From Flavr Savr Tomatoes to Stem Cell Therapy: YoungPeople’s Understandings of Gene Technology, 15 Yearson
Jenny Lewis
Published online: 4 August 2012� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract This paper explores knowledge and understanding of basic genetics and gene
technologies in school students who have been taught to a ‘science for all’ National Cur-
riculum and compares 482 students in 1995 (gene technology was a new and rapidly
developing area of science with potential to impact on everyday life; the first cohort of
students had been taught to the National Curriculum for Science) with 154 students in 2011
(genomics had replaced gene technology as a rapidly developing area of science with
potential to impact on everyday life; science as a core subject within the National Curriculum
was well established). These studies used the same questions, with the same age group
(14–16) across the same (full) ability range; in addition the 2011 sample were asked about
stem cells, stem cell technology and epigenetics. Students in 2011 showed: better knowledge
of basic genetics but continuing difficulty in developing coherent explanatory frameworks; a
good understanding of the nature of stem cells but no understanding of the process by which
such cells become specialised; better understanding of different genetic technologies but also
a wider range of misunderstandings and confusions (both between different genetic tech-
nologies and with other biological processes); continuing difficulty in evaluating potential
veracity of short ‘news’ items but greater awareness of ethical issues and the range of factors
(including knowledge of genetics) which could be drawn on when justifying a view or coming
to a decision. Implications for a ‘science for all’ curriculum are considered.
1 Background
With the introduction of the National Curriculum for England in 1989 science, for the first
time, became a compulsory part of the curriculum for all school students up to the age of 16.
The main justification for this was a perceived need to increase scientific literacy within the
general population (NCC 1993). What might be meant by ‘scientific literacy’, why it might
be desirable, whether it was possible or appropriate to try to achieve it through a school
J. Lewis (&)Centre for Studies in Science and Mathematics Education, ECS level 10, University of Leeds, LeedsLS2 9JT, UKe-mail: [email protected]
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Sci & Educ (2014) 23:361–379DOI 10.1007/s11191-012-9523-z
curriculum and if so how best to achieve it were all contentious issues (Millar 1996; Driver
et al. 1996; Lambert and Rose 1996; Marteau and Richards 1995; Layton et al. 1993;
Rutherford and Ahlgren 1990; Royal Society 1985). One of the few things on which people
seemed to agree was that, as a result of rapid advances in DNA technology, young people
might face choices and decisions about issues related to these technologies in their adult life.
If we wanted to explore the impact of this new science curriculum on the scientific literacy of
young people then their understandings of DNA technology as they came to the end of their
compulsory science education would be a good indicator. How well equipped were they for
engagement with issues that DNA technology might give rise to? A survey of 14–16 year olds
in 1995 aimed to provide a snapshot of this and focussed on the following questions:
• What knowledge and understandings did they have of basic genetics?
• What knowledge and understandings did they have of DNA technologies?
• Did this knowledge and understanding influence their attitudes to different uses of
DNA technology and/or their capacity for reasoned discussion of relevant social and
ethical issues?
Details of this study are summarised in Wood-Robinson et al. (1996).
In the intervening years, rapid advances in the field of genetics and DNA technology
have continued and the completion of the Human Genome Project has brought a revolution
in our understanding of genetics—it is now recognised that gene expression is a complex,
multi-factorial, process and that single gene characteristics are a rarity. This new under-
standing changes, in very fundamental ways, the nature and complexity of genetics related
issues which people may need to engage within their everyday lives. At the same time the
National Curriculum for Science has gone through many changes. In the early years there
was extensive prescription of science content, with minimal reference to the nature of
science or science in society and no expectation that ‘ideas about science’ would be
included in national tests and exams (DES 1991). The most recent version (QA 2007a, b) is
a more flexible curriculum in which ‘how science works’ is integrated into content and
embedded in examination questions.
Given all these changes have there been any corresponding changes in school students’
knowledge and understandings of genetics and gene technology, or their ability to engage
with related social and ethical issues, as they come to the end of their compulsory education?
In 2011 this was explored through a new study of school students aged 14–16 which used the
original questions and tasks, expanded to include some coverage of recent developments.
This paper reports data from both the 1995 and 2011 studies and addresses two questions:
• What knowledge and understandings of basic genetics and gene technologies do school
students have in 2011?
• How does this compare with that of school students in the 1995 sample?
It also considers implications for the development of a school curriculum which can
prepare young people for engagement with genomics and related issues in their adult lives.
2 Methodology
2.1 The Two Samples
The intention of the original (1994–1996) study was to provide a ‘snapshot’ of the 1995
cohort of school students. To make this snapshot as representative as possible a sample of
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more than 700 school students aged 14–16 was drawn from 12 schools (purposely sampled
to maximise diversity). Within each school the students from three classes, selected by
teachers to represent the range of ability and achievement within the school, participated.
All of these students had completed the main genetics component of their course (for full
details of coverage see Lewis and Wood-Robinson 2000). The design of the 1995 study
was complex:
• knowledge and understanding of basic genetics was explored through a combination of
closed and open written questions answered individually and small group discussion
tasks;
• knowledge and understanding of DNA technology was explored using closed and open
written questions answered individually, closed and open written questions answered
after discussion with a partner and some small group discussion tasks;
• engagement with, and attitudes to, issues relating to the use of gene technology were
mostly explored through closed and open written questions answered after discussion
with a partner and small group discussion tasks facilitated by interviewers who
encouraged students to articulate their thinking.
Details of the written questions can be found in Lewis et al. (1997a); details of the
discussion tasks can be found in Leach et al. (1996), Lewis et al. (1997b) and Wood-
Robinson et al. (2000). The sample was stratified across the three different foci and 482
students from the 1995 survey were asked to respond to the questions which were also used
in the 2011 study and which are reported in this paper; these related to knowledge and
understanding of genetics and knowledge and understanding of gene technology.
The 2011 sample of 154 students aged 14–16 was drawn from seven classes with seven
different teachers across three schools. The schools represented urban, suburban and semi-
rural catchment areas and each was asked to select three classes which had been taught the
genetics component of their exam syllabus and represented the full range of ability and
achievement within the school. For reasons linked mostly to timetabling and assessment
pressures only one school was able to offer all three classes; the second offered a high and
a middle achieving group, the third offered a high and a low achieving group. Details of the
two samples are presented in Table 1. For an explanation of the exam options and a
consideration of the changing relationship between curriculum and assessment see the
discussion section.
All students participating in these studies were told about the research projects and their
purposes (in particular that our interest was in students’ ideas and understandings, not their
ability to get the right answer), assured that their responses would be confidential, assured
that any comparisons would be made at the ‘population’ level only (not at the individual,
class or school level) and given time at the end of data collection to ask any questions that
they wanted.
2.2 Data Collection
Data collection was based on written questions in which self reported knowledge claims
based on closed response questions were explored further through open ended follow up
questions. The questions focussed on: knowledge and understanding of basic genetic terms;
knowledge and understanding of gene technologies; awareness and understanding of how
gene technologies can be used—potential, limitations and factors which might influence
this. Each set of questions was drawn from the original (1994–1996) study with extensions,
using a similar format, to probe the students knowledge of more recent developments.
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These new questions focussed on stem cells and stem cell technology as this topic was
already embedded within exam syllabuses for this age group. The content and format of the
questions is summarised below (extension questions are in italics). Because these questions
were designed to probe what an individual knows, understands or believes students were
asked to complete them individually, without discussion with peers. Data were collected by
the researcher, working directly with the students; their written responses were not shared
with their class teacher.
2.2.1 Genetic Terminology
Students were asked if they had heard of the following terms and to tick one response (yes,
no or maybe) for each term: gene, DNA, allele, genetic information, the genetic code, stem
cell, epigenetics.
For each term they had heard of they were asked to answer follow up questions, in their
own words:
• ‘How would you describe … (genes, DNA, alleles) …?’
• ‘What are stem cells?’
• ‘Why are … (genes, DNA, alleles, stem cells) … important?’
• ‘What is meant by ‘The Genetic code’?’
• ‘What does ‘epigenetic’ mean?’
2.2.2 Genetic Technologies
Students were asked if they had heard of the following techniques and again asked to tick
one response (yes, no or maybe) for each technique: genetic engineering, cloning, DNA
testing, stem cell therapy.
For each technique they had heard of they were asked to complete follow up statements
in their own words:
• ‘I heard about … genetic engineering, cloning, DNA testing, stem cell therapy… in/
on:’
• ‘I think that … genetic engineering, cloning, DNA testing, stem cell therapy… means:’
• ‘An example of … genetic engineering, cloning, DNA testing, stem cell therapy…would be:’
Table 1 The two samples
The sample Number ofschool students
Number ofschools
Number of classes Exam options
1995 482 8 8 9 high achievers8 9 middle ability8 9 low achievers
24 9 dual award
2011 154 3 3 9 high achievers2 9 middle ability2 9 low achievers
3 9 triple award2 9 dual award (additional)1 9 dual award (applied)1 9 Nationals
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These examples were chosen as they have been explicitly included in different versions of
the National Curriculum for Science and/or various exam syllabuses. To pick up on any
additional knowledge which the 2011 students might have they were also asked:
• ‘Have you heard of any other genetic techniques?’ (tick: yes/no); ‘If so, please list
these…..’;
• ‘Have you heard of the Human Genome Project?’; ‘If so where did you hear about
it…?’ and ‘What do you know about it…?’.
2.2.3 Possibilities and Limitations of Gene Technology
The ability to read, evaluate and respond to popular news items about scientific devel-
opments might reasonably be included in any definition of scientific literacy. In addition,
preliminary work for the 1994/6 study made explicit the importance of context when
asking for opinions or views (Lewis and Leach 2006). The students’ views on what is, and
what is not, possible were explored through ‘stop press’ scenarios (renamed ‘News Flash’
to update them a little for the 2011 sample) which described, as if fact, different ways in
which gene technology might be used. Two scenarios were drawn from the original study
(Figs. 1 and 2); a third (Fig. 3) was developed specifically for the 2011 study. These
scenarios described one use which would be impossible to achieve (‘And You Thought It
Was All In Your Jeans’), one which was already in use (‘Milk—the new wonder drug’) and
one which was potentially possible but not generally accepted or in use (‘New Brains for
Old’ replacing the original, ‘Flavr Savr’ scenario).
Similar questions were asked about each scenario:
• Do you think this is a true report? (tick one response; yes or no).
• If ‘yes’, complete the statement: ‘I think this is a true report because: ‘
• If ‘no’, tick one response from the following options: it is possible but not being done;
it will be possible soon; it might be possible some time; it is impossible) and give your
reasons for thinking this (‘because…’.)
2.3 Data Analysis
The main interest was in knowledge and common understandings within the populations as
a whole and whether this had changed in our new genomic era rather than the way
individual students made sense of gene technology across a range of contexts.
Fig. 1 News flash 1
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Consequently data analysis was at the level of the whole sample rather than individual
schools, classes or students and was quantitative as well as qualitative.
2.3.1 Approach
The number of students responding to each part of each question was recorded.
Tick responses to each of the closed questions were counted and the frequency of each
response was recorded.
An ideographic coding scheme characterising the range of responses at the population
level was developed for each open question through an iterative process based on analysis
of individual student responses. All student responses were then coded using these schemes
and the frequency of particular responses determined. Coding schemes produced for the
original study and validated at that time through discussion between researchers were used
to code the 2011 data; where new categories emerged from the 2011 data these were added
into the existing coding schemes. The resulting frequencies were then used to:
• characterise the knowledge and understanding of gene technologies within each
population;
Fig. 2 News flash 2
Fig. 3 News flash 3
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• compare and contrast knowledge and understanding of gene technologies between the
two populations.
Where appropriate, differences (either within or between populations) were tested for
significance using Chi-square with a p value \ 0.05.
The categories used in the coding schemes were overlapping in so far as an individual
response might relate to more than one category and for this reason the frequency of
responses sometimes add up to more than 100 %. For example, in responding to open
questions about ‘genes’ one individual might refer to location, structure and function (in
which case their response would be registered in three different coding category) while
another might refer only to function (so their response would only be recorded in one
coding category).
3 Outcomes
Across both samples students were usually able to answer the fixed response questions but
were not always able to expand on these by giving a response to the open questions. For
this reason, the percentage who gave an open response are reported for each data set.
3.1 Knowledge and Understanding of Terminology
The number of responses to this set of questions were: 477 (1995); 152 (2011).
Responses to the question ‘have you heard of…’, for both years, are summarised in
Fig. 4. The 2011 cohort appear to be generally more aware of this terminology and the
increase in the proportion who had heard of ‘Genetic Code’ and ‘DNA’ is statistically
significant.
The percentage who went on to say something about each term is shown in Table 2. In
general the 2011 cohort appear to be more willing to say something about each term.
Understanding of this terminology is summarised in Table 3 (frequencies are given as a
percentage of those who gave some kind of open response to each term). The number of
responses to open questions about alleles and the genetic code increased substantially
between 1995 and 2011 but were still low when compared with response rates for other
Fig. 4 Percentage reporting they had heard of each term
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open questions (alleles: 12 % of whole sample in 1995, 22 % in 2011; the genetic code:
36 % of the whole sample in 1995; 51 % in 2011).
The majority of the 2011 cohort had heard of stems cells and most of these were able to
give a description of stem cells which was compatible with the science but there was no
reference to the process by which such cells became specialised.
Only two people responded to the open question about epigenetics. One described it as
‘the ultimate gene’ the other as ‘something that tampers with or alters the way genes are
processed’.
Table 2 The proportion of those saying something about each term, as a percentage of those who had heardof each term
Gene DNA Allele Stem cell Genetic info Genetic code Epigenetics
1995 83.6 67.1 32.4 N/A 68.1 89.5 N/A
2011 98.6 93.3 52.4 73.2 N/A 90.7 100
Table 3 Understandings of the terminology
Term Category Frequency of response as a% of the open responses
1995 2011
Genes Determining characteristics 59 88
Carrying/passing on information 15 35
Instructions for making enzymes or proteins 0 8
Made up of genetic material/DNA 17 17
Made up of other cell structures e.g.chromosomes or nucleus
34 6
Only found in specific regions of the body e.g.reproductive system
20 \1
Important for control 3 3
DNA Defines living things 30 78
Provides information/instructions (general) 14 18
Provides instructions to make proteins 0 4
Found in specific cells/tissues e.g. blood 19 8
Anthropocentric: provide useful informatione.g. genetic fingerprinting
6 16
Made up of bases 0 2
Alleles Determine characteristics (general) 5 9
Refers to variations of a gene and gene expression 0 19
Stem cell An unspecialised cell N/A 18
Which can develop into any type of cell N/A 49
Refer to our use of stem cells to treat disease N/A 48
Genetic code (unique) information within a person 12 27
The structure or organisation of DNA (general) 10 14
Refer to bases 0 33
Refer to patterns or combinations of bases 0 3
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3.2 Knowledge and Understanding of Gene Technologies
The number of responses to this set of questions were: 481(1995); 152 (2011).
Responses to the question ‘have you heard of…’, for both years, are summarised in
Fig. 5a. While there is a large and statistically significant increase in the percentage of
students who say they have heard of cloning there is also a statistically significant decrease
in the percentage of those who say they have heard of DNA testing. 32 % of the 2011
cohort said they had heard of other techniques. The production of tissue cultures (11 % of
sample) was listed most frequently, followed by asexual reproduction of some form (9 %).
Gene modification, test tube babies, DNA fingerprinting and embryo screening were also
mentioned.
Responses to the question ‘where did you hear about…’, for both years, are summarised
in Fig. 5b–d (note: the three figures use different scales). The number of students in the
1995 cohort who claimed to have heard about gene technologies in the media was much
higher than the number who claimed to have heard about them at school—despite the
inclusion of genetic engineering and cloning in the school curriculum (DES 1991). Of
those who were explicit about the media source the majority referred to fiction (78 ref-
erences, mostly to science fiction, compared with 32 references to factual programmes or
articles). In contrast, the 2011 cohort were far more likely to have heard about the different
technologies at school. These differences between the two cohorts were statistically
significant.
The proportion of those saying something about each technique, as a percentage of
those who had heard of each technique is shown in Table 4. For DNA Testing and Stem
Cell Therapy in particular, the open questions seemed to stimulate their thinking, so that
more students answered the open questions than said they had heard of the technique.
Understanding of these techniques is summarised in Table 5 (frequencies are given as a
percentage of those who gave some kind of open response to each term). The 2011 sample
were much more likely to confuse genetic engineering with a range of other techniques
such as selective breeding, cloning, in vitro fertilisation and sperm donning and to confuse
DNA testing with genetic engineering or actual fingerprinting. Only 5 % of the 2011
sample reported having heard of the Human Genome Project and the few who went on to
give any explanation referred (in very general terms) to its importance in medicine and in
helping us to learn more about the human body: ‘When scientists map out the entire human
genome for medical use and to know more about the human body’.
3.3 Possibilities and Limitations of Gene Technology
The number of students giving a tick response for each ‘News Flash’ and the number of
these who went on to give their reasons are shown in Table 6.
Responses to ‘Do you think this report is true?’ are summarised for each of the three
‘News Flash’ scenarios in Fig. 6a–c. Students were given 5 options (1 = this is true; 2 = it
is possible but not being done; 3 = it will be possible soon; 4 = it might be possible some
time; 5 = it is impossible) and asked to select just one. Those that gave no tick response
but chose to give an open response were classified as ‘not sure’. There was a statistically
significant difference in the distribution of responses across these categories for two of the
‘News Flash’ reports: ‘…. All In Your Jeans’ and ‘Milk—the new wonder drug’. In
particular, in response to ‘…. All In Your Jeans’ the 2011 cohort showed a large increase in
those thinking that it was possible but not being done and a decrease in those thinking that
it wasn’t possible yet but would be sometime soon; in response to ‘Milk—the new wonder
From Flavr Savr Tomatoes to Stem Cell Therapy 369
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drug’ the 2011 cohort showed a decrease in those who were not sure and a large increase in
those thinking it might be possible at some time. The implications—that they are more
aware of what is/might be possible but also more aware of potential restrictions—are
supported by analysis of their justifications.
a
b
c
d
Fig. 5 a Percentage reportingthey had heard of each technique.b Percentage reporting they hadheard of the technique in inschool. c Percentage reportingthey had heard of the techniquein the media. d Percentagereporting they had heard of thetechnique elsewhere
370 J. Lewis
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Table 4 The proportion of those saying something about each technique, as a percentage of those who hadheard of each technique
Genetic engineering Cloning DNA testing Stem cell therapy HGP
1995 87.3 85.6 83.0 N/A N/A
2011 96.1 92.9 105.8 124.0 37.5
Table 5 Understandings of the techniques
Technique Category Frequency of response as a% of the open responses
1995 2011
Genetic engineering Change, manipulate or edit genes 19 58
Produce new or novel organisms to order 20 6
To improve/make something better 0 24
Refers to attitudes 8 \2
Confused with other techniques or their products 5 23
Cloning Copying genes, genetic information, living things 9 59
Coping something (not specific/not biological) 23 17
Making something (no indication of copying) 3 5
Refers to attitudes 2 0
Confused with other techniques or their products 3 \2
DNA testing To compare or identify something (people or diseases) 21 60
To find out more about DNA or genes 16 15
Refers to attitudes 0 0
Confused with other techniques or their products 2 9
Stem cell therapy To treat illness or repair damaged tissues/organs N/A 51
Refers to attitudes N/A 0
Confused with plant biology N/A 2
Confused with other technologies N/A 2
Table 6 Numbers responding to the ‘News Flash’ scenarios
‘… all in your jeans’ ‘Milk the wonderdrug’
‘New brains forold’
1995 2011 1995 2011 1995 2011
Number of students giving a tickresponse
304 141 304 127 N/A 127
Number of students giving reasons 149(49 %)
135(98 %)
128(42 %)
110(87 %)
N/A 112(88 %)
From Flavr Savr Tomatoes to Stem Cell Therapy 371
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a
b
c
Fig. 6 a Percentage giving each response for ‘…in your jeans!’. b Percentage giving each response for‘milk the wonder drug’. c Percentage giving each response for ‘new brains for old’
372 J. Lewis
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The students’ justifications for their response to each News Flash are reported as a
percentage of those who gave a reason and are summarised in Table 7. These are broken
down further for the 2011 sample under three headings: True [T]; Possible [PS—a con-
flation of all ‘possible’ options]; Not Possible [NP]—see Table 8. A more detailed look at
the justifications used by the 2011 sample showed that:
• Generally students were optimistic about what science can achieve with more than
twice as many giving a positive slant (‘every day different things are being discovered
in science and this would be possible because things keep getting discovered’) than a
negative one (‘our technology is not near enough advanced to help cure the brain.
Especially from a simple thing like a shot of cells’)
• Ethical or moral issues were seen as a major reason why something might be possible
eventually but wasn’t being done now (because…’of human rights, though they will get
rid of diseases and illnesses’; ‘….of ethical reasons. Many would think—including I—
that it is simply not right. Not natural. I’m not a religious person but some would say it
is against Gods will’).
• There was also a view, specifically relating to ‘… all in your jeans’, that such a use of
technology was illegal.
• When drawing on their personal knowledge to support their views, most restricted
themselves to ‘I’ve heard of it’ or ‘I haven’t heard of it’ but up to one-third (depending
on the context) made links with other techniques they had heard of (‘I have heard of
Table 7 Summary of reasons as a percentage of all open responses to each ‘News Flash’
Reasons related to: ‘.. all in yourjeans’ %
‘Milk the wonderdrug’ %
‘New brains forold’ %
1995 2011 1995 2011 1995 2011
Personal knowledge 14 19 5 21 N/A 33
Views of science of and what it can achieve 29 30 16 37 N/A 28
Understandings of genetics 4 21 \1 16 N/A 17
Moral and ethical perspectives 9 32 2 10 N/A 7
Table 8 Breakdown of 2011 reasons by tick response
Reasons related to: ‘… all in yourjeans’ %
‘Milk the wonderdrug’ %
‘New brains forold’ %
T PS NP Total T PS NP Total T PS NP Total
Personal knowledge 13 6 0 19 6 14 1 21 13 20 0 33
Views of science of and what it can achieve 2 27 \1 30 2 35 0 37 0 24 4 28
Understandings of genetics 7 10 4 21 2 5 9 16 11 4 2 17
Moral and ethical perspectives 3 29 0 32 1 8 1 10 0 7 0 7
Other views
It’s illegal 0 9 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
It’s risky \1 2 0 \3 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0
T true (code 1), PS possible (codes 2–4 combined), NP not possible (code 5)
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this before and could believe some parents would do this. It s just like genetic
engineering’) and a few introduced caveats (‘I think it is being done but it doesn’t fully
cure the brain’).
• More than half of those using their understanding of genetics to justify their view
showed a correct understanding of the science but several (particularly in response to
‘… all in your jeans’) expressed a view that was incompatible with their science
explanation (‘I think you can choose your babys gender but don’t think you can choose
any of that other stuff and I don’t think intelligence is inherited’; given as a justification
for why ‘… all in your jeans’ was true)
• A number of students combined reasons to build an argument based on multiple
perspectives to support their view (‘I have heard of the term designer babies, however I
don’t think that intelligence is genetical and I also think that it would cost more and
there are ethical issues‘; given as a justification for why ‘… all in your jeans’ was
possible but not being done).
4 Discussion
The 2011 cohort showed a greater awareness of genetic terminology common to both
surveys (particularly ‘genetic code’ and DNA) and a more secure understanding of the
structures and processes that these terms represent. For example, at a basic level they were
more aware of the link between genes or DNA and characteristics, more likely to refer to
instructions or information embedded within genes or DNA and much less likely to suggest
that genes and DNA are only found in particular cells or tissues in the body. Unlike the
1995 cohort there was evidence across a number of questions that at least some of this
cohort were aware of a relationship between DNA, bases and protein production, although
they rarely demonstrated a scientifically valid understanding of this relationship (‘DNA
controls the reactions made by amino acids in the body’). Many still seemed to equate the
genetic code with the genome, and to see this as a set of instructions unique to each
individual (‘Develops your features and characteristics making everyone individuals’).
Students across both years found the concept of an allele difficult, as judged by the limited
number of responses, but students in 2011 who did give some explanation or description
showed a developing understanding of alleles and their potential influence on character-
istics, referring to variations of a gene, pairs of genes, dominant and recessive relationships
and genotypes and phenotypes (‘it is two copies of the same instruction’; ‘They are the
different strands of DNA (?) that determine a persons characteristics (e.g. blue eye allele).
Some are dominant and some are recessive.’). There was very little evidence of these ideas
in responses from the 1995 cohort. Over all, despite this greater breadth of knowledge and
ideas about terminology the 2011 cohort seemed to experience the same difficulties as the
1995 sample in using this to develop a coherent explanatory framework—something which
they might apply across a range of contexts and could build on as and when a need arose.
The picture was not quite so clear cut when looking at gene technologies. A substan-
tially greater percentage of the 2011 cohort showed a better understanding of each tech-
nique than the 1995 sample (Table 5) but the high proportion of students who weren’t sure
they had heard of the technique but then went on to say something (Table 4) suggests that
for many this knowledge was insecure and tentative. In 2011 there was a significant
increase in the number who had heard of cloning, more than half of these went on to
answer the open questions and their responses were generally compatible with a basic
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understanding of cloning—some even described the process used to produce Dolly the
Sheep in some detail. At the same time, there was a significant decrease in the number who
had heard of DNA testing. Given the frequency of references to this technique in the
media, from police dramas and soaps to news and popular science programmes this
response was surprising but perhaps relates to the significant increase in the role of the
school as the source of information about genetic technologies for the 2011 cohort. More
than 80 % of both cohorts reported that they had heard of genetic engineering but there was
a difference in emphasis in relation to purpose—while the 1995 cohort emphasised novelty
or making something new to order the 2011 cohort emphasised improving or making
something better. There was also a difference in understanding, with a much higher pro-
portion of the 2011 cohort giving a description compatible with the science (58 % of
responses compared with 19 % in 1995). Despite this, nearly a quarter of responses in 2011
confused genetic engineering with a wide range of other techniques. The design of this
study doesn’t give any direct insights as to why that might be but is a further indication that
their knowledge about these techniques is not very secure. There was no ambiguity about
their limited awareness and understanding of the Human Genome Project—only 5 % had
heard of this and about one-third of these (\2 % of the cohort) went on to say something.
Most of the 2011 cohort had heard of stem cells and most of these correctly understood
the particular and useful characteristics of stem cells—almost 40 % of the cohort described
them as unspecialised cells which could (be made to) develop into any type of cell or tissue
and a similar number also recognised that as a result they could be used to treat disease,
provide skin grafts etc. A few also recognised the ethical implications (‘Unfortunately, the
best type of stem cell is the embryonic cell’). Despite their awareness of how stem cells
might be used these students seemed unsure about their awareness and understanding of
stem cell therapy. More students said something about stem cell therapy (44 % of the
cohort) than initially said they had heard of it (35 % of the cohort); of those who said
something about half (*22 % of the cohort) gave a scientifically valid description. There
was no indication that these students were aware of the basic processes by which stem cells
became specialised. A simple explanation of epigenetics could have helped them to
understand this process and given them a starting point for thinking about genomics but
only 2 students reported that they had heard the term and just one student was able to give
an explanation which was broadly compatible with the science.
In writing about stem cells there was a strong tendency to express themselves in
anthropocentric ways (‘Cells that can be made to do anything’; ‘these can be told to
become a type of cell and cure genetic diseases’). This was also noticeable when they were
writing about DNA.
Both cohorts found it difficult to use their knowledge to evaluate the possible truth-
fulness of the News Flash items. Although the 2011 cohort demonstrated a greater
knowledge and understanding of genetics when giving reasons for their decisions they
didn’t seem able to use this knowledge effectively when coming to a view. Within the
combination of characteristics set out in the first scenario (‘… All In Your Jeans’) only
gender and (possibly) some genetic diseases can be identified with any confidence and it is
extremely unlikely that height and IQ, being multifactorial, could ever be selected for
yet almost half the students, in both cohorts, thought it was ‘true’ or ‘possible but not being
done’—despite sometimes stating that IQ is not genetic/can’t be selected for. In 2011 there
was a decrease in those saying it was true and a big increase (from 15 to 32 %) in those
saying that it was possible but not done. This might reflect the greater awareness of ethical
issues shown by these students, many of whom cited ethical objections and a belief that it
was illegal as their reasons for thinking this.
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The second scenario (‘Milk—the new wonder drug’) summarised a technique that had
already been in use for over a year when the first cohort were questioned in 1995 but only
*20 % of either group thought it was ‘true’ or ‘possible but not being done’ while a
similar proportion of both groups thought it was impossible. The 2011 cohort had a more
positive long term view with more than 40 % saying that it might be possible ‘sometime’
(but not soon). These responses suggest that the whole idea is counter-intuitive to many of
the students. In part this might be linked to particular understandings of the words ‘drug’
and ‘medicine’ but it might also be linked to a belief that it isn’t possible to put genes from
a human into another animal (Lewis et al. 1997b).
‘New Brains for Old’ set out the current situation in relation to stem cell technology.
Although the techniques are theoretically possible legal and ethical reservations have
limited opportunities to put theory into practice and reliable evidence of stem cells being
successfully used in this way are difficult to find. Generally the 2011 cohort seemed to feel
more comfortable with this scenario, although a few thought it was too ridiculous to
engage with. Almost 30 % thought it was a true report, mostly drawing on personal
knowledge (general) and knowledge of genetics to justify their view but despite the
important influence of ethical considerations on the use of this technology they were less
likely to raise ethical issues when giving their reasons.
Although the knowledge of students in 2011 seemed insecure at times, there was little
evidence of them developing coherent explanatory frameworks and they had some diffi-
culty applying their developing knowledge of genetics when evaluating the scenarios and
coming to a view they seemed to be more confident in their knowledge (as evidenced by
their greater willingness both to respond to the questions and to give their reasons) and to
have a better understanding of basic genetics—which they frequently applied when
explaining or justifying their tick responses. This suggests that gene technology, including
stem cell technologies, has become well established within the 14–16 curriculum for
science in England. There was also evidence that the emphasis on ‘How Science Works’
within this curriculum was having an impact, with students in 2011 showing greater
awareness of social and ethical issues and how to present a ‘balanced’ argument, including
different perspectives and caveats—something which was unusual in the 1995 responses to
the ‘News Flash’ scenarios. Responses which set out a range of different factors which
might influence the probability of a technique being both possible and acceptable (as
illustrated earlier) were less common and only found in the 2011 sample.
To some extent these ‘gains’ were a little surprising. Although the curriculum is set
nationally by the government it is interpreted by the exam boards, in preparation for the
external exams which mark the end of lower secondary education (the GCSE’s—General
Certificates in Secondary Education). When the National Curriculum was first introduced
virtually all students in state schools (including the original 1995 cohort) took the same
type of exam—dual award science, equivalent to two GCSE’s. Since then there have been
many changes, resulting in much greater diversity of exam options and this was reflected in
the options being taken by the new (2011) sample—triple award in separate sciences (3
GCSE’s: biology, chemistry and physics), dual award in science (2 GCSE’s: core science
and additional science), dual award in science (2 GCSE’s: core science and applied sci-
ence, a more vocational option) and ‘Nationals’ in science (a vocational qualification
intended to have parity with GCSE’s). There is a corresponding diversity in content across
these different qualifications so that the extent to which the curriculum could be considered
truly ‘National’ has become open to question, so it is re-assuring to find that knowledge of
basic genetics has increased to such an extent across the full range of students and courses.
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5 Implications for the Curriculum
One reason for including science as a core subject in the national curriculum was the
perceived need to increase scientific literacy within the general population. It is clear from
the results of this study that as understanding of genetics and its potential applications has
continued to develop within the science community there has been a trickle-down effect
into schools. Fifteen years after the first cohort of secondary students completed the
national curriculum for science there is some evidence of enhanced knowledge—of basic
genetics; of gene technologies and their limitations; of the issues and concerns which such
technologies can give rise to—across the student population. Evidence of an enhanced
ability to apply this knowledge in everyday situations is more limited. Despite a broader
knowledge base there is still no evidence of students developing coherent explanatory
frameworks which they can apply to new situations or contexts; despite greater awareness
of issues and concerns relating to the use of different gene technologies and the range of
criteria which might be considered when coming to a view about these, very few students
moved beyond uncritical presentation of alternative views to demonstrate a critical eval-
uation of different views. These are outcomes that might be predicted for a curriculum
strongly driven by a narrow view of assessment based on closed questions with short
answers.
The 2011 cohort mostly demonstrated a traditional view of genetics (one gene; one
protein). Does this matter? It could be argued that a ‘traditional’ model of genetics pro-
vides a good starting point for developing an understanding of the complexities of
genomics but there was little evidence that these students had any awareness of genomics,
despite the potential offered by the inclusion of stem cells. Perhaps it is unreasonable to
expect this. Fifteen years ago most students’ knowledge of genetics was weak and frag-
mented (not one of the 1995 sample made any link between genes or DNA and the
production of proteins). Genomics is a relatively new and rapidly developing field—
perhaps in 15 years time it will be equally commonplace in the classroom and students will
demonstrate a developing understanding of its complexities. Within the existing UK
curriculum, developing the teaching of stem cells to include a simple explanation of the
process of specialisation and re-enforcing this with a more explicit explanation of stem cell
therapy could provide an accessible first step towards developing a genomics perspective.
More generally there is a growing concern that, given the pace of developments and the
potential impact on our daily life, genomics needs to be explicitly embedded within the
core curriculum (see for example: Nowgen 2011; Boerwinkel and Waarlo 2009, 2011).
This raises important questions about the design of a genomics curriculum for scientific
literacy. Findings from this study suggest that it will not be enough to think about content
(for example, identifying a basic set of ideas which are accessible to all students and can
prepare them for future engagement with genomics) but also how it is taught (how students
can move from piecemeal accumulation of factual knowledge to the development of
coherent understandings which can be applied across a range of contexts; how to develop
skills of critical evaluation, decision making and reasoned argument in relation to
genomics) and how it might be assessed (how to ensure that the intended curriculum is not
reduced to those elements which can most easily be assessed). It also raises questions about
the sorts of professional development which can support science teachers in achieving the
intended goals of scientific literacy. Levinson and Turner (2001) found that the majority of
science teachers, while believing that students should have the opportunity to explore
issues related to biomedical science, felt that the science teacher’s role was to present the
facts and not to deal with social or ethical issues. Student responses in the present study
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suggest that science teachers are still uncomfortable with the inclusion of social and ethical
issues in the science curriculum and deal with these by identifying ‘for’ and ‘against’
statements which students can combine to produce a ‘balanced’ view. The recent Nowgen
report (2011) also shows that most science teachers feel they lack the necessary subject
knowledge and expertise to teach about genomics and related issues and need additional
training and developmental time.
Perhaps the most immediate concern is the need to support the development of coherent
conceptual frameworks which would enable students to use their basic knowledge, as and
when they need, in their adult lives.
Acknowledgments The author would like to acknowledge the support and direction of the original projectteam (Ros Driver, Colin Wood-Robinson and John Leach), the advice of Ed Wood and the initial fundingfrom the Wellcome Trust. Without all of this the initial study would never have taken place. I would alsolike to thank all the teachers who gave their (and their students) time very willingly—even in the current,exam orientated environment; the University of Leeds for providing the funds which enabled me to revisitstudents’ ideas, 15 years on; and Matt Homer for the statistical analysis.
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