,andpolicies,asappliedtoallformsofclimaticvariation.23Insomeschoolsofhistory,exceptionalismistaboo.Ifmoreclimatehistorianslookedforexceptions,includingatsmallerscales,wemighthavefewerstoriesofcollapseandmorestoriesofsurvival,persistenceorprosperity.Onesignthatclimatehistoryisthrivingasafieldwillbeagreaterdiversityinthekindsofstorylinespractitionersusetonarratethepast.
22KyleHarper,TheFateofRome:Climate,Disease,andtheEndofanEmpire(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2017).Scholarssometimesuse“anomaly”or“period”ratherthan“optimum”todiscussclimaticchangeinmoreneutralterms.23Forexemplaryworkinthisvein,seeGeorginaH.Endfield,ClimateandSocietyinColonialMexico:AStudyinVulnerability(Malden,MA:Blackwell,2008);SherryJohnson,ClimateandCatastropheinCubaandtheAtlanticWorldintheAgeofRevolution(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2011);MatthewMulcahy,HurricanesandSocietyintheBritishGreaterCaribbean,1624-1783(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,2006).
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 20
ResponsebyDagomarDegroot,GeorgetownUniversity
eopleoftenaskmewhatlessonsIlearnedwhileworkingonTheFrigidGoldenAge.UsuallytheymeanthelessonsItookfromthehistoryoftheDutchRepublic,andIusuallyhavesomethingstotellthem(keepreading!).YetwhatIdon’tsayisthis:theonethatwillstickwithmethemostisthatwritinga
book–anybook–ishard.IfirstimaginedtheroughoutlinesoftheFrigidGoldenAgein2007.IttookmorethanadecadeuntilIcouldfinallylookdownandseethebookinmyhands.Ithasbeenagruelingandprofoundlyhumblingexperience,andthereweretimeswhenIwonderedwhetheritwasworthalltheeffort.TheseremarkablythoughtfulreviewsconvincemethatIopenedaconversationworthstarting,andperhapseventhatIhavehelpedchangemydisciplineinameaningfulway.Iwouldliketobegin,then,byofferingmyutmostgratitudetomyreviewers,andtoourroundtableeditor,MelanieKiechle.EachofmyreviewersposesquestionsthatchallengedmeasIwroteTheFrigidGoldenAge,andIamdelightedtohavetheopportunitytoanswermanyoftheminthisspace.Towardstheendofmyremarks,IwillalsobrieflyaddresshowsomeofmyviewshaveevolvedsinceIcompletedthebook,andwhatabestpracticemightlooklikeforclimatehistoriansinthewakeofitspublication.CentraltoTheFrigidGoldenAgeistheideathatweneedanewmethodologytowriteclimatehistories,onethatbothaccountsforthecomplexityofrelationshipsbetweenclimaticandhumanhistories,andgivesgreateragencytopeopleinthepast.Manyclimatehistorianshavematchedbroadclimaticandsocialtrendsonhugescalesintimeandspace.YetIarguethatclimatehistoriansshouldapproachatopicbycarefullydiscerninghowclimatictrendsshapedthemeanandvariabilityofweatheronlocalscales.Wherepossible,theyshouldthenconsiderhowdiscreteweathereventsprovokedhumanresponses,againonsmallscalesintimeandspace.Onlyafterestablishingtheselittleconnectionsshouldtheyattempttomakebigclaimsabouttheimpactofclimatechangeonhumanhistory–iftheychoosetodoso.JamesBergmanaskswhetheritwouldhavebeenpossibleformetowriteadetailedhistoryoftheexperienceofclimatechangeacrosstheentireDutchtradingempire.CouldIhaveusedmymethodologytoexplore,forexample,howtheLittleIceAgeaffectedthetorturedrelationshipbetweencolonizerandcolonized,slaverandenslaved,merchantandmarketinthe“multiplenodes”oftheDutchtradingnetwork?It’saquestionIoftenaskedmyselfasIwroteTheFrigidGoldenAge.TheanswermustbeginwiththenatureoftheLittleIceAge,andtheattemptsofpaleoclimatologistsandhistoricalclimatologiststoreconstructit.First,thecoldwavesoftheLittleIceAge–includingtheGrindelwaldFluctuationandMaunder
P
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 21
Minimum,whichframethisbook–likelyaffectedtheNorthernHemispheremorethantheydidthesouth.Second,climatereconstructionsforEuropeandChinainparticularhavelongbeenmorereliableandprecisethanthosethatcoverotherpartsoftheworld.Researchintopastclimateshasdeeprootsinbothplaces,andsomeofourbestsourcesforreconstructingpastclimatechangeonsmallscales–treerings,forexample–areeitherscarceintheglobalsouth,ordonotregistertheperiodsofgrowthanddormancythatallowustousethemforclimatereconstructions.Climatehistorianshavelonghadahabitofusingdatafromclimatescienceasthoughitwereobjective,impartial,andhomogenous.Perhapsmanyofuscollaboratesocloselywithscientiststhatwebegintothinkofourselveslikescientists.Maybetheideathatclimatesciencemightbe“constructed”strikesmanyofusasdeeplyproblematicinaneraofenduringclimatechangedenial.Regardless,wehavetoooftenusedtheremarkabledatathatpaleoclimatologyprovidesuswithoutthinkinglikehistoriansofscience:withoutthinking,inotherwords,aboutthepoliticalandculturalhistoriesandprejudicessubtlyencodedinthatdata.WhileImentionthehistoricalbiasesofclimatereconstructionsinTheFrigidGoldenAge,IdothinkIcouldhavemoreclearlyemphasizedwhatthosereconstructionsdidnotallowmetodo,andwhytheydidnotallowmetodoit.Inanycase,theperipheryoftheDutchtradingempireintheSouthernHemispheremightnothaveexperiencedthetemperaturetrendsoftheLittleIceAgetothesameextentasthemetropoleinthenorth,butithaslongbeenhardtoknowforsure.Icertainlydidnothavethekindofclimatereconstructionsthatwouldhaveenabledmetousemymethodologytoinvestigate,forexample,theimpactsoftheLittleIceAgeontheAfricanslavetrade.IdidwonderwhetherIcouldtiechangesinatmosphericcirculationtothemovementoftheWestIndiaCompany(WIC)shipsthattransportedAfricanslaves.YetmyexaminationoftheDutchEastIndiaCompany–theVOC–ledmetoemphasizecirculationchangesintheNortheasternAtlantic,farfromtheAfricancoast.Allofthisraisesaninterestingproblem,onethathasgrownclearertomesincethepublicationoftheFrigidGoldenAge:themethodologythatallowedmetocomplicategrandnarrativesinclimatehistoryalsolimitedtheplaces,times,andultimatelythehistoricalactorsIcouldstudy,accordingtothestateoftheevolvingscience.Luckily,thepictureischangingnow.ClimatereconstructionsformuchofAfrica,forexample,increasinglypermitdetailedscholarshiponrelationshipsbetweentheLittleIceAgeandtheslavetrade.AsIdescribeelsewhere,earlyresearchsuggeststhatprecipitationextremesintheearlyGrindelwaldFluctuationweakenedAfricanpolitiesthatthenfellvictimtoEuropeandepredations,andthatsubsequent,modestcoolinginsub-humidanddrysavannahregionshelpedtheslaveeconomytofunctionwithespeciallyruthlessefficiency.24 24DagomarDegroot,“ClimateChangeandSocietyfromtheFifteenthThroughtheEighteenthCenturies.”WIREsClimateChangeAdvancedReview.DOI:10.1002/wcc.518
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 22
SoitmaywellbethatatrulyglobalhistoryoftheDutchtradingempireintheLittleIceAgewouldincludemorecautionarytales,asBergmanputsit.Certainly,IfullyagreewithThomasWickman:mybookis“hardlythelastword,”anditsbestcontributiontoenvironmentalhistoriographywilllikelybetoencourage“scholarsofgender,indigeneity,orempiretopushforwardtheresearch.”Indeed,NicholasCuniganhaslatelypioneeredresearchintotheroleofclimaticchangeonDutchcolonialisminBrazil,andhisfindingswillinterestanyonewhohasreadmybook.IhavelatelywrittenaboutthecalamitousimpactofDutchadaptabilitytoclimatechangeonArcticbowheadwhales:sentientanimalswiththeirown,often-overlookedagency.25Still:TheFrigidGoldenAgealsorevealsthattheoverallresilienceoftheDutchmetropoletoclimatechangedidnothingeonwhathappenedintheimperialperiphery.Thebookshowsthat,evenbeforetheemergenceoftheVOCorWIC,andwellbeforetheoceanic“rich”tradesaccountedforasubstantialportionofDutchprosperity,Dutchtradersandmerchants,artistsandfarmersrespondedcreativelytonewclimaticconditions.IthereforecontinuetobelievethatmuchofthereasonfortheRepublic’sprosperityintheLittleIceAgeliesinwateryenvironmentsclosertotheLowcountries.WickmaninsightfullypointsoutthatTheFrigidGoldenAgeconfrontsthe“terracentric”assumptionssooftenmadebyclimatehistorians.IwishIhadthoughtofusingthatword!Butletmegoonestepfurtherandsaythatthebookchallengesclimatehistorians’overwhelmingfocusonrain-fedagriculture.Ofcourse,trendsintemperatureandprecipitationdidaffectmillionsacrosstheearlymodernworldbyinterruptingorshorteninggrowingseasonsforstaplecrops.YetasTheFrigidGoldenAgeshows,thisdoesnotaccountfortheentiretyofcontemporarylivedexperience.Otherwaysofmakingaliving–bytheDutch,yes,butperhapsespeciallybyindigenouscommunitiesacrossAfrica,theAmericas,andAustralia–respondedtodifferentmanifestationsofclimatictrendsindistinctandoftensurprisingways.Indeed,Iagreethatweneedmorediversityinthestoriesclimatehistorianschoosetotell,andthistakesmebacktothatissueofscale.AsIseeit,manyclimatehistorianscraftnarrativesthatconnectcoolingtosocialcrisisbecausetheyconsideronlythegrandestscalesintimeandspace,wherethefatesofentirecontinentssupposedlywaxandwane,wherecentury-scaleclimatictrendscomeandgo.Untilrecently,thelowprecision(or“resolution”)ofmostclimaticreconstructionsallbutforcedhistorianstoworkonthosescales.Evennow,suchworkretainsvalue,partlybecauseithaspermittedmoredetailedstudies,includingTheFrigidGoldenAge.
25NicholasCunigan,"WeatheringExtremes:Climate,Colonialism,andIndigenousResistanceintheDutchAtlantic.”PhDdiss.,UniversityofKansas,2017.DagomarDegroot,“ClimateChange,Whaling,andConflictintheSeventeenth-CenturyArctic.”PastandPresent.Forthcoming.
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 23
Yetitisalsotruethatoften-surprisingrelationshipsbetweenlocalvariationsinhumanandenvironmentalconditionsplayedoutintheshadowofbigtrends.Theselocalstoriescanrevealmuchaboutthecreativewaysinwhichpeopleactuallyconfrontedandthoughtaboutclimatechange.Recently,innovativescholarshaveconvincinglyarguedthatclimatehistoriansshouldfocusonthesestories.YetIhopethatTheFrigidGoldenAgeshowshowlocalrelationshipscanbefruitfullyintegratedintoglobalnarratives.26Istillbelievethatbignarrativesareimportantinclimatehistory,bothbecausetheyrevealpatternsthatwemightmissbyconcentratingonsmallerscales,andbecausetheytellstoriesthatresonateoutsideourdiscipline.Acentralchallengeinclimatehistoryisthereforetointegratehistoryondifferentscales:theglobalandthelocal,thelongandshortdurée.BothBergmanandCuniganwonderwhetherTheFrigidGoldenAgemighthavegonefurtherinexploringwhatitmeantfortheDutch–ProtestantandCatholic,elitesandcommoners–toobserve,record,andinterprettheweathertrendsoftheLittleIceAge.Infact,thebookIoriginallysubmitted–atsome220,000words–includedanentirechapterthatexploredthisquestion.Totheeternalgratitude,I’msure,ofmanyundergraduatestudentsinenvironmentalhistory,CambridgeUniversityPressaskedmetotrimsome90,000wordsfromthetotal.Whilemynewborndaughternapped,Ideletedpages,trimmedcitations,andcutfiguresthatrepresentedcountlesshoursofwork.ItwasoneofthehardestthingsI’vehadtodoinacademia,butitleftmewithamuchmoreconciseandaccessiblebook.However,toretainmymeticulousmethodologyoflinkingclimatictrendstohumanaffairs,IultimatelymadethedecisiontocutthatchapteronthemeaningofclimateandweatherforDutchobservers.ThedeletedchaptertracedhowDutchsailorsandsettlersencountereddistant,variableclimatesinwaysthatledthemtoquestionlong-standingAristotelianassumptionsaboutthenaturalworld.Atthesametime,thedistinctcultureandeconomyoftheRepubliccreatedawelcomingenvironmentforartisanaltinkerersandearlyscientists.WeatherextremesassociatedwiththeLittleIceAgeencouragedtheseobserverstodevelopnewmeansoftrackingweather,andtoincorporatemeteorologywithinrevolutionary,mechanisticcosmologies.Oneofmyarguments–whichIwilldevelopmorethoroughlyinmynextbook–isthatwedon’toftenpayenoughattentiontotheagencyofnatureinshapingscience.Inanycase,thedeletedchaptershowedhowscientificinterpretationsofweatherfoundanechointhepragmaticapproachtoweathersharedbymanyamongtheilliterateurbanpoor.Yetsupernaturalexplanationsforweatherpersistedamongtheliterateupperandmiddleclasses,andamongbothProtestantsandCatholics.Theruralpoor,meanwhile,consultedanancientblendofmagicalandreligiousweatherwisdom,especiallyintheeasternhinterlandsoftheRepublic.Still,secular 26JohnHaldonetal.,“Historymeetspalaeoscience:Consilienceandcollaborationinstudyingpastsocietalresponsestoenvironmentalchange.”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences115:13(2018):3217.
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 24
ideasaboutweathergraduallygainedacceptanceinDutchcities,anditwastheseideasthatencouragedsomeDutchobserverstotrackclimatechange.Ultimately,Iarguedthatdiverseunderstandingsofclimate,weather,andclimatechangeacrosstheDutchtradingempiretogetherreflectedandcontributedtotheoverallresilienceoftheRepublicinthefaceofclimaticcooling.Ibelievedinthisstory,butIdidnotconsideritabsolutelyessentialtothecoreargumentofTheFrigidGoldenAge.PerhapsIwaswrong;perhapsthatassumptionhadrootsinmypersonalbiastowardsmaterialism.Inanycase,afterIcutthechapter,Itriedtoturnitintoafree-standingarticle.Isubmittedittoajournal,buttheresponseconfirmedwhatIalreadysuspected:itdidn’tworkaswellbyitself.Withthebookbehindme,Iwaseagertoturntonewprojects,andIhadlittleinterestinthearticlerevisionsthatIneededtoundertake.Itisgratifyingnowtorealizethatthisstorymaystillbeworthtelling,andIthankmyreviewersforthatinsight.CuniganconsiderswhethertheexampleoftheDutchcantelluswhowillprosperandwhowillsufferinourwarmingworld.WickmanwonderswhetherI’vewritten“abookforoptimists,”onethatoffers“undergraduatesawayforward.”KatrinKleemannaskswhethermillionsinthepresentarepassivevictimsinthefaceofglobalwarming,unlikemyadaptiveDutch.ThesearepreciselythekindsofquestionsIhopedtoprovokewhilewritingTheFrigidGoldenAge.Ofcourse,onedoesnotneedtobeanenvironmentalisttowriteenvironmentalhistory;curiositycanbemotivationenough.Yetclimatehistorians,itseemstome,oftenfeelthattheyhaveaspecialresponsibilitytomakehistoryusefulinthepresent.Iamcertainlynoexception.Inthisbookandinotherprojects,Ihavearguedthatthepastcanopennewperspectivesonthegreatstruggleofourtime:thefightagainstanthropogenicglobalwarming.Giventhescaleandurgencyofthechallengeweface,ImighthavechosenadifferentprofessionhadIfeltthathistory–andhistorians–havenothingtooffer.Ofcourse,bookslikeTheFrigidGoldenAgecantelluslittleaboutwhatexactlythefuturehasinstoreforus.Mosthistoriansarerightlywaryofmakingpredictionsonthebasisofadistantpast,whenpeopleandplaceswereverydifferentthantheyaretoday.Idobelieve,however,thatmybookcontributestopresent-daydebatesaboutglobalwarmingbynotonlypresentingsomestrategiesthatmightworkinthefaceofenvironmentalchange,butmoreimportantlybyrevealingthecomplexityofrelationshipsbetweenclimateandsociety.WhileIamdeeplyconcernedaboutourfuture,Iamalsoskepticalofstudiesthat,asgeographerMikeHulmeeloquentlyputsit,“reducethefuturetoclimate.”27Projectionsofourwarmerfuturetoooftenemphasizechangesinthevariablewecaneasilypredict–warmingonaglobalscale,undervariousemissionsscenarios–butnotthevariablesthatarehardertomodel,suchassocial,cultural,andeconomicchanges.Wehavelittleideawhatnational 27MikeHulme,“Reducingthefuturetoclimate:astoryofclimatedeterminismandreductionism.”Osiris26:1(2011):245-266.
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 25
economieswilllooklikeby2100,forexample.Withthatinmind,howcanweestimatetheeconomictollofwarmingbythatdate,asinfluentialnewstudieshaveattemptedtodo?28TheFrigidGoldenAgemayremindustodaythatnoteverythingcanbequantified;thatthefuturewillbesurprising,andthatwehavemoreagencythanwemightassume.WickmanwritesthatIhavemodelled“theapplicationofthescientificmethodtotheworkofahumanist.”Indeed,justasmanyscientistshavemuchtolearnfromthehumanities,Ibelievethehumanities–perhapsespeciallythehistoricaldiscipline–havemuchtolearnfromthesciences.Agreatdealhasnowbeenwrittenonthepotentialofdatafromnaturalarchivestorevealpreviouslyunimaginedtruthsaboutthehumanandnaturalpast.Formanypartsoftheworld,thisdataisnowpreciseenoughtounlockanewkindofhistoricalscholarship,onethatencouragesmulti-authorcollaborationsbetweenresearchersinverydifferentdisciplines.Inthepastyear,I’vecommittedmyselftoorganizingmoreofthesecollaborations,inadditiontotheusualhistorian’sworkofwritingsingle-authoredbooks.YetI’vealsostartedtothinkmoredeeplyaboutincorporatinguncertaintyintohistoricalscholarship.InTheFrigidGoldenAge,andespeciallyinmymorerecentscholarship,IacknowledgethedifferentlevelsofcertainlythatIascribetodifferentrelationshipsbetweenenvironmentsandcommunities.Iweighthestrengthsandweaknessesofdifferentsources,andindeednowIwouldwritemoreaboutthoseshiplogbooks,owingtothepioneeringworkofearlymodernhistorianMargaretSchotte.29YetIhavefoundthatscientistsarefarmorecomfortablethanmanyhistorianswithsuchopenadmissionsofdoubt.ThequalifiersIuseinmywritingwouldberightathomeinanIPCCreport,yetstrikesomehistoriansasatroublingadmissionofdoubt:asuresignthatanargumentneedsstrengthening.AsIargueelsewhere,thatattitudecannotsurvivesustainedworkwithnon-textualsources.30Connectingtrendstoeventsinhumanandnaturalrealmsalwaysinvolvesacertainlevelofspeculation,forthemostaccuratereadingofthepast–theonethataccountsforthedynamismofthenon-humanworld,ortheagencyofactorswhohaveleftnowrittentrace–israrelythebest-documented.Tobehonestwithourselvesandwithourreaders,wehavetoacknowledgethelimitationsofoursources,methods,andconclusions.Inmyview,thatstrengthens,ratherthanweakens,ourscholarship.Ithastheaddedbenefitofinvitingreadersintoouranalyticalprocess,ofshowingthemhowwethinkthroughpossiblerelationshipsandreachconclusions,whichinturnpermitsmoreinsightfulcriticism.
28“FourthNationalClimateAssessment.”Availableat:https://nca2018.globalchange.gov.29MargaretE.Schotte,SailingSchool:NavigatingScienceandSkill,1550-1800.Washington,DC:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,Forthcoming.30DagomarDegroot,“WaroftheWhales:ClimateChange,Weather,andArcticConflictintheEarlySeventeenthCentury.”EnvironmentandHistory.Forthcoming.
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 26
SincethepublicationofTheFrigidGoldenAge,I’vealsocontinuedthinkingabouttheshelflifeofbooksinclimatehistory.Thepaleosciencesandthehistoricaldisciplinemoveatverydifferentspeeds.Paleoclimaticreconstructionsofatmosphericoroceaniccirculation,forexample,canundergorevisionsthatmaynotchangebig,multi-centennialtrends,butmaystillalterthepictureonscalesthatmatterforhumanhistory.BooksontheLittleIceAgethathingeonsuchreconstructionscan–andhave–becomeobsoleteinthetimebetweensubmissionandpublication,asthestateofthesciencechanges.Itis,perhaps,avainambitiontowrite“future-proof”booksinanyfield,letaloneclimatehistory.YetIdothinktheremightbeasimplebestpracticethatcouldaddtothestayingpowerofmostbooksinclimatehistory.InTheFrigidGoldenAge,Idomybesttodrawonalargeanddiversegroupofsourcestomakeabigclaim.Onekindofsource–atreeringreconstruction,forexample–mighteventuallyundergorevision,yetitisveryunlikelythatallwillchangeenoughtoalterthebigpicture.Ialsoattempttofortifyeveryenvironmentalreconstructionwithobservationsofweather–oractivitiesthatdependonweather–intextualsources.Ofcourse,historiansmayunderstandorapproachdocumentsdifferentlywithtime,andthereforesomedocumentsmaynotrecordweatherasaccuratelyastheyseemto.Again,wherepossibleItrytousedifferentanddiversetextstosupportmyinterpretationsofweathertrends.YetIbelievethatreconstructionsbasedonobservationsofweatherandweather-relatedactivitiesarelesssubjecttochangethanthosethatmakeexclusiveuseofpaleoclimaticdata.Theyalsoreflectthelivedexperiencesofhistoricalactors,whichare,ofcourse,thefocusofTheFrigidGoldenAge.WhileIadmitthatnoteverypublicationinclimatehistorycanorshouldfollowthisapproach,Ihopeitwillmakemycoreconclusionslesssubjecttofundamentalrevisionintheyearsahead.IwillleaveittomycolleaguesintheenvironmentalsciencesandhumanitiestojudgewhetherIhavebeensuccessful.Finally,Kleemannwondershowclimatehistoriansmight“communicatetheresultsofourresearchdifferently,”sothatwemight“reachpeopleoutsideourcircles.”IshouldbeginbysayingthatIdothinkthatthereisvalueinpreachingtothechoir–tothosealreadysoldonthescienceofanthropogenicglobalwarming–becauseclimatehistorycanleadthosepeopletothinkdifferentlyabout,forexample,thesocialconsequencesofwarming.Betteryet,theemphasisonindividualorcommunalagencyinbookslikeTheFrigidGoldenAgemaymotivatesomeinthechoirtothekindofactionthatfatalisticnarratives–socommoninclimatejournalism–typicallydiscourage.YetIalsohopethatastudentorlaypersonwhoisn’tentirelysoldonthescienceofclimatechangewillbemorelikelytopickupabooklikeTheFrigidGoldenAgethanonethatfocusesentirelyonthethreatofglobalwarming.ClimatologistKatharineHayhoearguesthateventhosewhodisagreeaboutclimatesciencecanfindsharedintereststhatmightstillleadtolowercarbonemissions.31Differentstakeholders, 31KatharineHayhoe,“Whenfactsarenotenough.”Science360:6392(2018):943.
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 27
forexample,mightfindverydifferentreasonstosupporttheconstructionofasolarpolarplant,buttheeffectonEarth’sclimatewillbethesame.Ihavecometothinkofhistoryinmuchthesameway.Hardcoredeniersofanthropogenicglobalwarmingmaybeimpossibleforustoreach,butIwonder:canhistorybeabridgebetweenskepticsandproponentsofclimatescience?Canweuseawidespread–anddareIsay,bipartisan–fascinationwiththepasttoawakenmorepeopletothedangersofrunawayclimatechange?Climatescientistsoftentellmethattoreachabroadaudience,sharingdataislesseffectivethantellingstories.Maybewecanbethestorytellerswholeadskepticstoamoreaccurateunderstandingofthechallengeswe’llfaceinthecenturytocome.Ofcourse,writingbooksisnotenough.Asweallknow,academicbooks,evenpopularones,rarelyreachamassaudience.Likeotheracademicswhodoubleasactivists,myapproachhaslongbeentomakemyselfavailableforinterviewswithjournalists,andtosubmitarticlestopopularpublications.Ineveryintervieworpublication,Istruggletoexplainhowthepastcanofferuniqueperspectivesontheinjusticesofourpresent,andtheperilsofourlikelyfuture.Thiscanbefrustratingwork.Journalistscan,attimes,distortthemeaningofouranswers,andsomeofmybestarticles–submittedduringthe2016election,forexample–wereneverpublished.Ihavethereforefounditespeciallyfulfillingtocreateplatformsthatallowotherstospeakwithloudervoices.IstartedHistoricalClimatology.combackin2010asapersonalresearchblog,forexample,buteventuallyworkedwithtalentedcolleaguestoremakeitintoapopularwebsitewitharticlesbydiversecolleaguesintheenvironmentalhumanitiesandsciences.BasedontheemailsIreceive,manyofourreadersdonotvisitoursiteasbelieversinclimatescience(thoughsomemightleaveasconverts).Inmyexperience,itdoesn’ttakemuchtechnicalskilltocreateandadvertisetheseplatforms.Theycannotreplaceotherkindsofoutreach,andtheycertainlycan’treplacebooks,yettheydoprovideaneasywayforevenveryjuniorscholarstocreatecommunitiesandreachbeyondourusualaudience.Inanagewhenourmediaischangingasfastasourclimate,weneedtoexperimentwithnewwaysofreachingthebiggestaudienceswecan.
H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 28
AbouttheContributorsJamesBergmanteachesU.S.HistoryandtheHistoryofScienceatTempleUniversity.HerecentlycompletedaMellonPostdoctoralfellowshipattheUniversityofPennsylvania,wherehepursuedaproject,“AfterlivesofClimate,”inwhichhestudiedthewaysinwhichclimaticdatafromastudywasrepurposedaftertheendofthestudy.Bergmaniscurrentlyworkingonabook,ClimateontheGround:Data,Planning,andthePursuitofStabilityintheUnitedStates,1933–1963,underadvancecontractwiththeUniversityofPittsburghPress.NicholasCuniganisanAdjunctProfessorofHistoryatCalvinCollegeinGrandRapids,MI.Hisresearchliesattheintersectionofenvironmental,Atlantic,andindigenouspeoples’history.Heiscurrentlyworkingonamanuscriptthatexaminestheimpactofseventeenth-centuryclimatechangeonDutchcolonialismintheAmericas.DagomarDegrootisanAssistantProfessorofEnvironmentalHistoryatGeorgetownUniversity.Hissecondbook,CivilizationandtheCosmos:AnEnvironmentalHistoryofHumanity’sPlaceintheSolarSystem,isundercontractwithHarvardUniversityPressandPenguinRandomHouse.Heisco-founderandco-directoroftheClimateHistoryNetwork,andfounderanddirectorofHistoricalClimatology.com.Hetweetsattwitter.com/DagomarDegroot.MelanieA.Kiechle,AssociateProfessorofHistoryatVirginiaTech,studiesthenineteenth-centuryUnitedStates.SheistheauthorofSmellDetectives:AnOlfactoryHistoryofNineteenth-CenturyUrbanAmerica(UniversityofWashington,2017)andiscurrentlyexploringthefateofsmallerwaterwaysinurbanspaces.KatrinKleemannisadoctoralcandidateattheRachelCarsonCenter/LMUMunichinGermany,whereshestudiesenvironmentalhistoryandgeology.HerdoctoralprojectinvestigatestheIcelandicLakifissureeruptionof1783anditsimpactsonthenorthernhemisphere.ShealsoisthesocialmediaeditorfortheClimateHistoryNetworkandHistoricalClimatology.com.ThomasWickmanisAssociateProfessorofHistoryandAmericanStudiesatTrinityCollegeinHartford,Connecticut.HisfirstbookisSnowshoeCountry:AnEnvironmentalandCulturalHistoryofWinterintheEarlyAmericanNortheast(CambridgeUniversityPress,2018).Heiscurrentlyworkingonahistoryofenvironmentandpoweratseventeenth-centurySuckiaug/Hartford.Copyright©2018H-Net:HumanitiesandSocialSciencesOnlineH-Netpermitstheredistributionandreprintingofthisworkfornonprofit,educationalpurposes,withfullandaccurateattributiontotheauthor,weblocation,dateofpublication,H-Environment,andH-Net:Humanities&SocialSciencesOnline.
Top Related