ExperimentsinExperience:AligningDesignInquirywithJohnDewey’s
Pragmatism
AccordingtoRichardBuchanan,threebroadstrategiesofdesignresearchcanbe
seentohaveemergedinthetwentiethcentury.Theseincludethedialectic,
designscienceanddesigninquiry.1Withinthedialectic,designisexaminedfrom
asocialandculturalperspective.Incontrast,designscience—asformulatedby
HerbertSimon2—aimstoanalyseandidentifytheunderlyingelementsand
mechanismsofthedesignprocess.Lastly,designinquirypursuestwoclosely
relatedlinesofinvestigation,focusingoneitherthecreativepowerofthe
designerorthedisciplineofmaking.
Whiledesignsciencedominatedfromthe1970sthroughtotheearly1990s,
recentdecadeshaveseenashifttowardsthestrategyofdesigninquiry.This
reorientationcan,inpart,beattributedtotheperceivedfailureofdesignscience
toadequatelyaddressnewlyemergentproblemswithinthefield.3Perhapsmore
significantly,however,theacademizationofdesignhasresultedinnew
communitiesofdesignresearch.IncountriessuchastheUKandAustralia,for
example,theincorporationofartanddesigninstitutionswithintheuniversity
systemhasledtodemandsforpractice-orientatedfacultytobecomeresearch
activeandtheoreticalengaged.4Concurrently,acrosstheglobe,theprovisionof
1SeeRichardBuchanan,“ThinkingAboutDesign:AnHistoricalPerspective,”inPhilosophyofTechnologyandEngineeringSciences,Vol.9,AnthonieMeijersed.(Amsterdam,NH:Elsevier,2009):409-453;andRichardBuchanan,“StrategiesofDesignResearch:ProductiveScienceandRhetoricalInquiry,”inDesignResearchNow,RalfMicheled.(Basel:Birkhäuser-Verlag,2007):55-66.2HerbertSimon,TheSciencesoftheArtificial(CambridgeMA:MITPress,1969).3Buchanan,“StrategiesofDesignResearch:ProductiveScienceandRhetoricalInquiry”:58.4GavinMelles,“AnEnlargedPragmatistInquiryParadigmforMethodologicalPluralisminAcademicDesignResearch,”Artifact2:1(2008):3-11;KristinaNiedderer,“RelatingtheProductionofArtefactsandtheProductionofKnowledgeinResearch,”inReflectionsandConnections:OntheRelationshipbetweenCreativeProductionandAcademicResearch,NithikulNimkulratandTimO’Rileyeds.(Helsinki:UniversityofArtandDesign,2009):59-67.
doctoraleducationindesignhasexpandedrapidly,5withmanystudentslooking
toincorporatedesignpracticewithintheirresearchprojects.6
Overthelasttwodecades,theselatterdevelopmentshavegivenrisetoavast
literaturequestioningtherelationshipbetweenpracticeandresearch,7aswellas
thevalidityof‘practice-based’contributionstoknowledge.8Gradually,initial
confusion9hasgivenwaytoeffortsaimedatamethodologicalformalizationof
designinquiriesundertakenwithinacademiccontexts.Here,somehave
consideredtheextenttowhich‘experiential’factorscanbeseentolegitimately
informtheresearchprocessanditsoutcomes,10whileothershavesoughtto
repositionthetoolsofconventionalresearchasdirectiveaidsfordesign-based
knowledgeproduction.11
Thoughmanyofthesecontributionsofferviableconceptualizationsofdesign
practiceasamethod,discussionsrelatingtotheepistemologicalframeworksor
concernsunderpinningthemhavebeenrelativelylimited.Inplaceof
epistemology,attemptshavebeenmadetocharacterizedesignresearchas,at
5VictorMargolin,“DoctoralEducationinDesign:ProblemsandProspects,”DesignIssues26:3(2010):70.6OwainPedgleyandPaulWormald“IntegrationofDesignProjectswithinaPh.D.,”DesignIssues23:3(2007):70-85.7See,forexample,RichardBuchanan,DennisDoordan,LorraineJustice,andVictorMargolin,eds.DoctoralEducationinDesign1998:ProceedingsoftheOhioConference,October8–11,1998(Pittsburgh:TheSchoolofDesign,CarnegieMellonUniversity,1999);NigelCross,“DesignResearch:ADisciplinedConversation,”DesignIssues15:2(1999):5-10;andKenFriedman“TheoryConstructioninDesignResearch:Criteria,ApproachesandMethods,”DesignStudies24:6(2003):507-522.8See,forexample,BruceArcher,‘TheNatureofResearch,”Co-DesignJournal2:11(1995):6-13;MichaelBiggs,“TheRoleoftheArtefactinArtandDesignResearch”InternationalJournalofDesignSciencesandTechnology10:2(2002):19–24;andStephenScrivener,“CharacterisingCreative-ProductionDoctoralProjectsinArtandDesign,”InternationalJournalofDesignSciencesandTechnology10:2(2002):25–44.9Forabriefoverviewoftheconfusionsurroundingunderstandingsofpractice-baseddesignresearcharisinginrelationtotheUK’s1996ResearchAssessmentExercise,seeCaroleGrayandJulianMalins,VisualizingResearch:AGuidetotheResearchProcessinArtandDesign(London:Routledge,2016):3-4.Furtherdiscussion,relatingtopractice-basedPhDsinparticularcanbefoundinOwainPedgleyandPaulWormald“IntegrationofDesignProjectswithinaPh.D.”10See,forexample,MichaelBiggs,“LearningfromExperience:ApproachestotheExperientialComponentofPractice-BasedResearch,”inForskning-Reflektion-Utveckling[Research-Reflection-Development],HenrikKarlssoned.(Stockholm:SwedishResearchCouncil,2004):6–21;MaaritMäkelä“KnowingThroughMaking:TheRoleoftheArtefactinPractice-LedResearch,”Knowledge,Technology&Policy20:3(2007):157-163;andKristinaNiedderer,“ExplorativeMaterialityandKnowledge.TheRoleofCreativeExplorationandArtefactsinDesignResearch,”FormAkademisk-ResearchJournalofDesignandDesignEducation6:2(2013):1-20.11See,forexample,EvaBrandtandThomasBinder,"ExperimentalDesignResearch:Genealogy,Intervention,Argument,"(paperpresentedattheconferenceoftheInternationalAssociationofSocietiesofDesignResearch,HongKong,12-15,2007);JohnZimmermanandJodiForlizzi,“TheRoleofDesignArtifactsinDesignTheoryConstruction,”Artifact2:1(2008):41-45;IlpoKoskinen,JohnZimmerman,ThomasBinder,JohanRedström,andStephanWensveen,DesignResearchthroughPractice–FromtheLab,Field,andShowroom(BurlingtonMA:MorganKaufmann,2011);andAnneLouiseBangandMetteAggerEriksen,“ExperimentsAlltheWayinProgrammaticDesignResearch,”Artifact3:2(2014):4-1-4.14.
times,necessarilytacit.12Beyondthis,anothermanoeuvrepositionsthedesign
researchprogramasthe‘frameandfoundation’ofresearchthatincorporates
designpractice;13furnishingactivitieswithacorebeliefsystem,aswellasaset
oftheoreticalcommitmentsthatlinktheworktodeeperstrandswithin
philosophy.14
Whilesuchproposalsundoubtedlyholdappeal,thegeneralabsenceofan
explicit,widelysharedepistemologicalnarrativededicatedtotheincorporation
ofdesignpracticewithinresearchisproblematic.Itpointstoevasion,suggesting
thatsuchanapproachisnotseentorequirejustification.Atthesametime,italso
limitsthepotentialfordevelopmentandis,ultimately,regrettable.
Inseekingtoaddressthisgap,anumberofepistemologicalpairingsmightbe
advanced.Forexample,plausiblealignmentcouldbedrawnwithNigelCross’s
theoryof‘designerlywaysofknowing’15or,equally,withmoregeneral
perspectivesondesignthinking.16However,giventhepopularfocusonnotions
oftheexperimental,DonaldSchön’sconceptofknowledge-in-practice17can
arguablybeseentoprovideoneoftheclearestarticulationsofanepistemology
ofdesigninquiryyetpublished.Aboveall,hispositioningofreflectioninandon
actionasaformofinquirylendsreadysupporttotheviewthatdesignpractice
canbecentraltotheconductofresearch.18Indeed,Schönisalreadywidely
12SeeClaudiaMareis,“TheEpistemologyoftheUnspoken:OntheConceptofTacitKnowledgeinContemporaryDesignResearch,”DesignIssues28:2(2012):61-71.13ThomasBinderandJohanRedsröm,“ExemplaryDesignResearch,”(paperpresentedattheDRSWondergroundConference,November,1-4,2006);alsoseeBrandtandBinder,“ExperimentalDesignResearch:Genealogy,Intervention,Argument";andKoskinenetal.,DesignResearchthroughPractice–FromtheLab,Field,andShowroom.14Koskeninetal.,DesignResearchthroughPractice–FromtheLab,Field,andShowroom,3915Accordingtothisviewdesignpracticeconstitutesacomplex,uniquemodeofknowledgeproductiondistinctfromtheartsandsciences.SeeNigelCross,DesignerlyWaysofKnowing(Basel:Birkhäuser-Verlag,2007).16See,forexample,KeesDorst,“DesignResearch:ARevolution-Waiting-to-Happen,”DesignStudies29:1(2008):4-11;RichardBuchanan,“WickedProblemsinDesignThinking,”DesignIssues8:2(1992):5-21;andBryanLawson,HowDesignersThink:TheDesignProcessDemystified(London:Routledge,2006).17DonaldSchön,TheReflectivePractitioner(NewYork:BasicBooks,1983):69.18AccordingtoSchön,inorderresolveproblematicsituationsprofessionalpractitionerswillconductlive,practicalexperimentswithaviewtounderstandingandchangingthesituation.Underpinningthisexperimentalprocessistheprofessional’sabilitytoreflectinandonaction.Amongstotherfunctions,reflectionisseentoallowfortheformulationof
referencedindesignresearchliteratureconcernedwithexploringpractice-
researchrelationships.19
Thisapparentalignmentpoints,inturn,toanother,deeperalignment.
Namely,totheconnectionbetweenSchönandthePragmatistphilosopherJohn
Dewey,whosetheoryofinquiryinspiredtheunderlyingstructureofSchön’s
approach.20Thoughdesignscholarstendtopaycomparativelylessattentionto
Dewey’swork,hisaestheticsandpedagogycanbeseentohavehadadirectand
profoundinfluenceonthebroaderfieldofdesign.Thisisperhapsmost
immediatelyevidentinthecontextofdesigneducation.Here,Dewey’s
connectionswithLászlóMoholy-Nagy21andJohnAndrewRiceledtoan
involvementintheestablishmentofboththeNewBauhaus22inChicagoand
NorthCarolina’sBlackMountainCollege.23BythetimetheNewBauhausbecame
theInstituteofDesign,ArtasExperience(1934)wasrequiredreadinginthe
productdesignworkshop.2425Latterly,thebook’schapter“Havingan
Experience”informedtheincorporationofdesignthinkingwithinHCIworkat
thePaloAltoResearchCentreand,subsequently,wentontobecomea
foundationaltextwithinthediscipline.26Thisinfluencehascontinueduptothe
hypotheses,aswellastheevaluationoftheresult.Overtime,theaccumulativeapplicationofreflectionisseentotaketheformofanextended‘reflectiveinquiry’,thusredefiningpracticeasanactiveresearchprocess.19See,forexample,hisextensivecitationthroughoutMicheled.,DesignResearchNow.20Schön,TheReflectivePractitioner,357.AlsoseeDonaldSchön,“TheTheoryofInquiry:Dewey'sLegacytoEducation,”CurriculumInquiry,22:2(1992):119-139.21See,MaryJaneJacobandJacquelynnBaas,eds.ChicagoMakesModern:HowCreativeMindsChangedSociety(Chicago:SchooloftheArtInstituteofChicago,2012);andAlainFindeli,“DesignEducationandIndustry:TheLaboriousBeginningsofInstituteofDesigninChicago,”JournalofDesignHistory4:2(1991):97-113.22See,Findeli,“Moholy-Nagy'sDesignPedagogyinChicago(1937-46),”DesignIssues7:1(1990):4-19.23KatherineReynolds,“TheInfluenceofJohnDeweyonExperimentalColleges:TheBlackMountainExample,”(paperpresentedattheAmericanEducationalResearchAssociationConference,April22,1995).24Findeli,“Moholy-Nagy'sDesignPedagogyinChicago(1937-46).”25IthasalsobeenclaimedthatDewey’sworkpartiallyinformedthedevelopmentofTomásMaldonado’ssemioticsattheUlmSchoolinGermanyinthe1950s.See,KlausKrippendorff,TheSemanticTurn:ANewFoundationforDesign(BocaRaton:CRCPress,2006):306.26See,Buchanan,“ThinkingAboutDesign:AnHistoricalPerspective”,418.
present,withDewey’stheoriesofexperiencestillinspiringmuchdiscussion
amongtheinteractiondesigncommunity.27
GiventhedepthofDewey’simpactondesigningeneral,itissurprisinghow
fewauthorshavedirectlyexploredtheimplicationsofhisbroaderphilosophy
fordesignresearch.28Moststrikingly,therehasbeenlittleinvestigationofhis
epistemologicalapproach—especiallywhenconsideredagainstthewide
referencingofSchön.
Itismybeliefthatthefieldhasmuchyettogainfromacoherentoverviewof
Dewey’sextensivebodyofwork.Inparticular,Iwishtoputforwardthe
argumentthatDeweyoffersamoreexpansiveapproachtoknowledgethancan
befoundinSchön;onewhich,ifcarefullyexaminedandappropriated,hasmuch
toofferdesignresearch.Accordingly,throughtheremainderofthisarticleIaim
todotwothings.Firstly,toprovideanoutlineofDewey’sapproachtoknowledge
and,secondly,tohighlightanumberofitsfeatures,which,Ibelieve,holdthe
potentialtoenrichtheepistemologicalbasisofdesigninquiry.
Beforeproceeding,toavoidconfusion,adistinctionmustbedrawnbetween
theconceptofknowledgeasitpertainstodesignresearchandknowledgeinthe
contextofindividualactsoflearning,i.e.,thedifferencebetween‘itisknown’
versus‘Iknow’.Thelatterpointstopersonalendeavour;whiletheformer
impliesthataparticularsetoftechniquesandprocedures—recognizedbya
specificknowledgecommunity—havebeenapplied,leadingtooutcomes,which
27See,forexample,PeterWrightandJohnMcCarthy,TechnologyasExperience(CambridgeMA:MITPress,2004);ErikStolterman,“TheNatureofDesignPracticeandImplicationsforInteractionDesignResearch,”InternationalJournalofDesign2:1(2008):55-65;andPeterDalsgaardandChristianDindler“BetweenTheoryandPractice:BridgingconceptsinHCIresearch,”inProceedingsoftheSIGCHIConferenceonHumanFactorsinComputingSystems(NewYork:ACM,2014):1635-1644.28ForsomestrongexamplesofthosewhohaveseeBuchanan,“WickedProblemsinDesignThinking”;PeterDalsgaard,“PragmatismandDesignThinking,”InternationalJournalofDesign8:1(2014):143-153;Melles,“AnEnlargedPragmatistInquiryParadigmforMethodologicalPluralisminAcademicDesignResearch”;GavinMelles,“NewPragmatismandtheVocabularyandMetaphorsofScholarlyDesignResearch,”DesignIssues24:4(2008):88-101;andLeifE.Östman,“APragmatistTheoryofDesign,”(PhDdiss.,RoyalInstituteofTechnology,Stockholm,2005).
advancetheinvestigationsofthatcommunity.InhighlightingDewey’s
epistemologicalapproach,then,Iamexaminingitsapplicabilitytotheformal
processofknowledgeproductionindesignresearch,asopposedtotheworkof
professionalsoperatingsolelywithinthedomainofdesignpractice.
JohnDewey’sPragmatism
AlongsideCharlesSandersPeirce(1839-1914),WilliamJames(1842-1910)and
GeorgeHerbertMead(1863-1931),JohnDewey’s(1859-1952)worksitswithin
theclassicalPragmatisttradition;amovementthatcoalescesaroundaseriesof
coreconcernsrelatingtoknowledge,meaning,truthandvalue.Thoughgradually
usurpedbylogicalpositivisminthelate1930s,29numerousfollowerscontinued
topursuekeyPragmatistthemesthroughthefollowingdecadesoftwentieth
century.ThisincludesRichardMcKeon,whoseimportantinvestigationsof
rhetorichavebeenrelatedtothestudyofdesign.30Morerecently,theNeo-
PragmatismofRichardRorty31andothershasledtoaresurgenceofinterestin
classicalPragmatistphilosophy.
Inbroadterms,Dewey’sownuniquePragmatismcanbeseentobridge
Peirce’scriticalandscientificinterestswithJames’sconcernformoral
implications.Throughouthiswork,analmostconstantfocusisdirectedtowards
therelationbetweenscienceandhumanvalue.32Equally,underpinnedbywhat
29RichardBernstein,ThePragmaticTurn(MaldenMA:Polity,2010):11-12.30McKeonwasastudentofDewey’satColumbiaandeventuallyaprofessorattheUniversityofChicago.ExaminingMcKeon’sinvestigationsofrhetoricfromtheperspectiveofdesign,RichardBuchananhasidentifiedawealthofconnectionsbetweenthetwo.See,RichardBuchanan,“DesignandtheNewRhetoric:ProductiveArtsandthePhilosophyofCulture,”PhilosophyandRhetoric34:3(2001):183-20631HoraceStandishThayer,MeaningandAction:ACriticalHistoryofPragmatism(Indianapolis:BobbsMerrillCo.,1968):165.32See,RichardRorty,PhilosophyandtheMirrorofNature(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1979).ItisimportanttonotethatthoughRortychampionsDeweyasoneofthegreatestphilosophersofthetwentiethcentury,hehasbeenaccusedofmisreadingthework.Itparticular,anumberofcriticsfindhisrejectionofDewey’sbeliefinthepossibilityofsocialreconstructionobjectionable.See,forexample,JamesCampbell“Rorty'sUseofDewey,”TheSouthernJournalof
hasbeeninterpretedasamelioristicspirit,33wefindalong-termcommitmentto
thepossibilityofenablingademocraticreconstructionofthesocialworld.34
Throughthisbroadthematicreach,itisperhapsunsurprisingthathis
contributionsextendacrossmanyfields,includingeducation,psychology,
sociology,aestheticsandpolitics.35
WhilethereadingsofDeweywhichfollowaremyown,Ihavebeenguidedby
theworkoftwoleadingscholars,RalphSleeperandLarryHickman.Bothoffer
keenlyinsightfulperspectivesonDewey’swork,perceptivelydescribingitscore
features,aswellashighlightingitscontemporaryimplications.Ofthetwo,
however,itisSleeperwhodevelopsthemostcompellingpresentation.Onhis
account,ifwearetounderstandDeweyinholisticterms,wemustunderstand
howhistheoryofinquiryrelatestohismetaphysicsthroughatheoryof
communication.36Thisbasicthesisguidesthestructureoffollowingsections,
wheremyprimaryfocuswillbedirectedtowardstwotextsinparticular:Logic:A
TheoryofInquiry(1938)andExperienceandNature(1925).Theformerpresents
whatisperhapsDewey’scleareststatementonthesubjectsofinquiryandlogic,
whilethelattermaybeunderstoodasabackgroundtothis,settingoutDewey’s
metaphysics.
Attheoutset,itisimportanttohighlightthatDewey’sphilosophyhasnot
avoidedcriticism.Infact,thereisanentirevolumecompilingvarious,sometimes
Philosophy22:2(1984):175-187;RalphW.Sleeper,TheNecessityofPragmatism(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1986);andBernstein,ThePragmaticTurn.33Sleeper,TheNecessityofPragmatism.34JamesCampbell,“AHistoryofPragmatism,”inTheBloomsburyCompaniontoPragmatism,SamiPihlströmed.(London:Bloomsbury,2015).35LarryHickman,ForewardtoUnmodernPhilosophyandModernPhilosophy,byJohnDewey,PhilipDeened.(Carbondale:SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress,2012):xiii-xi.36Sleeper,TheNecessityofPragmatism,6-7.
high-profileattacksandcritiquesmountedbyhiscontemporaries.37Forthemost
part,thesefocusonaspectsofDewey’smetaphysics,oftenquestioningtheextent
towhichitcanbeseenasametaphysicsatallortheparticularversionofreality
itpresents.38Anotherareaofcontentionconcernshistheoryofinquiryandits
relationshiptoformallogic.39Morerecently,Rorty—achampionofDeweyin
general—hasdismissedhismetaphysicsasamistake.40
GiventheradicalnatureofmanyofDewey’sproposals,suchcriticismsare
understandable.Approachingtheworkwithoutpriororientation,some
pronouncementscanappearill-conceivedormisguided,leadingtomuch
confusionintheliterature.However,asisthefrequentpleaofDewey’sadmirers,
slow,carefulandsystematicreadingsoftheworks,combinedwithreferenceto
thefullbreathofavailablesources,canyieldarichandrewardinginsightinto
humanactionanditspotential.
Dewey’sTheoryofInquiry
Thoughuniqueinitself,Dewey’stheoryofinquirycanbeseentodirectly
appropriateanumberofcoreconceptsdrawnfromCharlesSandersPeirce’s
‘doubt-belief’theory.41Inthiswork,Peirceexploredtheroleofhuman
psychologywithintheevolutionaryprocess.Onhisview,inordertosurvive,the
humanorganismmustcontinuallyengageincyclesofmovingfromastateof
doubttoastateofbelief.Whenindoubtweare‘uneasyanddissatisfied’and,asa
37SidneyMorgenbesser,ed.DeweyandhisCritics:EssaysfromtheJournalofPhilosophy(LancasterPA:LancasterPress,1977).38See,forexample,GeorgeSantayana,“Dewey’sNaturalisticMetaphysics”,inDeweyandhisCritics:EssaysfromtheJournalofPhilosophy,SidneyMorgenbessered.(LancasterPA:LancasterPress,1977):343-358.39See,forexample,BertrandRussell,“ProfessorDewey’s“Essay’sinExperimentalLogic,””inDeweyandhisCritics:EssaysfromtheJournalofPhilosophy,SidneyMorgenbessered.(LancasterPA:LancasterPress,1977):231-252.40RichardRorty,ConsequencesofPragmatism:Essays,1972-1980(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1982).41Thayer,MeaningandAction:ACriticalHistoryofPragmatism,171;Sleeper,TheNecessityofPragmatism,49.
result,arerequiredtoinitiate‘astruggletoattainastateofbelief’—aprocess
thatPeircereferstoas‘inquiry’.42
Throughhisappropriation,DeweyrefashionedPeirce’soriginaltheoryintoan
organic,naturalisticpresentationofinquiry,allowingittoaccountforboththe
emergenceofthescientificmethod,aswellasformallogic.43Onthisreframing,
insteadofbeingunderstoodas‘unobservable,transcendentaland“intuitional,”’
logicwouldbecomeempiricalandobservable.44Thoughbothdoubtandbelief
wereretainedasthetheory’sstartandendpoints,knowledgewasnow
positionedasinquiry’s‘product’.45Bywayofdefinition,Deweysetsforththe
followingstatement:
‘Inquiryisthecontrolledordirectedtransformationofanindeterminate
situationintoonewhichissodeterminateinitsconstitutedistinctionsand
relationsastoconverttheelementsoftheoriginalsituationintoaunified
whole.’46
Deweyproposedthat,inallcases,theprocesscouldbeobservedtofollowa
moreorlesscoherentsequence,referredtoasthe‘patternofinquiry’.For
Dewey,thisisseentobeginwhenwealightuponaquestionablesituation.Sucha
situationmaybe‘troubled,ambiguous,confused,fullofconflictingtendencies,
42CharlesSandersPeirce,TheEssentialPeirce,SelectedPhilosophicalWritings,Volume1,1867-1893,NathanHouserandChristianKloeseleds.(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1992).Seeinparticular“TheFixationofBelief”and“HowtoMakeOurIdeasClear”.43Sleeper,TheNecessityofPragmatism,5044JohnDewey,TheLaterWorks,1925-1953,Vol.12:1938,JoAnnBoydstoned.(Carbondale:SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress,1987):107.ForDewey,logicisbestunderstoodasemergingthroughourrealworldinteractions;thesuccessesandfailuresofapproachestoactionasweseektorespondtothesituationsweencounter.Accordingly,anappropriatetheoryoflogicwould,onhisview,positionstructuredlogicalunderstandingastheoutcomeofcompetentinquiry,whichmayinformfutureinquiries.Inthisway,logicbecomesatheoryofinquiry.45Ibid.,15-16.46Ibid.,108.
obscure’andsoon.Deweyiskeentostressthatthesetraitsbelongtothe
situationandnottotheindividualorgroupwhoareinitiatingtheinquiry.47
Questioningdirectsustowardawidersetofconsiderations.Perhapsmost
significantamongtheseistheneedtosetor,asDeweyhasit,‘institute’aclearly
definedproblem.Thisframestheinquiryandbecomes,accordingtoDewey,‘the
criterion’fromwhichthe‘relevancyandirrelevancyofhypothesesand
conceptualstructures’aretobejudged.Fromhere,solutionsmaybeconceived
andevaluated.However,progresstowardsasolutionpresentsanumberof
challenges.
Inoutliningtheprocess,Deweybindstogetheraseriesofinterrelated
intellectualandpracticalactivitiesthatareseentoleadeventuallytothecloseof
inquiry.Asaninitialstep,inordertoidentifyavalidproblem,wemustfirst
attendtotheimmediateexistentialfactsofthesituation.48Againstthese,
solutionsmay‘flashuponus,occurtous’intheformofsuggestionsor
possibilities.Suggestionsandpossibilitieswillevolveintoideasasweexamine
their‘functionalfitness’andtheir‘capacityasameansofresolvingthegiven
situation’.49Here,theybecome‘anticipatedconsequences(forecasts)ofwhat
willhappenwhencertainoperationsareexecutedunderandwithrespectto
observedconditions’.50Followingonfromthis,onceanideaisformed,its
‘meaningcontents’mustbeconsideredinrelationtotheinquiryasawhole.
AccordingtoDewey,thisoccursthroughaprocessofreasoningwhereinthe
consequencesofselectingagivenmeaningarecheckedagainstitsimpactonthe
47Ibid.,109.48Ibid.,112-113.Bywayofexample,Deweyconsidersthesoundingofafirealarm.Thereismuchthatwewillbeabletoidentifyasfact,suchasthelikelypresenceofafire,thepositionoftheexits,andthebehaviourofothers.Suchmaterialissaidto‘constitutethetermsoftheproblem’,whichmustbetakenintoaccountifwearetoarriveatarelevantsolution.49Ibid.,113-114.50Ibid.,113.
systemofmeaningsthathavebeendevelopedwithinthecourseoftheinquiry.
Thisislikelytoresultinanidea’smodificationasitistransformedthrough
gradualiteration,becoming‘moreclearlyrelevanttotheproblemathand’.51
UnderpinningtheabovestagesisDewey’sbeliefthatinquiryiscarried
forwardandultimatelybroughttoaclosethroughtheconstantoperational
interactionoffacts(i.e.,existentialmaterial)withideas(i.e.,non-existential
material).Factsleadtoideas;ideasleadtoexperimentsorother‘operationsof
observation’whereinfurtherfactsmaybegathered.52Theoverallcyclerelieson
theproductiveapplicationofboth.
Interestingly,apartfromthestipulationthatindeterminatesituationsmust
becomeincreasinglydeterminate,wearenotofferedaclearinsightintothe
endpointorclosureofinquiry.ThismaybeduetoDewey’sinsistencethatno
inquiryisfinalinandofitself.Indeed,nosetofconclusions,heargues,canavoid
thepossibilityoffuturerevisionoradaption.53Thus,ratherthandefinethe
processofclosure,Deweyinvokestheconceptofattainingknowledgeasthe
meansbywhichinquiryissettled.Here,wearetold:
‘Thatwhichsatisfactorilyterminatesinquiryis,bydefinition,knowledge;itis
knowledgebecauseitistheappropriatecloseofinquiry.’54
Useofthewords‘satisfactorily’and‘appropriate’hereimplythat,attheend
ofaninquiry,apre-existingsetofaimsorobjectiveswillhavebeenfulfilledorat
51Ibid.,115.52Ibid.,116.53Ibid.,16.Deweypresentsthisasfollows:‘[…]inquiryisacontinuingprocessineveryfieldwithwhichitisengaged.The“settlement”ofaparticularsituationbyaparticularinquiryisnoguaranteethatthatsettledconclusionwillalwaysremainsettled.Theattainmentofbeliefsisaprogressivematter;thereisnobeliefsosettledastonotbeexposedtofurtherinquiry.’54Ibid.,15.
leastapproached.Whatweareleftwithis‘anobjectofknowledge’;thatis,a
knownobject,whichmayguideandinformfurtherinquiry.
Sensibly,againstthislatterstance,Deweyavoidsofanydiscussionof‘truth’as
astrictlydefinedconceptrelatingtoacorrespondencewithreality.Indeed,the
possibilityoffinalandabsoluteaccesstotruthwouldinevitablyconflictwithan
understandingofinquiryasa‘continuingprocess.’Bywayofalternative,the
notionof‘warrantedassertibility’isintroduced.Thoughlesscrispatermthan
truth,55warrantedassertibilityoffersaflexibleapproachtotheconceptof
validitywithintheconductofinquiry.Specifically,itreferstothepresentationof
asetofreasonableconclusions,whichareseentoariseoutofcompetent
practice56andholdclearapplicabilitytotheconductoffutureinquiries.57As
such,valueisrecognizedatthesametimeasallowingforfuturerevision.
Fromtheaboveoutline,itwillbeapparentthatthepatternfocusesonthe
activitiesthatdirectinquiryratherthanitsabstractunderpinnings.As
Morgenbesserputsit,Deweyverymuchsawinquiryasa‘speciesofaction’58and
notapurelyintellectualpursuit.Tobesure,ontheDeweyanunderstanding,itis
aspeciesofactionthatisfirmlylocatedinordinarylife.Indeed,Deweywentso
farastoclaimthathispatternofinquirywasasapplicabletoeveryday‘common
sense’inquiriesastoscientificendeavour.Infact,thetwoareseenaslinked,
withcommonsenseinquiryattendingtoissuesof‘useandenjoyment’inholistic
real-worldsituationsandscienceaimingtoabstractfromthis,resultingin
contingentknowledge.Returnedtoeverydayexperience,suchknowledgeissaid
torefine,expandandliberatethe‘contentsofandtheagenciesatthedisposalof
55Sleeper,TheNecessityofPragmatism,134.56Dewey,TheLaterWorks,1925-1953,Vol.12:1938,108.57Ibid.,120.58Morgenbesser,DeweyandhisCritics:EssaysfromtheJournalofPhilosophy,xxiv.
commonsense’.59Consequently,thoughcommonsenseandsciencedifferinthe
typesofproblemstheyexamine,theyarenotviewedasmetaphysicallyor
ontologicaldifferent.60
Toalargedegree,thislinkingofcommonsenseandsciencereliesonDewey’s
proposalthattwobroad‘existential’matrices,onebiologicalandtheother
cultural,necessarilyframeandadvanceinquiry.Biologically,thehuman
organismisconsideredinstrictlyfunctionalterms,relatingtooursensory,
motor,andnervoussystems.61Culturally,however,therelevantsocialfactors
aredrawnintofocus,withaparticularemphasisbeingplacedonlanguageand
itsconsequences.62Here,weencounterDewey’stheoryofcommunication.
Dewey’sTheoryofCommunication
ForDewey,humancommunicationismanifestnotonlyinspeechandwritingbut
also,moreexpansively,inallmodesofartandmusic.63Accountsdetailingthe
processofcommunicationanditsconsequencesappearthroughouthisworks.64
Amongthese,perhapsthesharpestoutlinemaybeseentoformthecentralpivot
ofExperienceandNature.InthistextDeweysetsouttochallengetraditional
conceptionsoftherelationshipbetweenthe‘external’worldandthehuman
mind.Onhisreconfiguration,communication,ormorespecificallylanguage,is
presentedasa‘naturalisticlink’betweenthephysicalworldandwhatis
generallythoughtofastheideal.65Indeed,forDewey,itisthematerial-
59Dewey,TheLaterWorks,1925-1953,Vol.12:1938,71-72.60LarryHickman,PragmatismasPost-Postmodernism:LessonsfromJohnDewey(NewYork:FordhamUniversityPress,2007):212.61Dewey,TheLaterWorks,1925-1953,Vol.12:1938,30.62Ibid.,48-49.63LarryHickman,PhilosophicalToolsforTechnologicalCulture:PuttingPragmatismtoWork(Bloomington,IN:IndianaUniversityPress,2001):46-47.64TheparticulartitlesIhaveinmindincludeExperienceandNature,ArtasExperienceandLogic:TheTheoryofInquiry.65JohnDewey,ExperienceandNature(1929;rpt.NewYork:DoverPublicationsInc.,1958):xiii.
intellectualinteractionsthatoccurinlanguage,whichhaveledtotherebeingany
conceptoftheidealorspiritualtobeginwith.66
Hisargumentadvancesfromtheviewthatcommunicationmaybeunderstood
tobeboth‘consummatoryaswellasinstrumental’.67Consummatorybecause
ourimmediateexperiencesareenhancedasweenjoytheconsequencesof
exchangeandunderstanding.Instrumentalbecause,throughcommunicationand
language,weareabletoestablishcooperationwithinajointactivity.68Following
onfromthis,wearesaidtograduallydevelopsharedmeaningsconcerningthe
foreseenconsequencesoftheactivitiesweundertakeinpartnership.The
developmentofsuchsharedmeaningsamountstoagradualconsolidationofthe
relationshipsbetweenpersons,thingsandconsequences.Overtime,
‘pronouncedinstancesofmeaning’maybeformed,which,inturn,aresaidto
constitutethe‘essence’ofparticularrelationshipswithingivencultures.69
Whilethisprocessofconsolidatingmeaningisseenasoneoftheprimary
long-termoutcomesofcommunication,Deweygoesontosaythatsuchmeanings
arenotappliedrestrictively.Rather,heclaims,meaningsarecontinuallybeing
experimentedwith.Incommunicationweoftenstretchthem,testingwhetheror
nottheymaybeprofitablytransferredtoanynovelcaseswemightencounter.70
Suchtestingisseentoformthebasisofnewthinking.
‘Meaning,fixedasessenceinatermofdiscourse,maybeimaginatively
administeredandmanipulated,experimentedwith.Justasweovertly
66Ibid.,171.67Ibid.,202.68Ibid.,179.69Ibid.,182.70Ibid.,188.
manipulatethings,makingnewseparationsandcombinations,thereby
introducingthingsintonewcontextsandenvironments[…]’71
ForRalphSleeper,suchstatementsindicateanunderstandingof
communicationastransformational.72Inotherwords,followingDewey’s
argument,communicationmaybeseenasaprocessthroughwhichour
conceptualizationsoftherelationshipsbetweenofpersons,thingsand
consequencesmayberedirectedandaltered.Sleepergoesontosuggestthat,in
theDeweyanapproach,thewayweviewexistenceitselfmaybeseenas
undergoingcontinualtransformationthroughcommunication.Thislinksusat
lasttoDewey’sownparticularbrandofmetaphysics.
Dewey’sMetaphysics
Metaphysicshastraditionallybeenpresentedasthestudyofwhatexists,
examininginparticularthepropertiesofexistentthings,theirrelationships,as
wellasthestructureofrealityasawhole.Whilemanymetaphysicalconclusions
areatleastpartlybasedondirectempiricalevidence,‘hunchesandintuitionsof
truth’arealsopermissiblewhen‘secureknowledgeisunavailable’.73Fromthe
beginningofthetwentiethcentury,Deweyhadbeenquestioningtheextentto
whichthisclassicalframingcouldbesustained.74InExperienceandNature
(1925)heproposedafull-scalereconstructionofthediscipline.
71Ibid.,194.72Sleeper,TheNecessityofPragmatism,120.73RobertC.KoonsandTimothyPickavance,Metaphysics:TheFundamentals(London:JohnWiley&Sons,2015):2.74JohnDewey,“TheSubjectMatterofMetaphysicalInquiry”,inDeweyandhisCritics:EssaysfromtheJournalofPhilosophy,SidneyMorgenbessered.(LancasterPA:LancasterPress,1977):317.In‘TheSubject-MatterofMetaphysicalInquiry’Deweypresentedaninitialproposaloutliningarevisedroleforthediscipline.Throughreformation,heargued,metaphysicscouldbecomeasciencefocusedontheidentificationandarticulationof‘theultimatetraitsoftheworld’Itwouldbeconcernednotwithspecifics,asisthecaseinthenaturalsciencesforexample,butinsteadwiththegeneralitiesofexistence.
Thetextopenswiththeargumentthatexperienceandnatureshouldnotbe
seenasseparate.Experience,wearetold,is‘ofnatureaswellasinnature’.75Itis
throughexperiencethatweencounteraworld,whichisanythingbut‘sure,
regularandfinished’.Rather,theworldwecometoknowindailylifeisablend
of‘sufficiencies,tightcompleteness,order’and‘recurrences’,aswellas
‘singularities,ambiguities,’and‘uncertainprocesses’.76
Againstthiscomplexity,existenceissaidtobecomprisedofevents.77On
Dewey’saccount,eventsdrawtogetherhumanlifeinanunbounded
completeness,weavingthepersonal,thesocialandthematerialintoone
complexinteraction.Aswashighlightedintheprevioussection,Deweybelieves
thatitisthroughsocialdiscoursethatweareabletoidentifyandarticulatethe
meaningofthings,todrawthemintofocus,aswellastoexpanduponthem.
Furthertothis,inevents,languageissaidtoallowustoconvertfeltqualitiesinto
the‘objectivedifferences’betweenthings.Feelingscometomakesense.Wecan
identifyanddiscriminatebetween‘pains,pleasures,odors,colors,noises,
tones’.78Assuchqualitiesareseentoarisethrough‘thecomplexandextensive
interactionofevents’,Deweyinsiststhattheymustbeunderstoodasholdinga
‘naturalexistentialstatus’.79Inotherwords,hebelievesthattheybelongas
muchtothesituationastotheindividual.Inholdinganaturalexistentialstatus,
qualitiesarepresentedasthe‘ends,terminals,arrests,enclosures’ofnature.On
thisview,naturemaybeseenas‘anaffairofaffairs’;alinkedupsetofendsand
beginningswhicheachholdqualities.80
75Dewey,ExperienceandNature,4a.76Ibid.,47.77Ibid.,7178Ibid.,258-25979Ibid.,265.80Ibid.,96.
Thetextconcludeswithanexplorationoftherelationshipbetweenexistence,
valuesandphilosophy.Wearetoldthat‘naturalends’necessarilypresent
intrinsic,immediatelyrecognizablevalues.81Inlightofthis,Deweybelievesthat,
wereitappropriatelycontextualized,philosophywouldbecome‘amethodof
discriminatingamonggoodsonthebasisoftheconditionsoftheirappearance
andoftheirconsequences’;82thatis,amethodofcriticismor‘acriticismof
criticisms’.Thismethod,whenproperlypursuedasameansofinquiry,would
resultintheinstitutionandperpetuationof‘moreenduringandextensive
values’.83
Followingonfromthisproposedredirectionofphilosophyandthepreceding
theoryofexistence,areconstructedmetaphysicswouldaim,wearetold,
towards‘astatementofthegenerictraitsmanifestedbyexistencesofallkinds
withoutregardtotheirdifferentiationbetweenthephysicalandthemental’.
Thesewouldlikelyinclude:‘qualitativeindividualityandconstantrelations,
contingencyandneed,movementandarrest’.Whiletheidentificationofsuch
traitswouldneverbefinal,theywouldbegintoprovidephilosophywitha
‘groundmap’,guidingcriticismtowards‘moreintricatetriangulations’inits
investigationofvalues.84
ADeweyanFrameworkforKnowledge
81Ibid.,396.TotracesomeofDewey’sexamples,inournaturalexperiencequalitiessuchaspoignancy,humour,zest,tragedyandbeautyareallimplicitlyapproachedintermstheirbeing‘fugitiveandprecarious,positiveandnegative’and‘indefinitelydiversified’.82Ibid.,396.83Ibid.,403.84Ibid.,412-413.
ItisoftennotedthatDeweyneverdevelopedaformalepistemologicaltheory,at
leastnotinthetraditionalsense.85Bywayofalternative,somesuggestthathis
theoryofinquirymaybeseentofunctionasastand-in,i.e.,fulfillingasimilar
role.86Toadegree,thisistrue,however,aswasalludedtoearlier,RalphSleeper
presentsacompellingargumentinfavourofseeingDewey’sapproachto
knowledgeasbeingdistributedacrossthethreetheoriesoutlinedabove.
Attheoutset,Sleepercentralizesthetheoryofinquiryandhighlightshow,as
anapproachtounderstandinglogic,itshouldbeseenastakingexperienceasit
subjectmatter.FollowingonfromJohnMcDermot,hearguesthat,fromDewey’s
perspective,experienceistobeunderstoodas‘pedagogical’;itteachesand,
throughreflection,welearn.87Byreflectingonourexperiencesinthe
experimentalsettingsofbothcommonsenseandscientificinquiryweareableto
arriveatobjectsofknowledgeor,toputitinclearerterms,knownobjects.Thisis
key;forwhenunknownobjectsaretransformedintoknownobjectsweinevitably
transformourunderstandingoftheirplacementintheworld,which,
consequently,isitselftransformed.AsSleeperstates:
‘Thethingisnotmerelyseendifferentlyasaresultofinquiry,noristhe
differencemerelytheeffectofcausalfactorspresentintheoperationsof
inquiry,whichintervenebetweenthenon-cognitiveobjectandtheobjectas
known.Fortheobject,bybeingplacedinwhollynewrelationshipsbecomesa
85Hickman,PhilosophicalToolsforTechnologicalCulture:PuttingPragmatismtoWork;JohnR.Shook,Dewey’sEmpiricalTheoryofKnowledgeandReality(Nashville:VanderbiltUniversityPress,2000);Sleeper,TheNecessityofPragmatism;GeorgeDykhuizen,TheLifeandMindofJohnDewey(Carbondale:SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress,1973).86Hickman,PragmatismasPost-Postmodernism:LessonsfromJohnDewey,20687Sleeper,TheNecessityofPragmatism,6.
differentobject.Thetransactionthattakesplaceininquiryreconstructsthe
objectbyreconstructingitsrelations.’88
Fromtheabove,weconnecttoDewey’smetaphysics.ForSleeper,this
functionsasabackgroundtheorytothewhole.Throughit,experienceis
connectedtonature,mindtobody,thoughttoaction,communicationtothe
thingsoftheworldandconsequencestovalue.Thereisnolongeranyawkward,
imposeddisjunctionsorarbitraryseparationsbetweentheworldandourfull
physicalandintellectualparticipationwithinit.Inthesimplestterms,inquiryas
anaturalprocessgivesusaccesstonature.Torestatethismorefully,weapply
intelligenceandreflection—whichareseenasnatural—asweinquireand,
broadly,throughinquiry,wegraduallycometounderstandthestructuresof
existencesuchthatwecanofferadequatecriticismonsubjectsofbelief,conduct
andappreciation.
Thewholenessofthisarrangement,Sleeperbelieves,reliesonDewey’stheory
ofcommunication,whichhearguesconnectsthetheoryofinquirytothetheory
ofexistence.Onthisview,languageallowsustoestablisharelationshipbetween
thingsinexperienceandthingsinexistence.89Inotherwords,bybundlingthe
people,things,andconsequencesofinquirytogetherasmeanings,languagealso
carriesourontologicalunderstandingsforward.Itisthetoolthatallowsusto
projectfromexperiencetoanunderstandingofexistence.
88Ibid.,121.89Ibid.,116.
AnEnrichmentofDesignResearch
Inrecentyears,RichardBuchananandothers90havedrawnlinksbetween
Dewey’stheoryofinquiryanddesignresearch.ThroughSleeper’sinvestigation,
thepossiblerelevancyofthetheoryisextendedfurther.Specifically,the
Deweyanframeworkhereveals—linking,asitdoes,people,thingsand
consequencesinrelationtoknowledge—pointstothepossibilityofa
strengthenedepistemologicalnarrativeforresearchwhichincorporatesdesign
practice.Examiningthisframeworkindetail,itispossibletoidentifyanumber
offeatures,which,takencollectively,begintoscaffoldsuchanarrative.
ThefirstfeatureisDewey’sexplicitnaturalizationofthought,ideas,
meaningsandimagination,assupportedbyhistheorizationofa
‘biosocioculturalcontinuity’91withinthemetaphysics.Onthisview,thought,
ideasandmeaningsarenotunderstoodinoppositiontonaturebut,rather,areof
nature,arisinginaction.Assuch,thecreativityofdesignersandother
professionalsisnolongerananomalous,extra-naturaloccurrencebutrathera
finelyhonedabilitytomovebetweenproblemsandsolutions,solutionsand
problemsintherealworld;anoutcomeofanexperimentationwithmeaningsin
discourseand,equally,anecessaryprocessatplaywithininquiry.
ThesecondfeatureconcernsDewey’sidentificationoftwotypesof
inquiry—commonsenseandscientific.Thetwoaredistinguishedintermsof
theirsubjectmatterandprioritiesbutnottheirbasiclogicormetaphysical
standingand,assuch,areseenasrelatedalongacontinuum.Aparallelcanbe
90See,forexample,Buchanan,“ThinkingAboutDesign:AnHistoricalPerspective”;Buchanan,“StrategiesofDesignResearch:ProductiveScienceandRhetoricalInquiry”;LeifE.Östman,“APragmatistTheoryofDesign”;andPeterDalsgaard“DesigningEngagingInteractiveEnvironments:APragmatistPerspective."(Aarhus,Denmark:AarhusUniversity,2009).91RaymondBoisvert,JohnDewey:RethinkingourTime(Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1998):127.
drawnherebetweendesignpracticeanddesignresearch.92Bothhavespecific
aimsandpriorities(e.g.,thedevelopmentanddeliveryofproducts,servicesand
experiences,versustheproductionofknowledge)buttheyarenotlogically
different.Ineachcasetheinquirers—oneadesigner,theotheradesign-
researcher—movefromindeterminacytosituationsthatareincreasingly
determined.Fromthisperspective,theincorporationofdesignwithinaresearch
projectisunproblematic.Indeed,itmayevenbenecessaryordesirable.93
ThethirdfeatureofnoteisDewey’sconceptofwarrantedassertibility.Here,
workable,viable(objectsof)knowledgearevaluedfortheirapplicabilityto
futureinquiries,asopposedtoanysupposedcorrespondencetoanultimate
reality.94Therelevanceofthisfeaturefordesignresearchhasbeenhighlighted
byanumberofauthors.95Itisfoundtobeaparticularlycompellingconceptasit
suggeststhatcompetency,contextualappropriatenessandtransferability96can
legitimatelyunderscoreaninquiry’sconclusions.
Thislinkstothefinalandperhapsmostsignificantfeatureoftheframework
relatingtotheclaimputforwardbySleeperthatDeweyseesinquiryasaprocess92RichardBuchananhasrelatedSchön’sapproachtoDewey’sconceptofcommonsenseinquiry.SeeBuchanan,“StrategiesofDesignResearch:ProductiveRhetoricalInquiry”,63.93Deweybelievedthatthefindingsofscienceshould,asamatterofcourse,bereturnedtotheworldofcommonsense.However,hewasnotconvincedthatthiswasroutinelyachieved.ThoughmuchhaschangedsinceDewey’stime,designresearchcan,arguably,besaidtopresentameansbywhichlinksmaybeforgedbetweenthetwodomains.Indeed,inthelate1990sBuchananproposedthatdoctoraleducationindesignmightbebasedona‘neoteric’approachtoeducationthat‘gather[s]resourcesfromanyareaofpreviouslearninginordertofindnewwaysofaddressingthenewproblems,therebycreatinganewbodyoflearningandknowledge.’See,RichardBuchanan,“TheStudyofDesign:DoctoralEducationandResearchinaNewFieldofInquiry,”inDoctoralEducationinDesign1998:ProceedingsoftheOhioConference,October8–11,1998;andRichardBuchanan,“Designresearchandthenewlearning,”DesignIssues17:4(2001):3-23.94ForphilosopherLarryHickman,thefallibilisminherentinthisconceptcontributestowhathetermsa‘post-postmodern’characterinDewey’swork.AccordingtoHickman,thisemergesinDewey’seffectiverejectionofthecentralclaimsofmodernistthought(e.g.,dualismofmindandbody;thatcertainknowledgeisattainable)butalsohisavoidanceofthesubsequentexcessesofpost-modernism(e.g.,thatnooneviewpointcanbeprivilegedoveranyother).Assuch,Deweyisseentohaveanticipatedpostmodernistargumentsatthesametimeasavoidedsomeofthemovement’smorenegativeconclusions.SeeHickman,Postmodernism:LessonsfromJohnDewey.95See,forexample,Stolterman,“ThenatureofDesignPracticeandImplicationsforInteractionDesignResearch”;andWolfgangJonas,“DesignResearchanditsMeaningtotheMethodologicalDevelopmentoftheDiscipline,”inDesignResearchNow,187-206.96Thereisaparallelherewiththeconstructionistevaluationcriteriaofcredibility,transferability,dependabilityandconformabilityfirstproposedbyLincolnandGuba.SeeYvonnaS.LincolnandEgonG.Guba,NaturalisticInquiry(NewburyPark,CA:SagePublications,1986).ForadiscussionofpossibleevaluationcriteriaforresearchthroughdesigninthecontextofHCIseeJohnZimmerman,JodiForlizzi,andShelleyEvenson,“ResearchThroughDesignasaMethodforInteractionDesignResearchinHCI,”inProceedingsoftheSIGCHIConferenceonHumanFactorsinComputingSystems(NewYork:ACM,2007):493-502.
ofontologicaltransformation.Onthisaccount,theinquirerworkstoconvert
unknownobjectsintoknownobjectsand,so,reconstructstheseentitiesalong
withthewidernetworkofrelationstheysustain.Arguably,designinquiriescan
beseentogofurtherinthatnovelthingsmaybedevelopedanddeployedin
socialsituations,leadingtonovelconsequences.People,thingsand
consequencesarethendrawntogetherinnewways,resultinginnewmeanings
andwhollynewsetsofrelations.Fromthisperspective,designinquiriesnotonly
transformthingsencountered,butalsotherangeofthings,consequencesand
meaningsavailabletoencounter.
Thisstrategyhasbeenwidelyexploredindesignresearch.Forexample,
DunneandRaby’scriticaldesign97andWalker’sdevelopmentofpropositional
objects98canbeseentoincludetheactiveinterrogationofontologicalthemesas
afunctionofinquiry.Inbothcases,scenariosandartefactsaredesignedwiththe
explicitaimofquestioningassumptionsandexpandingpossibilities.Further
parallelscanbefoundintheworkofKrippendorffandVerganti,whoboth
investigatedesign’srelationshipwithmeaning.ForKrippendorff,designisa
processwhichdisruptspresentstabilities;99‘meaning’,heclaims,isconstituted
intheuseofitsoutcomes.100Similarly,Vergantiarguesthat,through‘in-depth
explorationsoftheevolutionofsociety,cultureandtechnology’,designersare
capableofradicallyinnovatingproductmeanings.101
97AntonyDunneandFionaRaby.DesignNoir:TheSecretLifeofElectronicObjects(Basel:Birkhser,2001);AntonyDunneandFionaRaby.SpeculativeEverything:Design,Fiction,andSocialDreaming(CambridgeMA:MITPress,2013).98StuartWalker,DesigningforSustainability:MakingRadicalChangesinaMaterialWorld(Oxon:Routledge,2014).99Krippendorff,TheSemanticTurn:ANewFoundationforDesign,210.100Informulatinghissemantictheoryofdesign,KrippendorffdrawsheavilyontheworkofWittgenstein.Inparticular,hefocusesonWittgenstein’s‘meaninginuse’concept.ThoughthisisnotaDeweyanperspective,thetwoviewsarenotnecessarilyincompatible.SeeStephenToulmin,IntroductiontoTheQuestforCertainty,TheLaterWorks,1925-1953:1929,Vol.4,byJohnDewey,JoAnnBoydstoned.(Carbondale:SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress,1984):vii-xxii.101Verganti,DesignDrivenInnovation(Boston:HarvardBusinessSchoolPublishing,2009):xi.
Liningupthefeaturesinsequence,then,naturalizedcreativethoughtislinked
totheconductofdesigninquiry—inbothitspracticalandacademicforms—
which,inturn,islinkedtoanunderstandingofknowledgeascontingentand
ontologicallytransformative.Takenasawhole,thisarrangementbeginstotrace
anoutlineofanepistemologicalnarrativefordesignresearchthatdrawsitinto
anexplicitrelationshipwithdesignpractice.Setnexttooneanother,bothare
seentoshareabasiclogicand,yet,atthesametime,bothretainaparticular,
specificsetofaimsandpriorities—withdesignresearchfocusingexclusivelyon
knowledgeproduction.FollowingDewey’slead,wecannowcometorecognize
thatasunknownbecomesknown(andtheunmadeismade),thereemergesthe
potentialtobringaboutadeepandprofoundreorientationofourontological
parameters.Further,itbecomesthebroadertaskofthedesignresearch
communitytobegintocriticallyarticulatetheextenttowhichparticular
appearancesandconsequences—asrepresentedinitsdiscourserelatingpeople
tothings—contributetotheinstitutionandperpetuationof‘moreenduringand
extensive’values.
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