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Page 1: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure

N. Chawla

School of MaterialsFulton School of Engineering

Arizona State UniversityTempe, AZ 85287-8706

[email protected]://enpub.fulton.asu.edu/chawla/Home.htm(480) 965-2402 (phone) (480) 727-9321 (fax)

Submitted to:

TMS Education Resource AwardsNovember 2007

Page 2: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure

• Engineering disasters have resulted in loss of life, injuries, and billions of dollars in damage.

• Primary causes for engineering disasters:– Design flaws – Material failures– Extreme conditions or environments (not necessarily preventable)– Some combinations of the reasons above.

• Three major disasters:– Sinking of the ship Titanic– Collapse of the World Trade Center buildings– Explosion of the Space Shuttle Columbia

Page 3: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic

• Titanic began its maiden voyageto New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

from Southampton, England.

• On night of April 14, at 11:40 p.m., crewsighted an iceberg immediately ahead of ship.

• In about 40 seconds it collided with an iceberg estimated to have a gross weightof 150,000-300,000 tons.

• Iceberg struck the Titanic near bow and raked side of ship's hull damaging hull plates and popping rivets,

• At 2:20 a.m., April 15, 1912, Titanic sank within two hours and 40 minutes, with the loss of more than 1,500 lives.

Page 4: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Why did the Titanic sink?

• Theory 1

Multiple rivet failures upon collision with iceberg.

• Theory 2

Failure of the steel hull upon collision with iceberg.

Page 5: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Remains of the Titanic

Page 6: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Theory 1: Multiple wrought-Fe rivet failures upon collision with iceberg.

Hull of the Olympic, Titanic's sister ship after a collision in 1911.

Pre-formed inner head

“Squeezed” head

Hull plate

Page 7: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Microstructure of Titanic Rivet

Fe-silicate “stringers”

Page 8: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Microstructure of Titanic Rivet

• Orientation of Fe-silicate stringers is perpendicular to loading axis at the end of the rivet– Much lower strength and inferior resistance to crack propagation

Pulling force

Page 9: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Blast Furnace Process

• Iron ore, coke, and limestone are raw materials which are charged at the top of the blast furnace.

• Molten “pig iron” and slag are collected at the bottom and are tapped out at intervals.

Theory 2: Hull Fracture the low carbon steel hull upon collision with iceberg.

Page 10: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Open-Hearth Furnace Process

A. Gas and air enter

B. Pre-heated chamber

C. Molten pig iron

D. Hearth

E. Heating chamber (cold)

F. Gas and air exit

• In acid open-hearth steel process, an acid material, silica, is used as the furnace lining.

• Pig iron (92% Fe and about 3.5% C) is charged in. Impurities, including carbon, are oxidized and float out of the iron into the slag.

• Siliceous refractory material in the lining will not react with P or S so the content of these elements in the steel will be extremely high.

Page 11: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Comparison of Chemical Composition of TitanicHull Steel vs. Modern Steels

14.9:10.00320.0790.010.0070.0370.0120.550.20ASTM 36

6.8:10.00350.0130.0240.0170.0690.0450.470.21TitanicHull Plate

Mn-to-S Ratio

NOCuSiSPMnCMaterial

• Mn-to-S ratio is lower and P content slightly higher in Titanic Hull Plate than in modern steels of similar composition.

• Higher S and P amounts can be attributed to acid furnace lining used in open-heart furnaces of that time period.

Page 12: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Ductile-to-Brittle Transition

Ener

gy a

bsor

bed

Temperature

Brittle

Ductile

Transition temperature

Fracture is more “brittle” with decreasing temperature

Decreasing temperature

Page 13: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Impact Energy versus Temperature

Temperature of the water was –2oC!!

Temperature of waterA36 Steel

Titanic longitudinal

Titanic transverse

Page 14: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Impact Toughness of Steel in Titanic vs. U.S.S. Arizona

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200

Temperature (oC)

Arizona

Titanic

Steel of U.S.S. Arizona had lower DBTT!

Page 15: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Fracture Surface of Titanic Steel (Longitudinal) Impacted at 0oC

Characteristic brittle fracture is observed

Page 16: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Lessons Learned from the Sinking of the Titanic• Mn significantly decreases DBTT.

– Titanic steel was low in Mn, most of which likely combined with S to form MnS

• Finer grain size improves toughness and decreases DBTT. Fine grain structure is achieved by deoxidation practice. – Titanic steel appears to be only partially deoxidized (note high

oxygen content)

These factors appear to have contributed to a higher DBTT in Titanic Steel, which made it extremely brittle at the water

Temperature (-2oC)

Modern Steels Have Much Higher Toughness and Lower Ductile-To-Brittle Transition Temperature

Page 17: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

The World Trade Center Buildings

Height: 1,368 and 1,362 feet (417 and 415 meters)

Owners: Port Authority of New York and New Jersey

Architect: Minoru Yamasaki

Ground Breaking: August 5, 1966

Opened: 1970-73; April 4, 1973 ribbon cutting

Page 18: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

WTC Interesting Facts

• Construction cost an estimated $1.5 billion.

• Engineers employed an innovative structural model: a rigid "hollow tube" of closely spaced steel columns with floor trussesextending across to a central core.

– The columns were finished with an aluminum alloy to give a the silver-like coloring

• The twin towers were the first skyscraper buildings designed without any masonry.

• For the elevators to serve 110 stories with a traditional configuration would have required half the area of the lower stories be used for shaftways.

– Elevators were designed such that passengers would change at "sky lobbies" on the 44th and 78th floors, halving the number of shaftways.

Page 19: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

History of Skyscrapers

www.skyscrapers.com

1400’

1200’

1000’

800’

600’

400’

200’

Page 20: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

The Tragedy of September 11, 2001

Page 21: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Schematic of Structure of WTC

External wall

Cross-section of WTC building structure

Internal structure

Page 22: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Boeing 767

Passengers – 375

Fuel Capacity – 23,980 gallons

Engines – PW 4062 63,300 lb thrust

GECF6- 80C2B8F 63,500 lb

Cruise Speed at 35,000ft – 530 mph

Take-off Weight – 450,000 lbs

Page 23: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Energy of Impact vs. Fuel of Aircraft

Energy of Impact

3 sticks of dynamite is 1 MJ, so

energy content of the fuel ~ 7,920,000 sticks of dynamite!

Energy Associated with Fuel

J 10 x 6.39KE

s/m 197vkg 10 x 204Mass

mv21energy Kinetic

8

3

2

=

==

=

[ ]J 10 x 64.2

J/gal 10 x 132 gal 000,20 aircraft infuel of Energy

J/gal 10 x 132~ fuel of gallonper Energy

12

6

6

=

⋅=

Energy of impact was much lower than that of the burning fuel of the aircraft.

Adapted from T. Mackin, U. Illinois, (2001).

Page 24: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Engineering Analysis of WTC Collapse

At the instant that the moving object strikes the stationery object:

strainweight UU =h

Fmax

∆max

W∆st

Static

Dynamic

Forc

e

Displacement

W

Fmax

∆st ∆max

( )

∆

+=

∆=∆+

maxmax

maxmaxmax

h1W2F

F21hW

Page 25: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Engineering Analysis of WTC Collapse

Mg 6.30701

001.011Mg 2

Lh11W2F

maxmax

=

⋅+=

⋅

ε+=

h = 1 floor

L = 70 floorsAssume creeping and softened steel yields atεmax = 0.001

Impact force is at least 30 times mass of floors above impact!

Page 26: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Composition and Properties of A36 Steel Used in Core of WTC

0.30 % C0.15-0.3% Si0.8-1.2% Mn0.04% P0.05% SBalance Fe

23%220-250 MPa400-550 MPa

Elongation (50 mm gage length)

Yield StrengthTensile Strength

Page 27: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Fe-Fe3C Phase Diagram

Banding of ferrite and pearlite are observed due to hot working of plate

Pearlite

Ferrite

Microstructure of Unaffected A36 Steel

Page 28: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

I-Beam Cross-Sections of A36 Steel from WTC 7

The beams appear severely eroded.

Severe oxidation and intergranular melting is observed

Surface microstructure appears to be eutectic mixture of FeS and Fe2O3

Page 29: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Composition Analysis of A36 Steel from WTC-7

Fe2O3

FeS

Fe

S

Fe

Fe

S

O

Mn

FeMn

20 µm

Page 30: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Preliminary Mechanical Testing of WTC Steel

• National Institute of Standards and Technology have conducted preliminary tests on 236 pieces of steel from WTC wreckage.

• Requirement for tensile strength of steel was ~ 36,000 psi.

NIST tests showed steel to be capable of bearing ~ 42,000 psi.

Steel beams from the World Trade Center generallymet or exceeded design strength requirements.

Page 31: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Proposed Sequence of Events that Caused Collapse of WTC Buildings

Floors above impactfall – “pancake effect”

Buckling

Increase in load andtemperature of remaining

steel structure

Fire Damage

Impact of Plane

Floors above impactfall – “pancake effect”

Buckling

Increase in load andtemperature of remaining

steel structure

Fire Damage

Impact of Plane

Impact Damageto Core of BuildingImpact Damage

to Core of Building

Page 32: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Thoughts and Speculation about Failure• Buildings were meant to withstand impact of a Boeing 707 – same

amount of fuels as 767

• WTC fire was fuel rich (not typical of office fires) – smoke was dark black – Temperatures of fuel rich fires are typically < 827oC)

• Steel did not melt, but may have been in the austenitic phase field (above eutectoid temperature of 727oC).– Severe weakening due to creep.

• Thermal stresses may also have played a role.– Steel was cool from outside and quite hot inside

• Floors above impact may have caused significant damage to steel joints, with very falling floor, during collapse.

Collapse of the WTC building would not likely have been prevented by better design.

Page 33: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

The Columbia Space Shuttle Disaster

Planned Re-entry Path of Shuttle

Page 34: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Map of Debris Field

Debris locationsResidential areas

Miles

0 5

Page 35: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Reassembling the Shuttle

Schematic of shuttle parts for reassemblyReassembly of Shuttle at NASA hangar

Page 36: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Satellite Photograph of Shuttle in Space

What is the protrusion on the leading edge of the left wing?

NASA Briefing by Ron Dittemore, Shuttle Program Manager

Page 37: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Thermal Stresses in Shuttle Wing During Re-entry

Fuselage

Wing Leading Edge(carbon-carbon composite)

Main Landing Gear

Attachment for ExternalFuel Tank

ElevonsBody flap

Directionof stress

Direction ofshuttle flight

Stress(psi)

Page 38: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Temperature Evolution in Left Wing

8:51 AM8:52 AM

8:53 AM8:54 AM

Page 39: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Temperature Evolution in Left Wing

8:55 AM 8:56 AM

8:57 AM8:58 AM

Page 40: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Schematic and Photograph of Bipod/Flange Area with Insulation

Bipod/Flange Area

Insulation

Insulation

Page 41: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Foam Striking Left Wing of Shuttle

NASA Flight Video

Page 42: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Ceramic Tile used for Thermal Insulation

Page 43: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Carbon/Carbon Composite in Leading Edge of Wing

Page 44: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Woven Fiber Fabrics

Plain Eight Harness Satin

• stable• handleable• easier processing

• drapeable(contours)• distinct faces• less porous

Page 45: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Processing of Carbon/Carbon Composites

Fiber laminate stacking Resin or pitchimpregnation

Evacuate and seal

Hot isostatic pressing+ carbonization

Carbon/Carboncomposite

Page 46: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Thermal Protection Design for Space Shuttle

Carbon-Carbon Composite

CVD SiC coating + Boride SealantBorosilicate Overglaze

Glass formers penetrateand seal any cracks in outer coating

0

10

20

30

40

0 5 10 15 20Time (h)

Untreated 2% B2O

3

7% B2O

3

Carbon/carbon

Page 47: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Carbon-Carbon Composite Used in Leading Edge of Shuttle Wing

Space Shuttle Discovery

Page 48: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Foreign Object Damage in Previous Shuttle Mission

Space Shuttle Atlantis – 11/2002

Oxidation flaws

Page 49: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Summary of Damage Sequence

81.9 seconds after liftoff, debris hits wing

Computer models predicted velocity of foam (~1.7 lbs.) to be ~ 500 miles per hour.

Page 50: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Estimating the Damage During Impact

16”

Foam impact testing on wing of shuttle Atlantis

Page 51: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Summary of Damage Sequence (contd.)

Speed of air moving through wingSuperheated air flowed through wheel well- Al trusses melted, weakening shuttle structure

Page 52: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Lessons Learned from Shuttle Columbia Explosion

• Space shuttle tiles may not be adequate for impact damage resistance

• Carbon/carbon composite leading edge should be tailored for higher impact damage/oxidation resistance– More frequent inspections (after flights) of leading edge should be

conducted

• Impact of foam should be addressed in future flights

• Emergency escape system should be devised and incorporated into flight plans

Page 53: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Alternate Tile Material/Design for Space Shuttle

Page 54: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

Shuttle Accident Board Recommendations for Resuming Flights

• Begin aggressive program to eliminate all shedding of debris from external fuel tank. – Increase shuttle's ability to sustain minor debris damage.

• Make it possible to inspect damage to shuttle's thermal protection system and make emergency repairs.

• Upgrade imaging system so it can provide at more useful views of shuttle at liftoff.

• Obtain high-resolution images of external tank after it separates, and images of wings' leading edge and thermal protection system.

• Develop a comprehensive inspection plan to determine the structural integrity of components made of reinforced carbon-carbon.

Page 55: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

General Observations for Materials Engineers

• Continue to conduct research/engineering of structural materials.– Microstructure-property relationships are the key to understanding

material behavior!

• Communicate and collaborate with engineers from other disciplines (civil, mechanical engineers).

• Make general public and public officials aware of the importance of engineering materials to our society (outreach).

Page 56: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

To Engineer is Human

Insufficient knowledge36%

Underestimation of influence16%

Ignorance14%

Forgetfulness13%

Relying upon others without sufficient control

9%

Other12%

Study by the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology – Zurich800 cases of structural failure, 504 killed, 592 injured, millions of dollars in damage incurred.

Page 57: Engineering Disasters: Learning from Failure - TMS · Chronology of Events Leading to Sinking of the Titanic • Titanic began its maiden voyage to New York at noon on April 10, 1912,

AcknowledgmentsTitanic• K. Felking, H.P. Leighly, and A. Jankovic, J. Metals, (1998).• T. Foecke, National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST Report NIST-

IR 6118.• R.A. Souza, “The Titanic Disaster: Two Theories,” Materials Research Society

Web Site.• D.L. Johnson, W.N. Weins, J.D. Makinson, and D.A. Martinez, in

Microstructural Science, ASM, 2000. • Titanic Historical Society

World Trade Center• T.W. Eagar and C. Musso, JOM, (2001) December 8-11.• J.R. Barnett, R.R. Biederman, and R.D. Sisson, JOM, (2001) December 18.

Columbia Space Shuttle• New York Times• NASA• Columbia Accident Investigation Board Final Report, 2003• D.W. McKee, Carbon, (1986) 24 737.• K.K. Chawla, Ceramic Matrix Composites, Kluwer Academic, (2003).


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