Download - Group Facilitation : Functions and Skills

Transcript
Page 1: Group Facilitation : Functions and Skills

http://sgr.sagepub.com/ 

Small Group Research

http://sgr.sagepub.com/content/16/2/139The online version of this article can be found at:

 DOI: 10.1177/104649648501600202

1985 16: 139Small Group ResearchL. Frances Anderson and Sharon E. RobertsonGroup Facilitation : Functions and Skills

  

Published by:

http://www.sagepublications.com

can be found at:Small Group ResearchAdditional services and information for     

http://sgr.sagepub.com/cgi/alertsEmail Alerts:  

http://sgr.sagepub.com/subscriptionsSubscriptions:  

http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.navReprints:  

http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.navPermissions:  

http://sgr.sagepub.com/content/16/2/139.refs.htmlCitations:  

at ARIZONA STATE UNIV on September 22, 2010sgr.sagepub.comDownloaded from

Page 2: Group Facilitation : Functions and Skills

GROUP FACILITATIONFunctions and Skills

L. FRANCES ANDERSON

SHARON E. ROBERTSON

University of Calgary

Although the amount of literature on groups is growing at a rapid rate, concisedelineation of the functional and skill expectations of group facilitators is rela-

tively rare. This article attempts to articulate and discuss a model based on a specificset of assumptions about causality and effectiveness in interactional groups. Theauthors discuss personal qualities of group facilitators and propose five majorfunctions and seven skill clusters central to effective group facilitation.

The use of groups in counseling and therapy has become in-creasingly popular in a wide variety of settings, and thispopularity has brought with it a concomitant concern for thetraining and preparation of group leaders/counselors/facili-tators. This concern has led both the American Personnel andGuidance Association (1967) and the Association for CounselorEducation and Supervision (1974) to issue documents regardingthe use of groups and/or guidelines for the training of groupfacilitators. Unfortunately these statements have tended tobe of such a broad and general nature as to add little to anunderstanding of what knowledge and skills are required forthe effective facilitation of groups, and how such knowledgeand skills can best be achieved. Although it is widely agreedthat competent group facilitation requires a special body of

AUTHORS’ NOTE: Inquiries or requests for reprints should be directed to Dr. S.Robertson, Department of Educational Psychology, University of Calgary, Calgary,Alberta, Canada 72N I N4.

SMALL GROUP BEHAVIOR, Vol 16 No 2, May 1985 139-156a 1985 Sage Publications, Inc

139

at ARIZONA STATE UNIV on September 22, 2010sgr.sagepub.comDownloaded from

Page 3: Group Facilitation : Functions and Skills

140

knowledge and skills in addition to those required for in-dividual counseling (Dyer and Vriand, 1975; Lechowicz andGazda, 1975; Smith, 1976; Stokes and Tait, 1979; Williams,1972), it remains an unfortunate reality that most group train-ing programs are based on individual therapy models. AsYalom (1975) points out:

It is not unusual for students to be given excellent intensiveindividual therapy supervision and then, early in their pro-gram, to be asked to lead therapy groups with no specialguidance whatsoever. The program directors apparently ex-pect that the student will be able somehow to translate his in-dividual therapy training into group therapy skills [p. 503].

That is not to say that training institutions and experts inthe field have ignored the issue. Indeed a considerable amountof literature has been generated on commonly employed train-ing procedures (Berman, 1975; Jacobs et al., 1974; Lakin,1970; Lakin et al., 1972; Lechowicz and Gazda, 1976).However, most of these procedures either emphasize one modeof training (for example, didactic versus experiential versusrole playing) or ignore some of the theoretical foundationson which the programs have been based. Collectively theliterature would appear to contain all of the componentsnecessary for a comprehensive analysis of group facilitatortraining, but the field lacks a parsimonious synthesis of therelevant material. This article attempts to fill that void bydeveloping a concise framework of background material fromwhich a training model would naturally and logically flow.In short, the article includes discussions of: (1) The types ofgroups for which the facilitator is being trained, includingwhat causes effective change in such groups and what per-sonal characteristics of the facilitators are important; (2) themajor functions or objectives of group facilitation; and (3)the specific skills or competencies that are required in the ef-fective performance of these functions.

at ARIZONA STATE UNIV on September 22, 2010sgr.sagepub.comDownloaded from

Page 4: Group Facilitation : Functions and Skills

141

GROUPS: DEFINITION AND CHANGE AGENTS

Massarik (1972) lists 39 types of groups and indicates thatthis proliferation of approaches makes it difficult to clearlydefine a simple monolithic set of standards. However, asLieberman (1976) and Yalom (1975) point out, the goals, proc-esses, and client populations of a wide variety of groups areclosely related and often identical. The differences may reflectprofessional territorial boundaries more than substance. Yalom(1975: xi) states that &dquo;therapy groups which appear totallydifferent in form may rely on identical mechanisms of

change.&dquo; This would indicate that it should be possible todevelop a single set of standards for group facilitation thatwould have applicability across a variety of group approaches.However, to avoid ambiguity, perhaps a definition of &dquo;group&dquo;as it relates to this article would add clarity.

A group is a collection of two or more persons, together withone or more facilitators, whose purpose is to enhance the intra-and interpersonal functioning of those persons through an in-teractive, interpersonal communication process, which may ormay not include structured or directed activities.

It should be noted that the group orientation on which thedefinition is based, and indeed the orientation that is implicitin much of this article, is best described as experiential,laboratory, and/or interactional. Furthermore, the client targetpopulation is assumed to be primarily adult, although theauthors believe that the functions and skills discussed in latersections are applicable to facilitators of children’s groups aswell.

Before moving into the major considerations of thisarticle-what constitutes effective group facilitation--it wouldseem logical to address our assumptions surrounding causali-ty and group effectiveness, including the personal qualitiesof the group facilitator. These assumptions are congruent with

at ARIZONA STATE UNIV on September 22, 2010sgr.sagepub.comDownloaded from

Page 5: Group Facilitation : Functions and Skills

142

those of leading theorists and practitioners in the field (Dies,1977; Dinkmeyer and Muro, 1971; Egan, 1973; Johnson andJohnson, 1975; Ohlsen, 1970; Yalom, 1975). A consolidationof these assumptions is as follows:

(1) Personal growth is essentially a social process and as suchcan be most effectively developed through interactive andinterdependent relationships with groups of people. In thetype of groups defined in this article, personal growth is

enhanced through a process of cultural permission not readilyavailable in day-to-day living. Cultural permission impliesthat individuals are allowed, and allow themselves, to open-ly and honestly self-disclose their feelings about each otherand to give each other feedback as to the impact of their in-teractive styles. Such self-disclosure and feedback is not nor-mally practiced with people in our daily living, and thus thegroup experience offers a unique opportunity to gain valuablepersonal insights.

(2) Receiving direct feedback from a number of people gives theindividual an opportunity for consensual validation of in-terpersonal reality; a chance to compare his or her perceptionsof self with those of others and to work toward congruenceamong a diversity of perceptual content.

(3) The opportunity to risk practicing new behaviors in a climateof trust and psychological safety increases the probability thatindividuals can increase their intra- and interpersonaleffectiveness.

In summary, we believe that the change agents in groupsare related to the opportunities to self-disclose feelings aboutself and others in the group, to give and receive feedback,to consensually validate a variety of perceptions, and topractice new behaviors-all in an atmosphere of acceptanceand psychological safety.

Underlying these assumptions is one of a more fundamen-tal nature, which relates to the personal qualities of thefacilitator. In other words, certain personal facilitator charac-teristics are desirable in order that our basic assumptions as

at ARIZONA STATE UNIV on September 22, 2010sgr.sagepub.comDownloaded from

Page 6: Group Facilitation : Functions and Skills

143

to what constitutes constructive change in groups will be met.Our view of the importance of facilitator characteristics ineffecting change is consistent with that put forward by anumber of writers in the field of group work. Egan (1973)states that the group facilitator must be adjusted and con-gruent with no artificial front and no fear of reacting honest-ly. Similarly Haiman (1951) indicated that the group leaderis a well-adjusted person, secure and confident in his or herown personality and free of compulsions to be dominant. Theconstructs of honesty, genuineness, and congruence are ad-dressed in virtually all of the literature on counselor educa-tion and are supported, along with empathy and acceptance,as being necessary attributes of all counselors, including thosewho work with groups. Truax and Mitchell (1971), in an ex-tensive review of such research, indicated that such personalqualities may indeed be more important than techniques.However, as both MacLennon (1975) and Dinkmeyer andMuro (1971) indicate, it is not enough that the individual hasthese qualities; he or she must be seen by group members tohave them. Members must believe that the facilitator has the

capacity to lead and that he or she cares for each of themas individuals.

Another area of personal qualities, and perhaps one notso nebulous as the above, relates to what Yalom (1975) refersto as a belief in the efficacy of groups. Lakin et al. (1972:376) state that &dquo;the trainee needs to understand the uniquecharacter of the group as a medium for therapy&dquo;; but onemust be cautious with the word &dquo;understand.&dquo; One canunderstand a construct or set of constructs cognitively, butthe implication in most of the literature on personal qualitiesis that the facilitator must have an internalized personal beliefsystem about how and why groups work. He or she believesin the capacity of human beings to change and in the groupas an effective change agent.

There is a variety of terms to describe the personal qualitieswe believe are necessary in group facilitators, including self-

at ARIZONA STATE UNIV on September 22, 2010sgr.sagepub.comDownloaded from

Page 7: Group Facilitation : Functions and Skills

144

awareness, self-confidence, concern for others, nonjudgmentalacceptance, genuineness, empathy, respect for others, vitali-ty, and maturity. However, as Dinkmeyer and Muro (1971)indicate, a person possessing all of these qualities would in-deed by atypical. For our purposes it would appear that thepersonal qualities for effective group facilitation can be

grouped as follows:

(1) Relationship Stance: The group facilitator displays genu-ineness, honesty (congruence), acceptance, and empathy.

(2) Self-Awareness: The group facilitator is aware of his or herstrengths, weaknesses, fears, natural preferences, and modesof reacting to people in a wide variety of situations.

(3) Belief System: The group facilitator has an internalized per-sonal belief system about helping and about groups as amedium for change.

FUNCTIONS OF GROUP FACILITATION

Following from the previous discussion one could state insimplistic terms that the function of the group facilitator isto create an atmosphere of psychological safety that promotesself-disclosure, feedback, and experimentation with alternatebehaviors. Although true, such a global statement belies thecomplexity of the processes underlying growth and changein the group mode. More to the point, it would do little to

enlighten neophyte group facilitators as to their role expecta-tions. What follows, then, is an outline of the major func-tions of group facilitation; the perceptual/conceptualframework from which the facilitator works; and the rationalebehind his or her behavior, techniques, and interventions inthe group.

SELECTION AND PREPARATION

In order to wisely select group members, the facilitator musthave a clear 4dea of what the goals of the group will be, and

at ARIZONA STATE UNIV on September 22, 2010sgr.sagepub.comDownloaded from

Page 8: Group Facilitation : Functions and Skills

145

thus what kinds of individuals will most likely constitute thetarget population. Therefore, careful consideration needs tobe given to what individuals could prevent the group fromgaining maximum benefit from the experience. Such considera-tions need to be dealt with before the counselor conducts hisor her initial screening interview so that he or she can ensureas much as possible that the finally selected group has amember composition such that maximum therapeutic andgrowth potential is available. It is unfortunate that thisfunction receives such minor emphasis in training programswhen there is some suggestion in the literature (Yalom, 1975;Lieberman et al., 1973; Schutz, 1961; Harrison, 1965; Ohlsen,1970) that group composition is one of the most powerfulfactors in members’ determination of whether or not theybenefit from the group experience.

Preparation of members involves pretraining in order togive them an understanding of what will be expected of themand what they can expect from the group experience. Thegoals, procedures, and methods to be used are carefully ar-ticulated in-order to decrease misconceptions. Only throughsuch understanding can prospective members begin to for-mulate realistic personal goals that will be consistent with theopportunities available in the group.

ESTABLISHMENT OF FACILITATIVE NORMS

The group facilitator ensures the establishment of normsthat will guide and encourage group interaction (for exam-ple, honesty, immediacy, spontaneity, nonjudgemental ac-ceptance of others, high levels of involvement, high levels ofappropriate self-disclosure, expression of affect/emotionali-ty). Of course, inherent in this definition is the assumptionthat the facilitator will discourage the creation of norms thatwould discourage, stifle, and block spontaneous interactionamong members.As norms related to a group’s interactive patterns tend to

be established early in the group’s life, another implication

at ARIZONA STATE UNIV on September 22, 2010sgr.sagepub.comDownloaded from

Page 9: Group Facilitation : Functions and Skills

146

here is that the group facilitator needs to be relatively activein the early stages (that is, this function will be less importantas the group becomes cohesive and has established effectiveinteractive patterns).The importance of this function is supported in most of

the literature on group counseling and therapy. Egan (1973:37) indicates, &dquo;One of the best things a facilitator can do isengage in the kinds of behavior that make for good groupinteraction.&dquo; In a similar vein, Yalom states:

He endeavors to establish a code of behavioral rules, or norms,which will guide the interaction of the group.... It is the grouptherapist’s task to create a group culture maximally conduciveto the proper type of group interaction [Yalom, 1975: 107].

Williams (1972), in an article outlining the problems of begin-ning group psychotherapists, indicates that among thosestudents who lack success as neophyte group facilitators arethose who &dquo;could not promote or allow interaction amongmembers, consequently blocking group development andmovement&dquo; (p. 360).

DEVELOPMENT OF A COHESIVE GROUP CLIMATE

Group cohesiveness is usually defined as &dquo;the sum totalof all the factors influencing members to stay in the group&dquo;(Johnson and Johnson, 1975: 233). Yalom ( 1975) indicates thatgroup cohesiveness is &dquo;a necessary precondition for effectivetherapy&dquo; (p. 47) and adds that &dquo;the therapist must recognizeand deter any forces which threaten group cohesiveness&dquo; (p.106). Bednar et al. (1974) list self-disclosure, meaningful groupparticipation and empathy, and warmth and genuineness atboth the group and individual level as important elements ofgroup cohesion.

at ARIZONA STATE UNIV on September 22, 2010sgr.sagepub.comDownloaded from

Page 10: Group Facilitation : Functions and Skills

147

Developing a climate of cohesiveness is in reality interrelatedwith the encouragement of group interaction in that groupcohesiveness is enhanced by frequency and quality of inter-action, and interactional quality is facilitated by groupcohesiveness. It is thus extremely important that the groupfacilitator promote a cohesive climate wherein members willfeel comfortable, psychologically safe, and willing to take risks.As Williams (1972: 359) points out, a cohesive group &dquo;pro-vides both a vehicle for increasing and deepening examina-tion of individual feelings and conflicts and an experimentalground for interpersonal development.&dquo;

CREATION OF AN INDEPENDENT

INTERACTIONAL NETWORK

In order to maximize interpersonal growth in a group, itis important that members interact freely with each other ratherthan speak to or through the facilitator. In short, the facilitatorrelinquishes responsibility to the group so that a leader-dependent network is not maintained. The facilitator who setshimself up as the center of interactions &dquo;stifles the initiativeof the participants, and initiative ... is central to the process&dquo;(Egan, 1973: 35). Relative to this need to give autonomy tothe group is the Yalom and Lieberman (1971) study in whichgroups with the highest number of casualties had leaders who,among other characteristics, had extremely high stimulus in-put, were intrusive and authoritarian, and frequently structuredthe events of the group and took over from members.A note of caution needs to be made here in that the group

facilitator needs to recognize that premature execution of thisfunction is antithetical to the development of group cohe-siveness. Although in the beginning the facilitator helps directmembers’ attention to each other, he or she must expect to

at ARIZONA STATE UNIV on September 22, 2010sgr.sagepub.comDownloaded from

Page 11: Group Facilitation : Functions and Skills

148

be the person to whom most verbalizations are addressed un-til the members have had an opportunity to &dquo;feel out&dquo; the

group and identify their roles.

EXAMINATION OF GROUP PROCESSES

The group facilitator assists the group in examining andunderstanding the cognitive and affective experiences of thegroup. Lieberman et al. (1973) found that the most importantfactor in promoting member learning in groups was thefacilitator’s ability to present conceptualizations that gavemeaning to what members were experiencing. Johnson andJohnson (1975) strongly state that

unless a person develops process-observation skills, he cannotbecome an effective leader; further, without feedback on itsprocess, a group cannot function effectively for long [p. 43].

This function is perhaps the most difficult for a neophytefacilitator to perform, and perhaps logically so as the

knowledge and skills required for its execution are the mostdifficult to obtain. In order for a facilitator to develop ef-fective process-observation skills he or she must possess amodel or models that provide the conceptual/perceptualframework from which to operate. Effective group facilitatorsdo not operate on an ad hoc basis, using gut-level feelingsas the stimuli for their interventions. As Lakin et al. (1972:380) indicate, such a basis would likely lead to the facilitator’smissing &dquo;critical opportunities to make helpful interventions&dquo;and indeed &dquo;he may even work destructively, against thetherapeutic process, without even realizing it.&dquo; In short, it

is imperative that group facilitators (1) understand how peopleare helped in groups; (2) have sufficient knowledge of modelsof group therapy to enable them to understand what happens

at ARIZONA STATE UNIV on September 22, 2010sgr.sagepub.comDownloaded from

Page 12: Group Facilitation : Functions and Skills

149

in groups, and (3) be able to articulate their own implicit help-giving model as it relates to the group situation.

SKILL REQUIREMENTS

In addressing functions one is actually building a frame-work, a conceptual foundation that gives the facilitator a&dquo;feel&dquo; for his or her role in the group. How he or she per-forms or executes this role is another matter, and not a smallone at that. Although an understanding of conceptual/percep-tual functions is necessary for effective group facilitation, itis inadequate without the concomitant skills required to movethe group and its members in a manner and direction thatwill ensure maximum benefit for all involved. Followinglogically from the assumptions we have made about groups,about agents of change in groups, and about the functionsof the facilitator, a number of skills that are seen as beingcentral to effective group facilitation may be delineated.

ATTENDING

The facilitator actively listens to what is being said in thegroup. Attending, or active listening skills, include:

(1) maintenance of eye contact;(2) physical attentiveness through body posture; and(3) verbal following behaviors, such as clarifying, paraphrasing,

summarizing, and reflecting.

This cluster of skills is basic to all counseling processes.Attending behaviors are as basic a set of skills in group facilita-tion as in individual counseling, with the added difficulty thatthere is more to attend to and thus more margin for error.

at ARIZONA STATE UNIV on September 22, 2010sgr.sagepub.comDownloaded from

Page 13: Group Facilitation : Functions and Skills

150

COMMUNICATING CLEARLY

The facilitator displays verbal facility in all communica-tions and minimizes incongruency between his or her verbaland nonverbal behaviors. A group facilitator who cannot com-municate ideas and feelings accurately and clearly will pro-mote confusion and diffusion, both of which are antitheticalto the growth process in groups.

MODELING

The group facilitator must model the kind of behaviors that

help members achieve their stipulated goals and the goals ofthe group. Although specific member or group goals will varyfrom group to group, the literature is replete with discussionsof the behaviors that the group facilitator must be able tomodel (Bednar et al., 1974; Dies, 1977; Egan, 1973; Johnsonand Johnson, 1975; Lieberman, 1976; Pino and Cohen, 1971).Based on our assumption that the group and individual goalsrelate to personal growth through an interactive communica-tion network, the facilitator models at least those behaviorsthat are basic to effective interpersonal communication, suchas concreteness, appropriate self-disclosure, immediacy, givingand receiving feedback, nondefensiveness, and maintenanceof a here-and-now focus.

Modeling is a skill most closely associated with the functionsof encouraging group interaction and developing a climateof group cohesiveness. Although modeling by the facilitatorwill occur throughout the life of a group, it is most importantduring the early stages when the norming process is prevalentand when members are developing their interactive styles andpatterns.

LINKING

The facilitator points out the similarities and differencesin the cognitions and emotions of group members. Lifton

at ARIZONA STATE UNIV on September 22, 2010sgr.sagepub.comDownloaded from

Page 14: Group Facilitation : Functions and Skills

151

(1972: 166) indicates that the linking function &dquo;helps themembers see the common concerns and facilitates identifica-tion between members.&dquo; Although it is important in all ofthe functions outlined, it has special import in creating anonleader-dependent interactional network. As with otherskills, linking is of primary importance early in the life ofthe group and of lesser importance as the group establishesfluid interactive patterns.

INTERPRETING

The facilitator is able to understand and communicate the

underlying cognitive and emotional meaning of statements andexperiences, both verbal and nonverbal, and at the intra-personal, interpersonal and group levels.

This skill is most closely related to assisting the group ex-amine and understand its experiences but will also be requiredin establishing an independent interactive network and to alesser degree in all other activities. As MacLennan (1975: 178)points out, the facilitator must be expert in understanding&dquo;underlying feelings, themes and dynamic interactions.&dquo;

Similarly Egan states:

He helps participants focus on the way the group is working(or not working), the style of each individual’s participation(or non-participation) and the issues that are facing the group(or that the group is not facing). As a participant-observer,the facilitator attempts to reveal to the group its own dynamicsand to clarify whether the individual participants are or arenot achieving the goals of the group [1973: 11].

Recognizing prevailing group themes and subthemes in orderto help group members develop meaning from their discus-sion is, as has been stated earlier, one of the most difficultbut important skills for a group facilitator to learn. In orderto rpake effective interpretations the facilitator must not onlyhave a high level of attending and communication skills but

at ARIZONA STATE UNIV on September 22, 2010sgr.sagepub.comDownloaded from

Page 15: Group Facilitation : Functions and Skills

152

also must be able to synthesize a vast amount of overt andcovert material.

REGULATING

The facilitator ensures that the activities of the individualsin a group, and of the group as a whole, are congruent with(1) individual and group goals; (2) the ability (especially af-fective) of members to participate; and (3) the developmentalstage of the group. Inherent in this expectation is that thefacilitator is able to monitor the pace of group activities suchthat individuals do not become confused, frightened, or

isolated. For example, the facilitator ensures that

(1) individuals or subgroups do not dominate and that &dquo;silent&dquo;members are invited to participate and have the opportunityto do so;

(2) agreed-upon norms are not violated or changed without groupconsensus;

(3) members maintain a here-and-now focus;(4) members operationalize an interpersonal feedback model ef-

fectively ; and(5) situations detrimental to a member or the group are stopped

and discussed.

Regulating the group’s activities is basic to the effectivefunctioning of the group and involves virtually all of the com-petencies of group facilitation. The facilitator regulates thegroup’s activities by modeling, questioning, clarifying, rein-forcing (or not reinforcing), reflecting feelings, making proc-ess comments at the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and grouplevels, teaching, linking, summarizing, confronting, and givingfeedback. In short, the facilitator chooses from a broad reper-toire of skills those that will have the most beneficial effecton the activity of the group into which he or she wishes tointervene. Implicit is the assumption that the most beneficialintervention may be no intervention, and the facilitator needs

at ARIZONA STATE UNIV on September 22, 2010sgr.sagepub.comDownloaded from

Page 16: Group Facilitation : Functions and Skills

153

to develop a sense of when this is the most effective way ofregulating.

FACILITATING CLOSURE

The facilitator ensures that interpersonal and group issuesare satisfactorily resolved and facilitates the group’s move-ment into new areas. The necessity of facilitating closure willoccur on a continuing basis during the life of a group. It re-quires that the facilitator be able to recognize issues and tohelp members work through these issues to ensure resolution.The continuance of unresolved issues in a group can blockits progress and decrease the interaction among members thatis so vital to growth.

In summary, we have identified the skill clusters for ef-fective group facilitation as being attending, communicatingclearly, modeling, linking, interpreting, regulating, and

facilitating change. Implicit and explicit in these clusters arethe specific competencies required to ensure that beneficialchange agents are active. To a large degree these are technicalskills that can be learned and effectively used given that thefacilitator has an internalized (and preferably personal) beliefsystem about the efficacy of groups.

CONCLUDING COMMENTS

Although the amount of literature on groups is growingat an increasingly rapid rate, attempts at concisely delineatingthe functional and skill expectations of group facilitators arerelatively rare. There is no doubt that leading writers in thefield are concerned about the issue of what constitutes ef-fective group facilitation, and indeed a comprehensive reviewof the literature indicates that there is significant agreementon what are thought to be core facilitator functions and com-petencies. However, what the field appears to be lacking is

at ARIZONA STATE UNIV on September 22, 2010sgr.sagepub.comDownloaded from

Page 17: Group Facilitation : Functions and Skills

154

a consolidation of the varied positions into a parsimoniousmodel of facilitator objectives and skills. In this article wehave attempted to present such a model based upon a specificset of assumptions about what makes interactional groupseffective.We have suggested that the major functions of the group

facilitator are (1) selection and preparation of members; (2)establishment of facilitative norms; (3) development of acohesive group climate; (4) creation of an interactional net-work ; and (5) examination of group processes. It is further

suggested that central to the execution of these functions areseven skill clusters, namely: (1) Attending; (2) Communicatingclearly; (3) Modeling; (4) Linking; (5) Interpreting; (6)Regulating; and (7) Facilitating closure.We are not unaware of the difficulties involved in attemp-

ting to develop a single set of standards to meet the needsof a broad base of group approaches. However, we believestrongly that our definition of &dquo;group&dquo; and our assumptionsabout effective change agents in such groups can be comfor-tably embraced by a majority of group facilitator educators.Furthermore, we believe (indeed it is our primary purpose)that such background material can provide a theoretical andpractical framework from which to build a comprehensivemodel of group facilitator training, including a criterion-basedevaluation package. Not only should such a cohesive trainingpackage lessen the dysfunctional &dquo;fear-of-the-unknown&dquo; syn-drome in group facilitator trainees (Lakin et al., 1972; Smith,1976), but it would almost assuredly provide the field witha better base for the empirical study of facilitator impact andeffectiveness.

REFERENCES

American Personnel and Guidance Association (1967) "Standards for the preparationof secondary school counsellors." Personnel and Guidance J. 6: 96-106.

at ARIZONA STATE UNIV on September 22, 2010sgr.sagepub.comDownloaded from

Page 18: Group Facilitation : Functions and Skills

155

Association for Counsellor Education and Supervision (1974) "Standards for thepreparation of school counsellors and other personnel services specialists." J.

of Employment Counselling 11: 133-144.

BEDNAR, R. L., C. WEET, P. EVENSEN, D. LANIER, and J. MELNICK (1974)"Empirical guidelines for group therapy: pretraining, cohesion and modeling." J.of Applied Behavioral Science 10: 150-164.

BERMAN, A. L. (1975) "Group psychotherapy training: issues and models." SmallGroup Behavior 6, 3: 325-344.

DIES, R. R. (1977) "Pragmatic leadership in psychotherapy and encounter groupresearch." Small Group Behavior 8: 229-248.

DINKMEYER, D. and J. MURO (1971) Group Counseling: Theory and Practice.Illinois: Peacock.

DYER, W. W. and J. VRIAND (1975) Counseling Techniques that Work: Ap-plications to Individual and Group Counseling. Washington: APGA.

EGAN, G. (1973) Face to Face. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.HAIMAN, F. S. (1951) Group Leadership and Democratic Action. Boston:

Houghton Mifflin.HARRISON, R. (1965) "Group composition models and laboratory design." J.

of Applied Behavioral Science 1: 409-432.

JACOBS, E., D. BROWN, and A. RANDOLPH (1974) "Educating groupcounselors: a tentative model." Counselor Education and Supervision 4: 307-309.

JOHNSON, D. W., and F. P. JOHNSON (1975) Joining Together: Group Theoryand Group Skills. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

LAKIN, M. (1970) "Response to Coulson." Counseling Psychologist 2: 34-38.---,M. A. LIEBERMAN, and D. S. WHITAKER (1972) "Issues in the train-

ing of group psychotherapists," in M. Seligman and N. F. Baldwin (eds.)Counselor Education and Supervision. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.

LECHOWICZ, J. S. and G. M. GAZDA (1976) "Systemic group counselor train-ing : mastery model." Counselor Education and Supervision 16: 99-106.

---(1975) "Group counseling instructions: objectives established by experts."Counselor Education and Supervision 15: 21-27.

LIEBERMAN, M. A. (1976) "Change induction in small groups." Annual Rev.of Psychology 27: 217-250.

---, I. YALOM, and M. MILES (1973) Encounter Groups: First Facts. NewYork: Basic Books.

LIFTON, W. M. (1972) Groups: Facilitating Individual Growth and Social Change.New York: John Wiley.

MacLENNON, B. (1975) "The personalities of group leaders: implications forselection and training." Int. J. of Group Psychotherapy 25, 2: 177-183.

MASSARIK, F. (1972) "Standards for group leadership," in L. N. Solomon andB. Berzon (eds.) New Perspectives on Encounter Groups. San Francisco:

Jossey-Bass.OHLSEN, M. M. (1970) Group Counseling. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

PINO, C. J. and H. COHEN (1971) "Trainer style and trainee self-disclosure."Int. J. of Group Psychotherapy 21: 202-213.

SCHUTZ, W. (1961) "On group composition." J. of Abnormal and Social

Psychology 62: 275-281.

at ARIZONA STATE UNIV on September 22, 2010sgr.sagepub.comDownloaded from

Page 19: Group Facilitation : Functions and Skills

156

SMITH, E. J. (1976) "Issues and problems in the group supervision of beginninggroup problems." Counselor Education and Supervision 16: 13-24.

STOKES, J. P. and R. C. TAIT (1979) "The group incidents questionnaire: ameasure of skill in group facilitation." J. of Counseling Psychology 26: 250-254.

TRUAX, C. B. and K. M. MITCHELL (1971) "Research on certain therapist inter-personal skills in relation to process and outcome," in A. E. Bergin and S. L.Garfield (eds.) Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change. New York:John Wiley.

WILLIAMS, M. (1972) "Limitations, fantasies and security operations of begin-ning group psychotherapists," in M. Seligman and N. F. Baldwin (eds.)Counselor Education and Supervision. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.

YALOM, I. D. (1975) The Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy. NewYork: Basic Books.

---and M. Lieberman (1971) "A study of encounter group casualties." Ar-chives of General Psychiatry 25: 16-30.

L. Frances Anderson is a Ph.D. candidate In educational psychology at theUniversity of Calgary. She has a private psychological practice, specializing inindividual and group therapy. She is a sessional lecturer in group therapy andgroup processes at the University of Calgary.

Sharon E. Robertson is Assistant Professor of Educational Psychology at theUniversity of Calgary. Her research interests are in the areas of group therapyand family life education. She has published numerous articles in the family lifeeducation and counselor education fields.

at ARIZONA STATE UNIV on September 22, 2010sgr.sagepub.comDownloaded from