Download - Early Neolithic Tell Settlements of South-east Europe in Their Natural Setting

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AEGEAN - MARMARA - BLACK SEA: THE PRESENT STATE

OF RESEARCH ON THE EARLY NEOLITHIC

I. GATSOV AND H. SCHWARZBERG (EDS.)

Proceedings of the Session held at the EAA 8th Annual Meeting

at Thessaloniki, 28th September 2002

Beier & BeranLANGENWEISSBACH 2006

1SCHRIFTEN DES ZENTRUMS FR ARCHOLOGIE UNDKULTURGESCHICHTE DES SCHWARZMEERRAUMES 5

AEGEAN MARMARA BLACK SEA: THE PRESENT STATE

OF RESEARCH ON THE EARLY NEOLITHIC

5

F. Bertemes/A. Furtwngler (Halle):Vorwort der Herausgeber der Schriftenreihe

H. Parzinger (Berlin):Gruwort des Prsidenten des DeutschenArchologischen Institutes

H. Schwarzberg (Halle)/I. Gatsov (Sofia):Aegean Marmara Black Sea: The presentstate of research on the Early Neolithic. Anintroduction

Y. D. Boyadzhiev (Sofia):The role of absolute chronology in clarifyingthe Neolithization of the eastern half of theBalkan Peninsula

M. L. Sfriads (Rennes):Some reflections on the Mesolithic substratumand the Neolithization processes in the Aegean,Danubian and Black Sea areas

M. zdogan (Istanbul):Neolithic cultures at the contact zone betweenAnatolia and the Balkans - Diversity and homo-geneity at the Neolithic frontier

C. Lichter (Karlsruhe):Zum Forschungsstand des Neolithikums undfrhen Chalkolithikums in Westanatolien

S. Alpaslan-Roodenberg (Leiden):Death in Neolithic Ilpnar

N. Kyparissi-Apostolika (Athens):The beginning of the Neolithic in Thessaly

N. Efstratiou (Thessaloniki):Looking for the Early Prehistory of GreekThrace: Research problems, prospects and firstresults

M. Lichardus-Itten (Paris)/J.-P. Demoule (Paris)/L. Pernicheva (Sofia)/M. Grebska-Kulova(Blagoevgrad)/I. Kulov (Blagoevgrad):Kovacevo, an Early Neolithic site in South-WestBulgaria and its importance for EuropeanNeolithization

L. Nikolova (Salt Lake City):Village-interments and social reproduction dur-ing the Neolithic

E. Rosenstock (Tbingen):Early Neolithic tell settlements of South-EastEurope in their natural setting: A study in dis-tribution and architecture

H. Schwarzberg (Halle):A new item for the Neolithic Package? EarlyNeolithic cult vessels in Anatolia and South-East Europe

S. Hansen (Berlin):Frhe Statuetten in Griechenland und ihreVorbilder

I. Gatsov (Sofia):The state of research into the problem ofPleistocene-Holocene transition in the presentarea of Bulgaria

M. Gurova (Sofia):Functional aspects of the Early Neolithic flintassemblages from Bulgaria and NW Anatolia

N. Benecke (Berlin):Animal husbandry and hunting in the EarlyNeolithic of South-East Europe - A review

E. Marinova (Sofia):Archaeobotanical studies of the BulgarianNeolithic. The current state of research and per-spectives for future studies

Contributors

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15

21

29

47

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69

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127

135

83

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Content

115Early Neolithic tell settlements of South-East Europe

Introduction

Settlements that tend to accumulate their habitationdebris, forming a more or less pronounced artificialhill, are usually known as mounds, or are given localterms such as tell (Arabic), hyk (Turkish) ormogila (Slavic). During the last decade, they havebeen the subjects of increasing archaeological interestfocused on the north-western margin of their distribu-tion1. In South-East Europe, these mounds do not domi-nate the archaeological landscape to the extent as theydo in some regions of the Near East, where tells arevirtually the only known form of settlement. Rather,the Balkans are characterized by a peculiar distribu-tion of some areas where tells are frequent and otherregions where flat settlements are the common settle-ment form and tells can hardly be found at all. Theirexistence from the Early Neolithic onwards has at timesbeen denied2 but by following research of V. G. Childein the 1950s it has generally been explained by certainecological conditions and shared habits of occupantscommon to the Near East and the Balkans3. Even thetells themselves, like the occurrence of painted pottery,have been seen as a common cultural trait in theseareas4 adding a further dimension to studiesconcerning the origins of the Neolithic in South-EastEurope. This study investigates to what extent the ori-gin and distribution of tells can be attributed to eco-logical conditions, with the aim of achieving a betterunderstanding to what extent sociocultural factors haveplayed a role in forming them.

Ecological conditions

The topography of the Balkan Peninsula is character-ized by certain north-south and east-west inclinations.The carstic ridges of the Dinaric Mountains, the Pindosand the Taygetos, which, apart from the coastal plainof Albania, rise almost immediately behind the Medi-

terranean coastline up to more than 2,000 m, act as apronounced barrier running from the Alps in the northto the southern tip of the Peloponnesus. In the IronGates area, the Dinaric Mountains connect with theCarpathians to form a natural barrier separating theCarpathian Basin from the south of the peninsula. Theeastern part of the peninsula, with its vast plains of theDanube, Thrace, Greek Macedonia and Thessaly, pro-vides a stark contrast to the mountainous west.

The prevailing westerly winds, which unload rainwhile crossing the western ridges, cause an averageprecipitation in some places of more than 2,000 mm/a.The eastern plains, however, are protected from thesewinds, and in some parts receive an average precipita-tion of less than 400 mm/a. This figure generally doesnot reach more than 600 mm/a, with the intermittentmountains like the Balkan and the Rhodopes receivingaround 1,000 mm/a5. While in high altitudes the cli-mate generally tends to be considerably cooler, thetemperatures vary significantly between north andsouth, with an average summer temperature of 25 Cin the north and 20 C in the south. In winter thesedifferences are even more pronounced due to continen-tal influences, varying from 10 C to -2.5 C6. Thus,according to Langs index, many of the plains have tobe considered as relatively arid regions7.

The soils of the Balkan Peninsula, although var-ied, can mainly be attributed to three types: most ofthe south is dominated by mature, highly leached andrather poor Mediterranean soils such as terra rossaand terra fusca, characteristic of arid regimes. Whilethe mountains usually bear brown soils such as cambisolsand luvisols, typical of temperate regions, Walachia isan area of fertile steppe phaeozems und chernozems8.

Distribution of Early Neolithic settlements

The definition of the concept tell, in contrast to itscommonly used antonym flat settlement, only ap-plies to well-developed specimens that have distinctaccumulations of debris and not to certain intermedi-ate phenomena described as stratified settlements9

Early Neolithic tell settlements of South-East Europe in their natural setting:A study in distribution and architecture

Eva Rosenstock

1 E. g. Tringham/Krstic 1990; Parzinger 1993; Sherratt 1994;Durman 1995; Whittle 1996; Chapman 1997; Bailey 1999;Perls 2001.

2 Sherratt 1983, 192; Lichardus-Itten 1993, 102.3 Childe 1950, 41ff.; Childe 1957, 84; Tringham 1971, 89;

Treuil 1983, 272.4 Milojcic 1949, 16, 49; Childe 1950, 41ff.

5 Furlan 1977, 203.6 Furlan 1977, 193ff.7 Blthgen/Weischet 1980, 604.8 Scheffer/Schachtschabel 1992; Kunzte et al. 1994; FAO 1974.9 E. g. Gimbutas et al. 1989; Gimbutas 1992.

116 Eva Rosenstock

10 Kalicz/Raczky 1990, 16f.11 Chapman 1997, 142.

12 Alram-Stern 1996, 86f.; Coleman 1992; Ehrich/Bankoff 1992;Parzinger 1993.

13 Mellink 1992; Roodenberg 1990, 81; Parzinger 1993, 355;Schubert 1999; zdogan 1999.

14 Roodenberg 1990, 94.15 zdogan 1999.16 Schoop 2002.

Fig. 1. Tell settlements and soil types (after FAO 1992; Rosenstock 2005)

or Tellartige Siedlung10. This is somewhat paradoxi-cal, since every tell was, in its beginnings, a flat set-tlement11. This study tries to overcome this difficulty,preliminarily using evidence from the archaeologicalliterature (when sites were described as tells and re-lated types) and to a lesser extent from the localtoponymy (names of settlements including magoula,hyk etc.).

In this context, Early Neolithic, i. e. what isregarded as the earliest phases of food producing in theBalkan Peninsula, covers the Early Ceramic and Seskloin Greece and BEN-M as well as Karanovo I and II inBulgaria. In the rest of the Balkans, the Impresso,Starcevo, WBPP, Krs and Cris and related cultures

also have to be considered12. The correlation with theAnatolian Early and Late Neolithic as well as EarlyChalcolithic is somewhat more problematic13, but the14C-dates for Ilpnar X-VI and Haclar IX-II supportthe suggested ceramic parallels with the Early Neolithicof south-eastern Europe. The Fikirtepe Culture, how-ever, is placed at the beginning of the Ilpnar sequence14

or even earlier15, or else paralleled with Early Chalco-lithic Haclar16.

The analysis of a map showing the distribution ofEarly Neolithic settlement in relation to soil types in


the Balkans (fig. 1) makes it clear that there is a pref-erence for Mediterranean soils. In addition to the tells,other types, such as settlements that are not explicitlyreferred to as tells and those that are called flat settle-ments, have been mapped to check that the distributiondoes not merely reflect settlement density, but realdifferences in the distribution of these two antonymictypes. Although it must be taken into consideration thatdue to their high level of visibility, tells are more likelyto be found by archaeologists and flat settlements aretherefore put at a disadvantage, it can be noted thatother settlements do not avoid brown and steppe soilsas much as the tells.

The correlation with mean annual precipitationvalues (fig. 2) is much more obvious: tells are rarely

found in regions with more than 1,000 mm/a, and theyhave a strong tendency to be located in areas with notmore than 600 mm/a. Tells also tend to cluster in ar-eas where the mean annual temperature is above11 C, are hardly found between 6 C and 10 C andnever in areas with an annual mean temperature ofless than 5 C (fig. 3). Considered in isolation, neitherof these two characteristics can be seen as verysignificant, but it is remarkable that most tells areeither in regions with less than 600 mm/a of precipita-tion and an annual mean temperature of at least 6 C,or in regions where a maximum precipitation of1,000 mm/a meets temperatures that reach a minimumannual mean of 11 C. These regions fulfil or are closeto Langs criterion of a precipitation/temperature

Fig. 2. Tell settlements and precipitation (after ESRI 2003; Rosenstock 2005)

118 Eva Rosenstock

ratio of less than 60 for arid or semi-arid regions17.There are a few exceptions to this rule, such as Slatinain the Sofia area or Vashtmi in Albania, and it isinteresting to note that these areas are again charac-terized by Mediterranean soils.

Architecture of Early Neolithic settlements

Although the Neolithic architecture of south-easternEurope is extremely varied18, we can principally dis-tinguish three types based on the extent to which mudis used in their construction. On some sites, such as

Otzaki19, walls were made completely of mud brick,occasionally with some rows of stone as a foundation,as in Nea Makri. On occasion, for instance inAchilleion20, the walls were not built with dried bricks,but with wet mud slabs (pis) packed directly aboveone another to form the wall. Since these types do notrequire a supporting timber frame, we can subsumethese massive mud houses under one single construc-tion type. Almost pure timber constructions, with postsand walls made from organic material like wattle orreed with only a thin mud daub, form the other ex-treme. They can be encountered, for example, in NeaNikomedeia21 or Kolsh I22. Although often also catego-

19 Milojcic/v. Zumbusch-Milojcic 1971.20 Gimbutas et al. 1989.21 Pike/Yiouni 1996.22 Korkuti 1995, 58ff.

Fig. 3. Tell settlements and temperature (after ESRI 2003a; Rosenstock 2005)

17 Blthgen/Weischet 1980, 604.18 Perls 2001, 180ff.; Alram-Stern 1996; Treuil 1983; Lichter

1993.


rized as timber architecture, a type of house often foundin Bulgarian Thrace, such as in Karanovo23 or Sofia-Slatina24, should be treated as a separate category. Thediameter of its posts is often less than 10 cm, while theintervals between them are usually between 20 and 30cm only values that would rather justify them beingclassified as stakes. A thick mud plaster surrounds thesestakes to form a wall of approximately 20-30 cm width25,so that the mud content of the walls far exceeds themeasurements a wattle-and-daub construction wouldreach. Unfortunately, information on wall constructionand post diameters is often lacking in the publications,so that these specimens have to be classified as timberbuildings. A certain bias putting combined timber/mudconstructions at a disadvantage has to be kept in mind,although post constructions with stone foundations or,as known from Banjata with mud walls, were recordedas combined timber/mud architecture in this study be-cause they are often used to prevent splashing waterfrom destroying the mud walls26. There is a very clearconnection between annual precipitation and the build-ing material used in the Early Neolithic settlements(fig. 4): no pure mud architecture is to be found inregions with more than 600 mm/a, while the distribu-tion of combined timber/mud construction tends to con-centrate in regions slightly above the 600 mm/a-isohyet.Pure timber buildings can be found everywhere, butrepresent the only construction type in considerablywet areas.

We also observe a diachronic tendency: in someinstances early horizons of a tell settlement containhouses with a higher proportion of timber used in con-struction, while later the proportion of mud increases.In Ilpnar X-VI27, Achilleion II/III to IV28 and Otzaki29,for instance, we find that timber-framed architecturegives way to solid mud houses during the initial phasesof the sites, whereas during the first horizons atKaranovo a decrease in the average stake diameter fromapproximately 13 to 9 cm is visible30.

Role of ecological conditions in tell formation

Comparing recent ecological conditions with settle-ment patterns of the 7th and 6th millennium BC is con-siderably difficult and requires some justification. TheEarly Neolithic of south-eastern Europe falls withinthe Holocene climatic optimum, when the average tem-

peratures were up to 1.5 C warmer than those oftoday and precipitation rose by approximately30-100 mm/a31. However, as there is no more detailedclimatic information available, and as it is suspectedthat these changes were mostly proportional32, themethod applied here seems acceptable.

As soils are always under transformation, theycan react very sensitively to changes in climate, veg-etation and human impact33. The influence of agricul-ture, however, mostly affects the plough horizon with-out changing the main characteristics of the soil type34.Due to the fact that the forest cover of the lowlandregions in particular has experienced severe deterio-ration since the 4th millennium35, more considerablechanges have to be expected in the Mediterranean soilszone than in the brown soils zone of the mountains. Asthe main difference between these two soil types liesin the fact that the latter was prevented from completematurization by the effects of the last glaciation36, itshould nevertheless be possible to rely on this verybasic distinction.

As tells are usually regarded as a sign of morepermanent and intensive settlement activity than flatsites37, their predominance in the most arid regions ofsouth-eastern Europe could be explained by therequirements of the Near Eastern domesticates, whileflat sites represent an adaptation to shifting agricul-ture thought to be necessary in more temperate cli-mates38. However, this assumption is highly debatable,and as we have seen in the preceding section, flat set-tlements and tells are not mutually exclusive featuresin their respective environments: rather, tell settle-ments seem to demand more specific environmentalfactors than flat settlements. It should also be notedthat with the exception of Achilleion, which in spite ofits 4.2 m of debris is called a stratified settlementin the excavation report39, all settlements containingpure mud architecture are recorded as tells in the lit-erature. Although the tells also form the majority ofthose sites that contained timber architecture, thoseearly Neolithic sites that were not categorized as tellsin the literature never made considerable use of mudin the construction of their houses. Where the thick-ness of the Early Neolithic layers is known, we notethat timber architecture is most common where the

23 Hiller/Nikolov 1997.24 Nikolov 1989.25 Lichter 1993.26 Hlscher et al. 1948, 37.27 Roodenberg 1995.28 Gimbutas et al. 1989.29 Milojcic/v. Zumbusch-Milojcic 1971.30 Hiller/Nikolov 1997.

31 Frenzel 1992; Flohn/Fantechi 1984.32 Frenzel 1992, 134.33 Limbrey 1975, 83.34 Scheffer/Schachtschabel 1992, 437ff.35 Willis 1994, 778ff.36 Limbrey 1975, 204ff.; Kuntze et al. 1994.37 E. g. Childe 1957, 85ff.; Tringham 1971, 91; Sherratt 1983,

191; Chapman 1991, 84; Whittle 1996, 44ff., 79; Perls 2001,174 but see also Bailey 1999.

38 Childe 1957, 85ff.; Perls 2001, 118f.39 Gimbutas et al. 1989.

120 Eva Rosenstock

layers are thin, while the highest Early Neolithic tellscontain either mud or combined constructions. The quan-tity of mud in the houses40, and perhaps also the fre-quency of rebuilding, might account for the fact thattimber/mud constructions are not only found in tells ofmedium height, as to be expected, but also amongstthe highest examples (tab. 1). Combining this pictureand the correlation between the distribution of tell set-tlements and mud architecture with precipitation, tem-perature and aridity as well as terra rossa and terrafusca soils, it is possible to outline a possible scenarioas to how ecological conditions favoured the develop-ment of tells in Early Neolithic south-eastern Europe.

Since a considerable amount of water is neededin the preparation of mud for construction41, the pres-ence of a perennial source, river or lake in close prox-imity is essential. A. S. Sherratt has already recognizeda connection between tell distribution and floodplains(fig. 1), although his interpretation pointed towardsagriculture42. To construct houses from mud requiresthe absence of rain and frost in order to allow the ma-terial to dry - arid regions where evaporation exceedsprecipitation considerably facilitate this process. In ad-dition, the amount of rain falling during the summerdecreases significantly towards the south of the BalkanPeninsula, and the eastern coast has much less rainy

Fig. 4. Construction types and precipitation (after ESRI 2003; Rosenstock 2005)

40 Sherratt 1983, 192.

41 Hlscher et al. 1948; Rheinisches Freilichtmuseum 1986.42 Sherratt 1980.


days than the western coast43. Whereas mud bricks dryrather quickly, but this is only possible under very goodconditions, the slow-drying pis and combined timber/mud constructions have the advantage that they can beeasily protected from sudden rainfall by means of shel-ters44. The fact that the latter construction types aremore common towards the north of our study area(fig. 4) illustrates a possible connection between ar-chitecture and the reliability of a season of warmweather where damaging rain is not to be expected.

In these regions, people either built their housesfrom mud from the very beginning, as seems to be thecase in many instances in eastern Greece, abandonedinitial timber construction in favour of mud, or elseafter a time began to use timber of lower quality. Someexplanations for this have pointed at the desire to ex-press sedentariness or the household in more sub-stantial houses45. However, it should be kept in mindthat, since settlement activity entails considerableclearance of forests for fields, fuel and construction, itcould also be a result of exploitation of timber resources.This seems particularly likely in dry areas46 with poorsoils such as terra rossa and terra fusca. These soils,however, provide excellent loams that, due to theirmaturity and high content of iron oxides, maintain theirvolume under changing humidity conditions and are verysuitable for house construction to avoid fissures47. Sincemud from house debris as an inorganic matter that doesnot decay is regarded as the main factor of tell forma-tion48, it seems reasonable to suggest a connection be-tween the possible climatic and pedological determi-nation of construction types and the distribution of tellsthat follows similar criteria.

Conclusion

Early in the 20th century, Emil Forrer noted regionaldifferences in tell density during his survey in Anatolia.He assumed that regions with few tells were denselyforested in pre-Roman times, thus providing enough tim-ber to prevent the inhabitants from being forced to usemud49. In human geography textbooks, mud brick, pis

or adobe architecture became the characteristic desertarchitecture of sedentary, corn-raising people in a re-gion of scanty rainfall, sparse timber and abundantclay50. Ecological determinism, however, cannot ac-count for all differences in human behaviour - some-how the inhabitants of Vashtmi managed to accumu-late about 1.5 m of debris from timber-framed wattle-and-daub houses during the Early Neolithic51 in an areacharacterized by an annual precipitation of well be-yond 1,000 mm. Likewise, many tells rose from tim-ber houses only (although, as mentioned above, it shouldbe admitted that in such cases information on the mudcontent of the walls is often lacking). The initial archi-tecture in Achilleion was pis on stone foundations andwas afterwards replaced for some time by timber con-structions52. Does this provide evidence of newcomerswho brought with them their own traditional buildingmethods and after a time learned about the advantagesof locally available building materials? The needs ofdomesticates, the geographical and climatic preferencesof the people, and the ecological conditions determin-ing certain types of architecture all have to be consid-ered in the problem of how settlement mounds cameinto existence. Moreover, their inhabitants, who possi-bly expressed their habits and identities through thearchitecture53 and even through the tells themselves54,also contribute to this question to such an extent thatone-sided explanations must fall short. Nevertheless,as this study has aimed to demonstrate, architecturedetermined by ecological factors played an integral rolein their development that should not be underestimated.

Acknowledgements

This article is part of a research project which wascarried out as a Dr. phil. dissertation in Tbingen. Iwish to thank the German Merit Foundation for ena-bling me to join the EAA 8th Annual Meeting, and theeditors of this volume for providing me with the oppor-tunity to publish this paper. I am especially grateful toProf. Dr. M. Korfmann, Dr. J. Chapman, M. SchmidtM.A. and Dr. U. Schoop for discussing my ideas andcommenting on the paper.

43 Furlan 1977, 297f.44 Hlscher et al. 1948, 21.45 Tringham/Krstic 1990, 605ff.46 Perls 2001, 118.47 Limbrey 1975, 204ff.48 Davidson 1976; Rosen 1986 but see also Haita 1997.49 Forrer 1927, 40.

50 Huntington et al. 1951, 12.51 Korkuti 1995, 41ff.52 Gimbutas et al. 1989.53 Rapoport 1969.54 Chapman 1997, 152ff.; Bailey 1999, 97.

122 Eva Rosenstock

Tab. 1. Settlement types, architecture and thickness of EN layers (after Rosenstock 2005)

124 Eva Rosenstock

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