Ethics as AoK
Ethics as AoK“I cannot see how to refute the
arguments for the subjectivity of ethical values, but I find myself incapable of believing that all that is wrong with wanton cruelty is that I don’t like it.”
—Bertrand Russell, 1872-1970“When a stupid man is doing
something he is ashamed of, he always declares it his duty.”
—George Bernard Shaw, 1856-1950
Moral ReasoningMoral Principle:
Cheating on a test is wrong. Snoogles cheated on the test. There what Snoogle did was wrong.
Identify the Moral Principle:Paula shouldn’t have kept the money
she found—it doesn’t belong to her.The CEO accepts bribes. He should
be fired.Bubba should be released from
prison. He didn’t receive a fair trial.
Moral ReasoningConsistency: expect moral judgment to
be applied w/consistencyanti-abortionist who supports the death
penaltyvegetarian who buys leather shoes, belts,
etc.politician who proclaims family values has
an affair
Facts: alleged facts that are basis of moral judgments are truecapital punishment is a deterrentchild labor should be outlawedgenetically modified foods should be
banned
Moral Reasoning
Moral Principle Consistency Facts Value-judgment
What if we do not share the same underlying moral principle?
Moral Relativism
Morals determined by the society in which we grew up
No universal morals: more like customs, i.e. monogamous/polygamous; bury dead/burn dead
Moral Relativism1. Diversity Argument: abundance of
moral practices throughout the world & throughout time means no objective moral values
Slavery; female genital mutilation; sahti; cannibalism
2. Lack of Foundation Argument: no independent moral ‘reality’ to base moral values as a measure of true/false
David Hume, 1711-1776: “tis not contrary to reason to prefer the destruction of the whole world to the scratching of my finger.”
Moral Relativism
Culture of Tolerance: Is it possible with moral relativism?
Problem of Cultural Imperialism Is it always okay to believe that
“they have their values and I have my values and who am I to say he’s wrong”?
Moral RelativismFirst they came for the Jewsand I did not speak outbecause I was not a Jew.
Then they came for the Communistsand I did not speak outbecause I was not a Communist.
Then they came for the trade unionistsand I did not speak outbecause I was not a trade unionist.
Then they came for meand there was no one leftto speak out for me.
--Martin Niemöller
Self-interest Theory Premise: humans are always and
everywhere selfish How does such a theory impact the
notion of morals or ethics?
1. Definitional Argument
2. Evolutionary Argument
3. Hidden Benefits Argument
4. Fear of Punishment Argument
Self-interest TheoryDefinitional Argument True by definition (necessarily
true) that everyone is selfish
What about altruism?
1. Hang with your friends
2. Visit a retirement home
Which action is altruistic?
Self-interest TheoryDefinitional Argument
Is there a difference between Donald Trump and Mother Theresa based on the definitional argument?
Self-interest TheoryDefinitional Argument Criticism:
Definitional argument robs ‘selfish’ of its meaning; how can you criticize something that is the universal motivator of actions
Self-regarding Desires v. Other-regarding Desires
Self-interest TheoryEvolutionary Argument Struggle for survival led us to
being selfish Other people’s interests concern us
only to extent they affect our own interests
Therefore: capitalism is superior to socialism because it taps into human nature
Self-interest TheoryEvolutionary Argument Criticism:
Evidence that supports idea that empathy & altruism is part of our nature
Monkeys refuse pull lever that delivers food if it also caused a shock in another monkey
Babies (about 1 yr. old) will offer a blanket or toy if they see their mother crying
Edward O. Wilson, biologist, “Cooperative individuals generally survive longer and leave more offspring.”
Self-interest TheoryHidden Benefits Argument
We get hidden benefits from being kind to people, i.e. gratitude, praise, positive image
Return a favor or helps our reputation
Self-interest TheoryHidden Benefits Argument Criticism:
People do acts without expecting anything in return, i.e. tip restaurant never visit again
Citizens of Chambon, France who hid Jews from Nazis
Oskar Schindler or Raol Wallenberg
David Hume: “I esteem the man whose self-love, by whatever means, is so directed as to give him a concern for others, and render him serviceable to society; as I hate or despise him who has no regard for anything beyond his own gratifications and enjoyments.”
Self-interest TheoryFear of Punishment Argument Civil behavior results only from
fear of being punished with a fine, ostracism, imprisonment, shame, etc.
What would have if the police were to go on strike?
Montreal, 17 October 1969
Self-interest TheoryFear of Punishment Argument Criticism
What is the basis of this belief? Cynic might claim Mother Theresa
acted out of fear of eternal damnation, but wouldn’t God know that and judge her accordingly
Ring of Gyges (Plato): ring allows bearer to become invisible… what would you do with it?
Theories of EthicsSystematic Approach Religious Ethics Duty Ethics Utilitarianism Immanuel Kant
Theories of EthicsReligious Ethics
Religion like an authoritative rule book
Source of moral insight & ethical guidance
Does that mean we do not have to think about ethics, that we have no responsibility to reflect on ethics?
Theories of EthicsReligious Ethics What about free will? What about the ‘idolatry of literalism?”
Exodus 35:2 proclaims that anyone who works on the Sabbath should be put to death
spirit of the code or the letter of the code?
Theories of EthicsReligious Ethics Plato (428-348 BCE)
cannot derive ethics from religion
Is something good because God says it is good, or does God say that it is good because it is good?
Theories of EthicsReligious Ethics Plato (428-348 BCE)
God says it is good: what if God decides that murder is good
Good because it is good: are values independent of God? Do we need to appeal to God to justify them?
Theories of EthicsReligious Ethics Matthew 19:24: “It is easier for a
camel to go through the eye of a needle than it is for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God.”—How should we interpret this?
Can a person be a good Catholic if they practice birth control?
Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821-1881): “if God is dead, everything is permitted.”
Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics
ethics centered on fulfilling obligations
duty-based ethics = deontological approach
morality of an action is judge by adherence to rule
Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics
What about rights? duty/rights connected
duty not to steal/right to property right to life/ duty not to kill
How are these justified?
Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics
Immanuel Kant, 1724-1804 duties are not arbitrary and can be
determined by reason categorical imperative:
categorically imputes duties across situational variables
Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics
1. “act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law”
2. "act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end and never merely as a means”
3. “every rational being must so act as if he were through his maxim always a legislating member in the universal kingdom of ends.”
Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics
1. “act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law”
What would happen if everyone did that?
i.e. promises
consistency
Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics special pleading: excuses to justify our
own behavior that we would not find acceptable in others
“If you want to know the foulness of lying, consider the lying of someone else and how you shun it and despise the man who lies and regard his communication as foul. Do the same with regard to all your vices, for you do not realize the foulness of your own case, but from someone else’s.”
--Al Ghazali, 1058-1111
Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Golden Rule
Buddhism: Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful." Udana-Varga 5:18
Confucianism: "Do not do to others what you do not want them to do to you" Analects 15:23
Hinduism: This is the sum of duty: do not do to others what would cause pain if done to you. Mahabharata 5:1517
Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Golden Rule
Islam: “No one of you is a believer until he desires for his brother that which he desires for himself. “ Sunnah
Jainism: "In happiness and suffering, in joy and grief, we should regard all creatures as we regard our own self." Lord Mahavira, 24th Tirthankara
Judaism: "What is hateful to you, do not to your fellow man. This is the law: all the rest is commentary." Talmud, Shabbat 31a.
Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Golden Rule
Taoism: “Regard your neighbor’s gain as your gain, and your neighbor’s loss as your own loss.” Tai Shang Kan Yin P’ien
Zoroastrianism: “That nature alone is good which refrains from doing another whatsoever is not good for itself.” Dadisten-I-dinik, 94,5
Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Veil of Ignorance: John Rawls,
1921-2002
Assume that you arrive at the bargaining table with no knowledge whatsoever of your social status, economic power, ethnicity, religion or gender. Then, asks Rawls, what kind of society would you want to set up?
Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics
Values & Dignity
Kant: no individual should be given preferential treatment/ no individual should be discriminated against
never right to sacrifice an individual’s life for the greater good
Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Values & Dignity
Dual Concept of the Self
Individual is one among many but also a me
should never be treated as a mere means to an end
Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Values & Dignity
Kant: difference between objects and humans
objects have value
humans have dignity
Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Moral Value
moral value of an action determined by motive for which it is done not the consequences that derive from it—accident v. revenge
actions should be motivated by reason not feeling
what if you feel like helping Person A, but not Person B?
only do good things when you want to
Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Moral Value Motives for Doing Good
1. expect something in return
2. sympathy
3. duty
Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Criticisms:
moral absolutism, i.e. lying rule worship
respect traffic, but it’s OK to drive through red light if you’re late for work
respect traffic laws, but it’s OK to drive through red light if you’re rushing someone to the emergency room
Theories of EthicsDuty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Criticisms:
conflicts of duty If a person is unfaithful to their partner,
should they confess and make their partner unhappy or say nothing and deceive them?
If your grandmother and a famous doctor are trapped in a burning building, do you rescue your grandmother because she is family or the doctor because she is more useful to society?
If your child is dying of a rare disease and you cannot afford the drugs to save him, are you justified in stealing the drugs?
Theories of EthicsUtilitarianism Jeremy Bentham, 1748-1832 John Stuart Mill, 1806-1873
Moral Principle: the greatest happiness of the greatest number
“It is the greatest good to the greatest number of people which is the measure of right and wrong.”
--Jeremy Bentham
Theories of EthicsUtilitarianism Moral Principle: the greatest happiness
of the greatest number actions are right in so far as they tend
to increase happiness and wrong in so far as they tend to decrease it
“Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure and the absence of pain.”
--John Stuart Mill
Theories of EthicsUtilitarianism
Happiness = presence of pleasure and the absence of pain
maximize pleasure minimize pain
Theories of EthicsUtilitarianism
democratic system rational theory: short-term & long-
term egalitarian system
Theories of EthicsUtilitarianism Criticisms: What is pleasure? ice cream, education,
freedom, lack of responsibilities… What is happiness?
“To be without some of the things you want is an indespensable part of happiness.”
--Bertrand Russell
Theories of EthicsUtilitarianism Criticisms: What is happiness?
you earn $50,000/year & four friends earn $25,000/year
you earn $100,000/year & your four friends earn $250,000/ year
Love & Marriage & Adultery?
Theories of EthicsUtilitarianism Criticisms: Bad Pleasures:
malicious pleasures: derived from suffering of others
empty pleasures: do not help us develop as humans or obtain our full potential
Theories of EthicsUtilitarianism Criticisms: Judges Actions
right or wrong action depends on its outcome or consequences
what about the actions to get to the end
do means justify ends?
Theories of EthicsUtilitarianism Criticisms: Obligations & Rights
Pugnacious is a malicious member of a community. Beneficence decides to do something about Pugnacious. She hides behind tree and, as Pugnacious passes by, hits him in the head with a baseball bat. She then drags his unconscious body to the river and throws him in.
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