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65. Lilly, John C. and Jay T. Shurley. 1961. "Experiments in Solitude inMaximum Achievable Physical Isolation with Water Suspension of Intact HealthyPersons." (Symposium, USAF Aerospace Medical Center, San Antonio, Texas,1960.) in Psychophysiological Aspects of Space Flight. Columbia Univ. Press,New York. P. 238-247

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WITHHEAUTHOR'SOMPLIMENTS

I ; c.-.iReprinted fromi Psychophysio2ogical Aspects ofSpace ~lightCopyright 0 Columbia University Press, 1961

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Ex~eriments in Solitude, in ~aximum AchievablePhysical Isolation le~ilhWater Sus~ension,ofIntact Healthy Persons

JOHN C. LILLY and JAY T. SHURLEY

Originally, one of the aims of this investigation was to test theneurophysiological hypothesis that, in the drastic attenuation ofphysical stimuli below the usual level, the activity of the brain andits contained mind would be that of sleep. Findings in our experi-ments (1, 2) and in those of other groups (3, 4) in this field demon-strate that sleep is not necessarily the outcome over a short timeperiod. A parallel, though not identical, aim was to observe what,if any, effect such experimental conditions might have in alteringego function both in the present moment and over the longer timeperiod; i.e., ego choices and ego structure. A more specific aimhas been to establish methods ofself-observation by finding, defining,and setting limits for the subject's psychological sets for these experi-ments and by seeking those sets which would give the maximum ofinformation from the subjective sphere. The collection of data hasbeen mainly by notes and recordings by the subject alone.

At the outset two conditions seemed essential, and these have beenmaintained throughout. All observers first prepare themselves byparticipating as subjects; those who participate in this experimen-tation first do so in the role of subj ect, then in the role of "safety man''(observer), and, finally, in the role of self-observer in solitude. Thesecond crucial condition is that of the restrained and minimalparticipation of the "safety man"; his role is to stay out of and notinterfere with the phenomena which occur in the self-observer.

Dr. Lilly was Chief, Section of Cortical Integration, Neurophysiological Laboratory,Research Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Md. He is now Directorof the Communication Research Institute, St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands. Dr. Shurleyis on the staff of the Veterans Administration Hospital, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.

T~I-i!~C. I_IBLV, M. D.a:CFJ TvlAil~HIGHWAYCOCONUTGROVE, FLA.


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ExperimentrlnSoliluO 239TECHNIQUE

A systematic consideration of the technique illustrates how theseaims are carried out in this particular set of experiments.

Tl~ePhysical-Physiolo~ical LevelI i. The simultaneous attenuation of all known external physicalstimuli to the lowest possible level (including light, sound, odor,taste, light pressure, deep pressure, and other gravity-opposition

forces, vibration, heat, cold, etc.). These characteristics of theexperimental environment were achieved with relative success byuse of a water immersion tank in a soundproofed chamber.

2. The maximum simultaneous attenuation of intra-integumen-tary sources of stimuli which, in the order of importance in ourexperiments, have included low-level pain and discomfort because ofan unsatisfactory position in the tank; muscle stretch; slow motionsof limbs moving through the water; internal sources such ashunger; fullbladder; fullrectum; gas in the GI tract; unusuallyactive cardiovascular system; local pressure ischemia leading topain; irregular changes in respiratory rhythm, rate, or depth;accumulating carbon dioxide; reduction in oxygen.

3. The maintenance of a constrained and restrained situationvoluntarily: Obviously in a system such as the human body,

;; efferent activity leads to afferent activity in a continuous andcircularashion; hereforen suspensionn a liquid he subjectsinstructed to voluntarily inhibit movement, including vocalizations,to his maximum ossible bility.4. Special aseofskin emperatvre:Wehave ound hat thermaldifferencesover the skin of the body are intensely stimulating whenthe other sourcesof stimuli have bees attenuated. The use of watersuspension tin which the water is slo~vly lowing by the body) allows

an isothermicity of the unclothed skin surface which is difficult toachieve by other methods. At 34.5" C. (94.1"F.) the water seemsto disappear in the thermalsense; i.e., the subject feels neither hot3 norcold, nd his emperaturellows steady tateofheatexchangeat a constant normal body temperature at the reduced level ofmetabolism that can be achieved under these conditions. Inaddition, the slowly flowing water allows continuous removal of

Si waste products of the body.


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240 Lilly and S~i~urley5. Thepositionndsuspensionf hebodyn water:Becausehebody parts are not of uniform densityt is necessaryo add weight ocertainparts and to add buoyancyor support to certain other parts.These additions are done in such a way as to avoid chronic low-level discomfortand pain caused by unusualdegreesof angulationof spinal or otherjoints and that caused by pressure ischemia.We found that the position of the body of each subject must bevery carefully worked out in order to avoid low-level discomfort andpain. Unless this is done wt. found that we were studying the effectsof a chronic low-levelpain on our subjects in a relative absence ofother sources of stimulation. If a given subject s exposed o toomuch pain for too long a period, he experimentecomesxtremelydistasteful to him. We do not feel that we have found the idealj' method of buoyancydjustment, and that a good deal more workcould be done on this

phase f the experiments,ossiblyy usingjlj1 liquids of two densities,one for the limbs and one for the chest andi head, r,possibly,yusing .liquidf greater density than the freshii waterwhichwehave een sing. n summary,ater uspensionallowsostf he ravity-opposingorcesobedistributedvenly1! overhewholeurfacef hebody;husheunit ressuresgreatlyjlJ decreased ver any one area. Becausefresh water of the properi: temperatureas vailable, eused his iquid.:i 6. The mask: Since the subject s suspendedn the liquid,i breathingequiresmask ith ertainharacteristics;a)minimumill inwardressuresverhe urfacesf he kin,b)maximumealingwithoutndueocalressure,c)minimumlowesistance,d)mini-mum dead space, (e) minimumack- r fore-pressureuring herespiratory cycle, and (f) as great a degree of equalization of thepressure in the mask with hat over he chestas can be achieved.Ani1i/ approximation o the last requirement can be reached if the subject is1 thoracic and abdominal walls while reathing ir at oneatmospheresuspended just below the surface of theiquid with his chest parallelto that surface so as to minimize pressure difference across thei from he room. Suchan apparatus as the virtueof extremeiji simplicityndmaximumontroly he ubject.We ave mployeda throug-h-and-throughreathingystem ~ith an Inspiratory valveI and an expiratoryalvewith wodifferenttubes (Figure 4) eadingto hemallpaceapproximately00c)n hemaskmmediately; i

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Figure . Underwaterask 2~anufacture Figure2. Underwater~ask 2~anPositive plaster cast of one subject's head and neck Dipping form for one subject (J.L.). (J.S.), with spaces over eyes, nose and mouth, and bandage cast (negative) is made from thears filled in, and (bakelite) tubing in place. Note reproduction of the head and neck castinsInooth surface from which later casts in plaster or with a separating agent. Inside this negalatex may easily be separated. fiberglas cloth and resin is inserted to copositive reproduction shown in this figurewhite areas between nose and chin are

for positioning the two tubes shown inThe two halves of the fiberglas reproduassembled and fastened together with fiband resin, and finally sanded. A base wfor a 75-watt heating lamp is inserted in


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Figure 3. UnderwaterMask Manufacture II Figure 4. UnderwaterMask ManThe dipping form: mask insert in place on the face. This is a finished mask formed by (Heating lamp is lighted.) The mask insert is built shown in Figure i, which does noof Fiberglas on the dipping form with latex as the Lucite window before the eyes--noteseparating agent. The inspiratory and expiratory tube connected on one side. Note atubes (stainless steel) and the window (Lucite) are folds of latex at the neck which seainserted and embedded in the Fiberglas at the proper without undue constriction ofsubject's stages; three layers are built up. This form is is donned simply by pulling down oveseparately dipped into latex, put on the head- as a stocking would be. In place, it form, and the assembly dipped to generate the head closely, is smooth and is complethead mask (three to five layers of latex suffice), able, even for long time perioThe finished mask is covered with talcum powderand pulled off the form from bottom to top and

back to front.


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Experiments in Solitude 2~3~3in front of the nose and the mouth, breathing air at one atmospherefrom the room. This system can be easily repaired by the subject anddoes not require as much maintenance as a more complicated,continuously flowing gas system at a higher pressure. However,again, we do not consider this ideal, and would prefr a very simplesystem operating at a higher pressure so that the subject could be lessconstrained as to depth of immersion.

Environmental Control at the Social and Community Leveli. The maintenance of physical-physiological isolation and

solitude in the midst of a community implies barriers to intrusion bypersons or sources of physical stimuli; i.e., such isolation implies thateventually one is in solitude (of course solitude per se does notnecessarily imply physicalisolation). Such consideration requires abuilding which houses the tank and constructed in such a way as tobar any continuous traffic through its structure and which permitsno invasion by people or animals or other objects which may besensed by the subject; a lock on the door is required but notsufficient. The safety man is instructed to act as a buffer agent forthe subject, both before, during, and after the experiments and tomaintain privacy. The safety man also must check the in-flowingwater temperature, lights, telephone, etc.

2. The issue of privacy seems to us to be so important that we giveit separate consideration here. Relevant privacy includes presentand future communications including all of those between the subjectand the safety man. For optimal conditions privacy requires the firmassurance to the subject of his control of the secrecy of his individualdata indefinitely into the future. Maximum ego freedom andvoluntariness of the subject in these experiments can be achievedi through such kinds of privacy. It also implies that the subjectchooses his own times for beginning, ending, and the total durationof exposure as well as the control of whatever restraints, voluntaryinhibitions, and supports are needed. Privacy also implies trust andrespect for the ego of the subj ect on the part of the safety man; i.e., theelimination (or at least attenuation) of any observer encroachment,exploitation, or invasion of each experience and of its data indefi-nitely (even to the extent of avoiding invited, available, encroach-ment by the subject).


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244 Lill_y nd ShurleyWhen the safety man and the subject both consider t is safefor thesubject o become self-observerree of the safetyman, i.e., to enter

solitude, these matters must be considered with great intensity andcare. It is at this point n our experiencehat the subject s likely ouse disguisedmethods of appealing for help from the safety man, orfrom others, in one form or another. After the first few experiencesit may help him as a self-observero functionas a safetyman foranother subject. The introduction of any new factors into the ex-periment, especiallyariables mportant o survival, uchas changesin the respiratory apparatus) require a self-observer o return to ia'(subject tatus" temporarily nd bring a safetyman back into thesituation.Of course,privacy also implies hat the abstractionof, and thedistribution of, the results of the experiments are also under hiscontrol. In this regard one must considerall media of communicationincluding gossip (professionaland otherwise), newspaper accounts,scientificournal accounts,and scientificmeetings. One keeps nmind possible uture usesof the materialby personsother than thesubject; the revealedmaterial s carefully crutinized y the subjectin order to contain only those observations and shorthand descrip-tions which contribute directly to the generalizations which arefound. Minimal disguiseof data allowsmaximum transmissionof thetrue picturesof what occursbut are carefully alancedagainstwhatFreud called, in his communications of his self-analysis, "the pointat which one owes discretion to oneself."The future research plans are also maintained in privacy and areset up by those who have reached self-observer nd safety manstatus. In functioning as safety man the necessity or certain specificplans and organization becomes apparent and obvious.3. The process of selection of subjects: Normal, healthy volun- I~teers of equal socialand professionaltatus o the previous ubject-observers have been the source of our subjects. Neither muchyounger nor much older, higher or lower, personsare chosen norder to give maximum reedom o the particular person nvolved.This condition is required for the attenuation to our maximumability of any factors which might resemble a draft, a persuasion,orcoercing of the subject in his or our view. In addition, this processimplies hat not only each experiment r exposure ut each seriesof


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Experiments in Solitude 24~5exposures requires that social isolation be maintained. The factthat experiments may be going on is protected in the local com-

~; munity. This technique has been worked out as a result of provoca-tive and disturbing experiences during the course of our experiments.SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SELF-OBSERVER

Objections can be raised that under these rules an ego observingitself generates only circular data; i.e., that it experiences only what

~I it wishes and allows itself to experience, and that the use of anoutside observer can avoid such difficulties. We have found thatthese objections have a limited validity and for our purposes anoutside observer inordinately complicates he situation and the datain whichwe are interested.Withincertain imitsyet to be deter-mined experimentally, it seems to us that the mind is the onlyprovince f sciencen whichwhat Jne believeso be true is, orbecomes,rue (5). Our experimentalask in thesestudies s todetermine what these limits are. However, it is felt that it is impor-tant to remember hat one must give subjects he permission oexperiencehat an e experiencedndnotmake uggestionss owhatmayor ze'ille experienced.I: It is our conviction that the range of phenomena available to thenormal human mind is much greater than "society" will apparentlypermit or accept (1, 2, 5); consequently, the safety man becomesthe intercessor between the individual and the community. As such,he grants the subject permission to experience whatever he canexperience;.e., he ight o exerciseny unction,trictlyeavingopen the content of what is experienced. If you will, the individual~: is "indoctrinated" n the principleof freedom or his own ego with~: the internal experientialsphere. As is mentioned below, the resultsof such experiences in a given subject generally turn out to besurprising to that subject; i.e., so far as the subject is consciouslyaware,new data occurquite spontaneously.

:: CONCLUSIONSDetailed results are to be reported in a later paper. However,some general conclusions of these studies may be of interest.When given freedom from external exchanges and transactions,

the isolated-constrained ego (or self or personality) has sources of


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24~6 Lilly and Shurtey

new nformationrom within. Such sources can be experienced as ifthey are outside with greater or lesser degrees of awareness as towhere or what these sources are (projected imagery, projectedsounds, doubling of body parts, emotional states of euphoria oranxiety, etc.)Any other person, observer, or safety man can be made to appear; as if he is a "source" to which is attributed the origin of the newinformation.

Transference-related drives may become extremely intense. In agiven exposure, such needs increase in intensity with time and mayi .i ultimatelyemandirectelease;.e., uch s eavinghe ank ndparticipating in one's active life with other persons (2, 5). MultipleIIexposures lead to better control and increase awareness of theseeffects.The relationship of any residual stimulus to these needs is care-fully valuated. Negativendpositive"ransferenceroblemsrisefrom extremely small and unlikely kinds of stimuli under theseconditions; i.e., a "wrong" word, too many suggestions, impliedjudgements f accuracy r performance, r their "positive"opposites.The safety man must be, as it were, an ideal and keenly awarei It has been found thatI ii diplomat when faced with such problems.having once experienced the lowest possible level of stimulationoneself makes it very much easier to function as a "diplomatic,"( tolerant, and considerate safety man. Hurt feelings, overenthusi-astic reactions, and replication of experience reported by others areexamples of the kinds of phenomena to be found and dealt with.The positive, enjoyable results were achieved only at those timesi when the inner and the outer disturbing timuliwere minimizable.Any residual discomfortmade it impossible o achieve the euphoricstate; any anxiety induced by faulty apparatus or technique blockedi ; the possibility f enjoyingor profiting rom the experience. Untilwe were able to attenuate physical discomfort and fear by bettertechniques, multiple exposures,and careful training, we saw mostly"negative" phenomena. As the levels of stimuli were loweredcloser to zero, the positive, more blissful, enjoyable states and thepositive transference phenomena appeared. No addiction to thesestates has occurred: the internal satisfactions of needs achieved inthe tank are limited in the same sense that, say, day-dreaming


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Experimentsn Solitude 24-7is limited. Basic satisfactions of needs felt in the tank require laterexchanges with other persons and with physical reality.As has been published (1, 2), it is felt that such experiencesarenot necessarily psychotic, or even mentally aberrant, and aftertraining can be constructive and invigorating. Eventually, aftermany exposures, each subject can learn enough to enjoy and notfear or dislike his own experiences.

REFERENCESi. Lilly, J. C., Effectsof physical restraint and of reduction of ordinary levels of physicalstimuli on intact, healthy persons, in Illusl7ntivelrate~iesfor esearch n Psychopntholopy;i in MentalHealth, ymposium o. 2, Group or the Advancementf Psychiatry,2. Lilly, J. C., Mental Effects of Reduction of Ordinary~ev~~I ~~,I EffectsfReductionfOrdinaryevelsfPhysicaltimulinI Intact, Healthy Persons, Psychiatric Research Reports 5, American Psychiatric

Assoc.,Washington,.C.1-28, une, 1956.-: 3. Heron, Woodburn, The pathology of boredom, ScientificAmerican, 196:52-56, 1957.4. Bennett, A. M. H., Personal communication.-i 5. Lilly, . C., Someconsiderationsegardingbasicmechanisms f positive nd negativetypesol.motivations, m.J. Psychiat.,December,1958.