Malaysian Institute of Road Safety ResearchLot 125-135, Jalan TKS 1, Taman Kajang Sentral,43000 Kajang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia. Tel: 603-89249200 Faks: 603-87332005E-mail: [email protected]: www.miros.gov.my Guideline of Safe Driver and
Rider Performance Evaluation:
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation: Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components MCP No. 226
MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF ROAD SAFETY RESEARCH
ASEAN ROAD SAFETY CENTRE
MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF ROAD SAFETY RESEARCH
ASEAN ROAD SAFETY CENTREFocusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components
MCP No. 226
Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation: Focusing on Cognitive and Psychomotor Components
MohdFirdausMohdSiamAhmadAzadAbRashidMohdKhairulAlhapizIbrahimNurulhanaBorhanSharinaShariffLowSuetFinWongShawVoon
____________________________________________________________________________________ © MIROS, 2017. All Rights Reserved.
Published by: Malaysian Institute of Road Safety Research (MIROS) Lot 125-135, Jalan TKS 1, Taman Kajang Sentral, 43000 Kajang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Cataloguing-in-Publication Tata
Mohd Firdaus Mohd Siam Guideline of Safe Driver and Rider Performance Evaluation : Focusing on Cognitive and Psycomotor Components / Mohd Firdaus Mohd Siam, Ahmad Azad Ab Rashid, Mohd Khairul Alhapiz Ibrahim, Nurulhana Borhan, Sharina Shariff, Low Suet Fin, Wong Shaw Voon. ISBN 978-967-2078-15-9 1. Motorcyclists--Evaluation. 2. Transportation--Security measures. 3. Traffic safety. I . Ahmad Azad Ab Rashid. II. Mohd Khairul Alhapiz Ibrahim. III. Nurulhana Borhan. IV. Sharinan Shariff. V. Low, Suet Fin. VI. Wong, Shaw Voon. VII. Title. 796.750289
Printed by:
Typeface: Calibri Size: 11 pt.
DISCLAIMER None of the materials provided in this report may be used, reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including recording or the use of any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from MIROS. Any conclusion and opinions in this report may be subject to re-evaluation in the event of any forthcoming additional information or investigations.
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Contents
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ListofTables vListofFigures viAcknowledgements viiAbstract ix1. Background 12. Purpose 53. ConceptualFramework&Methodology 6
3.1 PreliminaryScreeningEvaluation 73.2 ActualEvaluation 8
3.2.1 SafeGapAcceptance 83.2.2 MotorcyclistConspicuity 113.2.3 SpeedManagement 123.2.4 DistractionAssessment 163.2.5 HazardPerception 173.2.6 CrashAvoidanceMotorSkillandTimeEfficiency 223.2.7 VehicleInspection 27
4. MarkingScheme 305. EvaluationValidity 326. BenefitsoftheEvaluation 33
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7. Conclusion 34References 35
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List of Tables
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Table1 Markingschemefordriverperformanceevaluation 30Table2 Markingschemeforriderperformanceevaluation 31
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List of Figures
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Figure1 Conceptualframeworkofthedriverandriderperformance 7 evaluationFigure2 Drivingroutefortheassessment(Credit:GoogleMaps) 14Figure3 Ridingroutefortheassessment(Credit:GoogleMaps) 15Figure4 Ascreenshotofbaselinestage–leftimageshowsthescreen 20 beforethedotappearsFigure5 Ascreenshotofvideoshowntoparticipantsduringdata 21 collectionFigure6 Flowofhazardperceptiontest 22Figure7 Overallflowchartofcrashavoidancemotorskillandtime 25 efficiencyofdriverevaluationFigure8 Number8Procedure 27Figure9 Overallflowchartofcrashavoidancemotorskillandtime 27 efficiencyofriderevaluation
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Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the followingindividuals,whoweredirectlyandindirectly,involvedinthisprojectandmakingtheprojectasuccess.MIROSPersonnel:EncikSafuanNazariEncikMohdShafiqBaharEncikMohdHanifMohamadRazaliMalaysianCommunicationsandMultimediaCommission(MCMC):EncikMohamedZaidiAbdulKarimPuanSitiZulaihaZolkifliPosMalaysia:EncikJookapleeShaaibon
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Abstract Theobjectiveoftheguidelineistoprovideamethodthatevaluatesdriverandriderperformance that focuses on the safety and time efficiency elements. Safetyelement focuses on aiming for accident-free trips which on the other wordsreflecting what a defensive driving or riding is. The scopes of this guideline areconvergingontwomeasurablecomponentswhicharecognitiveandpsychomotor.Itintendstoevaluatethedriverandriderinwhichattheendaimstoproducegooddriversandriderswhowouldbeabletoproperlybalancebetweensafetyandtimeefficiency elements without compromising each other. In this guideline, sevenattributeswillbeassessedwhichareadistraction,safegapacceptance,motorcyclistconspicuity,speedmanagement,hazardperception,crashavoidancemotorskillandtimeefficiency and vehicle inspection. The guideline covers twoevaluation stagesthat shall be completed by each driver or rider including preliminary screeningevaluationandactualevaluation.TheevaluationlocationsarespecificallydesignedintheMIROSdrivingsimulatorlab,controlleddrivingtrackandactualdrivingroad.Theguidelineissuitabletobeimplementedbyanygovernmentagency,publicandcommercialtransportfleetoperatortoassesstheperformanceoftheirdriversandriders and to continually improve their drivers’ and rider’s competency level andservices.
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1. Background The road transportationsectorhad tremendouslycontributed to thedevelopmentofacountry’seconomy.Driversofcommercialvehicleswhichincludepublicservicevehicles and goods vehicles played an important key role bymoving through thisroadnetworkdailycarryingpassengersandloadstotheirrespectivedestinations.Inaddition, drivers for other categories of the vehicle who travel on the road toachievetheirownobjectivesalsoformedpartofthecountry’seconomy.These competent drivers, who had acquired their driving licenses complyingwithSections 29, 56 and 57 of the Road Transport Act 1987,may have further gainedenough experience being on the road throughout their career. However, it isimportant tonote that their skills,drivingperformanceandsafetyelementshouldnotbecompromisedandshouldbeconsistentlymonitored.Itshouldbeevaluatedperiodicallyandtimely inorder tokeeptheequilibriumof interactionontheroadbetweenhuman,vehicleandenvironmentinteractionontheroad.The performance of a driver and rider depends on their knowledge,motor skills,perceptual and cognitive abilities (Evans, 2004). Driver and rider performance isinitially constrainedbycharacteristicsof thedriver suchas informationprocessingcapacity or sensation seeking level, speed, reaction time andmotor coordination.Builtuponthesecharacteristicsareknowledgeandskillsarisingoutoftrainingandexperience.Thishighlightsthatdrivingperformancecanbecategorisedintoarangeof competencies (Fuller, 2005). McKnight and McKnight (1999) classified abilitiesrelatedtodrivingandridingperformanceintofivedomainswhicharesensory(e.g.visual acuity and contrast sensitivity), attentional (e.g. general and selectiveattention), perceptual (e.g. speed of perception and motion detection, cognitive(e.g. short-termmemory), and psychomotor (e.g. reaction time, coordination andtracking).
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InastudybyJensen,Wagner,andAlexander(2011),theyhaveproposedageneralframeworktoevaluatedriverperformancebasedon in-vehiclebehaviourdata.Sixdifferent driver classificationswere instituted ranging from ‘timid’ to ‘aggressive’.Definitions of aggressive driving and differentiation on timid or cautious driversfromaggressivedriverswerebasedonpreviousstudiesbyMilesandJohnson(2003)and Knapper and Cropley (2008). The targeted area for a driver lies in theconservativeandneutralzones.Bothextremeclassifications, timidandaggressive,mayconstitutedangerousbehaviour.Furthermore,unsafedrivingmayalsooccurinthe cautious and assertive classifications. For example, assertive driving may beclassified as unsafe owing to behaviours such as tailgating, speeding above thetraffic flowandrapidlychanging lanes.Similarly,cautiousdrivingmaybeclassifiedas unsafe owing to such characteristics as travelling below the speed of traffic tomaintain theminimumposted the speed limit,over-scanningbeforemaking turnsor lane changes and not anticipating traffic patterns while maintaining vehiclespeed.CognitiveProcessesAssociatedwithDrivingPerformanceDriving is a complex and dynamic activity requiring several cognitive processes toperform safely. The cognitive processes associated with driving include executivefunctions, specifically, the ability to inhibit distractions, update information, andshift attention from one task to another. (Anstey, Wood, Lord, & Walker, 2005;Rizzo, 2011; Trick, Enns,Mills, & Vavrik, 2004).Workingmemory, that is, holdinginformationwhileupdatingfrombothstoredinformationandincominginformationis sometimes considered separately from executive function (Miyake, Emerson,&Friedman, 2000) and is also crucial for safe driving (Anstey, Horswill, Wood, &Hatherly,2012).Attentionsuchastheabilitytofocus,divide,andsustainattentionis also often considered executive functions, and is necessary for driving safety.Lastly, the adequate speed of information processing is essential to receive,interpret,andrespondtoever-changingdriving-relatedstimuli.Insomeindividuals,age-related declines in the cognitive processes of executive function, workingmemory, attention, and speed of information processing may lead to drivingcessationorincreasedcrashrisk.(Anstey,Wood,Lord,&Walker,2005;Tricketal.,
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2004; Anstey et al., 2012). The attributes that will focus on this project are adistraction,hazardperception,crashavoidancemotorskillandtimeefficiency,andvehicleinspection.PsychomotorProcessesAssociatedwithDrivingPerformanceThe term psychomotor denotes a combination of physical and psychologicalactivities(Plug,Meyer,Louw,&Gouws,1989)andinvolvestheprocessofreceivingsensory messages from the environment and then producing a response thereto(Jacobs,MacKenzie,&Botma,2013).Tobeproficient,sensoryinformationneedstobe organised and processed (Ackerman, 1988) to enable a person to produce anappropriate motor, or movement response (Gregory, 2007; Hergenhahn, 2009).AccordingtoSullivan(2009),psychomotorabilityreferstothecapacitytophysicallymanipulate objects in the environment by making use of available perceptualinformation. Psychomotor performance abilities typically include two types ofcomponent skills: production of motor actions and recognition of environmentalconditionsthattriggertheseactions(Hergenhahn,2009;Sullivan,2009).Productionand recognition skills are often intertwined in a seamless cycle of adaptive actionthat appears effortlesswhenobserved in an expert performer (Fadde, 2007). Thecognitiveprocessesassociatedwithdrivingincludespeedofreactioninwhichquickandadequate response to simpleandcomplexvisualandacoustic stimuliand theassociated quality of performance. Besides, gestured coordination in whichappropriateandcontrolledmovementsinresponsetoanycomplexstimuli(Amore,Declercq, Ehman, Elatri, Evans, Froeschl, Fuchs, Giger, Holder, Kallevik, Kralova,Petursson, Roels, Signoretti, Soini, Stevovic, Valchev, Vernelen, Vernez, &Witpas,2009). In thisproject,wewill focuson theattributes suchasdistraction, safegapacceptance,motorcyclistconspicuity,speedmanagement,hazardperception,crashavoidancemotorskillandtimeefficiency,andvehicleinspection.Evaluation of driver and rider performance provides an essential insight into thedriver’s/rider’smanagerinkeepingatabontheperformanceoftheirdrivers/riders.Thesedrivers/riderscarryahugeresponsibilityastheyhavetoensurethesafetyofthemselves, their passengers and goods until they reach their destinations. All
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motor drivers/riders must be fit to drive and have an optimum skill andperformancedespitetheirageandexperience,asthesafetyofthepublicisatstakewhile using the service. These motor drivers/riders should hold a driving licenseauthorisinghimtodriveamotorvehicleofthatclassordescription. It isahealthyindicationforfleetoperatorsifalltheirdrivers/riderssatisfythebenchmarkofgooddriving performance level. It is vital these competencies are continuously beingmonitored,assessedandevaluatedtoensurethedriversandridersarecapableofoperating themotor vehicles safely in various traffic situations and conditions onpublicroadsandnotbecomingavictim intheroadaccidentsstatisticsthroughouttheentireworkingcareer.Thescopeofthisguidelineistobemadeavailabletothegovernment, public, commercial transport operators, couriers companies andrelated stakeholders in order to evaluate their respective drivers’ or riders’performance. The guidelinemay be considered as a stepping stone to develop anewapproachtothedriverperformanceevaluationstandard.
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2. Purpose The main purpose of the guideline is to provide an essential method whichobjectively evaluates driver and rider performance specifically on cognitive andpsychomotor components that focus on the safety and time efficiency elements.The guideline is generic for any government agency, public and commercialtransport fleet operator, couriers’ companies and relevant organisation to assesstheperformanceofrespectivedrivers/ridersandtoimprovetheircompetencylevelandservicescontinually.
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3. Conceptual Framework & Methodology Theframeworkofdriverandriderperformanceevaluationiscategorisedintosevenmajorcomponentswhichdistraction,safegapacceptance,motorcyclistconspicuity,speed management, hazard perception, crash avoidance motor skill and timeefficiency,andvehicleinspectionwiththeintegrationofcognitiveandpsychomotorelements.Inanyjourney,safetyandtimeefficiencytobecompromisingeachother.Whenthemainfocusistimeefficiency,oneusuallywouldthinkthatsafetywillbeundermined. However, a good driver defined as a driver who would be able tobalancebetweenthesetwoaspectsproperly.
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Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework of the driver and rider performanceevaluation.
Figure1ConceptualframeworkofthedriverandriderperformanceevaluationEvaluation of driver performance would be performed for government agencies,land public transport, couriers’ companies and commercial fleet operators upontheirvoluntaryrequestthroughformalletter/applicationore-mail.
3.1 Preliminary Screening Evaluation Asaprerequisite,alldriversandriders tobeassessedshallpossessavaliddrivinglicense according to the class of vehicle being driven. Drivers shall have a good
Speedmanagement
Hazardperception
Actualevaluation
Evaluationofdriverandriderperformance
Preliminaryscreeningevaluation
Motorcyclistconspicuity
Safegapacceptance
Distraction
Vehicleinspection
Crashavoidancemotorskill&timeefficiency
Psychomotor Cognitive&Psychomotor
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healthandveryfittodrive.Theyshallhaveundergoneamedicalexaminationbyacertifiedmedicaldoctor.
3.2 Actual Evaluation Actualevaluationfocusesonaimingforaccident-freetripsandtimeefficiencywhichontheotherwordsreflectingwhatadefensivedrivingorridingis.Defensivedrivingis a set of driving skills that allows a motor driver to protect own self againstpotentialcollisionscausedbyruthlessandinconsideratedrivers,poorlymaintainedvehiclesandduetoroadenvironmentconditions.Withsuchskill,potentialhazardswouldbe identifiedeasilyandassist thedriver todecideandactsaccordinglyandappropriately without endangering own self and other road users (Driver’sEducation Curriculum Handbook, 2004). In this guideline, seven attributes will beassessedoneachparticipanttoobservetheirrespectivedefensivedrivingwhicharea distraction, safe gap acceptance, motorcyclist conspicuity, speed management,hazard perception, crash avoidance motor skill and time efficiency and vehicleinspection.
3.2.1 Safe Gap Acceptance Turningacrossthepathofoncomingtrafficdemandsatime-criticaldecisionmakingbecause any miscalculation during gap acceptance increases the likelihood ofcollisions. The risk of an accident is even higher if the turn is to be performed atunsignalisedanduncontrolledjunctions.Recentdevelopmentshowsanincreaseinnumbers of new research focusing onmotorcycle crashes that occur at junctions(Crundall,Humphrey,&Clarke,2008;Pai&Saleh,2008;Pai,Hwang,&Saleh,2009;Pai, 2009; Crundall, Crundall, Clarke, & Shahar, 2012). Particular focuses of thesestudiesweretheissuesofrightofwayviolation,injuryseverityofmotorcyclists;andhazard perception skills. Li, Doong, Huang, Lai, and Jeng (2009) for instance,compared the likelihood of survival of motor-vehicle occupants and motorcycleriders after accidents. They found a relatively higher prevalence of death for
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motorcycle riders at intersections compared to motor-vehicle occupants.Unsignalisedjunctionsareoneofthemorefrequenttypesusedinroadandhighwaydesign.Unsignalisedjunctionscanbeclassifiedintothreecategoriesbasedontypesoftrafficcontrol;namelyintersectionswithstopcontrol,yieldcontrol,andnotrafficcontrol.Thenon-automatedcontrolmeansthesafetyofroadusersatunsignalisedjunctions will be influenced by driving skills such as gap acceptance and hazardperception. Death and injuries from accidents at junctions are indeed a growingconcernfortrafficsafetyandoperationinMalaysia.Asthemostvulnerablegroupintraffic,motorcyclists inMalaysiaarestronglyaffectedbytheseskills.Decidingsafegaps at unsignalised and uncontrolled junctions is very critical to avoid collisionswithoncomingvehicles.Unsafe gap acceptance decisions made by drivers or motorcyclists increase thelikelihood of accidents at unsignalised junctions. Accidents resulting from turningduringunsafegapsarenormally severeones suchas angleaccident.As such, gapacceptanceanalysis isusedby transportengineers todetermine intersectionsightdistance and as one of the design elements in road construction. Taking this intoaccount,MIROShasincludedsafegapacceptanceasameasureofdefensiveridingskillsintheevaluation.Theevaluationwillbeincludedasapartofnaturalisticridingevaluationinwhichparticipantswillrideamotorcycleontheactualroad.Thesafegap challenge aims to assess theproficiency to perform the followingoperationalvehicletasks:
a. Hazard Perception and Responding: Rider utilises hazard perception andrespondingskillstoselectsafegapsandthusmanoeuvrethevehiclesafelyduringturnsatjunctions.
b. Visualisation of the Intended Travel Path: Rider utilises critical thinking,decision-making, and problem-solving skills to operate the vehicle andperform the manoeuvres in controlled risk, low risk, moderate risk, andcomplexriskenvironments.
c. Searching of the Intended Travel Path: Rider utilises critical thinking,decision-making, and problem-solving skills to operate the vehicle andperformthemanoeuvresincontrolledriskenvironments.
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d. Speed Control andManagement: Rider utilises critical thinking, decision-making,andproblem-solving skills tooperate thevehicleandperform themanoeuvres in controlled risk, low risk, moderate risk, and complex riskenvironments including vehicle control, space management and lanechanging.
e. Safe Lane Positioning: Rider utilises critical thinking, decision-making, andproblem-solvingskillstooperatethevehicleandperformbasicmanoeuvresin controlled risk, low risk,moderate risk, and complex risk environmentsespecially lane changing manoeuvre, vehicle control and spacemanagement.
f. Handling of Vehicle Blind-Spot: Rider utilises critical thinking, decision-making, and problem-solving skills to drive and ride defensively whichincludesblind-spotcheckingpriortomanoeuvring.
g. Communication for Safe Driving: Rider utilises defensive driving or ridingskills to communicate with other road users for safe manoeuvring,especiallyatunsignalisedjunctions.
ProcedureIn order to present a circumstance whereby a participant encounters a situationthatrequirescriticaldecision-makingtoacceptorrejectagap,acontrolledjunctionmanoeuvring riding event is required. Since the riding assessment involves actualtrafficenvironment,a lessriskyroutewillbechosen.Acontrolledridingeventwillbeexecutedbya teamofexpertsatanunsignalised junction.Thegapacceptanceskill of participants will be assessed using footage recorded by instrumentedmotorcycle.Literaturedefineda‘gap’asthetimeintervalbetweentwosuccessivevehiclesanda‘lag’ as the time interval between the arrival of turning vehicle at an intersectionand the arrival of the next approaching vehicle. In this assessment, it was nearlyimpossibletocontrolfortheavailabilityofgapsbetweentwosuccessiveoncomingvehicles. Hence, the gap acceptance analysis and assessment will use lags as asimilarvariableasgaps.
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Participantsareexpectedtodemonstratedefensiveridingskillstomanoeuvretheirmotorcycleacrossunsignalisedjunctionssafely.Thus,theassessmentwill focusonthe size of gaps/lags (in seconds) accepted by participants. The size of gaps/lagspresentedtoparticipantswillbetimedandcontrolledbytheassessmentteam.Thescoreswill begivenaccording to the levelof safetyas faras the sizeof gaps (thelargerthebetter).
3.2.2 Motorcyclist Conspicuity Perceptualerrorsareoneofthecontributingfactorsofroadcrashes. Inacomplexand dynamic driving or riding task, drivers and motorcycle riders are prone tocommit the perceptual errors. In car-motorcycle crashes, low conspicuity ofmotorcycles is one of the common reasons of traffic conflictwhereby car driversfailed to see and safely respond to motorcyclists. These motorcycle-conspicuityrelatedcrashescanbecontributedtothefactthatmotorcyclesarelessdiscernibleintraffic.NiewoehnerandBerg(2005)reportedthatdirectandindirectfieldofviewarethekey factors affecting the safety of pedestrians and bicyclists for the situationinvolving right-turning truck at intersections. Insufficient view to the right and infront isoneof thewell-known reasons for theproblems facing the truckdriver inthissituation.Perceptionfailuresofothervehicledriverswerereportedaspotentialcrash factors in previous in-depth motorcycle crash studies (ACEM, 2009; VanElslande&Jaffard,2010;Hurt,Ouellet,&Thom,1981).Thereportsalso identifiedthat these failures are most often resulting from no or late detection of themotorcycle in traffics. Intuitively, pedestrians and bicyclists need to be morediscernibleintraffic,especiallyatintersectionstoreducetheriskofaccidentswithheavyvehicles.Thus, one of the elements included in the evaluation is motorcyclist conspicuity.This element is aimed at assessing riders in terms of awareness to be moredetectableintraffic.
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ProcedureOneoftheobjectivesofthisevaluationistoinstilsafedrivingandridingcultureandtomakesafetyaspartof routineproceduresadoptedbydriversduringtheirdailycommutingand travelling.Participantswill begradedbasedon their efforts tobemoredetectableduringnaturalisticridingtask.Duringthetask,opportunitieswillbegiven for participants to prove themselves as defensive motorcyclists who payattention to theconspicuity issues.Theassessmentwillbeconductedonceduringthetask.
3.2.3 Speed Management Speedhasbeenidentifiedasakeyriskfactorinroadtrafficinjuries,influencingboththeriskofroadtrafficcrashesandtheseverityoftheinjuriesthatresultfromthem(Gibson,1967).Speedingisexceedingthepostedspeedlimitordrivingtoofastforconditions. Excessive and inappropriate speed is the most important factorcontributing to the road injury problem faced bymany countries. The higher thespeedthegreaterthestoppingdistancerequired,andhencetheincreasedriskofacrash.Asmorekineticenergymustbeabsorbedduringahigh-speedimpact,thereisahigherriskof injuryshouldacrashoccur.Small increases inspeedresult in largeincreases in crash risk. Studies provide direct evidence that speeds just 5 km/haboveaverage in60km/hurbanareas,and10km/haboveaverage inruralareas,aresufficienttodoubletheriskofacasualtycrash.Speed limits are widely used to define acceptable speeds. They provide a basicindicator to road users of the maximum speed allowed under the law. Had LajuKebangsaan(NationalSpeedLimits)isasetofspeedlimitsapplicableonMalaysianexpressways, federal roads, state roads andmunicipal roads. The National SpeedLimitswasenforcedon1February1989followingtheNationalSpeedLimitOrders1989. Like any other countries in the world, failing to obey the speed limit onMalaysianroadsandexpresswaysisanoffenceassubjecttoMalaysianRoadSafetyAct1987,whichcanbe finedup toRM300,dependingon thedifferencebetweenthespeedlimitandthedrivenspeed.
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Speedmanagement encompasses a range ofmeasures aimed at balancing safetyandefficiencyofvehiclespeedsonaroadnetwork(OECD,2006).Itaimstoreducethe incidence of driving too fast for the prevailing conditions, and to maximisecompliancewithspeedlimits.Speedmanagementalsoaimstoreducethenumberofroadtrafficcrashesandtheserious injuryanddeaththatcanresult fromthem.Speedmanagement techniques aimed at persuading drivers to adopt safe speedsinclude police enforcement, driver education, speed limits and engineeringtreatments.For both driving and riding, MIROS will prepare special vehicles for this task.Participants,however,willhavetobringtheirvaliddriving/ridinglicenses.Thereisadifferentrouteforeachcategory.ProcedureSpeedmanagementduringdrivingand riding in a complex traffic situationwill beassessed among drivers during the on-road driving test. This comprehensiveevaluation is aimed at assessing participants’ behaviour and habit before, duringand after driving; aswell as participant’s ability to demonstrate defensive drivingskillsandobeyingtrafficrulesinarealtrafficsetting.Participantneedstocompleteabout6.5kminthisassessment.Therouteselectedfor driving assessment includes a residential area, shop lots, and highway aroundKajang(seeFigure2&3).
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Figure2Drivingroutefortheassessment(Credit:GoogleMaps)
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Figure3Ridingroutefortheassessment(Credit:GoogleMaps)The driving and riding will take approximately 20 to 30minutes to complete theroute. Furtherdetailsof the routewill begivendirectly to theparticipantsduringtheassessment.The speedmanagement skillsofparticipantswillbeaccessing forevery junction, raised platforms, speed in expressway and residential area. Points
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will be deducted (demerit) if the participant is speeding over the speed limit ordrivingtoofastforconditions.
3.2.4 Distraction Assessment Driving distraction has become one of the main causes of road crashes (Treat,Tumbas, McDonald, Shinar, Hume, Mayer, Stanisfer, & Castellan, 1977; Wang,Knipling,&Goodman,1996;Dingus,Klauer,Neale,Petersen,Lee,Sudweeks,Perez,Hankey, Ramsey, Gupta, Bucher, Doerzaph, Jermeland, & Knipling, 2006; Liang &Lee,2010).Accordingtoa100carnaturalisticdrivingstudybyDingusetal.(2006),the twomain reasons fordrivers’ inattention incasesofcrashesandnear-crashesare drivers communicating with other passengers and the use of in-vehicleinformationsystems.Drivingperformancevitiateswhendriversfailtoallocatesufficientattentiontothedrivingtaskatcriticalmomentsbecausetheyareengagedinanothertaskthatleadsto the impairment of the ability to drive safely and effectively (Young & Salmon,2012).Thistask,hence,measuresdriver’s levelofdistraction.Specifically,thistaskassessesattentionaleffectsofcognitiveloadindrivingorridinginvolvinginteractionwiththevoice-basedinterface.ProcedureParticipants will receive instructions, guidelines and safety briefing before thetrainingprocessandactualassessment.Participantswillundergosimulatorsicknessscreening prior to the assessment. The purpose of the screening is to ensureparticipantsarewell,fitandcapableofdrivingthedrivingsimulator.Then,theywillbeginwithatrainingsessionforthefamiliarisationpurposestofamiliarisewiththedrivingsimulatorandassessmentdevices.During the actual assessment, participants need to complete all assessmentactivities,whicharearesponseandtaskassessment.Bothactivitiesareconductedsimultaneously.Fortheresponseassessment, it isbasedonasimpletaskwhereby
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participantsrespondtofrequentstimuli.Theassessmentinvolvestactilestimulithatarepresentedbymeansofsmallvibratorsattachedtotheshoulder.Theparticipantresponds by pressing a microswitch attached to the right index finger (ISO DIS17488,2015).The recall numberwill beused for task assessment. It consists of auditory stimulithatthedriverlistenstoandrepeatsfollowingspecificrules.Theparticipantshaveto repeat anumberof randomlyorderedauditory stimuli (singledigits zero to9).The task involves aural and memory attention that resembles actual drivingactivities such as responding to a mobile phone or walkie-talkie and having aconversationwithpassengers.The evaluation is conducted on a curvy and off-ramp road. The evaluation routemust be in a controlled environment, where there is no interference from othervehicles. Participants will be subjected to post-simulator sickness screening aftertheyhavecompletedtheactualassessment.Forresponseassessment,theparticipantswillbeevaluatedbasedontheirreactiontimeandmissrate.Thereactiontimeisthetimefromstimulusinceptionuntiltheresponse from the microswitch is recorded. The mean reaction time will bemeasuredand ranking systemwillbeappliedduring theassessment.Whereas forthemiss rate, it isdefinedas the rateof failure topress/respond themicroswitchwhen the stimulus is given.Markswill bedeductedwhen there is amiss. For thetaskassessment,markswillbegivenifparticipantsrecallthenumbercorrectly.
3.2.5 Hazard Perception Manyresearchershavebeenworkingonidentifyingpredictorsofthecrash.Fromadriverpointofview,hazardperceptionskillisoneofthem.Hazardperceptionrefersto the ability of drivers to read the road and its environment to identify anypotentialdangerorharmthatmaycompromisehisorhersafety.
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Researches have shown links between the ability to perceive hazards with crashinvolvement: Congdon (1999) reported a significant association between hazardperception test scorewith police reported crashes;Wells, Tong, Sexton, Grayson,and Jones (2008) showedasignificantassociationbetweenhazardperception testscore during licensingwith self-reported “non-low-speed” crasheswithin the firstyear of driving;Darby,Murray, andRaeside (2009) outlined that besides attitude,behaviour and knowledge, hazard perception is also highly correlated with self-reported collisions; Horswill, Anstey, Hatherly, and Wood (2010), reported anempiricalassociationbetweenhazardperceptionandcrash involvement;Boufous,Ivers,Senserrick,andStevenson(2011)demonstratedthat, relativetodriverswhopassed hazard perception test on the first attempt, driverswho failed the test atleasttwicehadanincreasedriskofcrash;further,incontrasttoaccident-freeriders,Cheng, Ng, and Lee (2011) reported that accident-involved riders involved withhigher driving violation and took longer to identify hazardous situations; and thelatest, Horsewill et al. (2015) demonstrated that drivers who failed hazardperception testweremore likely tobe involved incrashwithin the firstyearafterthetest.Scientists are yet to understand the cognitive mechanism behind this test fully.SomeresearchersexploredthepossibilityofusingSituationalAwarenessframeworkin explaining the cognition behind hazard perception test. While the evidence issupporting this view, it is subjected to further investigation, especially to theinfluenceofothercognitiveprocessessuchassensation,attention,and judgment,interalia.Nonetheless,itsdiagnosticabilityofwhetheradriveriscompetentiswellacceptedincountrieswhohaveadopteditasnationaldriverlicensingsystemssuchasUnitedKingdom,Australia,andNewZealand.Usually,thehazardperceptiontestemployedreaction timeas theproxymeasureofone’sability in recognisingand judging thedegreeofhazardousofastimulusthatcomestohisorherperceptionsystem.Theunderlying concept of this test is that, the shorter the reaction time between astimulusappearanceandone’s response (usuallyusingmouseclicking), thebetterhisorherjudgmentofthestimulus’degreeofhazardous.
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The in-house developed hazard perception test software employed reaction timeparadigm, similar to other studies (Chapman & Underwood, 1998; Horswill &McKenna,2004;McKenna,Horswill,&Alexander,2006;Sagberg&Bjørnskau,2006;Wetton,Hill,&Horswill,2011).Thetestincluded23hazardsfordriverspresentedin15 short clips accumulating to 415 seconds short video. Similarly, the ridersobserved 395 seconds short video consisted of 31 hazards in also 15 short clips.Theseclipswere recorded inhigh-definitionmodeon localvicinityduringdaylighthours,generallyunderaclearsky,usingacarandamotorcyclefortheirrespectivecategory.ProcedureParticipantscametothetestingstation,andmadethemselvescomfortableinfromof the testing computer screen. Before the test begins, participants need tofamiliarisethemselveswiththeapparatusforthetest,specificallythemouse.The test comprises two stages,which arebaseline andactual data collection. Thefirststageofthetestistomeasurethedefaultreactiontimeoftheparticipantwhenperceiving a stimulus. This is to ensure that variability acrossparticipants is takenintoaccountwhendoing the final analysis. Forabaseline,participantsare told togetready infrontofablackscreenbyfixatingatacrosssign,andwhenareddotappearinthecentreofthescreen,theyarerequiredtoclickonthedotassoonaspossible(seeFigure4).
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Figure4 Ascreenshotofbaselinestage–leftimageshowsthescreenbeforethedotappears
After thebaseline stage,participantswill go thru theactualdata collectionof thetest.Whilereplayingthevideos,participantswillneedtopointandclickusingthemouse on any element on the screen that they perceive to be hazardous. Thesoftwarethencapturesboththelocationofthemouseaswellastheclickingtimebefore superimposing this informationon topof thecaptured frameof thevideo.Figure 5 shows the overview of the video shown to participants during datacollection.
+
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Figure5Ascreenshotofvideoshowntoparticipantsduringdatacollection
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Aftercompletingbothstages,participantswillthenbedebriefedbeforeendingthetestingprocedure.Figure6belowsummarisestheflowoftestingprocedure.
Figure6FlowofhazardperceptiontestTheoveralldurationofthetest isdependentonthenumberofstimuliusedinthevideo.Forcurrenttest,thedurationcouldvaryfrom18to30minutes.Becauseofthenatureofthistest, i.e.computerbased,onlyonetester isrequiredtoconductthetest.Thetester,preferably,iscomputerliteratetosmoothentheprocessincasesimpleglitchesoccurduringthetestingprocedure.Thetesterneedstoconductthebriefing, execute the test, as well as debrief participants at the end of theprocedure.
3.2.6 Crash Avoidance Motor Skill and Time Efficiency Crash avoidance skill is a part of the defensive driving skill. It ismostly about thevehicle control skill in a certain emergency situation such as skidding or colliding.Mainly the important part is to manoeuvre with steering or braking. Crash
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avoidanceskillinvolvestakingthedriverthroughaseriesofmanoeuvres,atvariousspeeds using precision steering and braking techniques, controlling the vehiclethrough hazards and practising skid prevention tactics. According to Lisa (1994),thereweretwopossiblestrategiesexistincrashavoidance–acceleratingorbrakingtocontrolspeedandsteeringtocontrol lateralposition.Thestudyfoundsubjects'tendenciestosteerweregreaterwhentheirvehiclewasatashorterdistancefromthe obstacle, when they had certainty about the obstacle's trajectory, and underconditionswithgoodvisibility.Travellingatspeedsof40-120km/handatavaryingtime to collisions (all under four seconds), subjects reported that lateralmanoeuvrescouldbeattemptedclosertotheobstaclethanbrakingmanoeuvres.There are many crash avoidance system and technologies were developed andtesting inthemarket.Theautomakersarecompetingtoproducecrash-worthinesspassenger vehicles.However, theeffectivenessof the system isdetermined toonhowdriversinteractwiththesystem(Jessica,2010).Itisbasicallygoingbacktothedriverskilltocontrolandknowledgetoreacttothesituationintheoccurrenceofacollision.Intheevaluation,crashavoidanceisavitalparttoconsiderinorderdeterminingthedriver skill when controlling their vehicle. A series of tests to evaluate the crashavoidanceskillare includingdriving inslalommotion,brakingtest,reverseparkingtest and also parallel parking test. Overall time spends in all of the tests willaccumulate to the time efficiency performancemarks. This will measure the skillthattheyhavetocorrelatewiththetimespenttocompletethedrivingtask.Therewill be one evaluator and one time-keeper at each of the evaluation set. Thecompletion time will be taken only when the honk is sound after the task iscompletely done at each set. Mandatory driving rules are basic routine to becomplying.Anynon-conformancewillcausepointstodemerit.Goodpractisedrivingwillbegivingbonuspoints.
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ProcedureAssessmentfordriversconsistsofslalom,reverseandparallelparking.Thedetailsofassessmentexplanationasfollows:
a) SlalomThepurposesofslalomassessmentareasfollows:• To familiarise the participant with the location of the corners of the
vehicleformanoeuvrabilitypurposes;• Tofamiliarisetheparticipantwiththeturningradiusofthevehiclewhile
proceedingforwardandbackwards• Torequiretheparticipanttoutilisebothmirrorsofthevehicleduringone
continuousexercise;and• To increase the participant confidence in the use ofmirrors for vehicle
manoeuvring.Participants will enter the slalom on the right side of the first cone. Afterpassing the last cone, participants will have to reverse his vehicle until itreaches the first cone. Then participants will drive straight along the rightsideoftheconesandstopbytheedgeofthefifthcone.Thismarkstheendof this task.Uponcompletionof this task, thedriverswillhave topushthehorn.Thetimekeeperwillrecordthetimeofcompletion.
b) ReverseandparallelparkingThepurposesoftheparkingmanoeuvreareasfollows:• To allow the participant to understand the importance of vehicle
positioning prior to starting amovement that requires an exact parkingsideplacement;
• To familiarise theparticipantwith the turning radiusof the vehicle as itimpactsrestrictedspaceplacement;
• Toenable theparticipant toplace thevehicleata specificparkingpointutilisingthevehicle’smirrors.
• Tooptimisethetimeefficiencytomakenecessaryparkingposition.The procedure for reverse park task is to have the participant brings thevehiclepasttheparkingspaceandproceedstoreverseparkingthevehicleinthe designated space. The procedure for parallel park task is to have the
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participantbringsthevehiclepasttheparkingspaceandproceedstoparallelparkingthevehicleinthedesignatedspace.
c) 3-pointturnThepurposesofthe3-pointturnareasfollows:• To familiarise theparticipantwith the turning radiusof the vehicle as it
impactsrestrictedspaceplacement;• To optimise the time efficiency, in which to make necessary turn of a
vehiclethatmovestheoppositedirectioninalimitedspaceusingforwardandreversesgears;
• Torequiretheparticipanttoutilisebothmirrorsofthevehicleduringtheassessment.
Participant is requiredtoconductthe3-pointassessmentat thedesignatedspacewithoutahitthecone.
d) SharpbendThesharpbendwillassesstherider’sabilitytocoordinatemultiplecontrolswhile driving at sharp bend route. Difficulty in completing a sharp bend isoften the result of drivers that are poor in control of throttle, vehiclemanoeuvreandstability.Uponcompletionofthistask,thedriverswillhavetopushthehorn.TheoverallflowchartofthedriverevaluationisshowninFigure7.
Registeratthecounter
Pushstartbuzzer
Start Taketheparcel
Drivethevehicletoevaluationset
End Pushstopbuzzer
Returnparcel
Backtoregistrationcounter
Honkingaftereachtask
Figure7 Overall flow chart of crash avoidance motor skill and time efficiency of driverevaluation
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Assessment for riders consists of slow slalom, sudden stopping, sharp bend andnumber8.Thedetailsofassessmentexplanationasfollows:
a) SlalomTheslalomwillassesstherider’sabilitytomakecontrolleddirectionchangeswhilemoving slowly. Although the ridermay never experience this on theroad,thismanoeuvredemonstratesthattheridercanmanagesomeweightshift and preciselymanoeuvre themotorcycle around objects. Numbers ofconesare setup ina straight lineat adistancebasedon the turning circleradius of the motorcycle. The rider will weave continuously between thecones.
b) SuddenstoppingThe sudden stopwill assess the rider’s ability to stop suddenly from25–30km/h riding speed. Many collisions occur due to the rider’s inability tocorrectlyusethebrakeswhenasuddenoremergencystopisrequired.Therider will use both brakes to stop without skidding or losing balance.Motorcycleswithmanualtransmissionsmustbeinfirstgearwhenstopped.
c) SharpbendThesharpbendwillassesstherider’sabilitytocoordinatemultiplecontrolswhile riding at sharp bend route. Difficulty in completing a sharp bend isoftentheresultofridersthatarepoorincontrolofthrottle,manoeuvreandbalancing.
d) Number8Thenumber8 taskwill assess the rider’s skill and capability to control andcounterbalancethemotorcycleswhenmanoeuvringat“number8”track.Ascomparedtoslalom,Number8Procedurerequiredextensiveskilltocontrolthe motorcycle at the 180 degrees left and right turn. The rider will ridecontinuously for two complete cycles. Figure 8 shows the Number 8Procedure.TheoverallflowchartoftheriderevaluationisshowninFigure9.
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Figure8Number8Procedure
Registeratthe
counter
Pushstartbuzzer
Start
Takethe
parcel
Ridethemotorcycletotheevaluation
set
End
Pushstopbuzzer
Returnparcel
Backtoregistrationcounter
Honkingaftereach
task
Figure9 Overall flow chart of crash avoidance motor skill and time efficiency of riderevaluation
3.2.7 Vehicle Inspection Pre-tripvehicle inspectionisavitaldailyworkactivitytoensureroadworthinessofthemotorvehiclebeforecommencingwith thedailydeliveryormaking interstatefreight transport. The routine tests and inspections on themotor vehicle systemsand components are carried outwith themain purpose to verify the operationalstatusofthemotorvehicle.According toRompeandSeul (1985) that their reviewofUS studies suggests thatperiodicvehicleinspectionscouldreducethenumberofaccidentscausedbyvehicle
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defectsbyabout50%.Theseauthorsalsonotethatvehicleinspectionactivitiesmayinfluenceand reduce crashesby increasingdrivers’ understandingof theneed forregularmaintenance,ofsafetyissuesandtheconditionoftheirowncar.FromtheotherstudiesaccordingtoGeorge,Narelle,andNaomi(2000),theeffectofvehicleinspectionactivitiesonaccidentratesasassessedbythestudiesvariedsignificantly,fromnoeffecttodecreasingtheaccidentratebyupto16%.Fewstudiesexaminedtheeffectontheincidenceofdefects:aUSAstudyfoundthatitwasassociatedwitha2.5%reduction;inSweden,itwasfoundthat7-8%ofvehicleswithseriousdefectswere replaced after the introduction of vehicle inspection activities (George,Narelle,&Naomi,2000).According to Grandel (1985) and Treat (1977), between 3% and 19% of crashedvehicleshadadefect thatplayedacontributory role in thecrash.Besides,vehicledefects are a contributing factor in 6.5% to 12.6% of car crashes. Formotorcyclecrashes, it would appear that in 5% to 12% of crashes that defect plays acontributoryrole.Themotorvehicleinspectiontaskwillassessdriver’sandrider’sabilityto:
• Determine the condition of the various critical motor vehicle systems andcomponentsmalfunctionthroughvisualinspection;
• Use safety equipment andhand tools to test and inspect the itemson themotorvehicleinspectionchecklist.
ProcedureBefore theassessment startsparticipantwillbegiven the instructionsonhowtheassessmentwillbeconducted.Theinstructionsareasfollows:
• Assessmentformat;• Thetimedurationfortheassessment.
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The participantwill be asked to conduct the vehicle inspection according to theirdaily basis of inspection activities before commencing their delivery work. Theassessmentcriteriaforthechallengewillbeassessedasfollows:
• Performtheinspectionactivitysystematically;• Identifythevehiclesystemandcomponentmalfunction;• Completetheinspectioninthetimedurationallocated.
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4. Marking Scheme
The marking scheme consists of scoring for the assessment criteria which are adistraction, safe gap acceptance, motorcyclist conspicuity, speed management,hazard perception, crash avoidance motor skill and time efficiency, and vehicleinspection. The details of themarking scheme for driving and riding performanceevaluationareshowninTable1andTable2respectively.Table1Markingschemefordriverperformanceevaluation
No. Criterion Score1 Distraction 102 Safegapacceptance 103 Speedmanagement 104 Hazardperception 105 Crashavoidancemotorskillandtimeefficiency 106 Vehicleinspection 10
Total 60Total(percentage) (Totalscore/60)x100%
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Table2Markingschemeforriderperformanceevaluation
No. Criterion Score1 Distraction 102 Safegapacceptance 103 Motorcyclistconspicuity 104 Speedmanagement 105 Hazardperception 106 Crashavoidancemotorskillandtimeefficiency 107 Vehicleinspection 10
Total 70Total(percentage) (Totalscore/70)x100%
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5. Evaluation Validity The validity of driving and riding performance evaluation depends on the fleetmanagers. It is important foreachdriverandrider tobereassessedtoensure thedriving and riding performance is at an optimum level. As suggested by Eby,Trombley,Molnar,andShope(1998),cognitiveperformancedeclineswithageandtheability to react tocertain stimuliwhiledrivingmightdecrease toowithageingdue todecline in visualperceptionandpsychomotor skills (Dunn&Hellier, 2011).Therefore, a reassessment is needed and should be made compulsory prior todriver’srecruitment.Fleetmanagersshouldtakeownershipofthisassessmentandobserve incorporated factor such as the cost of assessment to implementation ofsuchassessmentyieldsahigherreturnoninvestment.
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6. Benefits of the Evaluation Thisassessmentshouldbeconsideredwithaplanofcontinuationforagoodreturnoninvestment.Theassessmentshouldbeconductedatanintervalperiodtoensureandmonitor the best performance of motor drivers and riders. Apart from that,such assessment could also be used to as a marketing tool to the client in thecontextofsaferoperations.Keepingdriversat theirbestcapability todrivewill yield in termof reducedcrashriskanddamagewhichwillinreturnsavetheoperationcostoftheentirefleet.Thiswould increase the confidence level of clients to continue the services. Over aperiod,implementationofassessmentwillimprovethesafedrivingandridecultureamongthedriversandridersinthefleet.Theinterventioncouldbeconductedasayearlyorbi-annually road safetyprogramembeddedaspartof theiroccupationalsafety and health initiatives. Interpretation of the evaluation scoring is based onoperators’ jurisdiction; therefore, the scoring for the evaluation can be usedextensivelyforstaffrecruitment,reassignmentandpromotionpurposes.
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7. Conclusion Thisdocumentprovidessystematicguidelineswhichcontainascientificmethodofevaluatingdriversand ridersperformance. It consistsof sevenassessment criteriawhich are a distraction, safe gap acceptance, motorcyclist conspicuity, speedmanagement, hazard perception, crash avoidancemotor skill and time efficiency,and vehicle inspection. It is applied to all classes or description of motor vehicledriversandriderswhichincludethepublicservicevehicles,goodsvehiclesandalsotheprivatevehicles.This guideline enables driving and riding performance to be assessed easily andsystematically for a more accurate driver and rider profiling. Accurate driver’sprofilingwould in turn expedite fleet owners or operators tomake gooddecisionefficiently and effectively for further actions to be taken appropriately. Theseactionsmay include further improving thedrivingand riding skill or knowledgeoravoidingthemintotheroadsafetysysteminpreventingroadcrashesandseverity.Thus, contributing to nation’s road safety in reducing road crashes and injuryseverity,andenhance theorganisation’s imageandservicesapart from instillingasafedrivercultureamongstmotorvehicledrivers.
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Malaysian Institute of Road Safety ResearchLot 125-135, Jalan TKS 1, Taman Kajang Sentral,43000 Kajang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia. Tel: 603-89249200 Faks: 603-87332005E-mail: [email protected]: www.miros.gov.my Guideline of Safe Driver and
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