1
FromtheSeatotheStars:TheForgottenJourneysofthePhilippines’AncientExplorers
by
TimothyJamesM.Dimacali
B.A.English,UniversityofthePhilippines,2001
SUBMITTEDTOTHEPROGRAMINCOMPARATIVEMEDIASTUDIES/WRITING
INPARTIALFULFILLMENTOFTHEREQUIREMENTSFORTHEDEGREEOF
MASTEROFSCIENCEINSCIENCEWRITING
ATTHE
MASSACHUSETTSINSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY
SEPTEMBER2018
©TimothyJamesM.Dimacali.Allrightsreserved.
TheauthorherebygrantsMITpermissiontoreproduceandtodistributepubliclypaper
andelectroniccopiesofthisthesisdocumentinwholeorinpartinanymediumnow
knownorhereaftercreated.
SignatureofAuthor:_________________________________________________________________________________
DepartmentofComparativeMediaStudies/Writing
May25,2018
Certifiedby:___________________________________________________________________________________________
MarciaBartusiak
ProfessorofthePracticeofScienceWriting
ThesisSupervisor
Acceptedby:__________________________________________________________________________________________
SethMnookin
ProfessorofScienceWriting
Director,GraduatePrograminScienceWriting
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FromtheSeatotheStars:TheForgottenJourneysofthePhilippines’AncientExplorers
by
TimothyJamesM.Dimacali
SubmittedtothePrograminComparativeMediaStudies/WritingonMay25,2018
inPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsfortheDegreeof
MasterofScienceinScienceWriting
ABSTRACT
Linguistic,genetic,andarchaeologicalevidenceindicatethatthePhilippineshasbeen
inhabitedbyhumansformanythousandsofyears.Bywhatmeanstheearliestsettlers
arrivedinthearchipelagoisstillamystery,butagrowingbodyofevidencepointstothe
likelihoodthattheypossessedseafaringtechnology.Ifso,thenmodernFilipinos—whoare
evennowmakingtheirfirsttentativestepsintospace—areheirstoarichheritageof
exploration,thestoryofwhichhasyettobefullytold.
ThesisSupervisor:MarciaBartusiak
Title:ProfessorofthePracticeofScienceWriting
3
Tomyfamily,classmates,professors,andfriends:
Letusgoamongthestars.
Ely,akalakobagagawinmoanglahatpatiangthesisko?
Pinansinkonamanangbagongt-shirtmo.
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AsitmadeitswayabovethetipofAfricaonanAprileveningin2016,theInternational
SpaceStationdeployedasmallbutveryspecialpayloadoutintothenight:ashinysilver
andgoldcube,nobiggerthanakitchenstove.
Themicrosatellitehurtledsilentlyintoorbit,ahumbleaffairwithlittlemorethanabasic
telemetrysystem,threeonboardcameras,andasolararrayforpower.Allitcoulddo—allit
wasbuilttodo—wassendasteadystreamofphotosofEarthandalogofitslocationback
toitsmakers,untilgravityinevitablywonoverandpulleditoutoftheskyinafewshort
years.
Itborenomarkings,nohintofitsorigins,noindicationofthemanythousandsofman-
hoursoflaborspentinitscarefulcrafting.Theonlysignofitsprovenancewasinitsname,
loggedneatlyintothespacestation’smanifest:Diwata1.
TakenfromancientPhilippinefolklore,diwataisoftentranslatedintoEnglishas“fairy”or
“nymph”anddescribedinmuchthesameway:asanephemeralentity,athingoftheair.
ButthistinycreatureofmythwasmuchmorepowerfulthanitsimpishWestern
counterparts—itwasalsoreveredasaprotectorspiritthatbestowedblessingsonthose
whorespecteditshomeandcultivateditsfavor.
Andherewasamodern-daydiwata,flittingacrossthefirmament,joiningthecelestial
pantheonofspacefaringnations,whoseprogramslikewisedrewinspirationfromtheir
respectivemythologies:Apollo.Bhaskara.Garuda.Itwasanaptnameindeedforthefirst
fullyPhilippinemadeandownedsatellite,thecountry’sfirsttentativestepintospace.
ButitwasalsosomethingmuchmoreforastronomerRogelMariSese,thesquare-jawed
yetsoft-spokenheadofthenewlymintedPhilippineSpaceAgency.Hefirmlyseesthe
auspiciouslynamedDiwata1asatimelyopportunitytorevisitthecountry’sforgotten
scientifictraditions—toponderwhatmighthavebeenandtoappreciatewhatlayahead,a
wayofshowingthatastronomyandscienceweren’tnewtoFilipinosociety.“It’ssomething
we’vebeendoingandusingsinceancienttimes,”Sesesays.“Wealwaysthinkofastronomy
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asawesternconstruct.WealwaysseeitthroughthelensofancientGreekcivilization.Asa
result,wedon’tthinkthatourancestorshadtheirownwayofnamingstarsand
constellationsbasedontheirdailyrealities.”
Asayoungstudentgrowingupinoneofthecountry’smainrice-growingregions,Sese
knewthatFilipinoshavebeenfarmersandseafarersforaslongasthepeople’scollective
consciousnesscanremember.Historicalrecordsshowthat,foroverathousandyears,
traderoutesandsettlementpatternsacrossAsiaconnectedislandsinthePhilippinesto
theirneighbors,particularlythosewithgoodharborsandasteadysupplyoflocalproducts.
ButfewotherswholookedupattheskyandcheeredthatfineAprilnightrealizedthatthe
launchingoftheDiwata1wasjustthelatestlegofajourneythatFilipinos’ancestorsbegan
manymillenniaago.
Gazingintothatdistantpastisnotmuchdifferentfromlookingatthefarthermostreaches
ofthesky:westrainandpeeratthehopelesslyinaccessiblewithourmeagertools,trying
tounderstandwhatcamebeforeusandwhatledtousbeingwherewearetoday.With
somepersistence,youmightfindsomespeckshereandtherethathintatalargerpicture.
Figure1:TheDiwata1microsatellite,photographedasitlefttheInternationalSpaceStationonApril27,2016.
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Andthen,veryrarely,andonlyifyou’reluckyenough,youmightfindsomethingthat
changeseverythingyouthoughtyouknewabouttheworld.
OnesuchstellardiscoverywasunearthedlessthantwoyearsafterDiwata’slaunch,inan
idyllicparadiselockedawayinthenortherntipofLuzon,thePhilippines’largestisland.
AboatridetoEden
Halfaday’sdriveawayfromthePhilippinecapital,inKalingaProvince,isaquietdalethat
wasoncethemuddybankofarivermanythousandsofyearsago.InMay2018,
anthropologistThomasIngiccoandhisteamfoundthebutcheredremainsofanextinct
rhinocerosburiedinthehardenedmud:itsbonesshowedcutmarkswherethefleshhad
beenstrippedawayandwhereitslegshadbeenhammeredopentogetattheprecious
marrow.Nearbywerestoneflaketools,likelyleftbehindbythepeoplewhohadtaken
downthegiantcreaturesome700,000yearsago.Itistheoldestevidencetodatethat
homininsinthePhilippinesusedtoolslongbeforethearrivalofmodernhumans.
WemayneverknowwhotheKalingatoolmakerswere—buttheywerenotthelasttosettle
inNorthernLuzon.
JustafewmilesnorthoftheKalingasite,tuckedawayinthewesternfoothillsoftheSierra
Madremountains,istheCallaoCavecomplex.Comprisedofsevenchambers,thecaves
musthavebeenawelcomerelieftoancienthunter-gatherersseekingshelterfrom
torrentialrainsandgustsofwind.Eventoday,thecalmserenityofthecomplexcontinues
todrawpeopleintoitsembrace:itsmainchamber,litbyaholeinthehundred-foot-high
ceiling,nowservesasachapelfortouristsandlocalsalike.
Theserenealcoveisalsoatreasuretroveofhumanartifactsandremainsspanningtensof
thousandsofyears.Everythingfrombonesandhearthstoglassbeadsandearthenwarehas
beenfoundinitsinnerreaches.Amongtheseriches,UniversityofthePhilippines
archaeologistArmandMijarescameuponaremarkablefind:a67,000-year-oldhumanfoot
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bone,justtwoandahalfincheslongandbarelythewidthofapencil—possiblytheoldest
Homosapiensremainsyetfoundinthecountry.
Still,themoststrikingthingabouttheKalingaandCallaofossilsisn’ttheiragebutthatthey
werefoundonanislandcutofffromtherestoftheworldbyforebodingseas.Both
discoveriesweremadeinanareanestledbetweenthecountry’stallestmountainranges,
beyondwhichlietheWestPhilippineSeaandthePacificOcean.Tothenortharethedark
anddeepwatersoftheLuzonStrait,whereeventodayonlyseasonedfishermenorthe
foolhardydarego.
Thiswasproof,Mijarestoldthemediain2010,that“theseearlyhumansalreadypossessed
knowledgeofseacraft-makinginthisearlyperiod.”
FelipeJocanoJr.,ananthropologistandprofessorofScience,Technology,andSocietyatthe
UniversityofthePhilippines,saysthatancientFilipinosmayhavebeenmoreadvanced
thanpreviouslythought.“Iftheyhadboatstravelingthen,thentheleveloftechnologywas
certainlymoresophisticatedthanwehadassumed.Andthatraisesallsortsofinteresting
questionsabouttherateatwhichtechnologicaladvancementoccurs,”hesays.“Ifthere
wereboattechnologiesthen,whatwouldtheyhavelookedlike?Howfaralonghadthey
advanced?Whatwasthenavigationalmethodused?It’dbeveryexcitingtoreconstruct.”
ButweknownothingabouthowthesepeoplemadetheirwaytoLuzon.Whotheywere
andwhatkindofboatstheyused—or,forthatmatter,whateverothertechnologiesthey
mayhavehadotherthanstonetools—haveyettobefound.
TheexodustoPolynesiaandbeyond
BetweenthatbriefglimpseofthebeginningsofPhilippineprehistoryinNorthernLuzon
andmodernhumans’journeyacrosstheislandsliesaspanofmanythousandsofyears
overwhichtheveiloftimehasyettobelifted.Perhapssomeday,wemightuncovermore
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cluesabouttheseFirstFilipinosandtheboatsandtechnologiestheyusedtogetthere.But,
fornowatleast,thehistoricalrecordissilent.
Whatisknown,however,isthatsome7,000yearsagoanothergroupofintrepidexplorers
beganagrandexodusthelikesofwhichhasneverbeenseenbeforeorsince.
ModernhumansintheStoneAgesetoutfromChinathroughTaiwanandbravedthedeep
seasintoNorthernLuzon.SomeofthemmightevenhavesettledinCallaoCaveand
Kalinga.Buttheydidn’tstopthere.Theyeventuallypushedonthroughthearchipelago’s
over7,000islandsandcontinuedoutwardstosomeofthemostremoteplacesintheworld.
Whoeverthesepeoplewere,thePhilippinesservedasajump-offpointtothefarthest
reachesofSoutheastAsia,Australia,andbeyond—toPolynesia,Hawaii,andEasterIsland
inthemiddleofthePacificOcean.
Theycouldnothaveknownhowfartheywouldgo,whatdangerswereahead,norwhat
newworldawaitedthem.Nobodyevenknowsforcertainwhatdrovethemtomakethe
journeyinthefirstplace.Andyet,equippedwithnothingmorethanstone-agetoolsand
Figure2:AmapoutliningthemigratorypathsofAustronesianspeakingpopulations,includingestimateddates.
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technology,thesepeoplesucceededinestablishingthemselvesthousandsofmilesfromthe
nearestcontinent.
ThisGreatAustronesianExpansion,asitiscalled,isundoubtedlyoneofhumanity’smost
monumentalundertakings.Butthejourneyoftheseancient,unknownexplorersstartedin
Asia—andthePhilippineswasavitalstaginggroundfortheirvoyage.“Whoevertheywere,
theywereherefirst,”saysFilipinoarchaeologistVitoHernandez,whopointedoutthat
linguisticevidenceshowsthatthesestone-ageexplorerspassedthroughandpopulatedthe
PhilippinesbeforemovingoutintothePacific.
ExpertsagreethatthePhilippines’almost200languagesareAustronesianinorigin.By
lookingatcommonalitiesbetweenthelanguagesthatexisttodayinSoutheastAsiaand
Polynesia—suchassimilar-soundingwordswithsimilarmeanings—wegetanideaofthe
sharedancestryofthevarioustonguesandanindicationofhowtheirspeakersspreadand
settledacrosstheland.Whatwehaveisapictureofapeoplewhocamethroughthe
PhilippinesbeforeventuringoutacrossSoutheastAsiaandthePacific.
Thereareechoesofthissharedbutforgottenpast,hiddeninfolktalesandtraditions.
Filipino-AmericansociologistandauthorLaneWilckenpointstoacommonthreadof
folkloreamongPhilippineculturesthatconnectsthemtoPolynesianseafaringpeoples,
suggestingthatmodernFilipinosaredescendantsofthegreatStoneAgenavigatorswho
settledthePacificislandsthousandsofyearsago.“Ultimately,manyofourtraditions
poeticallyrelatethatourancestorsdwellinthewest—theunderworld—justasinthe
Polynesians'traditions.Thisimpliesthatour[common]ancestralhomelandwas
somewherewestofthePhilippines,”henotes.
PolynesiantraditionsseemtopointbacktothePhilippines:Hawaii’scentralfolkhero,
Maui,bearsastrikingsimilaritytotheFilipinohero-godLumauig,whosenamecanmean
either“fishhook”—incidentally,Maui’ssignatureimplement—or“voyage.”“Someofthe
traditionsofMauisuggestthatMaui—thatis,thePolynesians—knewofthePhilippinesasa
placewherehisancestorsoncelivedandthatheevenmadevoyagesthere,sinceheis
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creditedwith‘fishingup’ourislands,”Wilckenexplains.Allthese,hesays,areanindication
thatthePhilippinesandPolynesiahaveasharedhistoryofmigration.
“ItisnotunlikelythatancientPolynesianpeoplesknewthelocationofthePhilippinesand
howtotravelthere.Itiscertainlytruethattheircanoetechnologyandnavigational
knowledgewasmorethansufficienttoenablethemtomakethejourney,”Wilckensays.
AndthenthereisthetantalizingpossibilitythatancientFilipinosmayevenhavehada
handinbuildingthegiantmo’aistatuesonEasterIsland.Theseimposingstonefigures,
eachastallasasix-storybuilding,werecarvedfromlocalrockandfacestoicallyinwardas
ifguardingtheisland’sinhabitants.
Forsuchasmallanddistantplace,thepresenceoftheseimpressivestatuesindicatesthe
existenceofahighlyorganizedandtechnologicallyadvancedpeople.Theyneededtoknow
enoughaboutstonecuttingandbasicmechanicsinordertoshape,transport,anderectthe
statuesintheircurrentlocations.Theymustalsohavehadawell-developedsocietyto
coordinatesuchmassiveundertakings.
Itmayverywellbe,Wilckenbelieves,thattoday’sFilipinosareblissfullyunawarethatthey
aredescendedfromthesamepeoplethatpopulatedRapaNui—thePolynesiannamefor
EasterIsland—andwhohadthescientificandtechnologicalcapabilitytobuildthelarge
stonemonumentsthattheisleisfamousfor.
“Voyagingcanoesmakemorethanjustone-waytripslikemigrationtheoriessometimes
allude.It’smorelikelythatthePhilippineswasoneofthefirstareastobecolonizedbythe
mutualancestorsofFilipinosandPolynesians,”hesays.“Soit’stotallypossiblethatthe
RapaNuipeopleareofFilipinodescentoratleasthavecontributingancestorsfromthe
Philippines.”
Centurieslater,explorerFerdinandMagellan’schronicler,AntonioPigafetta,madespecial
noteinhisjournalofPhilippinelaborersbeingshippedenmasseoverseastoother
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kingdoms.AccordingtohistorianArnoldAzurin,“RajaHumabonboastedtoMagellanthat
someboatloadsofslaveshadjustleftCebuforCambodiaandChampa—likelyinneedof
warmbodiesfortheirwarsofsuccession,orfornewstonecuttersfortheirmegalithic
shrines.”
In1917,aflooduncoveredasolidgoldstatuetteonthemuddybankoftheAgusanRiverin
MindananointhesouthernPhilippines.Datedtothethirteenthcentury,itisthoughtto
representthegoddessVajralasya—proofthatancientFilipinoswereincontactwiththeir
Buddhistneighbors.
CouldFilipinocraftsmen,descendedfromthesamepeoplewhobuiltthemonumentsof
EasterIsland,havealsobuiltgrandAsianBuddhistmonumentslikeAngkorWatin
CambodiaandBorobudurinIndonesia?“That'sapossibleconjecture,consideringthat
archeologistslikeRobertFox,H.OtleyBeyerandothershavepointedoutthatsomeislands
insouthernPhilippineshadcommunitieslinkedto[theseplaces],”Azurinsays.
Figure3:TheAgusanGoldVajralasyastatueattheFieldMuseuminChicago,IL.
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Thesecluesspeaktousacrosstheages,whisperingofamuchgranderepicthathasyetto
betold.
GeneticechoesoftheGreatMigration
Tracesofthisgranddiasporacanstillbefoundinthebloodofthedescendantsofthose
ancientpioneers—notallofwhomwerehuman.In2011,scientistsfromAustraliaNational
UniversitydiscoveredageneticlinktyingthepeopleofPolynesiatothePhilippinesina
veryunlikelyplace:themitochondrialDNAofchickens.
Bystudyingthecommongenetictraitsoftheanimalsthatpeoplehaddomesticatedand
broughtwiththem—whetherforfoodorcompanionship,likechickens,cows,anddogs—
VickiThomsonandherteamofresearchershopedtoshedmorelightonthemigration
patternsofancientPolynesians.Chickenbonesdugupfromarchaeologicalsiteswere
foundtocontainageneticsignaturethat’suniquetoPolynesiaandSoutheastAsia.Most
surprising,however,isthatthissignaturecanstillbefoundinmodernchickensin
CamiguinandManilainthePhilippines,suggestingthatPolynesianchickensaredescended
fromPhilippinestock.
ThespreadofPhilippinechickensacrossthePacificmaysimplyhavebeenthroughbarter
betweenearlyFilipinosandearlyPolynesians,whosailedbackandforthacrosstheopen
seasonnowlong-forgottentraderoutes.PerhapsaPolynesianfishermanfoundhimselfin
thePhilippinesand,findingthelocalfowlparticularlydelectable,decidedtotakeafew
withhimbackhome.Butit’smorelikelythatearlyFilipinosbroughtthechickenswith
themwhentheymigratedoutofthearchipelago,andtheirdescendantslaterbecamethe
Polynesians.
“Allwecansay[rightnow]isthatifthisisthesamegroupofpeoplemovingfromTaiwan
southtothePhilippines,theyonlypickedupthechickenfromthePhilippines,”Thomson
says.Shethinksthatfurtherresearchintorats,becauseofhowtheseunwantedstowaways
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followhumanswherevertheygo,canprovideabetterpictureofAustronesianmigration
patterns.
Andthenthere’sthegeneticevidencefromthedescendantsoftheexplorersthemselves.
Lookingatlinguisticevidencealonetotracemigrationpatternscanbetricky,saysthe
PhilippineGenomicsCenter’sFrederickDelfin,becauselanguagecanspreadindependently
ofpopulations.Youdon’tneedtobebornintoaculturetolearnitslanguage,afterall.
Forseveralyearsnow,hehasbeenpushingforacomprehensivesurveyofthegenetic
characteristicsofthePhilippines’over100ethnolinguisticgroups—theelusiveFilipino
Genome.StudiessofarhavebarelyscratchedthesurfaceofmodernFilipinos’genetic
makeup,hesays,buttheyprovidethemostpalpablepictureyetofthepeoplingofthe
Philippines.
Between1997and2005,teamsofinternationalresearcherscollectedoverathousandDNA
samplesfromsixregionalcentersandnineteenethnolinguisticgroupsacrossthecountry.
Thesesampleswerethencomparedwiththegenesofotherethnicpeoplesfromacross
AsiaandthePacific,aswellaswithDenisovans,anextinctcousinofmodern-dayhumans.
Delfinandhiscolleaguesdiscoveredthattoday’sFilipinosbearaclosegeneticaffinitywith
otherAsia-PacificgroupsthatlikelypredatestheAustronesianexpansion.
JustlikeWilcken,Delfinbelievesthatthere’smoretothestoryofthePhilippinesthanjust
successiveoutwardwavesofmigration.Hethinksthattherewasacomingandgoingof
peopleintheAsia-Pacificoverthousandsofyears.“OurFilipinoancestorsdidnotjustcome
intothearchipelagoandbecomeisolatedintheirnichesaftertheinitialpeopling.They
couldhavepossiblymovedaround…hadcontactwithothergroups,”Delfinsays.“Thenthe
AustronesianscameandsharedtheirlanguageandDNAwiththeearlyFilipinosalreadyin
thearchipelago.”
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PerhapsthefirstAustronesianstosetfootinthePhilippinesencounteredthedescendants
oftheKalingatoolmakersandofCallaoMan.Ifso,thenthePhilippineswaslikelyamajor
maritimehubformillenniabeforerecordedhistory—afertilegroundforthedevelopment
ofindigenousscienceandtechnology,particularlyinthewayofseafaring,mathematics,
andastronomy.
Thevoyagesofthebalangays
BythetimeSpanishconquerorsarrivedinthePhilippinesinthesixteenthcentury,they
cameuponalreadyhighly-developedmaritimesocietieswithseafaringtechnologycapable
ofmakingroutinevoyagesacrossthevastopenseas.Historicalrecordsfromasearlyasthe
tenthcenturyshowthatFilipinos’ancestorsregularlytraveledthroughoutSoutheastAsia
ontraderoutesthatwerebythenalreadywell-established—voyagesthatreachedasfaras
theeasterncoastofVietnamandallthewaynorthtoChina.Theseroutespredatebyat
leasthundredsofyearsMagellan'scircumnavigationoftheglobeaswellashisarrival,and
death,inthePhilippinesin1521.TheyareevenolderthantheChineseexplorerZhengHe's
expeditionacrossAsiain1400.
Figure4:TheSultanSinSulu,amodern-dayreplicabalangay.
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Therearestoriesofhand-carvedwoodenboatssolargethattheycouldcarryentire
extendedfamilies,yetwerelightenoughthattheycouldbeliftedontheshouldersofafew
dozenmenanddeployedatamoment’snotice.Nomeredugoutcanoes,theseflexibleboats
couldsailbothdeepoceanwatersandshallowislandreefs—aversatilitythatleftthe
Spaniards,withtheirgrossandheavyships,inawe.
Inhisjournal,Pigafettabrieflymentionedjustsuchanadvancedtypeofseacraftthatis
uniquetothePhilippines,whichhecalledabalanghai.AccordingtohistorianWilliam
HenryScott,theseboatsrepresentedaleveloftechnologyfaradvancedfromthatofthe
stone-agepeoplewhocolonizedEasterIsland,becauseofthewaytheplankswerejoined
togetherwithwoodenpegs.“Stonetoolsareprobablyinadequatefordrillingdeepholesin
thethinedgesofboards,”hewrote.“Itisthereforenotsurprisingthatedge-peggingdoes
notappearinthosedistantPacificIslandswhoseinhabitantspresumablymigratedthere
withoutmetal.”
Thistypeofboatwaslikelyincommonusethroughoutthearchipelagobecausevariations
ofthenameappearacrossallmajorPhilippinelanguages—oftenasbalangayor
barangay—allwiththesamemeaning:alarge,crescent-shapedvesselthatwasa
fundamentalpartofthecommunallivesofancientFilipinos.
OveracenturyafterPigafetta,in1668,aJesuitmissionarybythenameofFranciscoIgnacio
AlcinawroteanoverviewoflifeinthePhilippineIslandsfortheSpanishCrownand
includedinhisaccountaverydetaileddescriptionofthebalangay.Notasinglenailwas
usedinitsconstruction,heremarked.Itslongplankswerepainstakinglycarvedfrom
hardwoodtreetrunks,whichwerethenfittededge-to-edgewithwoodenpegsandcaulked
withfibersandresin.Eachplankhadcarvedintoitaseriesofraisedrectangularlugs—a
distinctivefeaturecalledatambuko—positionedatregularintervals,throughwhichholes
weredrilledandthreadedwithrattanstripsorcordsfromthecabonegropalmsoasto
formitstrademarkflexiblebulkhead.LikeanOrientalwindowblindorSpanishhandfan,
thisplank-built,edge-pegged,rope-lasheddesignallowedthelenticularcrafttoremain
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supplewhilestillretainingitsshapeasitwasthrownagainsttheharshoceanwavesand
shallowcoralreefs.
Attheheightoftheirgoldenage,balangayswereevensaidtohavebeencommissionedby
SpanishauthoritiestofendoffIslamicinvaders.Buttheirdominanceoftheseaswould
eventuallycometoanend.ThoughitisnotknownexactlywhenorwhynativeFilipinos
stoppedusingbalangays,thefabledcraftallbutdisappeared,fadingintostoryandlegend.
Allthatchangedin1976,whentreasurehuntersdiggingnotfarfromwheretheVajralasya
statuewasfoundunearthedasetofsoggywoodenplanksinamarshyplaininButuan,
Mindanao.Theseboards,asitturnedout,belongedtoasetofseacraftthatexactlymatched
Alcina’sdescription.Thesite,althoughnowinland,onceopenedouttothesea:allthe
balangayswere"drydocked"onwhatusedtobetheButuanseashore.Thatthevessels
weresowellpreservedislargelybecausetheywereburiedintact,andthesubmergenceof
theareaoversucceedingcenturieskeptthewoodfromdecaying.
ExactlyhowtheButuanbalangayscametorestthereisanenduringmystery.Perhapsthey
wereintentionallyburied,anofferingormemorialofsomekind.Perhapstheywereleft
behindafterasuddencataclysm,likeatsunamioralandslide.Ormaybetheyweresimply
abandonedandforgotten—butifso,why?Didtheirmakersmigrateelsewhere,orwere
theycapturedandsoldasslaves?Theanswerslikelylieburiedinthemarshlandsthatnow
blankettheancientshore.
Althoughlittlemorethanflattenedhardwoodstavesareallthatremainoftheseonce
majesticboats—mostoftheirfinertrappingshadlikelydecayedorhadbeenwashed
away—theirdesignstillspeaksoftheskilloftheirFilipinomakerswho,manygenerations
ago,painstakinglycarvedflotillasofbalangaysforroutinejourneysacrossAsia.
AftertheinitialfanfareovertheButuansitehaddieddown,littlechangedinthefour
decadessincethefirstbalangayswerediscovered.Themarshinwhichtheywerefoundis
nowprivatelandagooddistanceawayfromthemainroad.Itremainswaterlogged,
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surroundedbythicketsofcogongrass
andascatteringofcoconuttrees.
Occasionally,acarabaowaterbuffalo
crossesthemuddypathleadingtothe
site,butforthemostpartitreceives
fewvisitors.Mosttouristspreferto
visitthenearbymuseum,whereone
oftheoriginalbalangaysison
permanentdisplay.
In2009,atriadofreplicabalangay—
oneofwhichwasalsonamed
Diwata—successfullyundertooka17-
month-longsojournacrossSoutheast
Asia.Theirambitiousjourneyrivaled
ThorHeyerdahl’sfamous
demonstrationofoceanmigrationto
EasterIslandaboardthebalsa-wood
raftKon-Tikiin1947.Buteventhis
widelypublicizedfeatdidlittletospur
renewedinterestintheButuansite.
AmassivediscoveryinButuan
Excavationandpreservationeffortscontinuedatasnail’spaceovertheyearsuntil2012,
whenPhilippineNationalMuseumarchaeologistsstumbledontosomethingbigin
Butuan—literallyandfiguratively.Atfirst,thewoodenplanksthatpeekedoutofthedamp
earthseemedtothemlikejustyetanotherbalangay.Butastheexcavationworeon,they
realizedthattheyhadsomethingmuchlargerontheirhands.“Everythingaboutitwas
massive,”archaeologistMaryJaneLouiseBoluniarecallswhenshetalksaboutthe
discovery.Sheholdsupherhandandcurlsherfingersintoalargecircle.“That’sjustoneof
Figure5:ThecenterpieceoftheBalangayShrineMuseumin
Butuan,Mindanao.
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thetreenails.”Treenails,thetechnicaltermforthewoodenpegsusedtoputtheplanksofa
balangaytogether,areusuallyaboutasthickaroundasathumb.Thesenewfoundones
werethesizeofsodacans.
Theboardsoftheboatitselfwerewiderandlongerthananythingshehadseenbefore.
Twicethesizeofthoseusedonanyoftheothershipsatthesite,eachplankofwhatBolunia
wasnowfondlycallinga“motherboat”wasthebreadthofaman’schest—sobigthatthey
cannolongerbereplicatedtoday,becausetherearenomorelivingtreesinthecountry
thatarelargeenoughtomakethem.
Boluniatookoutapieceofonionskinpaperwithacarefullyinkedmapofthesite.Onthe
uppercornerwasaroughlypeapod-shapedboatwreck,about50feetlong,oneoftheeight
previously-discoveredbalangays.Butrightnexttoitweretheremainsofaninthbalangay
sowidethatitcouldeasilyfitthesmallercraftintoitselftwiceover—andthatwasjustthe
partthathadbeenuncovered.Althoughtheboathasyettobefullyexcavated,itis
estimatedtobeovereightyfeetlong,biggerthantwoschoolbuseslaidendtoend.
Thefindcausedquiteastiramongarchaeologistsbecauseitdirectlychallengedthenow
commonlyheldbeliefthatFilipinosembarkedoverseasonflotillasofsmallbalangays.The
discoveryofthismassivecraftsuggestedthatancientFilipinoscouldhaveorchestrated
theiroverseasvoyagesfromamainship,withthesmallervesselsperhapsservingas
supportshipsforprotectionaswellasforshuttlingpeopleandsuppliestoandfromthe
shore.Suchanarrangementhintsatacomplexmaritimesocialstructurethatwasmore
centralizedandorganizedthanpreviouslythought.
Thereisalsoanother,morechillingpossibility:thecraftmaybethefirstknownexampleof
aspecialtypeofbalangaythatterrorizedthePacificseaslongbeforetheEuropean
privateersandslaversoftheseventeenthcentury.Thisman-o-warwasspokenofin
hushedwhispersamongthepeopleofneighboringIndonesianislandsasakorakora.The
Spaniards,whoselumberingoceangoingcarrackswerenomatchforthevessel’sspeedand
agility,knewofitintheirtongueasacaracoa.LikeVikinglongships,thesebattle-ready
19
balangayswereasswiftastheywereterrifying,“intendedtocarrywarriorsathighspeeds
beforeseasonalwindsthroughdangerousreef-filledwaterswithtreacherouscurrentson
interislandraids,”accordingtoScott.
ThefearsomePhilippinekarakoafeaturedthesameversatileedge-peggedplank
constructionasitssmallerbrethren,butitwasnotdesignedforlongoverseasvoyages.It
borenoprovisions,storednotradegoods.Itwasoutfittedonlyforwar,witharaised
platformamidshipsmannedbywarriorsatthereadytoboardrivalboatsandtoswarm
enemyshores.Itwasalsodoubleended,withtripodsailsanddoubleoutriggersmannedby
dozensofpaddlerswhocouldchangeitsdirectioninaninstant.Theentireshipwasbuilt
withthesingularpurposeoflaunchingswiftsurpriseattacksonhaplessnearbytargets—
theblitzkriegtrooptransportofitsday.
ButapositiveidentificationofBolunia’sbeloved“MotherBoat”—beitamothershipora
warship—hastowait.Asof2018,overhalfadecadeafterthegiantbalangaywas
discovered,itremainssubmergedandwaterloggedonthesitewiththerestofitsbrethren.
Thisisthebesttheycandofornowtopreserveit.TheNationalMuseumisstillnegotiating
withtheownersofthelandtoacquiretheplotandhopefullyconvertitintoanoutdoor
museum.
Adifferentviewofnumbers,space,andtime
Theexistenceofthebalangayspointstowardacivilizationthatwassophisticatedenough,
intermsofsocialstructureandscientificskill,todrivethedevelopmentofsuchadvanced
maritimetechnology.
“Whenyouhaveaboatlikethat,itmeansacomplexorganizationisinplacealready,”
Jocanosays.“Whymakeabalangay?Youcan’tdoitallbyyourself.Boatbuildingconnotes
[theexistenceof]trade,warfare,migration,andfolklore.Andifyouhadexchangesof
goods,thenyoualreadyhadspecializationofproduction.”
20
OneofthehintswehaveofthepossiblescientificmindsetofancientFilipinosisaseriesof
scratchescarvedintoachalkywhitehillsideintheprovinceofAngono,Rizal,insouthern
Luzon.TheyaresaidtodatetothelateNeolithicperiod,about5,000yearsago—around
thesametimethatFilipinos’andPolynesians’ancestorswereventuringoutfromSoutheast
AsiaintothePacific.
Mostofthefiguresareofpeopleoranimals,withroundheadsandeitherrectangularorV-
shapedbodies.Buttherearealsoabstractfiguresaswell:triangles,rectangles,andcircles.
Themeaningsofthecarvingshavelongbeenforgotten,butthismuchiscertain:theywere
puttherebyafirmhand,etchedwithdecisivepurpose.
TohistorianRicardoManapat,thesesimpleyetabstractfiguresthatmakeuptheso-called
AngonoPetroglyphsareinstarkcontrasttothemorerealisticexecutionofEuropeanlithic
art.
HearguedthattheAngonofiguresareanindicationthatthePhilippines’stoneartistshad
anintuitiveeyeforthemathematicalandaestheticalconceptsofsymmetry,proportion,
Figure6:Aclose-upofsomeoftheAngonoPetroglyphs.
21
andscale.Thistendencytowardsgeometricabstractioncanstillbefoundtodayin
indigenousPhilippinecultures,fromthePicasso-likeangularhumanformsofthebulul
statuesoftheIfugao—whosevastriceterracesintheCordilleramountainsareatechnical
marvelinthemselves—tothecolorfullycomplexsymmetriesofthewovenclothsofthe
Kankana-eyandotherethnicgroups.
AncientFilipinos,likeothercultures,understoodtheworldontheirownterms.They
developedtheirownmeansofmakingsenseofwhatwasaroundthemand,ultimately,
madeuseofthatunderstandingfortheirownsurvival.Sometimes,basicscientificand
technologicalknowledgeoverlapped—theindependentinventionbyvarioussocietiesof
thewheelandthebowandarrowarejustacoupleofexamples—buttherewerealsoareas
inwhichancientdevelopmentsdifferedmarkedlyinwaysuniquetoeachculture.
Takesomethingassimpleandasubiquitousascounting.Itseemsnaturaltoustocountin
multiplesoften—because,afterall,that’showmanyfingersandtoeswehave.Itmakes
sensethatancienthumanswouldhaveusedtheirbodiesasgeneralunitsofmeasure,
becauseourunderstandingoftheworldbeginswithourselves.
ButFilipinoshadabasetennumbersystemwithitsownculturalpeculiaritiesanda
complexitythatamazedthecolonizingSpaniards,accordingtoManapat.
TheTagalogpeopleofLuzon,forexample,hadwordsforthecardinalnumbersonetonine
aswellasspecificrootwordsforthenumbers10;100;1,000;100,000;1,000,000;
10,000,000;andmultiplesthereof.Countinguptotheserootnumberswasn’tas
straightforwardassimplyaddingupinincrements.OldTagaloggrammarwascomplex,
andinsteaddescribedanumberintermsofhowcloseitwastothenearesthigherroot
number.Sounderthissystem,thenumber21isnotdescribedasoneinexcessoftwenty—
“twenty-one,”aswewouldputit—butasmaykatlongisa:“oneclosertothirty.”
Spanishobserversfoundthismethodnovelandorderly.FraySebastiandeTotanes,in
1745,calledit“arigorousmethod”constructedwith“ingeniousartifice.”It’sapractical
22
wayofthinkingstillinusetoday:it’snotuncommonforstreetvendorstogivechangeby
firstrecitingthepriceoftheirwaresthencountingupthemoneyastheyhanditout,until
theyreachtheamountgiventothembythecustomer.
AncientFilipinosalsothoughtoftimedifferently.Theygenerallyvieweditintermsof
subjectivemomentsratherthaninstrictlymeasuredobjectiveincrements.“The
conceptionoftimehereinthePhilippinesbeforetheEuropeansarrivedwasnot
Newtonian,”saysphysicistPecierDecierdo,whostudiedPolynesiannavigationtechniques.
“TherewasnotthisthingcalledTime,withacapitalT,athingseparatetotheeventsofthe
world.Thecyclesofnatureweretimeitself[tothem].”
FilipinoscholarPedroSerranoLaktawsaiditwas“exceptionallyoriginalandinteresting”
howancientFilipinos“managedtimethroughwhattheyobservedinthestars,inwhatthey
sawintheplantsandanimals,andwhattheynotedintheirnaturalmovements.”
NativewordsstillinusetodayhintatthissenseoftimeamongprecolonialFilipinosthatis
markedlydifferent,philosophicallyandconceptually,fromthewesternnotionsoftimethat
we’reusedto.Forexample,theTagalogwordforyear,taon,isalsotherootofotherwords
suchasopportunity(pagkakataon),coincidence(nagkataon),andevenweather(panahon).
Ontopofthis,thetaonwascloselytiedtoastronomicalevents—specificallythelunar
cyclesandtheperiodicappearanceofcertainconstellationssuchasOrionandthePleiades,
whichweresurroundedbytheirownmythologiesandbeliefs.
Lifeamongthestars
TothoseancientFilipinoswholivedinthearchipelagogenerationsaftertheGreat
Migration,theneedforsophisticatednavigationtechniquesmaynolongerhavebeen
necessary.Withbountifulsoilandaccessiblenearbywaters,theremayhavebeennoneed
topreservenavigationalknowledge.Butinitsplacearosetheneedtopredictthecoming
andgoingoftheseasons—specificallythenourishingmonsoonsthatarrivetowardsthe
23
endofeveryyear.Forthat,theyneededtolookupattheheavens,inwhichtheysawnot
justthefuturebutabitofthemselvesaswell.
PioneerPhilippineethnoastronomerDante
Ambrosiobelievedthattheconstellationsthat
ancientFilipinossawinthenightskywere
reflectionsoftheirsouls—theirculture,their
humanity,andtheirmortality.“Whentheancient
Filipinoslookeduptotheheavens,theydidn’tjust
seethesky.Theyalsosawtheirowncivilization,
especiallywherestarsareconcerned,”hewrote.
“Likeothercultures,theymappedontothesky
theirownuniqueness.Theyclaimedtheheavensas
theirown.”Hespentmuchofhislifeextensively
documentingfolknamesforthestarsand
traditionalbeliefsabouttheheavensamongnative
peoples.HepointedoutthatthePhilippines’many
ethnolinguisticgroupssharedcommonnamesfor
thestarsdespitehavinghundredsoflanguages—a
clearindicationoftheirsharedAustronesianroots.
TheearliestknownwrittendocumentationofancientFilipinos’astronomicalknowledgeis
fromthefourteenthcentury,byaFranciscanfriarnamedJuandePlasencia,whocameto
theislandsin1577ononeofthefirstmissionaryexpeditionsfromSpain.“Someofthem…
adoredthestars,althoughtheydidnotknowthembytheirnames,astheSpaniardsand
othernationsknowtheplanets—withtheoneexceptionofthemorningstar,whichthey
calledTala,”Plasenciawrote.Talaisstillincommonuseeventoday,asasynonymfor
“star.”HealsowrotethatFilipinostrackedotherconstellationsinthesky—theancients
calledthemtalampad—butnoneascloselyastwoformationsknownasBalatikand
Moroporo.
Figure7:AncientFilipinossawOrionasa
boartrap,calleda“balatik,”seenhereonthe
coverofDanteAmbrosio’sbookofthesame
name.
24
Balatic,asPlasenciacalledit,iswhatWesterncivilizationsknowasOrion.Centraltothe
figureisthetriadofstars:Zeta,Epsilon,andDeltaOrionis.ButwhereastheancientGreeks
sawthesethreeasthecinctureonahuntsman’srobe,theancientFilipinossawasharp
arrowpoisedtostrike.Theotherstarsofthehuntsman’sbody—Betelgeuse,Bellatrix,
Saiph,andRigel—wereseenasabow,withhisswordasitsbowstring.TheFilipinossawin
Orionnotaperson,butathing:akindofballista,anarmedboartrapcalledabalatik.Itis
bythisnamethatFilipinosacrossthearchipelagoknewthisconstellation,withonlyslight
differencesamongthemanylanguages:balatiktotheBagobosandTagalogs,bayatiktothe
Mandaya,andbelatiktotheManobos.
TheotherclusterofstarsthatPlasencianoted,whichhecalledMapolon,iswhatweknow
todayasthePleiades.AncientFilipinosknewitbysimilarnames,includingMoroporoand
Mulupulu,anditsundulatingshapewasdescribedas“boilinglights”or,perhapsmore
poetically,as“aflightofbirds.”
BothconstellationscometodominatetheskyaroundOctoberofeachyear,justatthestart
oftherainyseasonintimeforplanting.Theyappearlaterandlaterintheskyuntil,by
JanuaryorFebruary,theconstellationsrisesolatethattheybarelyriseabovetheeastern
horizon.Thishappensjustasthedaysgetlongertowardsthedryseason,aperfecttimefor
harvesting.
AllthisknowledgepasseddownthroughoraltraditionacrossgenerationsofFilipinos
mighthaveseemedverycrudetoSpanishcolonizers,whoweremoreusedtothe
immutableprecisionofnauticalchartsandastrolabesandsextants.It’seasytobelievethat
ancientFilipinoswereprimitive,becausetheydidn’tdevelopsuchtools.
Butperhaps,afteragesofmigrationandtravel,Filipinoshadnoneedtodosoatall.“They
wereoftenfamiliarwiththecurrentpatterns,thewindpatterns.Theyknewthetimeof
year.Theywouldknowtheseasons.SotheyknewthesethingsthattheEuropeanswere
unfamiliarwith,”Decierdosays.“Atoolliketheastrolabewasreallynotnecessaryinthe
contextofthewaythatindigenousFilipinosusedthestars.”
25
Decierdo’sownexperienceteachingastronomyatalocalsciencemuseummadehim
appreciatethevalueofethnoastronomyinpromotingpublicinterestinmodernscience
andtechnology.“WhatI’vecometorealizeisthatwhenyouinjectcultureandhistoryand
heritageinthepopularizationofastronomy,peopleseemtocareaboutastronomymore.
Becauseitceasestobeabstractand‘outthere’andunreachable,”hesays.
Anunfinishedtapestryforfutureexplorers
WhilefinishinghisastrophysicsdegreeinJapan,thePhilippineSpaceAgency’sSeseread
uponthenavigationalandastronomicaltraditionsofotherculturesandwonderedatthe
Philippines’ownbeliefsandpractices.HeeventuallyencounteredtheworkofAmbrosio
andwassurprisedatwhysucharichtraditionwasnolongerwidelypracticedandisnow
indangerofbeinglost.“It’sbarelytaughtinschools!AskanyFilipinoonthestreetwhat’s
theFilipinotermforconstellationandIwouldgive1,000pesostoanyonewhocananswer
itcorrectly,”helamented.
SesehadhopedtovisitAmbrosiouponhisreturntothePhilippines.Buttheirmeetingwas
notinthestars:thecountry’sonlyethnoastronomerpassedawayin2011fromalingering
illness.HisdeathwasprecededbyManapat’sin2008,andScott’sin1993.Betweenthem,
theirtentativeinquiriesintothetapestryofindigenousPhilippinescienceandtechnology
haveyettobepickedupbyanewgenerationofresearchers.
Andthentherearethephysicalthreadsofthestorythathaveyettobeunearthedin
Kalinga,Callao,Butuan,andelsewhereinthePhilippines.Eventheas-yetunsequenced
FilipinoGenomemayhaveitsownsurprisingsecretstotell.
Perhapsitisfitting,then,toreturntoallofthisjustastheFilipinopeopleareatthecuspof
anewjourneyofexplorationbeyondthefamiliarseasofourchildhood,tothestars.For
Sese,spaceexplorationandhistoricalappreciationaretwosidesofthesamecoin.“Allthis
interestinnewtechnologiescanmakeonewonderwhatwedidinthepast.It’sawayof
26
counteringthenaysayers:throughastronomy,wecanlearnaboutourowncultureand
identityasFilipinos,”hesays.Hiswordscalltomindacommonlocaladage:
—Ifyoudon’tlookbackatwhereyoucamefrom,youwon’tgettowhereyou’regoing.
Andwhoknowswherethisjourneywilllead?Archaeologistsinsomefar-distantfuture
mayfindnotadiminutiveFilipinosatellitebutsomethingmore—aspacefaringvessel,
perhaps,aninterstellarbalangay.
27
PHOTOCREDITS:
Figure1:NASA[PublicDomain]
Figure2:Bentonetal.AdaptedfromBellwoodetal.,(2011).doi:
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0035026.g001[CCBY4.0
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)]
Figure3:TimothyJamesM.Dimacali
Figure4:TimothyJamesM.Dimacali
Figure5:TimothyJamesM.Dimacali
Figure6:TimothyJamesM.Dimacali
Figure7:TimothyJamesM.Dimacali
28
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