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DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF
MICROCONTROLLER BASED IR
TRACKING/ HEAT SEEKING ROBOT
WITH FIRE ALARM
A Project Report
Submitted by
SHRUTI AWASTHI
(1311562808)AND
SAKSHI
(1401562808)
in partial fu lf il lment for the award of the degree
of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
At
NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE,
NEW DELHI(YEAR-2012)
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DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the project entitled DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OFMICROCONTROLLER BASED IR TRACKING/ HEAT SEEKING ROBOT WITH FIRE
ALARM submitted by us in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY Degree in ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION,
comprises our original work and due references have been made in text to all other material
used.
Signature of the Students:
Shruti Awasthi(1311562808)
Sakshi(1401562808)
Place:
Date:
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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project entitled DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF
MICROCONTROLLER BASED IR TRACKING/ HEAT SEEKING ROBOT WITH FIRE
ALARM is the bonafide work carried out by student of B. Tech, NORTHERN INDIA
ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NEW DELHI, during the year 2012, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology and that the project has
not formed the basis for the award of any degree earlier.
Signature of the Guide:
Place:
Date:
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We feel highly privileged to express our deep sense of gratitude to all those who helped us
during our project work. We would like to express our grateful thanks for the help and advice
given to us by MS. ANUPRIYA, ECE Dept. for their valuable guidance in our project.
We express our gratitude and reverence to the preceptor and project Guide for his advice,
guidance and support which helped us in completing our project.
We are also highly thankful to the management of NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERINGCOLLEGE, for providing necessary facilities and infrastructure.
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ABSTRACT
This project is titled design and development of microcontroller based ir tracking/ heat
seeking robot with fire alarm. This autonomous system tracks IR radiation in the vicinityand then moves in that respective direction together with output on Alarm The system
employs 8052 microcontroller as its core and Photodiodes as sensors. The application area of
microcontrollers and microprocessors is a wide area in the industry. One branch of the
microcontrollers application area is control. In this Project we will design a Microcontroller
controlled Robot. This is meant to simulate the real world operation of a Robot performing a
fire tracking function. There are five sections, mainly
1. Sensors,
2. Power supply,
3. Transmitter Micro-controller,
4. DC Motor Driver,
5. Sound generator,
The four sensing section detects the infrared radiation from the heat source in four direction
(Right, Centre, Left and rear), the output of the sensors is fed to the low power dual
operational amplifier used as comparator. A threshold value is set through potentiometer; the
input signal from sensor is compared with this threshold value. The controller section process
the information from the comparator and provide input to the driver section, which has two
DC motor for driving the robot depending on the input sequence obtain the micro controller
performs the sequential operations and gives outputs decision which is a sequence of bits to
drive a DC motor.
Since the micro controller output is not sufficient to drive the DC motor, a transistor and
relay has been used to drive the motors. In the process of reaching the target if an obstacle is
encountered the robot changes its path and again start tracking the incoming IR radiation. An
alarm will run when robot detects fire in any direction.
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TABLE OF CONTENTCHAPTER TITTLE PAGE NO.
Project Tittle 71 Introduction 8
2 Methodology of Design 9
3 Objective & Scope of the Project 11
3.1 Objective 11
3.2 Scope 11
4 Proposed circuit diagram & its description 12
4.1 Circuit diagram 12
4.2 Description 13
5 List of Components 16
6 Hardware design & Development 17
6.1 Comparator LM-358 176.2 Microcontroller 18
6.3 Crystal oscillator 24
6.4 Alarm system 24
6.5 Reset switch 26
6.6 Potentiometer 26
6.7 Voltage regulator 26
6.8 Power transistor 27
6.9 Resistor & Capacitor 29
6.10 Relay 29
6.11 12V DC motor 31
6.12 Photo diode 31
6.13 LED 32
6.14 BC548 33
6.15 Diode 33
7 Software design & development 35
7.1 S/W programming using keil C of microcontroller 35
7.2 S/W for designing circuit on general purpose PCB 42
8 Software code 43
9 Flowcharts of the project 45
9.1 Flowchart for the software code 45
9.2 Flowchart of subroutine delay 46Results & Conclusion 47
Future Prospect 48
Bibliography & References 49
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PROJECT ON
DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF MICROCONTROLLER BASED IR
TRACKING/ HEAT- SEEKING ROBOT WITH FIRE ALARM
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Automatic system like robots carry out specific tasks. These systems are usually employed in
environments where conditions keep changing. The robots described here sense the near
infrared radiation (.8m-1m) and moves toward that direction. This robot is designed
keeping in mind mainly for two applications viz. Heat seeking missile and automatic fire
extinguisher.
There are four sections, mainly sensor, comparator, Micro-controller, and DC Motor Driver.
The sensing section detects the infrared radiation. The controller section process the
information from the sensor and provide input to the driver section, which has DC motor fordriving the robot, the output of the sensors is fed to the comparator, which serves as the input
to the micro controller. Depending on the input sequence obtain the micro controller performs
the sequential operations and gives output decisions which is a sequence of bits to drive a DC
motor.
As a Heat Seeking Missile:
The heat-seeking missile is a special kind of missile that not only reaches the target emitting
heat radiations (Aircraft, Ship or Boat) but also tracks it. As the target moves, it follows the
target and finally hits it. The missile is based on the concept of detecting and following the
heat-radiating source. The robot designed for two-dimensional motions, performs the task of
a heatseeking missile as it tracks heat radiating object.
As a Fire Extinguisher:
The robot can be used as a highly sophisticated fire extinguisher. The fire extinguisher, when
it detects fire, will move toward fire, deviating away from any obstacle, and extinguish the
fire.
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CHAPTER 2
Methodology of Design
Block Diagram
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There are five sections, mainly
1. Sensors,
2. Power supply,
3. Transmitter Micro-controller,
4. DC Motor Driver,
5. Sound generator,
The four sensing section detects the infrared radiation from the heat source in four direction
(Right, Centre, Left and rear), the output of the sensors is fed to the low power dual
operational amplifier used as comparator. A threshold value is set through potentiometer; the
input signal from sensor is compared with this threshold value. The controller section process
the information from the comparator and provide input to the driver section, which has two
DC motor for driving the robot depending on the input sequence obtain the micro controller
performs the sequential operations and gives outputs decision which is a sequence of bits to
drive a DC motor.
Since the micro controller output is not sufficient to drive the DC motor, a transistor and
relay has been used to drive the motors. In the process of reaching the target if an obstacle is
encountered the robot changes its path and again start tracking the incoming IR radiation. An
alarm will run when robot detects fire in any direction.
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CHAPTER 3
OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF THE PROJECT
3.1. OBJECTIVE:
The basic objective behind the development of this project arises due to the fact that with the
increasing application of Artificial Intelligence systems in our day to day life thereby making
it automated and in order to accord with such systems and environment, the existing system
needs to be replaced by other such intelligent systems such as a Robot. So, to tackle with the
problems related to Fire detection our project plays a very efficient role as it can be employed
in all major remote areas ex. high speed Line Tunnels so as to protect it from fire threats.
Another significant role played by this project is in the industrial field such as oil refineries,
chemical industries and coal mines, etc.
Its other objectives include usage in the remote buildings, areas requiring minimum
manhandling, and residential apartments and also in the war field.
3.2. SCOPE:
In the real world scenario, this wired system can be developed into a Wireless fire detection
and suppression system so as to overcome the problem of fire in machines. Such a system
would require wireless techniques to send and receive signals from various units and to start
with the extinguishing system.
Our current system only performs the function of fire detection but its application can be
increased to fire suppression by addition of an extinguishing system. Another possible scope
for the project is in the war field where it can be employed as the Heat Seeking Missile.
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CHAPTER 4
PROPOSED CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND ITS
DESCRIPTION
4.1. PROPOSED CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Fig.4.1 the complete Circuit diagram of the system
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4.2. DESCRIPTION OF PROPOSED CIRCUIT:
There are IR sensors located outside the body of the robot namely left side,
right side, rear side and at the center. These sensors will detect IR
radiations from the fire source (like a candle).This input analog signal is
feed to the op-amp in form of digital signal. The sensor can detect fire in
any possible direction. If robot detects fire source in its right; the right
sensor will detect the infrared rays from the source. It will give signal to
the microcontroller through op-amp. Meanwhile the other sensors will not
provide any signal.
The sensing circuit of ROBOT is as below:
Fig.4.2 sensing circuit diagram
The comparator (LM358) compares the input digital signal with the
threshold value set by the potentiometer. It will allow signals higher than
threshold level to provide digital input to the microcontroller.
The output of the microcontroller is feed to the motor driver circuit. The
output of the four respective motor driver circuits is then provided to the
motor.
Each motor driver circuit consists of a transistor (TIP122) and a relay.
When there is a special bit sequence at the input of the microcontroller, it
starts working in its active low condition. In this case the relay switches tonormally closed condition which is connected to the +12V supply. In this
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transistor acts like a switch .In active low condition collector is grounded
i.e. providing ground to relay (normally closed). A diode is placed to
prevent back EMF due to relay.
A relay based D.C motor driver circuit is introduced as as follows:
Fig. 4.3 D.C motor driving circuit
The output of microcontroller is fed to the transistor TIP122. For motor one output is taken
from pin 0 & pin 1(P1.0, P1.1).For motor two it is from PIN 2 & 3(P1.2&P1.3).
The table shown below gives the values of pin 0, pin 1, pin 2, pin 3 for two dimensional
motion of DC motor:
P1.0 P1.1 RLY
O/P1
RLY
O/P2
DC
MOTOR1
P1.2 P1.3 RLY
O/P3
RLY
O/P4
DC
MOTOR2
0 0 0V 0V STOP 0 0 0V 0V STOP
0 1 0V 12V RUN CW 0 1 0V 12V RUN CW
1 0 12V 0V RUN
CCW
1 0 12V 0V RUN
CCW
1 1 12V 12V STOP 1 1 12V 12V STOP
Table 4.1 the output values of microcontroller that fed to the transistor TIP122
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From the above truth table it is clear that both the motor can run either in clock wise or in
counter clock wise direction as per requirement. We are already given a +12V supply at the
normally open point of relay and Ground at normally close point of relay. When input of
TIP122 i.e. ports 1.0 gets high transistor conduct and a ground goes to the coil of relay makes
it energized. It results a +12v supply at common point of relay. There are two similar relay
for one DC motor to rotate in both direction. A reverse diode is used across the coil of relay
to avoid back EMF of relay. A freewheeling diode is applied here to avoid back EMF of DC
motor.
So a two dimensional motion can be achieved from robot by using two DC motor.
A table for direction of Robot is as follows:
Motor Left Motor Right Direction of Robot
Clock wise Clock wise Forward motion
Clock wise Stop Turn right
Stop Clock wise Turn left
Counter clock wise Counter clock wise Reverse motion
Table 4.2 directions of Robot
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CHAPTER 5
LIST OF COMPONENTS
SensorPhotodiode
OP-AMP(LM358)
Crystal oscillator (11.0592MHz)
Resistances
Capacitances
Potentiometer
Voltage regulator (7805)
Power transistor (TIP 122)
IC with bases (LM7805, AT89S52, UM3561, LM358)
LEDs
DIODE
Speaker
Switches (push to on)
Relay
Transistors (BC 548)
12v Battery
12V DC Motor
General purpose PCB
Connecting wires
Soldering kit
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CHAPTER 6
HARDWARE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT
The hardware comprises of various components used in making the entire project. These
include different ICs, passive components, transistors, etc. A detail of all the components
used are given below:
6.1. COMPARATOR LM-358
Pin description of comparator LM-358 is given below:
Fig.6.1.1. pin details of comparator LM-358
Features:
Available in 8-Bump micro SMD chip sized package
Internally frequency compensated for unity gain
Large dc voltage gain: 100 dB
Wide bandwidth (unity gain): 1 MHz (temperature compensated)
Wide power supply range:
Single supply: 3V to 32V or dual supplies: 1.5V to 16V
Very low supply current drain (500 A)-essentially independent of supply voltage
Low input offset voltage: 2 mV
Input common-mode voltage range includes ground
Differential input voltage range equal to the power supply voltage
Large output voltage swing
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Description:
The LM358 series consists of two independent, high gain, internally frequency compensated
operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to operate from a single power
supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also possible
and the low power supply current drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply
voltage.
Application areas include transducer amplifiers, dc gain blocks and all the conventional op
amp circuits which now can be more easily implemented in single power supply systems. For
example, the LM158 series can be directly operated off of the standard +5V power supply
voltage which is used in digital systems and will easily provide the required interface
electronics without requiring the additional 15V power supplies.
6.2. MICROCONTROLLER
AT89S52
Fig.6.2.1. photo of microcontroller AT89S52
Features:
Compatible with MCS-51 Products
8K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory
Endurance: 1000 Write/Erase Cycles
4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range
Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz
Three-level Program Memory Lock
256 x 8-bit Internal RAM
32 Programmable I/O Lines
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Three 16-bit Timer/Counters
Eight Interrupt Sources
Full Duplex UART Serial Channel
Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode
Watchdog Timer
Dual Data Pointer
Power-off Flag
Fast Programming Time
Flexible ISP Programming (Byte and Page Mode)
Description:
The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes
of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmels high-
density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51
instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be
reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By
combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip,the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-
effective solution to many embedded control applications.
The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of
RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-
vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock
circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero
frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops
the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to
continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the
oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset.
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PIN DIAGRAM OF AT89S52
Fig.6.2.2. pin diagram of AT89S52
Pin Configuration:
Pin 1 to pin 8 = Port 1.0 to Port 1.7
Pin 9 = RST
Pin 10 to pin 17 = Port 3.0 to Port 3.7
Pin 18 and 19 = XTAL2 and XTAL1
Pin 20 = GND
Pin 21 to pin 28 = Port 2.0 to Port 2.7
Pin 29, 30 and 31 = PSEN, ALE / PROG and EA / VPP
Pin 32 to pin 39 = Port 0.7 to Port 0.0
Pin 40 = VCC
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Pin Description:
VCC = Supply voltage.
GND = Ground. Port 0 = Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each
pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used
as high- impedance inputs.
Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order address/data bus during
accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pull-ups.
Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code
bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are required during program
verification.
Port 1 = Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1
output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins,
they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port
1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the
internal pull-ups.
In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count
input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively, as
shown in the following table.
Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and
verification.
Table 6.2.1 port1 description table
Port Alternate FunctionsP1.0 T2 (external count input to Timer/Counter 2), clock-
P1.1 T2EX (Timer/Counter 2 capture/reload trigger and
P1.5 MOSI (used for In-System Programming)
P1.6 MISO (used for In-System Programming)
P1.7 SCK (used for In-System Programming)
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Port 2 = Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2
output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins,
they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port
2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the
internal pull-ups.
Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program
memory and during accesses to external data memory that uses 16-bit addresses
(MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when
emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that uses 8-bit addresses
(MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register.
Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash
programming and verification.
Port 3 = Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3
output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins,
they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port
3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the
pull-ups.
Port 3 receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification.
Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89S52, as shown
in the following table.
Table 6.2.2 port3 description table
Port Pin Alternate Functions
P3.0 RXD (serial input port)
P3.1 TXD (serial output port)
P3.2 INT0 (external interrupt 0)
P3.3 INT1 (external interrupt 1)
P3.4 T0 (timer 0 external input)
P3.5 T1 (timer 1 external input)
P3.6 WR (external data memory write strobe)
P3.7 RD (external data memory read strobe)
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RST = Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is
running resets the device. This pin drives high for 98 oscillator periods after the
Watchdog times out. The DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to
disable this feature.
ALE/PROG = Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low
byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program
pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming.
In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency
and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one
ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external data memory.
If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With
the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the
pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the
microcontroller is in external execution mode.
PSEN = Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program
memory.
When the AT89S52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is
activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped
during each access to external data memory.
EA / VPP = External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable
the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H
up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally
latched on reset.
EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions.
This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash
programming.
XTAL1 = Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock
operating circuit.
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XTAL2 = Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.
6.3. CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
Fig.6.3.1. photo of crystal oscillator
A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillatorcircuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a
vibrating crystal ofpiezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise
frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz
wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal fordigital integrated circuits, and to stabilize
frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric
resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around them became
known as "crystal oscillators.
We have used crystal oscillator of 11.0592 MHz in our project.
6.4 ALARM CIRCUIT
UM3561:
It is an excellent ROM IC that can generate Multi siren tones simulating Police siren,
Ambulance siren, Fire brigade siren and Machine gun sound. This 8 pin low power IC can
work down to 2.4 volts.
The UM 3561 is a low cost siren generator designed for use in toy applications. The IC has
an inbuilt oscillator and tone selection pins. It is easy to make a siren generator with only a
few external components. Only one external resistor and a speaker driver transistor are
sufficient to make a simple siren generator.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_oscillatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectricity#Materialshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz_clockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz_clockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_signalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_transmitterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_receiverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz_crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz_crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_receiverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_transmitterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_signalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz_clockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz_clockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectricity#Materialshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_oscillator7/27/2019 Finalsem Report
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Fig.6.4.1 pin description of UM3561
Circuit diagram for alarm circuit:
Fig.6.4.2. circuit diagram for various alarm system
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6.5. RESET SWITCH
Push to ON:
In electronics and technology, a reset button is a button that can reset a device. The reset
button clears the memory and reboots the machine forcibly. Reset buttons are found
on circuit breakers to reset the circuit. This button can cause data corruption so this button
often doesn't exist on many machines. Usually, in computers, it is present as a small button,
possibly recessed into the case, to prevent accidentally pressing it.
The RESET button was used at the microcontroller input in order to set all the levels to null
in the process. This was used simultaneously with an LED.
6.6. POTENTIOMETER
A potentiometer (colloquially known as a "POT") is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding
contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used (one side and
the wiper), it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. Potentiometers are commonly used to
control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio equipment. Potentiometers
operated by a mechanism can be used as position transducers, for example, in a joystick.
Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant power (more than a watt).
Instead they are used to adjust the level of analog signals (e.g. volume controls on audio
equipment), and as control inputs for electronic circuits.
POT is used to set a threshold level on the Comparator such that it gives a reference voltage
for the input signal on which the output of the microcontroller can be decided. The reference
voltage was set as 4 V in the project.
POT is also used in our project to vary the brightness of the LCD.
6.7.VOLTAGE REGULATOR
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a
constant voltage level.
It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active electronic components.
Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.
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The 78XX / 79XX voltage regulator is a 3 pin regulator used in the circuit. The following are
the ways to determine the type of regulator:
The first 2 digits 78 / 79 specify it as a positive / negative voltage regulator
respectively.
The XX specifies the amount of voltage after regulation is applied, e.g., 7805
specifies a positive regulator with 5 volts at output end.
The first pin of the regulator is input pin, the second is ground pin and the third is the
output pin.
The head of the regulator is made of metal because it helps in dissipating of neglected voltage
in form of heat energy.
Hence, in the project, positive regulator 7805 is used.
6.8. POWER TRANSISTOR
TIP 122:
Fig.6.8.1. photo of transistor TIP122
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to switch and amplify signals. It is made of a
solid piece of semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for connection to an
external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes
the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled
(output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, the transistor
provides amplification of a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but
many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.
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Transistor packages are made of glass, metal, ceramic, or plastic. The package often dictates
the power rating and frequency characteristics. Power transistors have larger packages that
can be clamped to heat sinks for enhanced cooling. Additionally, most power transistors have
the collector or drain physically connected to the metal can/metal plate.
Specifications:
Collector Emitter voltage = 100 V
Collector Base voltage = 100 V
Emitter Base voltage = 5 V
Base Current = 120 mA
Darlington 5 Ampere Complementary Silicon Power Transistors:
Fig.6.8.2. darlington 5amp complementary silicon power transistor
6080100 VOLTS 65 WATTS designed for generalpurpose amplifier and lowspeed
switching applications.
High DC Current Gain
hFE = 2500
4.0 Adc
CollectorEmitter Sustaining Voltage@ 100 mAdc
VCEO(sus) = 60 Vdc (Min)TIP120, TIP125
80 Vdc (Min)TIP121, TIP126
100 Vdc (Min)TIP122, TIP127
Low CollectorEmitter Saturation Voltage-VCE(sat) = 2.0 Vdc (Max) @ IC = 3.0
Adc
4.0 Vdc (Max) @ IC = 5.0 Adc
Monolithic Construction with BuiltIn BaseEmitter Shunt Resistors TO220AB
Compact Package
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6.9. RESISTORS AND CAPACITORS
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals
that is proportional to the electric current passing through it in accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in
most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films,
as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).
The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum working
voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise,
and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power
dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied
voltage. Critical resistance is determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the
resistor.
A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by
a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors a
static electric field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical
force between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant
value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each
conductor to the potential difference between them.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power
supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other
purposes.
Different values of resistors and capacitors were used in the project in accordance with the
circuit discussed later.
6.10. RELAY
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are
used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical
isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be
controlled by one signal.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric7/27/2019 Finalsem Report
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Fig.6.10.1. photo of relay
Features:
A contactor is a relay that is used for switching power.
They usually handle very heavy loads like an electric motor, lighting and heating
equipments and so on.
Though their output is used for switching very high loads, they are controlled by a circuit
with very less power.
According to the loads they handle, they vary in sizes from a small device to as huge as a
yard.
Though they are used for switching purposes, they do not interrupt a short-circuit current
like a circuit breaker.
They have ratings ranging from a breaking current of a few amperes and 24 DC volts to
thousands of amperes with many kilo volts.
Fig.6.10.2. single pole double throw realy
This is a Single Pole Double Throw relay. Current will flow between the movable contact
and one fixed contact when the coil is DE-energized and between the movable contact and
the alternate fixed contact when the relay coil is energized. The most commonly used relay
in car audio, the Bosch relay, is a SPDT relay.
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6.11. 12V DC MOTOR
200 RPM 12V DC geared motor for robotics application .Very easy to use and available in
standard size. Nut and thread on shaft to easily connect and thread shaft for easily connection
to the wheel.
Features:
3 ORPM 12V DC Motor with gearbox
66mm shaft diameter with internal hole
125gm weight
Small size motor
2kgcm torque
No load current = 60(mA),Load current = 300(mA)
6.12. PHOTODIODE:
A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting light into either current or
voltage, depending upon the mode of operation. The common, traditional solar cell used to
generate electric solar poweris a large area photodiode.
Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either
exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber
connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for
use specifically as a photodiode use a PIN junction rather than a p-n junction, to increase the
speed of response. A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias.
6.12.1.Principle of operation
A photodiode is a p-n junction orPIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes
the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a free electron (and a positively charged
electron hole). This mechanism is also known as the inner photoelectric effect. If the
absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length away from it,
these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in field of the depletion region. Thus
holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is
produced. This photocurrent is the sum of both the dark current (without light) and the lightcurrent, so the dark current must be minimized to enhance the sensitivity of the device.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodetectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_UVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-rayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PIN_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-n_junctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_biashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-n_junctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PIN_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_electronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photocurrenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photocurrenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_electronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PIN_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-n_junctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_biashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-n_junctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PIN_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-rayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_UVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodetector7/27/2019 Finalsem Report
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6.13. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED):
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator
lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for otherlighting. Introduced as a practical
electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern
versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high
brightness.
When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine
with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is
called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the
photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are often small in area(less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation
pattern. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower
energy consumption, longerlifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, and faster switching.
LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise
current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
Fig.6.13.1. symbol of LED
Fig.6.13.2. Schematic diagram of working of an LED
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visible_spectrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infraredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_biashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_generation_and_recombinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_holehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroluminescencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_gaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED#Advantageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conservationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conservationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_management_of_high-power_LEDshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescent_lamphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescent_lamphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_management_of_high-power_LEDshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conservationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conservationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED#Advantageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_gaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroluminescencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_holehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_generation_and_recombinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_biashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infraredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visible_spectrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor7/27/2019 Finalsem Report
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6.14. BC548:
The BC548 is a general purpose epitaxial silicon NPN transistor. The part number is assigned
by Pro Electron, which allows many manufacturers to offer electrically and physically
interchangeable parts under ones identification. It is used in our alarm circuit. If the plastic
TO-92package is held in front of one's face with the flat side facing toward you and the leads
downward, the order of the leads, from left to right is collector, base, emitter.
Fig.6.14.1. photo of BC548
6.15. DIODE:
A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one
direction. A semiconductor diode is a crystalline piece of semiconductormaterial connected
to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode is a vacuum tube with two electrodes: a
plate and a cathode.
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction
while blocking current in the opposite direction. Thus, the diode can be thought of as an
electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is
used to convert alternating current to direct current and to extract modulation from radio
signals in radio receivers.
When p-type and n-type materials are placed in contact with each other, the junction is
depleted of charge carriers and behaves very differently than either type of material. The
electrons in n-type material diffuse across the junction and combine with holes in p-type
material. The region of the p-type material near the junction takes on a net negative charge
because of the electrons attracted. Since electrons departed the N-type region, it takes on a
localized positive charge. The thin layer of the crystal lattice between these charges has been
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPN_transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro_Electronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TO-92http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_componenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_electrodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Check_valvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectification_%28electricity%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulationhttp://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/dope.html#c4http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/dope.html#c3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_regionhttp://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/dope.html#c3http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/dope.html#c4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectification_%28electricity%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Check_valvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_electrodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_componenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TO-92http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro_Electronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPN_transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitaxy7/27/2019 Finalsem Report
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depleted of majority carriers, thus, is known as the depletion region. It becomes
nonconductive intrinsic semiconductor material. This separation of charges at the p-n
junction constitutes a potential barrier, which must be overcome by an external voltage
source to make the junction conduct.
The electric field created by the space charge region opposes the diffusion process for both
electrons and holes. There are two concurrent phenomena: the diffusion process that tends to
generate more space charge and the electric field generated by the space charge that tends to
counteract the diffusion.
6.15.1. P-N junction in thermal equilibrium with zero bias voltage applied
6.15.2. Forward and reverse bias characteristics of a diode andits circuit symbol
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CHAPTER 7
SOFTWARE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT
KEILC Converts code from C to Hex. Code (Assembly Language)
IDE For programming
SPIPGM Burning
This project requires some prerequisites which one must possess so as to work on this project
and achieve the given output within a given amount of time.
7.1. SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING USING KEIL C OF MICROCONTROLLER
The software for Fire Alarm system using Microcontroller has been written in the C language
and it is converted to assembly language using cross complier Keil UV Vision.
Keil was founded in 1986 to market add-on products for the development tools provided by
many of the silicon vendors. Keil implemented the first C compiler designed from the
ground-up specifically for the 8051 microcontroller.
Keil C51 Cross Compiler:
The 8051 Family is one of the fastest growing Microcontroller Architectures.
More than 500 device variants available.
Keil provides several development tools for these 8051 variants.
C51 Compiler
A51 Macro Assembler
BL51 Linker/Locater
Software Development Cycle in Keil:
Create a project, select the target chip from the device database, and configure the tool
settings.
Create source files in C.
Build your application with the project manager.
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Correct errors in source files.
Test the linked application
Create a Project File: To create a new project file select from the Vision menu Project New Project.
This opens a standard Windows dialog that asks you for the new project file name.
We suggest that you use a separate folder for each project.
Select a Device
When you create a new project Vision asks you to select a CPU for your project. The Select
Device dialog box shows the Vision device database. Just select the microcontroller you
use.
Create New Source Files:
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You may create a new source file with the menu option File New. This opens an empty
editor window where you can enter your source code. Vision enables the C color syntax
highlighting when you save your file with the dialog FileSave As under a filename with
the extension *.C.
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Add Source File to the Project:
Once you have created your source file you can add this file to your project.
For example, you can select the file group in the Project Workspace Files page and
click with the right mouse key to open a local menu. The option Add Files opens thestandard files dialog. Select the file MAIN.C you have just created.
Set Tool Options for Target:
Vision lets you set options for your target hardware. The dialog Options for Target opens
via the toolbar icon or via the Project - Options for Target menu item. In the Target tab
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you specify all relevant parameters of your target hardware and the on-chip components of
the device you have selected.
Build Project and Create a HEX File
You may translate all source files and line the application with a click on the Build
Target toolbar icon. When you build an application with syntax errors, Vision will
display errors and warning messages in the Output WindowBuild page.
A double click on a message line opens the source file on the correct location in a
Vision editor window
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Build Project and Create a HEX File:
Once you have successfully generated your application you can start debugging using
the Vision Debugger.
After you have tested your application, it might be required to create an Intel HEX file
and to download the application software into the physical device using a Flash
programming utility.
Vision creates HEX files with each build process when Create HEX file under
Options for TargetOutput is enabled.
Output Files
The Cx51 Compiler generates a number of output files during compilation.
By default, each output file shares the same filename as the source file, each has a
different file extension.
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Files with this extension are assembly source filesgenerated from your C source code. These filescan be assembled with the A51 Assembler.
.SRC
Image of the machine code generated, to be burnt
onto the target device..Hex
Files with this extension contain the source text
as expanded by the preprocessor. All macros areexpanded and all comments are deleted inthislisting.
.I
Files with this extension are object modules thatcontain relocatable object code. Object modulesmay be linked to an absolute object module by theLx51 Linker/Locator.
.OBJ
Files with this extension are listing files thatcontain the formatted source text along with anyerrors detected by the compiler. Listing files mayoptionally contain the symbolsused and theassembly code generated.
.LST
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Language Extensions
The Cx51 Compiler provides several extensions to ANSI Standard C to support the following
elements of the 8051 architecture.
Memory Areas
Memory Types
Memory Models
Data Types
Bit Variables and Bit-Addressable Data
Special Function Registers
Pointers
Function Attributes
7.2. SOFTWARE FOR DESIGNING CIRCUIT ON GENERAL PURPOSE PCB
EXPRESS PCB:
There are two parts to Express PCB, the CAD software and the board manufacturing service.
The CAD software includes Express SCH for drawing schematics and Express PCB for
designing circuit boards. After completing the PC board design, it provides a low cost, high
quality and fast source for having our boards made. Here is how it works:
1. Draw a schematic using ExpressSCH. Drawing a schematic is not required, but it
will save us time when designing our board and reduce the possibility of wiring
errors.
2. Next, use the Express PCB program to lay out the PC board. If we link our
schematic to the ExpressPCB program, the program will guide us through the wiring
process by highlighting how the components should be connected
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CHAPTER 8
SOFTWARE CODE
#include
sbit right = P2^1; //sensor connectionsbit centre=P2^3;
sbit left=P2^0;
sbit alarm=P3^0; //alarm is connected
sbit mr1=P1^2; //right motor
sbit mr2=P1^3;
sbit ml1=P1^0; //left motor
sbit ml2=P1^1;
//definition of the delay function
void delay()
{
unsigned int i=30000;
while(i--);
}
//definition of main function
void main()
{
right=1;
left=1;
centre=1; //configure as input pin
ml1=1;
ml2=1;
mr1=1;
mr2=1; //stop all the motors
alarm=0; //OFF the alarm
while(1)
{
if(left)
{
alarm=1; //ON the alarm
mr1=1;
mr2=0;
ml1=1;
ml2=1; //forward the right motor
delay();}
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ifelse(right)
{
alarm=1; //ON the alarm
mr1=1;
mr2=1;
ml1=1;ml2=0; //forward the left motor
delay();
}
ifelse(centre)
{
alarm=1; //ON the alarm
mr1=1;
mr2=0;
ml1=1;
ml2=0; //forward the both the motorsdelay();
delay();
}
if(!(left||right||centre))
{
alarm=0; // OFF the alarm
}
}
}
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CHAPTER 9
FLOWCHARTS OF THE PROJECT
9.1.FLOWCHART FOR THE SOFTWARE CODE:
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9.2.FLOWCHART OF SUBROUTINE DELAY:
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RESULT AND CONCLUSION
The Robot has been tested successfully. The designed robot is capable to move in left, right,
rear and forward direction when it got a fire signal or IR radiation from their respective sides.
This robot has proved the tracking of fire and IR radiation. Robot is also capable of
energizing fire alarm and a visual LED lighting indication on getting IR radiation.
A step-by-step approach in designing the simplex fire tracking robot has been followed.
The results obtained from the calculations have shown that the system performance is quite
reliable and accurate.
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FUTURE PROSPECTS
This robot can be modified for its better performance and more technological advancement.
Presently, the robot can detect the fire and track it by following the fire, but it is only a onetime fire extinguishing system where we are having the fire suppression system and if the fire
continues, the robot will go in fireplace but would not stop a particular distance before the
fireplace and start the fire suppression action. This feature can be added in the future and also
send the corresponding signals to the receiver about the direction, name of the location/place,
proceeding of the fire suppression, time taken to suppress the fire, transmission can be done
in both the direction, and the base station can also control the robot, monitor its actions and
define the zones for a number of such zone wise distributed and allocated robots, send the
signals to the particular robot according to the zone on fire. Such a system would be
completely autonomous.
We can also interface the current robot with a PC by using RS232 protocol, MAX232 IC,
DB9 cable connector which will connect our robot with an PC. By this feature we can track
the exact movement of the robot from a far off location. This feature can be used for security
purposes.
We can also interface a GSM module with our current system which will inform the user in
case the robot detects the fire by sending an SMS to the users mobile phone. This feature
will enable quick response from the user.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY & REFERENCES
BOOKS:
1. Operational Amplifiers Linear Integrated Circuits, Ramakant Gayakwad, Prentice Hall
of India, 3rd Edition.
2. Electronic Devices and Circuits, J.B.Gupta, Katsons Books.
3. The 8051 microcontroller and embedded systems, Muhammad Ali Mazidi and Janice
Gillispie Mazidi, Prentice hall of India Pvt. Limited.
4. Electronic DevicesRobert Boylstead, Prentice Hall.
INTERNET SITES:
www.datasheetarchive.com
www.datasheetcatalog.comwww.ieee.orghttp://robokits.co.inwww.alldatasheet.comhttp://www.expresspcb.com/http://www.fairchildsemi.com/www.atmel.com
http://www.datasheetarchive.com/http://www.datasheetarchive.com/http://www.datasheetcatalog.com/http://www.datasheetcatalog.com/http://www.ieee.org/http://www.ieee.org/http://robokits.co.in/http://robokits.co.in/http://www.alldatasheet.com/http://www.alldatasheet.com/http://www.expresspcb.com/http://www.expresspcb.com/http://www.fairchildsemi.com/http://www.fairchildsemi.com/http://www.atmel.com/http://www.atmel.com/http://www.atmel.com/http://www.fairchildsemi.com/http://www.expresspcb.com/http://www.alldatasheet.com/http://robokits.co.in/http://www.ieee.org/http://www.datasheetcatalog.com/http://www.datasheetarchive.com/Top Related