Download - DIRECTORATE GENERAL FOR INTERNATIONAL POLICIES · directorate general for international policies policy department c: citizens’ rights and constitutional affairs gender equality

DIRECTORATE GENERAL FOR INTERNATIONAL POLICIES

POLICY DEPARTMENT C CITIZENSrsquo RIGHTS AND

CONSTITUTIONAL AFFAIRS GENDER EQUALITY

Women living alone - an update

STUDY

Abstract The current economic downturn and financial and budgetary crisis impacts the situation of women on the labour market and their living conditions It is interesting to see the particularities of the situation of single women older women living alone and without dependants relative to the rest of the population and to single and elderly men and women not living alone Besides the usual labour market indicators indicators on the quality of employment sources of income and living conditions should be considered The following analysis covers all the 27 EU Member States (according to data availability) It is also important to analyse the policy changes implied by the crisis changes in pension systems labour market and active ageing policies and assistance policies In this document the qualitative analysis of the main policy reforms introduced in recent years focuses on six countries selected as representative of European welfare systems Germany France Italy Sweden United Kingdom Romania The main aspects of the policy reforms identified their functioning in the frame of the more general national welfare systems and their expected impact in the gender perspective are described with special attention given to expected impacts on women living alone without dependants and elderly women living alone In the selected countries some good practices can be identified to alleviate (directly or indirectly) the potential negative effects of welfare and labour market reforms on the conditions of women living alone and especially on older women living alone These good practices are used as evidence to draw upon for policy recommendations

PE 462505 EN

This document was requested by the European Parliamentrsquos Committee on Womenrsquos Right and Gender Equality

AUTHORS

Istituto per la Ricerca Sociale (IRS)-Italy Project Direction Manuela Samek Lodovici (IRS) Renata Semenza (University of Milano-Italy) Research team Eugenia De Rosa (IRS) Marco Fregoni (IRS) Sandra Naaf (IRS) Monica Patrizio (IRS) Flavia Pesce (IRS) Sara Pinoli (IRS)

RESPONSIBLE ADMINISTRATOR

Ms Claire GENTA Policy Department Citizensrsquo Right and Constitutional Affairs European Parliament b-1047 Brussels E-mail poldep-citizenseuroparleuropaeu

LINGUISTIC VERSIONS

Original EN

ABOUT THE EDITOR

To contact the Policy Department or to subscribe to its newsletter please write to poldepshycitizenseuroparleuropaeu

Manuscript completed in October 2012 European Parliament copy European Union 2012

This document is available on the Internet at httpwwweuroparleuropaeustudies

DISCLAIMER

The opinions expressed in this document are the sole responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official position of the European Parliament

Reproduction and translation for non-commercial purposes are authorized provided the source is acknowledged and the publisher is given prior notice and sent a copy

_________________________________________________________________________

Women living alone an update

CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES 5 LIST OF FIGURES 5 LIST OF BOXES 6 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7 1 AIMS AND CONTENT OF THE STUDY 15

11 BACKGROUND AND AIM OF THE STUDY 15

12 RESEARCH APPROACH16

13 CONTENT OF THE STUDY 19

2 EFFECTS OF THE CRISIS ON THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF WOMEN LIVING ALONE 20

21 INTRODUCTION20

211 Main characteristics of women living alone two profiles 20

22 GENERAL DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS 21

221 The increase in single households 21

222 The increase in elderly women living alone22

23 THE EVOLUTION OF LABOUR MARKET CONDITIONS24

231 Women living alone are more integrated in the labour market25

232 The spread of flexible contracts and non-standard working time27

233 The cross-country variability of the gender pay gap30

24 EVOLUTION OF LIVING CONDITIONS AND POVERTY RISKS 31

241 The worst health perception of people living alone31

242 Adequacy of income32

243 The rise of risk of poverty for both women and men living alone33

25 CONCLUDING REMARKS36

3 EFFECTS OF RECENT POLICY CHANGES IN PENSION REFORMS 39 31 MAIN FEATURES OF CURRENT PENSION SYSTEMS AND RECENT REFORM TRENDS 40

32 GENDER EFFECTS OF PENSION REFORMS AND WOMEN LIVING ALONE48

321 The closer link between contributions and benefits 50

322 Increase and equalization in retirement age 54

323 The move toward multi-pillar systems 57

324 The role of public minimum pension schemes 59

325 Pension care credits61

326 Provisions for atypical workers 63

327 The role of derived pension benefits 64

33 EXAMPLES OF GOOD PRACTICES 67

331 Good practices in public pension schemes 67

332 Good practices in occupational and individual pension schemes 69


4 LABOUR MARKET REFORMS AND ACTIVE AGEING POLICIES AND THEIR EFFECTS ON WOMEN LIVING ALONE 75

41 RECENT TRENDS IN ACTIVE AGEING TRAINING AND LABOUR POLICIES AND THEIR

(EXPECTED) EFFECTS ON WOMEN LIVING ALONE 75

411 Measures to improve the employability for the elderly77

412 Extending working life78

413 Working conditions and equal opportunities80

3

_________________________________________________________________

Policy Department C Citizens Rights and Constitutional Affairs

414 Training and lifelong learning for elderly workers 81

42 LABOUR MARKET INTEGRATION AND SOCIAL INCLUSION POLICIES 83

43 EXAMPLES OF GOOD PRACTICES IN ACTIVE AGEING POLICIES 86

431 Supporting longer working lives better working conditions and measures to promote access to lifelong learning88

432 Training qualification and new technologies for the ageing workforce 90

433 Intergenerational solidarity and Housing policies 91

434 Measures to improve elderly friendly public spaces mobility and avoid social isolation 91


5 CHANGES IN ASSISTANCE SCHEMES AND THEIR EFFECTS ON WOMEN LIVING ALONE 96

51 RECENT TRENDS IN ASSISTANCE SCHEMES AND THEIR (EXPECTED) EFFECTS ON WOMEN

LIVING ALONE96

511 The policy framework96

512 Changes in assistance schemes and social policies 98


521 Health promotion 109

522 Care and networking for elderly migrants110

523 Gender and diversity perspectives111


6 CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMeNDATIONS 114 61 RECENT TRENDS IN LABOUR MARKET AND LIVING CONDITIONS OF WOMEN LIVING

ALONE 114

62 RECENT POLICY CHANGES AFFECTING WOMEN LIVING ALONE 115

621 Pension reforms 115

622 Labour market and active ageing policies 117

623 Assistance policies118

63 POLICY IMPLICATIONS119

REFERENCES 123 ANNEXES 128

4

_________________________________________________________________________


LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 21 Poverty rate in EU Member States (age 20-64) ndash 2005 2010 34 TABLE 22

TABLE 31a Poverty rate in EU Member States (over 65) ndash 2005 2010 35

Ratio of women median equivalised income (of total female population and retired women) over menrsquos income 2010 50 TABLE 31b Aggregate replacement ratio of income from pensions of persons aged 65-74 and income from work of persons aged between 50-59 2005 and 2010 50 TABLE 32 Gender differences in life-expectancy effective and statutory retirement age in Member States 55 TABLE 33 Percentage of income from individual private pension plans of total income of persons aged +65 2006 59 TABLE 34

TABLE 35

TABLE 41

Female beneficiaries of survivors pensions 2006 65

Pension reforms and their specific impact on women and men 72

Labour market reforms and active ageing policies that may have a positive effect on women living alone 77 TABLE 42 Synthesis table of Policies and Measures considered in the chapter by typology and country 78 TABLE 43 Potential effects of active ageing policies on women living alone 82 TABLE 44

TABLE 51 The selected good practices 87

The selected good practices 109

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 21 Single women (aged 20 and over) in relation to the total female population (aged 20 and over) in EU Member States - 2005 2010 22 FIGURE 22

FIGURE 23 Age pyramids for EU27 population - 2010 2060 23

WidowedDivorcedLegally separated women (aged 20 and over) in comparison with the total female population (aged 20 and over) in EU Member States ndash 2005 2010 23 FIGURE 24 Proportion of elderly womenmen living alone in comparison with the total femalemale population living alone in EU Member States - 2010 24

5

_________________________________________________________________


FIGURE 25 Activity rate of lone women without dependants (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants (NLPw) lone man without dependants (LPm) in 2010 and 2005-2010 change (in percentage points) of the activity rate of lone women without dependants in EU Member States 25 FIGURE 26 Employment rate of lone women without dependants (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants (NLPw) lone man without dependants (LPm) in 2010 and 2005-2010 change (in percentage points) of the employment rate of lone women without dependants in EU Member States 26 FIGURE 27 Unemployment rate of lone women without dependants (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants (NLPw) lone man without dependants (LPm) in 2010 and 2005-2010 change (in percentage points) of the unemployment rate of lone women without dependants in EU Member States 27 FIGURE 28 Share of temporary contract workers on lone women without dependents (LPw) women with a partner and without dependents (NLPw) lone man without dependents (LPm) in 2010 and 2005-2010 change (in percentage points) in the share of temporary contracts on lone women without dependents in EU Member States 28 FIGURE 29 Share of part-time workers on lone women without dependents (LPw) women with a partner and without dependents (NLPw) lone man without dependents (LPm) in 2010 and 2005-2010 change (in percentage points) in the share of part time for lone women without dependents in EU Member States 29 FIGURE 210 Share of workers with atypical hours among lone women without dependents (LPw) women with a partner and without dependents (NLPw) lone man without dependents (LPm) in 2010 and 2005-2010 change (in percentage points) in the share of women on atypical hours among lone women without dependents in EU Member States 30 FIGURE 211 General health in EU Member States (age 20-64)ndash 2005 2010 32 FIGURE 212 Adequacy of income in EU Member States (age 20-64)ndash 2005 2010 33 FIGURE 213 Share of people receiving benefits in EU Member States (age 20-64) ndash 2005 2010 36

LIST OF BOXES

BOX 31 Latest pension reforms in EU countries 45 BOX 51 Some examples of gender-blindness in public cuts in selected EU member states 97

6

_________________________________________________________________________


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This study is an update of a 2008 study delivered by IRS It aims at presenting the main changes in the situation of women living alone in Europe that have occurred since then and to assess how developments in pension labour market and assistance policies are affecting their living conditions

Since 2008 many changes have occurred both in the socio-economic situation of EU countries and in policy-making The most important has been the financial and economic crisis which started in 2008 and is still persisting with deep-reaching consequences on the living conditions of the population especially in those countries worst hit by the crisis

The fiscal consolidation policies and welfare reforms adopted in recent years by European countries to deal with the crisis and demographic and socio-economic pressures are likely to have differentiated effects on women and men and for different groups of women and men

The methodology adopted

Given the various different conditions that women living alone can meet in their life-course the theoretical framework adopted is the life cycle approach which considers womenrsquos and menrsquos resources and needs at different stages of their lives1 On the basis of this approach the study considers various groups of women living alone the difficulties they face and the policy responses in terms of labour market assistance and pension schemes The groups of women living alone considered are single women with no dependents in working age and elderly women living alone (including widows or divorcees with no dependants) The study is mainly based on desk analysis of the micro-data and information available at the European level combining quail-quantitative methodologies and a multidisciplinary approach

Following a brief presentation of the methodology in chapter two the study provides an assessment of recent (as compared with the situation before the crisis) developments in the labour market and living conditions of single women without dependants and older women living alone relative to the rest of the population and to single and elderly men and women not living alone Besides the usual labour market indicators indicators on the quality of employment sources of income and living conditions are considered The analysis covers all the 27 EU Member States (according to data availability)

The following chapters provide an assessment of recent policy changes affecting the labour market and living conditions of women living alone and their likely effects The policy focus is on changes in pension systems (chapter three) labour market and active ageing policies (chapter four) and assistance policies (chapter five) The qualitative analysis of the main policy reforms introduced in recent years focuses on six countries selected as representative of European welfare systems

Germany illustrative of the Continental Male Breadwinner regime

1 Esping Andersen G (2003) Why We Need a New Welfare State Oxford University Press

7

_________________________________________________________________


France an example of contamination between the Breadwinner and Mediterranean regimes

Italy representing the Mediterranean family-centred regime faced with a very considerable ageing process and rapid increase in households of elderly single women

Sweden an example of a Nordic universalistic model where single women play an important part in a context of high rates of female activity and employment

United Kingdom an example of the liberal welfare regime showing a large proportion of single mothers

Romania representative of new EU Member States in transition

The report describes the main aspects of the policy reforms identified their functioning in the frame of the more general national welfare systems and their expected impact in the gender perspective with special attention given to expected impacts on women living alone without dependants and elderly women living alone Some good practices adopted in the selected countries to alleviate (directly or indirectly) the potential negative effects of welfare and labour market reforms on the conditions of women living alone and especially on older women living alone are also presented as evidence to draw upon for policy recommendations (chapter six)

Three Annexes complete the report the first on variable definitions and data sources the second with additional data not included in the main report and the third with country fact sheets presenting data and policy changes for the six selected countries

Main results and policy implications

Changes in demographic trends societal structures household composition and life styles have led to an increase in one-person households in all the EU Member states especially among women and the elder population calling for closer attention to single households and to the associated increase in the demand for social and care services

In 2010 345 million women were living alone (with no dependants) in the EU27 (142 of the total female population) as compared with 251 million men (108 of the total male population) Women living alone are on average older and are characterised by higher educational levels than men living alone Elderly women represent the largest proportion of women living alone and their growing share determines increasing poverty rates and care needs with social consequences and political implications

Due to the gender gap in life expectancy and general population ageing the share of elderly women (over 65 years) living alone in the total population is expected to increase Population projections show that in the EU-27 this ratio will rise from 197 in 2010 to over 30 of the total population by 2060 There is also a secondary ageing process underway the ageing of the aged This will result in a significant increase in the numbers of people aged 75 and over The portion of elderly women aged 75 and over is expected to reach 20 by 2060 (as compared with the 10 of 2010)

In almost all European countries lone women exhibit today as in the past lower labour market participation and lower employment rates than lone men Conversely the activity and employment levels shown by lone women are often higher than those of women not living alone especially in the Continental and Mediterranean countries However women

8

_________________________________________________________________________


living alone generally face higher unemployment rates than other women except in the Mediterranean countries where they present a lower labour participation than elsewhere as the result of discouragement and exit strategies

The economic crisis is likely to have long-run effects on female labour market participation and on employment and unemployment rates The central economic role played by women - both as family bread-winners and as second earners - will however prevent their exit from the labour market What has really changed from the past is the increasing use of flexible work and nonstandard employment contracts affecting all components of the labour force While European comparison shows a composite and mixed picture temporary contracts are nevertheless higher on average for lone women than other groups of workers and a significant share of single women earners are becoming contingent workers according to the segmentation theory On the other hand part-time contracts are more common among women not living alone as second earners However they still represent almost a quarter of the total of employed lone women Working atypical hours is very widespread among all the population groups considered here

In 2010 23 of the EU27 population were at risk of poverty with women (25) facing a higher risk of poverty than men (223) Women living alone (and also men living alone) have on average twice the probability of experiencing poverty than women not living alone and the risk has risen since 2005 People with low education levels are much more vulnerable than better educated persons Elderly women are particularly at risk of poverty in Southern Europe but also in Finland Sweden the UK and Slovenia Lone women also report worse health status than women not living alone especially among the working age population

Recent developments in the labour market and the living conditions of lone women also show that

The differences between people lsquoliving alonersquo of both sexes and those lsquonot living alonersquo are now more significant than gender and age differences Living alone makes a greater difference in living conditions than gender or age at least during the first phase of the economic down-turn considered in this report Nevertheless for women single status depends more on the events of life such as separation divorce widowhood than on choices

There is an ongoing process of hybridization of the welfare state models resulting from common socio-economic and demographic pressures and the effects of the EU regulatory framework so that it is harder to highlight systematic differences across such models The comparative analysis shows great differences both among and within the countries grouped according to the traditional classification of welfare models The institutional regulation framework does not seem to have as important a role as in the past in affecting the living conditions of women living alone The situation appears to be more mixed than in the past and less consistent with country classification ideal-models

Demographic trends and the crisis have obliged European countries to revise their welfare policies drastically Welfare system sustainability is now the main goal as the need to proceed with fiscal consolidation is becoming ever more pressing in Member States to avoid state default Budget cuts closer targeting in welfare policies and acceleration in pension reforms have characterized recent years in all countries However the gravity and duration of the crisis is highlighting the risks associated with reduced welfare provisions in terms of both increased poverty risks and social conflicts

9

_________________________________________________________________


Recent trends in pension policies

The analysis of recent pension reforms carried out in chapter three underlines the implicit risks of some provisions in aggravating gender imbalances especially for women living alone

With contribution-based and multi-pillar pension systems gender disparities in activity employment and unemployment rates and in earnings as well as the greater incidence among women of part-time temporary and informal jobs and of careers breaks are going to produce even larger gender disparities in pension income than in the past Furthermore greater female longevity exposes elderly women to higher poverty risks due to the expected period of living alone longer for women than for men and the greater erosion of the real value of their annuities

Every deterioration in pension provisions can have a greater negative impact on women who cannot rely on a partnersrsquo income and a number of measures may have different effects for women living alone according to their specific status being single rather than widows or lone mothers Even measures which at first sight may seem favourable for elderly women living alone such as survivorsrsquo pensions can penalise insured women and men who have not been married and can reduce the incentive for young women to participate in the regular labour market while increasing the incentive to get married On the other hand these schemes have an important function in reducing the poverty risks in old age for widows and their children

The increasing individualisation and privatizations of pension rights have also brought out the need to consider gender differences in the division of care and market work and to integrate pension reforms with appropriate labour market and social policies supporting womenrsquos continuous participation in the labour market and reducing gender gaps in pay and occupational patterns In working towards the sustainability and adequacy goals the balance of transfers between different generations and the changing nature of labour markets and of family structures should be considered with a view to improving the capacity to adapt to these changes without reducing pension coverage and fairness in pension entitlements between women and men and between generations

Labour market and active ageing policies

Gender differences in pension income largely reflect gender gaps in the labour market with women tending to have lower wages than men and interrupted employment histories and in the home with men taking little part in household and care activities

To reduce gender gaps in pension income it is necessary to improve womenrsquos access and continued participation in the labour market and equal pay through gender-sensitive employment and active ageing policies anti-discrimination policies to eliminate gender pay and career gaps care services and policies to support reconciliation between work and family care as well as policies to encourage men to play a bigger role in the household with appropriate paternity and parental leave measures and awareness-raising campaigns

Gender is however rarely a qualifying requirement for participation in labour market programmes though in some cases incentives are higher if the employer hires (elderly) women However the womenrsquos higher unemployment and inactivity rates also suggest that such policies may benefit comparatively more women than men

10

_________________________________________________________________________


The promotion of active ageing is fairly recent and varies across countries presenting different levels of attention focused on the various fieldsareas of active ageing and on gender aspects The review of active ageing policies in EU countries presented in chapter 4 underlines the following aspects

Active aging strategies have been predominantly implemented by means of labour market polices while still little attention has been paid to health promotion and wellshybeing Measures adopted to improve employability for the elderly include age-management policies employment services for older workers policies and provisions to improve healthy working conditions and maintain workersrsquo well-being employment-friendly tax-benefit systems and government subsidies for employers to retain and recruit older workers as well as measures to update the skills of the elderly through training and lifelong learning

Even if active ageing has significant gender aspects (increasing womenrsquos life expectancy the greying female workforce reconciliation issues) most of the practices and active ageing innovative initiatives implemented across Europe do not specifically target women Neither is much attention paid to specific groups of women such as those living alone Most policies and programmes are gender blind not explicitly targeting elderly women but rather aiming at the social inclusion of more generic ldquovulnerable groupsrdquo

Assistance policies

Assistance policies directly targeting women living alone are still lacking in Member States but as women living alone (and especially the growing number of elderly women) face an increasing poverty risk social assistance measures designed to guarantee minimum resource benefits (eg minimum income support housing benefits unemployment benefits) are particularly important to improve their situation

The evidence shows that the living conditions of women living alone are better where the welfare systems focus on the individual rather than the family and where care services are available for support in the care of family members

Most European countries have minimum pension provisions and minimum income schemes targeting the elderly without an income The review presented in chapter 5 reveals major differences in minimum income schemes All countries have recently introduced changes in their assistance system that can potentially impact on the living conditions of women living alone as for example the new mechanism for social benefits and the basic coverage for jobseekers in Germany the more sustainable sickness insurance and unemployment insurance under investigation in Sweden the social assistance system reform in Romania the new minimum income schemes in France the reform of the social security system in the UK the enforced control regarding the concession of social benefits and the amendment of requisites to have access to assistance measures in Italy

Housing policies are also particularly important for lone women and elderly women living alone Most Member States acknowledge that housing is one of the fields where a growing number of lone women and elderly women living alone have been facing difficulties in recent years with negative consequences for their wellbeing For this reason many countries provide a range of social and affordable housing programmes to assist households currently unable to meet their housing needs through the private market

11

_________________________________________________________________


Health care and long term care are a predominant issue in the daily life of women both for their relatives and for themselves as the increase in life expectancy for women is not automatically accompanied by an increase in lsquohealthy life expectancyrsquo How societies and welfare states organize and balance care giving and work has an effect on the level of activity and on the quality of life for women with better living conditions for women (living alone) where care services are available However very few measures for reconciliation of work and family life in terms of balancing work for older women and caring for relatives are to be seen across the analyzed European countries

Social benefits and public transfers individually based rather than ldquofamilyrdquo based impact positively on the living conditions of women living alone However some of the latest changes in welfare schemes embody a lsquotraditional familyrsquo concept which risks penalising women Furthermore three major trends emerging in Europe risk aggravating conditions for women

(a) linking income support with labour market participation (as with the new minimum income schemes in France)

(b) a lack of measures to support the reconciliation of work and caring for relatives alongside increasing retirement age for women

(c) the emphasis on reducing residential provisions in favour of supporting people in their own homes

Policy implications

The current cuts in public services and welfare provisions are likely to have a greater impact on women than men as women are largely employed in the public sector and use public services more than men Cuts in public services and welfare provisions are also likely to increase the amount of unpaid work and care responsibilities within households aggravating the existing disparity in the care workload between women and men and making it even more difficult for women to participate fully and continuously in the labour market

To contain increases in gender disparities and in poverty risks it is necessary to assess the (potential) gender impact of proposed changes and cuts in welfare provisions and public services This requires greater attention to evaluation of the potential differentiated effects of both dedicated and general policies (such as pension employment and assistance policies fiscal policies) on women and men and on women living alone as well as the development of more disaggregated statistics and research Improvement in EU and national statistics on pensions and welfare policies streamlining sexshydisaggregated data and indicators could also help monitoring an evaluation of the gender effects of pension and welfare reforms as well as affording more realistic simulations of the potential effects of proposed reforms

Furthermore some general features of policy approaches in support of women living alone should be considered in policy making

Individualisation of social rights irrespective of household and marital relations in both pension and assistance policies social benefits and public transfers individually based rather than ldquofamilyrdquo-based positively impact on the conditions of women living alone For example some of the provisions adopted by most Nordic countries appear to play a supportive role in the living conditions of lone women consideration of care years for

12

_________________________________________________________________________


pension entitlements both in public and compulsory private schemes whatever the careshygiver status adoption of residence-based minimum pensions which also allow the removal of derived pension rights with their many shortcomings

Addressing the specific needs of women living alone also means developing integrated policy packages dealing with all the different aspects of lone womenrsquos living conditions and combining access to employment and training affordable health care and housing social assistance and services Empowerment policies should also be considered integrating several welfare domains and distinctive approaches

The involvement of local communities and local actors (usually municipalities charities and NGOs) in policy design and implementation is necessary to sustain the creation of extended support services and networks at the local level

The continuity of interventions is another important issue Country-specific conditions should be carefully considered in order to promote effective and sustainable programmes to be integrated within the existing main body of welfare schemes

In greater detail some specific features supportive of gender equality in pension systems relevant to the case of women living alone are the following

The presence of universal residence-based or flat rate minimum pensions indexed to wages and pension credits for unemployment and training periods

The provision of public subsidies to support access to occupational and individual supplementary pensions for women and other groups usually less involved in these schemes Furthermore provisions should be introduced offsetting gender inequalities in pension benefits in occupational schemes for example supporting the introduction of unisex life tariffs (as required by the ECJ Test-Achats ruling of March 2011) and care credits Provisions regulating the transferral of workersrsquo registration from one occupational fund to another should also be improved as well as the introduction of rules affording a more even balance in risk sharing between workers employers and insurance agencies

The presence of adequate pension credits for care periods available also for men and for the care of other dependants besides children allowing for (part-time) employment during care periods available also in private funded pension schemes and extended to the self-employed inactive and unemployed

Specific pension credit provisions for atypical and part-time employment

Flexible retirement provisions and the possibility to combine pension and part-time work (as in Sweden)

The adoption of individual rather than family related pension entitlements to reduce work disincentives and gender stereotypes while allowing for accrued pension rights to be divided in the event of break up (divorce or separation) The focus on the individual is important for single women as it stresses the womenrsquos role in the labour market rather than the family role

Policies to reduce gender gaps in the labour market and active ageing policies are needed to guarantee gender equality in future pensions

13

_________________________________________________________________


For women the main obstacles to active participation in the labour market and community life are related to family and care-giving duties vertical and horizontal gender segregation and gender wage gaps A gender mainstreaming approach to labour market and active ageing policies is however lacking in most European countries Furthermore extending the working-life of women has relevant effects on reconciliation policies as increase in the employment of (elderly) women will reduce the provision of informal care at home Active ageing from a gender perspective should therefore also focus on measures supporting the reconciliation of market and family work and change the cultural models and assumptions on gender roles underlying different welfare models

Women also tend to have little time for self-care (health-enhancing physical activity) or civic involvement Policies and measures directly targeting elderly women to favour social and civic involvement (sports voluntary work and participating in association) and reconciliation measures can positively impact both health outcomes and social inclusion and the participation of women in society

More efforts must be made for effective multi-sector and intergenerational active ageing strategies The issue is very much a gender one because women are often and increasingly over-represented among the elderly living alone as a consequence of rising divorce rates and womenrsquos longer life expectancy Thus especially after retirement the active participation of elderly women in voluntary activities may help reduce their risk of isolation as well as contributing to the development of solidarity

Other important policy fields for active ageing are transportation and housing policies for the elderly These policies lack a gender perspective despite the fact that both constitute a crucial pillar of active social inclusion policy

Many older women face poverty illness or disability Specific social assistance policies need to be designed for these target groups To improve the conditions of women living alone it is necessary to invest not only in basic assistance policies (such as minimum income and pension schemes) but also in empowerment initiatives to promote active engagement

A gendered approach to healthcare and especially long term care makes clear the necessity to consider both the needs of caregivers who are predominantly women and of elderly women living alone who are increasingly requiring long-term care due to their longer life expectancy and their reliance on formal care for the lack of alternatives in their households

14

_________________________________________________________________________


1 AIMS AND CONTENT OF THE STUDY

11 Background and aim of the study

This study is an updated version of a study delivered by IRS in July 2008 on ldquoWomen living alone evaluation of their specific difficultiesrdquo The aim is to present the main changes in the situation of women living alone in Europe that have occurred since then and to assess how the evolution of pension labour market and assistance policies is affecting their living conditions

Since 2008 many changes have occurred both in the socio-economic situation of EU countries and in policy-making The most important has been the financial and economic crisis which broke out in 2008 and is still persisting with severe consequences for the living conditions of the population especially in those countries worst hit by the crisis

The fiscal consolidation policies and welfare reforms adopted in recent years by European countries to deal with the crisis as well as demographic and socio-economic pressures are likely to have differentiated effects on women and men and for different groups of women and men

While male employment appears to have been hit relatively harder by the economic crisis in the short term women risk being disproportionately affected by fiscal consolidation and social policy reforms2 In the early days of the current crisis male employment and unemployment was affected more seriously than female employment but women account disproportionately for hidden unemployment and are more likely to move directly from employment to inactivity Furthermore financial rescue and stimulus measures went primarily to the male-is dominated sectors first hit by the crisis while fiscal consolidation measures have primarily targeted expenditure on welfare pension benefits and public services ndash all areas likely to affect women more than men

Some consolidation measures could have particular effect on gender equality and the employment and living conditions of women (and men) living alone wage freezes or cuts andor employment cuts in the public sector pension reforms cuts and restrictions in care related benefits reductions or cuts in assistance benefits and increases in fees for publicly subsidized services In particular by tightening the link between lifetime contributions and pension benefits and increasing the role of private pension schemes relative to the statutory one recent pension reforms will accentuate gender differences in pension income even if these negative effects for women are partially offset with care pension credits minimum pensions and derived pension rights Single person households migrants and the elderly sub-populations are more likely to exhibit high risks of poverty or social exclusion and serious gender imbalances

Changes in demographic trends societal structures householdsrsquo composition and life styles have led in all EU Member states to an increase in one-person households especially among women and the elder population that call for closer attention to single households and the associated greater demand for social and care services

2 See ldquoGender aspects of the economic downturn and financial crisisrdquo at httpwwweuroparleuropaeucommitteesenstudiesdownloadhtmllanguageDocument=ENampfile=49228

15

_________________________________________________________________


In 2008 the share of single women with no children in the EU-25 average was about 8 of the total population living in private households and the share of single parents (men and women) was about 43 Furthermore due to the gender gap in life expectancy and general population ageing the share of elderly women (over 65 years) living alone in the total population is predicted to increase Population projections show that in the EU-27 this ratio will rise from 197 in 2010 to over 30 of the total population by 2060 There is also a secondary ageing process underway the ageing of the aged This will result in a significant increase in the numbers of people aged 75 and over In 2060 the share of elderly women in the age group between 65 and 74 years will settle at around 10-12 of total population while the portion of elderly women aged 75 and over is expected to reach 20 by 2060 (as compared with the 10 of 2010)

The share of population at risk of poverty is also likely to increase across Europe due to the crisis In 2010 23 of the EU27 population were at risk of poverty with women (25) facing a greater risk of poverty than men (223) Women still face a greater risk of poverty than men due to their weaker position in the labour market (even if gender differences in the working population have been declining in these crisis years) and the large share of elderly women living alone whose major source of income is pension income The pensions women receive are lower than the menrsquos because pension systems tend to reproduce (or even reinforce) existing gender inequalities in the labour market and in the division of social roles within households

12 Research approach

Given the different conditions that women living alone can encounter in their life-course the appropriate theoretical framework to deal with the different aspects of the phenomenon is the life cycle approach which considers womenrsquos and menrsquos resources and needs at different stages of their lives4

The fragmentation of family models and individual patterns in the life cycle due to major changes in demographic equilibrium and redefinition of gender roles in modern societies has produced new forms of female fragility the traditional male-dependent condition of women turns out in differentiated forms of economic and social weakness also linked to ruptures in individual biographies (divorce widowhood) that call for different types of policy responses depending on the stage of the life cycle

Modern welfare systems only partially respond to the needs of women living alone while as anticipated the fiscal consolidation measures and pension reforms adopted in recent years by EU countries to increase their financial sustainability are likely to further aggravate the conditions of women living alone Across Europe the different architecture of the welfare systems has differentiated impacts on the female condition in relation both to the emancipation from male dependency and to services and provisions needed when living alone especially in old age In the EU framework the Scandinavian design of the welfare system focusing on individual rather than family entitlements and citizenship rights available to all appears to support individual fragilities better On the other hand in the Mediterranean countries the family still plays an important role as a welfare pillar and the

3 European Commission (2010) Joint report on Social Protection and Social Inclusion 2010 DG Employment Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities Brussels 4 Esping Andersen G (2003) Why We Need a New Welfare State Oxford University Press

16

_________________________________________________________________________


lack or ruptures of family relations significantly increases the risk of economic and social exclusion

As for labour market conditions female labour participation and employment varies widely across European countries reflecting the situation of female emancipation from male dependency and the availability of services and provisions for women especially for single parents or the elderly The socio-economic literature underlines the participation behaviour and the risks faced by different groups of women (according to education levels family conditions age etc) in the labour market and their effects on poverty risks in old age as well as the effects of the economic cycle on female labour market participation and employment

For example the added versus discouraged worker hypotheses predict opposite reactions in terms of womenrsquos participation decisions during recessions Womenrsquos behaviour is countercyclical and results in an increase in labour market participation during recession if the added worker effect prevails On the contrary if the discouraged worker effect is dominant womenrsquos inactivity increases In both cases it is the workerrsquos behaviour that drives the outcome The prevalence of one effect on the other depends on socio-economic and cultural factos and can be assessed only from analysis of the empirical evidence

On the other hand the employersrsquo behaviour is deemed more important in the labour reserve or buffer hypothesis which claims that women constitute a labour reserve driven out of employment when the demand slows down Similar results derive from the substitution hypothesis whereby pressures to lower labour costs during recessions may incentivize employers to substitute women for men as their secondary income role means they remain cheaper to hire

According to the segmentation hypothesis the important divide is between primary and secondary jobs Women are penalised for being part of the secondary market alongside ethnic minorities and other groups By contrast according to the segregation hypothesis female employment may be sheltered in a crisis given that crises tend to have a distinctive sectoral impact Segregation also affects the gender pay gap in a recession as for example male wages may be higher (lower) than average in the most cyclically sensitive occupations and sectors and conversely

Even if declining in recent years gender inequalities are still present to different degrees across Member States reflecting the regulatory and welfare approach adopted Women are still the lsquosecondaryrsquo earners in most working age couples Furthermore the coverage of unemployment benefits is still selective and replacement rates low for women Current gender segregation levels (both horizontal and vertical) are still high and the declining trend has apparently halted in the European Union as a whole over the past decade Thus there is scope for segregation to continue playing a protective role As for segmentation the focus is now on lsquoprotectedrsquo labour segments versus lsquounprotectedrsquo ones with legislation reinforcing the disparity in bargaining power between the lsquoinsidersrsquo to the firm (tenuredadultskilled workers) and the outsiders (youngeruntenuredin need of training) Women are sometimes included among the lsquooutsidersrsquo because of more frequent exits from and entries into the labour market even if they are well represented among (tenured) public employees

The concepts and hypotheses offered by the socio-economic literature and models will be applied in the review of the statistical evidence on the impact of the current crisis on women living alone and elderly women in particular and of recent policy changes

17

_________________________________________________________________


In order to assess the relevance of welfare regimes the analysis is based on the classification of Welfare State models across Europe adopted the 2008 study even if the crisis and recent welfare reforms have blurred the distinctions between welfare models

1 Breadwinner State-centred regimes which include Continental countries where women are usually treated on the basis of their family role and are protected on the labour market as the family breadwinners when lone mothers

2 Breadwinner family-centred regimes including Mediterranean countries where women are also treated on the basis of their family role (also in old age) but are not supported on the labour market and as lone mothers

3 Universalistic welfare regimes represented in Nordic countries based on individual rights to equal opportunities Women are supported on the labour market also with the provision of public services and women living alone are supported in coping with difficulties

4 Liberal welfare regimes typical of the Anglo-Saxon area are residual welfare regimes supporting women living alone mainly through means-tested benefits and workfare programmes

5 Eastern European countries in transition which are undergoing important processes of reform and redesign of their welfare regimes It is still uncertain which models they will converge to or what original model they are designing

To represent the different European welfare regimes in a gender perspective identified by the literature5 the socio-economic conditions and policies adopted in six Member States are considered in greater detail

Germany which is illustrative of a continental breadwinner regime where in spite of the family fragmentation processes and the increase of single households female activity and employment rates are failing to increase significantly

France as an example of contamination between the breadwinner and Mediterranean regimes

Italy representing the Mediterranean regime undergoing a process of modernization and coping with a very serious ageing process and rapidly increasing elderly-women single households

Sweden as an example of a Nordic and Continental universalistic model where single women have a relevant role in a framework of the highest female activity and employment rates

United Kingdom as an example of the liberal welfare regime showing a high proportion of single mothers

Romania as representative of new EU Member States in transition

5 Esping Andersen G (1990) The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism Princeton University Press Trifiletti R (1999) ldquoSouthern European Welfare Regimes and the Worsening Position of Womenrdquo in Journal of European Social Policy Vol 9 (1) 49ndash64 SAGE Publications London

18

_________________________________________________________________________


13 Content of the study

On the basis of the life cycle approach the study considers different groups of women living alone and the difficulties they face and the policy responses in terms of labour market assistance and pension schemes

As far as possible according to the available data the analysis focuses on

(youngadult) single women with no dependents

elderly women living alone (including widows or divorced with no dependants)

The study is mainly based on desk analysis of micro-data and the information available at the European level combining quantitative and qualitative methodologies and a multidisciplinary approach

In chapter 2 the study provides an assessment of the recent evolution (compared to the situation before the crisis) of the labour market and living conditions of single women without dependants and of older women relative to the rest of the population and wherever possible (given the available data) to single and elderly men and women not living alone Besides the usual labour market indicators indicators on the quality of employment sources of income and living conditions are considered The analysis considers all the 27 EU Member States (according to data availability) with closer focus on the 6 selected countries representative of different welfare systems

The following chapters assess recent policy changes affecting the labour market and living conditions of lone women The policy focus is on the gender effects of recent changes in pension systems (chapter 3) labour market and active ageing policies (chapter 4) and assistance policies (chapter 5) The qualitative analysis of the policy reforms introduced in recent years focuses on the six countries selected as representative of European welfare systems Good practices adopted in the selected countries to (directly or indirectly) alleviate the potential negative effects of welfare and labour market reforms on the living conditions of women living alone and especially on older women living alone are also presented in order to derive policy recommendations which are presented in the concluding chapter 6

Three Annexes complete the report the first on variable definitions and data sources the second with additional data not included in the main report and the third with country fact sheets for the six selected countries

19

_________________________________________________________________


2 EFFECTS OF THE CRISIS ON THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF WOMEN LIVING ALONE

21 Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to assess the recent evolution as compared to the situation before the crisis of the labour market and living conditions of women living alone (LP W = age 20-64 EP W = 65 years and over) relative to the rest of the population (NLP WM) namely women and men not living alone and the group of single men (LPEP M)

In order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the labour market position of women living alone data on the traditional indicators ndash such as activity employment and unemployment rates - have been derived from two European data sets Eurostat ndash Labour Force Survey (LFS) micro-data Eu-Silc and Eurofound European Working Conditions Survey

Lone women and men are defined as women and men in a one-person household The household comprises all the persons that (usually) live together and form an independent group Other women and men are defined as all the other women and men ie those who live in a household that has more than one member They include couples with our without dependants

The analysis also considers the differences between the European countries and groups of countries sharing the same welfare and institutional systems namely lsquoBreadwinner State-centered regimesrsquo (Belgium (BE) Germany (DE) France (FR) Luxembourg (LU) Netherlands (NL) Austria (AT)) lsquoUniversalistic welfare regimesrsquo (Denmark (DK) Finland (FI) Sweden (SE)) lsquoLiberal welfare regimesrsquo (United Kingdom (UK) and (Ireland (IE)) lsquoBreadwinner family-centered regimesrsquo (Greece (EL) Spain (ES) Italy (IT) Cyprus (CY) Malta (MT) Portugal (PT)) lsquoEastern European countries in transitionrsquo (Bulgaria (BG) Czech Republic (CZ) Estonia (EE) Latvia (LV) Lithuania (LT) Hungary (HU) Poland (PL) Romania (RO) Slovenia (SI) Slovakia (SK))

211 Main characteristics of women living alone two profiles

Before considering the differences in socio-economic variables at country or welfare regime levels for lone women and the dimensions of comparison it is worth outlining the profiles of the two groups of women living alone ndash in working age and the elderly- at the aggregate EU27 level (see the Annex II Table A1)

1deg PROFILE lone women in working age (20-64)

Considering people aged between 20 and 64 lone women in the EU27 number 154 million and account for 63 of the total female population with an average age of 45 and more than 30 with tertiary education

Lone men number 190 million in the EU27 82 of the total male population younger ndash the average age is 42 - and slightly less educated than lone women

Concerning labour market indicators the lone women systematically present lower rates of activity (704 vs 798) employment (649 vs 707) and unemployment (94 vs 115) than the lone men

20

_________________________________________________________________________


Similarly lone women in comparison with non-lone women show a positive gap in labour market participation (704 vs 642) and employment (649 vs 599) while the unemployment rate is similar The share of self-employed among the lone women is less than 10 (like that of the non-lone women) while double for lone men Among the employees the proportion of workers on temporary contracts is similar for both lone men and women (about 138) while part-time contracts are more frequent among women (lone 235 not lone 282) than lone men (103)

To conclude the poverty rate gender gap between lone men and lone women is insignificant both poverty rates are about 264 while that of the non-lone women is considerable lower

2deg PROFILE lone women in retirement age (over 64)

The elderly lone women (over 64) in the EU27 number 191 million (79 of the total female population) four million more than the former group They are on average 77 years old and present considerable low share of people with high levels of education (only 75 with tertiary degree similarly for the non-lone elderly women)

The elderly men living alone are much less than the women in the same condition accounting for just 26 of the total male population at EU27 level (61 million) they are slightly younger (76 on average) and with a higher level of education (150)

Within this cohort of age lone women are considerably more at risk of poverty (274) than lone men (188) while non-lone women are again in a safer condition (136)

22 General demographic trends

221 The increase in single households

We know that the number of single households is increasing across Europe and in 2008 the share of single women (with no children) in EU-25 average was around 8 of the total population living in private households

On average in 2010 the proportion of single women in the total female population aged 20 and over in EU27 rose to 23 from 21 in 2005 (Fig 21) The geographical distribution across Europe shows a very high and stable concentration of women living alone in the Nordic countries with a value rising to almost 40 in Sweden a value slightly above the European average in the Continental area with the exception of France where single women come to 29 values above average in Ireland and the UK and finally lower percentages in Southern and Eastern countries except for Slovenia

21

_________________________________________________________________


Figure 21 Single women (aged 20 and over) in relation to the total female population (aged 20 and over) in EU Member States - 2005 2010

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45 EU

27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t

single 2010 w single 2005 w

Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata Labour Force Survey ndash 2005 2010 Notes Missing data for Malta 2005 EU average is calculated on available country data

The proportion of single men in the total male population (see the Annex Fig A5) is also increasing everywhere in Europe and is higher than that of women with 31 average and a peak of 47 in Sweden the country with the highest concentration of single persons both men and women

222 The increase in elderly women living alone

In fifteen years (1995-2010) the share of the European female population aged 65 and over has grown in all the Member States with very few exceptions (Finland Cyprus) while the 0-14 component has appreciably decreased everywhere (Fig A3 and Fig A8 in the Annex II) Population projections show that in the EU27 the ratio of women over 65 will rise from 20 in 2010 to over 30 of the total population by 2060

Among those living alone an increasing share is represented by the elderly due to demographic ageing This rate is particularly marked for women The share of elderly women (over 65) in the total population is predicted to increase due to the gender gap in life expectancy as we can observe in the age pyramids for EU27 at 2010 and 2060 (Fig 22) There is also a secondary ageing process underway the ageing of the aged Demographic projections estimate that the share of elderly women in the age group between 65 and 74 years will settle at around 10-12 in 2060 while the group over 75 is expected to grow to 20 of the total population There will also be a significant increase in the numbers of people aged 85 and over between 2010 and 2060 the proportion of people aged 85 years and more will increase from 2 to 7 with a share of men over 85 years of almost 3 in 2060 vs a share of 4 for women

22

_________________________________________________________________________


Figure 22 Age pyramids for EU27 population - 2010 2060

4 2 0 2 4

0-4

10-14

20-24

30-34

40-44

50-54

60-64

70-74

80-85

of total population

Male Female 2010

4 2 0 2 4

0-4

10-14

20-24

30-34

40-44

50-54

60-64

70-74

80-85

of total population

Male Female

2060

Source Eurostat Demographic statistics data

In a demographic perspective two main features seem to characterize the conditions of lone women in Europe

The first is that for women living alone does not appear as the result of an original choice when compared to the singleness of men but more as a choice or a condition depending on life events As shown in Figure 23 (and Figure A6 in Annex II) in the EU27 average the share of women legally separated divorced - and widowed is 22 vs 9 of men with the value generally more than double in most European countries and especially high in Eastern European countries some of them reaching values higher than 30

Figure 23 WidowedDivorcedLegally separated women (aged 20 and over) in comparison with the total female population (aged 20 and over) in EU Member States ndash 2005 2010

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

EU27 BE DE FR LU NL

AT DK FI SE IE UK EL ES IT CY MT PT BG CZ EE LV LT HU PL RO SI SK

Per

cen

t

sep 2010 w sep 2005 w


The second key factor related to the previous one is the close link between single households and age lone women are most frequently older than lone men

What is the share of the elderly lone people in the population

Even if there is a common growth trend in one-person households between 2005 and 2010 (see the Annex II Tab A2) the proportion of lone women over 65 (8 in 2010 EU27 average) is three times higher than that for lone men especially in Germany (10) and

23

_________________________________________________________________


Italy (10) When considering the composition of the group of women living alone by age compared to men the share of women over 65 living alone is around 54 on the EU27 average lower in the Northern countries and higher in the Southern and Eastern areas By contrast the share of men over 65 living alone is on average around 23

We can see the proportion of elderly women and men living alone in the total population living alone in EU Member states in Figure 24

Figure 24 Proportion of elderly womenmen living alone in comparison with the total femalemale population living alone in EU Member States - 2010

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Ehellip

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY


SK

Perc

en

t

EP 2010 w EP 2010 m

Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata Labour Force Survey ndash 2005 2010

In the next paragraph we consider the evolution of labour market conditions and focus only on the working age group of women living alone (20-64 years old)

23 The evolution of labour market conditions

Considering the labour market conditions it is not easy to identify or to isolate the effects of the economic crisis on labour market performance from its natural and more general evolution

As we know one of the most salient features and persistent trends in the advanced economies in recent decades is the increased feminization of the labour force

On the evidence of the available data we can compare two periods 2005 before the crisis and 2010 when the crisis was unfortunately well consolidated

Between 2005 and 2010 the gender gap in the activity and employment rates narrowed in almost all European countries although there are still major differences in the pattern of female labour market integration over the life-course and from country to country

It is well-recognized that womenrsquos labour participation and employment varies widely across European countries reflecting the situation of female economic emancipation and the availability of services - to facilitate the professional-private life balance - and opportunities for women

24

_________________________________________________________________________


There are still major differences in the patterns of female labour market integration over the life-course the nature and frequency of transitions from the household sphere to the labour market differ significantly by gender and across countries

The gender gap the disparity between women and men both in the activity and employment rates (Fig A9a A9b A10a and A10b in the Annex II) show that the Nordic countries register the smallest difference between menrsquos and womenrsquos labour market situations together with some of the Baltic States The most significant differences between men and women in labour market participation choices and employment are still to be found in the Mediterranean European countries

The socio-economic literature underlines the participation behaviour and the risks faced by different groups of women according to educational levels age household composition and geographical area The type of career path and the transitions in the labour market play an important role in poverty risks in old age as well as the effects of the economic down-turn on the employment and participation perspectives

231 Women living alone are more integrated in the labour market

Giving a general overview of the labour market indicators we can observe two clear trends

in the five years between 2005 and 2010 female activity rates have increased in most countries (Fig 25)

in most countries ndash except the UK Bulgaria Hungary Lithuania Latvia and Romania ndash the participation rates of lone women aged 20-64 is higher than that of non lone women (70 vs 64 at average) This is an expected participation pattern considering their condition of single earner

Figure 25 Activity rate of lone women without dependants (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants (NLPw) lone man without dependants (LPm) in 2010 and 2005-2010 change (in percentage points) of the activity rate of lone women without dependants in EU Member States

-20

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES

GR IT MT PT BG CZ EE

HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

LP 2010 w NLP 2010 w LP 2010 m LP w 2010-2005

Source IRS elaboration on Eurostat Microdata Labour Force Survey 2005 ndash 2010 Notes Missing data for Denmark Finland Sweden in 2005 and 2010 and for Ireland and Malta in 2005 Activity rate for LP w 2010 for Malta is weakly reliable (under limit b see Annex I)

25

_________________________________________________________________


The highest activity rates (around and over 70) for lone women are registered in Germany (80) the UK Portugal and the Baltic countries while Malta and several Eastern European countries register the lowest rates around 50

Within single households the average activity rate of lone women aged 20-64 with no dependents was 70 in 2010 significantly lower than that of lone men (-10 percentage points)

A similar pattern can be seen considering the employment rates of women living alone normally higher than those of women not living alone except for Ireland the UK and some of the Eastern countries

Overall the EU average employment rate for lone women (aged 20-64) with no dependents is 65 vs 60 for women living in couples and 71 for men living alone (Fig 26) We see above average values in the Continental European area (except for Belgium) while the highest employment rates are to be found in Germany (75) and Austria still over the average and higher than that of men living alone but lower than that of women living in couples and decreasing are the employment rates in the Anglo-Saxon countries followed by Spain and Portugal with rates just below the average and a narrowing trend since 2005 The Eastern European countries also register lower employment rates and a mixed trend for single women aged 20-64 with no dependents with exceptionally increasing values in Bulgaria and also in Poland

Figure 26 Employment rate of lone women without dependants (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants (NLPw) lone man without dependants (LPm) in 2010 and 2005-2010 change (in percentage points) of the employment rate of lone women without dependants in EU Member States

-20

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

LP 2010 w NLP 2010 w LP 2010 m LP w 2010-2005


As regards unemployment rates we observe a mixed and changing situation especially from the gender perspective

26

_________________________________________________________________________


Considering the change between 2005 and 2010 the unemployment rates for all women in general have slightly decreased reaching in 2010 8 for single women and 7 for women living in couples (Fig 27) On the contrary the unemployment rates for all men have been increasing in all Europe up to 11 for lone men as a clear effect of the economic crisis which as we know tends to hit first the sectors where the male labour force is prevalent

However in most countries especially in the Continental and Anglo-Saxon areas the unemployment rates for lone women are still higher than that of women with partners This trend does not occur in Southern European countries and in some of the Eastern ones where there is no substantial difference between the two groups of women A particularly critical situation emerges for Spain Portugal Estonia Latvia and Hungary where the unemployment rates of lone women are rising

Figure 27 Unemployment rate of lone women without dependants (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants (NLPw) lone man without dependants (LPm) in 2010 and 2005-2010 change (in percentage points) of the unemployment rate of lone women without dependants in EU Member States

-10

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

LP 2010 w NLP 2010 w LP 2010 m LP w 2010-2005

Source IRS elaboration on Eurostat Microdata Labour Force Survey 2005 ndash 2010 Notes Missing data for Denmark Finland Sweden in 2005 and 2010 and for Ireland and Malta in 2005 Data not reliable (not published because under limit a see Annex I)LP w 2010 for LU MT NLP w 2010 for MT LP m 2010 for MT LP w 2005 for LU CY LT Data weakly reliable (under limit b see Annex I)LP w 2010 for CY RO SI NLP w 2010 for LU SI LP m 2010 for LU CY LP w 2005 for BGEEROSI

Women aged 20-64 living with a partner without children show on the EU27 average employment and unemployment rates lower than those registered by single women but the differences are significant across countries

232 The spread of flexible contracts and non-standard working time

Large differences are also to be seen when considering the type of employment Very interesting is the analysis of data on nonstandard labour contracts

In most countries temporary work is widespread among both lone men and women

27

_________________________________________________________________


As we can see in Figure 28 the numbers of women employed in temporary work have been rising in all European countries between 2005 and 2010 reaching 14 for lone women and 115 for women living in couple Significant changes have occurred in the use of numerical flexibility ie an easier way to adapt the volume of the labour force incoming and outgoing from the firm

Only in Greece Italy and Spain are lone women on temporary employment decreasing in number and in the latter two countries this type of nonstandard labour contract seems to be more widespread among women living with a partner (respectively 13 and 25) as second earners

Figure 28 Share of temporary contract workers on lone women without dependents (LPw) women with a partner and without dependents (NLPw) lone man without dependents (LPm) in 2010 and 2005-2010 change (in percentage points) in the share of temporary contracts on lone women without dependents in EU Member States

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

temp LP 2010 w temp NLP 2010 w temp LP 2010 m temp LP w 2010-2005

Source IRS elaboration on Eurostat Microdata Labour Force Survey 2005 ndash 2010 Notes Missing data for Denmark Finland Sweden in 2005 and 2010 and for Ireland and Malta in 2005 Data not reliable (not published because under limit a see Annex I) LP w 2010 for MT BG EE LT RO SK NLP w 2010 for MT EE LT RO LP m 2010 for MT RO LP w 2005 for LU EE LT LV RO Data weakly reliable (under limit b see Annex I) LP w 2010 for LU IE NLP w 2010 for LU LP m 2010 for LU IE CY BG EE LT LP w 2005 for CY BG SK Missing answers to the permanency of the job are dropped for Bulgaria in 2005

Very high levels have been reached in the Netherlands (21) Spain (23) Portugal (26) Poland (22) and Slovenia (27) Higher than average temporary work rates for women living alone can be found in Germany (17) (in contrast with Austria where nonstandard work is less widespread despite high employment rates) and France (17) where the trend is similar for the three groups considered

Perhaps more important within this framework is the use of part-time contracts (Fig 29)

Throughout all the EU countries the incidence of women in part-time employment is fairly high in particular when compared to men

28

_________________________________________________________________________


In all the European countries part-time labour contracts more diffused among women living with a partner (28 on average in 2010) reached a significant proportion also among women living alone (235 in 2010) except for Cyprus

Related to part-time work we can see very considerable differences across groups of countries from the left side of the table with a higher incidence of part-time (the highest are in the Netherlands and Belgium) and the right side where the Eastern countries have lower levels of part-time contracts and Southern Europe in the middle with an intermediate incidence of part-time contracts

Figure 29 Share of part-time workers on lone women without dependents (LPw) women with a partner and without dependents (NLPw) lone man without dependents (LPm) in 2010 and 2005-2010 change (in percentage points) in the share of part time for lone women without dependents in EU Member States

‐10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

EU27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES GR IT

MT

PT

BG CZ

EE HU LT LV PL

RO SI SK

part LP 2010 w part NLP 2010 w part LP 2010 m part LP w 2010‐2005

Source IRS elaboration on Eurostat Microdata Labour Force Survey 2005 ndash 2010 Notes Missing data for Denmark Finland Sweden in 2005 and 2010 and for Ireland and Malta in 2005 Data not reliable (not published because under limit a see Annex I) LP w 2010 for MT BG SK NLP w 2010 for MT LP w 2010 for MT LP m 2010 for MT BG SK LP w 2005 for BG LT Data weakly reliable (under limit b see Annex I) LP w 2010 for CY LT NLP w 2010 for BG LP m 2010 for LU CY LT LP w 2005 for CY SK

Very high is the incidence of work in atypical hours - shift work or work in evenings or nights or during the weekend- (Fig 210) more than 35 on average for both lone men and women - slightly higher than that of non lone women - with an increasing trend especially in some of the Mediterranean countries (the highest rate is in Greece) and the UK In this case it would be worth considering the divergence between the group of women living alone and the group of women living alone but with children andother dependants

29

_________________________________________________________________


Figure 210 Share of workers with atypical hours among lone women without dependents (LPw) women with a partner and without dependents (NLPw) lone man without dependents (LPm) in 2010 and 2005-2010 change (in percentage points) in the share of women on atypical hours among lone women without dependents in EU Member States

Source IRS elaboration on Eurostat Microdata Labour Force Survey 2005 ndash 2010 Notes Missing data for Denmark Finland Sweden in 2005 and 2010 and for Netherlan Spain Ireland Malta and Bulgaria in 2005 Data not reliable (not published because under limit a see Annex I) LP w 2010 for MT Data weakly reliable (under limit b see Annex I)NLP w 2010 for M LP m 2010 for MT We consider as atypical shift work or work in the evening or in the night or during the weekend regularly performed

233 The cross-country variability of the gender pay gap

In spite of the different degrees of labour market integration European women share a greater exposure to low pay in all European countries

The gender pay gap is sizeable even if smaller among low-paid workers A higher proportion of women are paid at or close to the minimum wage and thus their individual risk of in-work poverty is highly dependent on the levels at which minimum wages are set Gender pay gaps also imply lower pensions and lower social protection entitlements for women than for men

As can be seen in Figure A35 the gender pay gap defined as the percentage difference between average gross annual income of male and female employees as a percentage of male income is decreasing in all European countries and in 2010 the average gender gap among those living alone is less than half that of those not living alone respectively 16 and 33

This difference is due to the lower incidence of part-time workers among the women living alone ndashthey being the only earners in the household ndash with respect to the group of women living with a partner Another relevant factor lies in the age composition of the group of women living alone here the incidence of young people is higher and for them the gender pay gap is systematically lower than average since inequalities arise during the career pathways

There is still considerable variability across countries also within the same welfare regime type In contrast to the general trend the gender pay gap for lone women (compared to lone men) is higher than average and increasing in the United Kingdom Greece the Czech

30

_________________________________________________________________________


Republic and Slovakia negative values can be observed in Eastern countries especially in Slovenia

Considering the lessons learned from the previous economic crisis which occurred in the 20th century the effects of the economic crisis on the female labour force and employment will be seen in the long run while the effects on male employment present more immediate negative effect As we know the crisis first hits the male and the industrial components of the labour force with different effects on women and men occurring in different time frames

24 Evolution of living conditions and poverty risks

Besides the labour market conditions of active women living alone it is important to assess the specific problems that affect the entire lone female population including inactive and elderly women

In this case additional variables other than activity and employment rates are significant In particular we consider their living and economic conditions on the basis of health adequacy of income and risk of poverty As is well known women face more acute social vulnerability due to many events during their life-course They retire earlier than men -even if the median age of retirement has tended to increase for women in recent years they have a higher incidence of nonstandard employment contracts and lower earnings than men as well as more career breaks in their working life

241 The worst health perception of people living alone

We propose some considerations on European trends focused on our specific reference target group on the basis of the available data (elaboration on EU-SILC data)

When we analyze the general health status of the population in EU member states (Fig 211) the share of people reporting bad health is almost twice as much for single women (10) than for the other women and single men This trend has however been decreasing since 2005 The incidence of bad health is exceptionally high in Portugal and Eastern Europe and higher than average in Belgium By contrast the proportion of lone women reporting bad health conditions is very low in Southern countries

31

_________________________________________________________________


Figure 211 General health in EU Member States (age 20-64)ndash 2005 2010

0

5

10

15

20

25

30 EU A

TBE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK ES GR IT PT CZ EE HU LT LV PL SI

SK

Share of people reporting bad health - Lone women

2010 2005

0

10

20

30

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK

Share of people reporting bad health - Other women

2010 2005

0

10

20

30

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK

Share of people reporting bad health - Lone men

2010 2005

Source IRS elaboration on Eurostat Microdata EU-SILC Notes EU 2005 refers to EU-25 excluding MT EU 2010 refers to EU27 excluding IE and CY Data not reliable due to the small sample size (not published because based on less than 20 observations) Share of lone women reporting bad health in 2005 for GR share of lone men reporting bad health in 2005 for GR PT share of lone men reporting bad health in 2010 for GR Data weakly reliable due to the small sample size (based on less than 50 observations) lone women in 2005 for AT LU DK SE PT CZ SI lone men in 2005 for AT BE LU NL DK SE ES CZ EE LT LV SI lone women in 2010 for LU DK SE ES GR PT EE SI lone men in 2010 for AT LU NL DK SE ES PT EE LT SI SK

Women living alone in the age 20-64 also tend to have twice the rates of chronic illness and disability shown by the non-lone women (around 40 vs 20 on average) This difference is appreciably lower for elderly lone women (around 60) than for elderly women living in couples (around 57) Similar results are seen when we analyze the share of people with disability with severe limitations in the activities they usually perform because of health problems for at least the last six months (around 10 for lone women relative to 5 for non-lone women aged 20-64) (Fig A40 A41 A42 in annex II)

242 Adequacy of income

Conversely if we consider the adequacy of income in EU Member States and the share of people reporting difficulties in making ends meet the situation of women living alone aged 20-64 is quite similar to that of the other women and also of the single men (Fig 212) with a different trend between 2005 and 2010 across Europe However economic distress is great and widespread with more than 50 on average declaring economic difficulties in particular in Southern and Eastern Europe We can observe very critical conditions for

32

_________________________________________________________________________


women in Hungary (91 for both lone women and women living in couple) and also in Lithuania and Latvia Values over the average are also to be found in Greece Italy Portugal and France On the contrary there is a favorable and improving income situation in the Continental area especially in Germany ndash even with differences between women living alone and the others in 2010 the share of women with economic difficulties was 21 for women living in couple and 31 for lone women- and in the Scandinavian countries especially in Sweden where the share was 14 for women living in couple and 23 for lone women

Figure 212 Adequacy of income in EU Member States (age 20-64)ndash 2005 2010

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK

Share of people reporting diff iculties in making ends meet - Lone women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU27 AT BE DE

FR LU NL

DK FI SE UK ES GR IT PT CZ EE HU LT LV PL SI SK

Share of people reporting dif f iculties in making ends meet - Other women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU27 AT BE DE

FR LU NL


Share of people reporting diff iculties in making ends meet - Lone men

2010 2005

Source IRS elaboration on Eurostat Microdata EU-SILC

The share of lone women over 65 reporting difficulties in making ends meet is however 58 and higher than that of the other women and also of the lone men (Fig A44 in annex II)

243 The rise of risk of poverty for both women and men living alone

From the temporal perspective we can see a relative improvement in economic conditions in almost all the European countries particularly in Germany and except for the lone women in Austria Denmark and Estonia

33

_________________________________________________________________


A quite different scenario arises when poverty rates are considered Following the Eurostat definition we consider at risk of poverty all the individuals living in households with a disposable equivalent income below 60 of the median disposable equivalent income

Table 21 shows that the poverty rates for lone women in working age (20-64) increased from an average of 222 in 2005 to 264 in 2010 a rate twice that of women living in couples It should be noted that the incidence of poverty among single men is on average equivalent to that of single women

Table 21 Poverty rate in EU Member States (age 20-64) ndash 2005 2010 MEMBER STATES

2005 2010 LP - W NLP - W LP - M LP - W NLP - W LP - M

EU 222 143 237 264 149 265 AT 201 112 167 243 98 201 BE 198 114 175 179 121 171 DE 241 102 277 334 126 351 FR 182 118 203 197 128 188 LU 249 125 162 180 158 259 NL 177 103 207 285 84 192 DK 293 63 258 306 71 263 FI 261 71 271 233 83 308 SE 178 651 216 280 89 262 UK 206 169 250 250 156 284 ES 234 175 167 199 194 238 GR 217 173 145a 239 187 269 IT 275 173 169 255 179 188 PT 332 159 235 a 169a 167 264a

CZ 179a 99 210 217 78 147 EE 275 149 375 216 137 343 HU 216 123 319 155 125 244 LT 214 179 400 334 202 496 LV 307 167 432 265 190 431 PL 189 206 365 253 167 345 SI 492 91 390 33 6 93 334 SK 206 123 282a 188 107 310a

Source IRS elaboration on Eurostat Microdata EU-SILC Notes (a) limited reliability due to the small sample size (less than 50 observations) EU 2005 refers to EU-25 excluding MT EU 2010 refers to EU27 excluding IE and CY

In comparison with the previous report (2008) - when single women were more exposed to the risk of poverty than men in the majority of the EU countries although the difference was small ndash we note a worsening of the situation for single men aged 20-64

Significant differences are detectable across the European Member States going beyond the traditional distinctions of welfare states regimes adopted in the socio-economic literature Within the same group of countries we find a wide range of poverty rates in 2010 In the Continental European area for example the share of lone womenrsquos poverty ranges from 19 in France to 33 in Germany where this specific group of active population seems to be very penalized with an increase of almost 10 percentage points (24 in 2005) In Germany there was an increase in poverty for single households in general especially related to men whose the poverty rate reached 35 The share of women living alone at risk of poverty is still high in Denmark (30) in Portugal (33) and in Slovenia (49)

34

_________________________________________________________________________


In several countries single men are more exposed to the risk of poverty (Germany Finland the UK and Luxembourg) Furthermore higher poverty rates are more concentrated among people with low levels of education

Considering the poverty rate of the older population (over 65)the picture is worse but fairly stable for lone women it was 287 in 2005 and around 274 in 2010 on average (Tab 22) Elderly lone women but also lone men live in difficult economic conditions especially in Finland - where the poverty rate reaches 40 for women and 36 for men-and Sweden (38 for women and 21 for men)

Table 22 Poverty rate in EU Member States (over 65) ndash 2005 2010 MEMBER STATES


EU 2872 1652 2008 2737 1356 1878 AT 2894 1028 2929 1303 128a BE 275 1776 28a 2109 1974 2134 DE 2447 1126 1341 2523 1087 20 FR 2399 142 2163 1516 841 1141a

LU 909a 666a NL 79a 723a 879 712a DK 1968 1591 244a 2063 1429 2437a

FI 3968 769 2733a 4026 634 3592 SE 225 45a 152a 3804 633 2121a

UK 3708 2407 2652 341 2069 2256 ES 5236 256 3323 3624 1966 1816 GR 3592 2682 314a 3116 207 26 IT 3857 1886 2542 3232 1298 2159 PT 4245 2381 451 3924 1754 2644a

CZ 176 2438 23a 61a

EE 4407 1073 290a 2801 857 241a

HU 128 516 874 36 LT 3773 1229 1587 786 166a

LV 4587 1472 371a 3719 1188 2818 PL 831 1067 72a 2376 1353 1776 SI 4913 115 5038 925 SK 1418 579a 1812 5a

Source IRS elaboration on Eurostat Microdata EU-SILC Notes (a) limited reliability due to the small sample size (less than 50 observations) () Not reliable estimates due to the small sample size (less than 20 observations) EU 2005 refers to EU-25 excluding MT EU 2010 refers to EU27 excluding IE and CY

Moreover shares higher than average can be found in all the Mediterranean countries particularly in Portugal Eastern Europe is instead characterized by mixed conditions while the worst situation is that of the Slovenian lone women

Basically it could be argued that among the working age population the average poverty rate is increasing and that small gender differences between men and women living alone are registered

For the group of older people instead we see a higher share of poverty among lone women than men but the incidence did not change in the 2005-2010 period or even decreased in some countries

When we consider the share of house owners we see that it is much lower among single people aged 20-64 and the difference is greater in the Continental and Northern groups of

35

_________________________________________________________________


countries than in the Southern and Eastern Member states where the differences are more limited

The share of people receiving benefits shows that twice as many lone women (and at a slightly lower level also men) aged 20-65 receive benefits as people not living alone (Fig 213) The differences are lower in the universalistic welfare regimes of the Nordic countries For elderly women and the elderly population in general the benefits received are appreciably higher especially in the case of single households with a fairly similar stable-decreasing trend everywhere in Europe

Figure 213 Share of people receiving benefits in EU Member States (age 20-64) ndash 2005 2010

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK

ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK

Lone women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK

Other women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU AT

DE LU FI GR PT CZ

HU LV SI

Lone men

2010 2005

Source IRS elaboration on Eurostat Microdata EU-SILC Notes EU 2005 refers to EU-25 excluding MT EU 2010 refers to EU27 excluding IE and CY Share of lone men receiving benefits is weakly reliable due to the small sample size (less than 50 observations) for GR PT SK in 2005 and 2010 for EE for LT in 2005

25 Concluding remarks

We can conclude this chapter with two preliminary and important remarks

The first is that the comparison between lsquolone peoplersquo and lsquonon lone peoplersquo is often more significant than the comparison between lone men and lone women This is true also when

36

_________________________________________________________________________


the age variable is taken into account In other words it is the fact of living alone that makes a greater difference in living conditions than gender or age at least during the first phase of the economic down-turn considered in this report Nevertheless as we have seen for women single status is more a choice or a condition depending on life events like separation divorce widowhood

The second is that the systematic international comparison among Member States on this issue shows a mixed picture less consistent within the traditional classification of welfare models Economic difficulties can affect the population living alone in each country beyond the institutional regulatory framework typical of the group of countries we are used to aggregate The picture that has emerged from the data analysis seems to be more mixed than in the past and less consistent with the ideal-model of countries classification As many researches are showing there is an ongoing process of hybridization of the welfare state models so that it is becoming increasingly difficult to pinpoint systematic differences across such models

The resulting framework can be traced from three complementary perspectives

The first is related to the social and demographic trends which show an increase in single households across Europe for both men and women particularly concentrated in the Northern countries and among the older population People living alone rely on a single source of income and accordingly are more fragile in coping with socio-economic risks thus the growing share of single households determines increasing poverty rates in response to the economic crisis There is furthermore a great prevalence of elderly women when taking into account the age of lone people Lone women are mostly elderly and this has many social consequences and political implications This trend is intensified by the extension of life expectancy for women as shown by the population projections for 2060

The second issue concerns the labour market conditions and evolution In almost all European countries lone women register lower labour market participation and lower employment access than lone men as in the past Conversely lone womenrsquos labour market inclusion (ie activity and employment levels) is often better than that of women living in couples especially in the Continental and Mediterranean countries people living alone being the only income earners However the unemployment rates for women living alone are generally higher than those of women living in couples except in some EU Member states namely the Mediterranean countries This negligible gap is not accounted for by a higher lone women employment level but rather by a lower level of participation as a result of discouragement and exit strategies In Nordic countries where women living alone represent a more significant share of the total population and where there are very well-performing female labour market indicators the presence of a partner is normally related to even higher performance Given the lack of data on lone women in the Scandinavian countries we cannot confirm this

As we have learned from previous 20th century experience economic crisis has long-run effects on female participation in the labour market and on employment as well as unemployment rates What is reasonably sure is that nowadays the central economic role played by women - both as family bread-winners and as second earners - will prevent their exit from the labour market contradicting the labour reserve socio-economic hypothesis which argues that women are driven out of employment when the demand decreases

What has really changed from the past is the increasing use of flexible work and nonstandard employment contracts affecting all components of the labour force Even though international comparison shows a composite and mixed framework temporary

37

_________________________________________________________________


contracts are more frequent on average for lone women workers than other groups of workers Following the segmentation theory of the labour market a significant share of single women earners are becoming contingent workers

Part-time contracts are however more diffused among women not living alone as second earners They concern almost a quarter of total lone women in employment Very widespread among all the population groups here considered is working atypical hours (above all on Saturdays)

The third perspective concerns the evolution of living conditions and economic difficulties In terms of general health status lone women feel worse off than women not living alone and this difference is greater among the working age population than those aged over 65

The share of people reporting difficulties in making ends meet is very high (more than 50) and the situation of women living alone is by large similar to that of the other women as well as that of single men In any case when we consider other kinds of variables to measure the economic difficulties (eg risks of poverty) the picture changes women living alone (and also men living alone) have on average twice the probability of experiencing poverty than women living in couples and the risk has risen since 2005 People with low educational levels are much more vulnerable than the more educated Elderly women are particularly at risk of poverty in Southern Europe but also in Finland Sweden the UK and Slovenia

All these considerations are of course linked to the possible effects of policy changes introduced in recent years in terms of pension reforms active ageing strategies and assistance schemes revision which are analyzed in the following chapters

38

_________________________________________________________________________


3 EFFECTS OF RECENT POLICY CHANGES IN PENSION REFORMS

Pensions are the major source of income for women in old age and especially for those living alone The pensions women receive are however lower than the menrsquos because pension systems tend to reproduce (or even reinforce) existing gender inequalities in the labour market and in the division of social roles within households

Up to the early 1990s public pensions constituted the bulk of national pension systems and had markedly redistributive features guaranteeing pre-defined high pension benefits and high rates of returns especially to low earners (including women) Since then increasing demographic social and economic pressures have forced all the European countries to reform the pre-existing pension system in order to reduce an excessive burden on public finances Overall reform trends have implemented a principle of the pension as a ldquodeferred incomerdquo based on contributions made during the whole working career to the public system and to occupational and individual private schemes6 As a consequence low-wage and precarious workers and individuals with no or interrupted employment careers (mainly women with caring roles) are often only eligible for minimum pensions even when they have contributed to the system for many years The negative effects of these reforms on average pension incomes have in many countries been offset by measures extending the coverage of minimum pensions and supporting pension entitlements for low earners or individuals with interrupted careers

The current long-lasting financial and economic crisis and the reduced growth prospects have brought additional pressures to bear on the European pension systems and highlighted some of the risks embedded in the previous pension reforms as benefits are more closely related to continuous employment careers as well as to the evolution of the economic and financial situation This has resulted in more recent years in acceleration in structural pension reforms as well as an increased attention to the need for better regulation of private pension schemes

This chapter presents the main features of recent pension reforms and their expected effects for women with the focus on women living alone distinguishing between current women pensioners and women below retirement age

Given the lack of data and information it is not possible to piece together a detailed picture of the situation of women living alone For this reason we focus firstly on the expected gender effects of recent pension reforms in general and then on those schemes more likely to affect the situation of women living alone minimum pensions derived pension benefits and measures to support access to pension schemes for atypical workers and individuals with care responsibilities

The analysis considers all Member States (MSs) more detailed information on the six selected countries is provided in the comparative table and in the country fiches in Annex III while the main sources of information are described in Annex I

6 Castel N (2010) Salaire ou revenu diffeacutereacute Vers un nouveau systegraveme de retraites Revue franccedilaise de sociologie ndeg51

39

_________________________________________________________________


31 Main features of current pension systems and recent reform trends

The current pensions systems are converging towards a multi-pillar framework composed by three main ldquopillarsrdquo

Pillar 1) a mandatory publicly administered pay-as-you-go (PAYG) scheme7 which still represents the backbone of retirement-income support in European countries In most countries this Public Pillar covers minimum pensions for older people with low incomes and few or no pension rights early retirement disability and survivorsrsquo pensions Minimum pensions are usually means-tested and provided either by a specific minimum pension scheme or through social assistance Pension benefits are guaranteed by the State and the scheme is usually managed by a public body The PAYG scheme is the main source of income for current pensioners and even if shrinking will continue to constitute the bulk of pension income in most EU countries for many years

Pillar 2) occupational schemes privately managed on the basis of individual savings accounts at the company or sector level These schemes are usually based on the insurance principle with access linked to employment or occupation They usually operate on a funded basis employer and employees build up savings in pension funds which are invested and will be used to finance future pension benefits When reaching retirement age the accumulated assets are paid to the individuals either as an annuity or as a lump sum or in some other form Occupational schemes may be established by collective agreements at the industry level or at the company level and be mandatory alternatively they can be established in individual contracts or on the unilateral initiative of the employer

Pillar 3) individual schemes usually voluntary privately managed also on the basis of individual savings accounts Individual schemes are based upon the savings put aside by individuals for their old age Contracts are subscribed by the individuals with service providers such as life insurance companies or various other kinds of institutions In some cases employers or the State may contribute to the individual plan

Pension arrangements are however still highly diverse in the EU reflecting different traditions and the different phases of the reform process underway On the basis of their prevalent pension system the EU MSs may be grouped as follows

The Nordic countries (SE FI DK NO IS) and the Netherlands have a generous tax-based public universal minimum pension pillar usually residence based which supports low earners and women lacking a continuous employment history On top of these minimum pension benefits there are earnings-related benefits resulting from the mandatory public PAYG system and benefits resulting from occupational schemes These countries are also characterised by high equalized retirement ages (with flexible retirement provisions in Finland and Sweden) extensive pension care credits and a relevant role played by funded occupational and private schemes In the Dutch Danish and Swedish occupational schemes contribution rates (premiums) are determined through collective agreements In 2007 occupational funded schemes covered 75 of the active population in Denmark and over 90 in the Netherlands and Sweden while individual pension schemes covered more than half of the retired people in Denmark (56) and the Netherlands (59) and 20 in

7 According to Pay as you go schemes current workers contributions and taxes are used to fund the pension payments of retired people

40

_________________________________________________________________________


Sweden8 In these countries public expenditure on pensions is relatively low due to the significant role of privately funded occupational and individual schemes

The Anglo-Saxon countries (UK IE) also combine a universal basic state pension (contributory flat rate) with funded occupational earnings related to private schemes The public pension pillar is however much less generous than in the Nordic countries Private pension schemes are well-developed in the UK Public pension expenditures in of GDP and pension replacement rates are lower than the EU27 average

In Continental (AT BE DE FR LU) Southern European countries (IT ES EL MT CY) and in the Czech Republic pensions are largely based on an earnings-related public PAYG system in some cases with top-up pension supplement for those below the poverty line usually means-tested or with strict eligibility criteria (AT BE) or social assistance benefits outside the pension system (as in IT) Occupational private schemes have been introduced recently but are not as widespread as in the Nordic and Anglo-Saxon countries although Germany Italy and Austria are supporting the expansion of existing or newly created statutory funded and occupational pension schemes In some of these countries (IT FR DE) there has long been fragmentation of various occupational schemes which is currently under revision Overall these countries have in common relatively high public spending on pensions as share of both total public expenditures and GDP

The Central and Eastern European countries (BG EE LT LV HU PL RO SK SL) have moved toward a multi-pillar system and reshaped their statutory scheme towards a system largely based on mandatory funded pension schemes providing a funded tier as complement to the unfunded one Since the crisis however some of these countries (HUSK and PL) have decided to shift back a part of the mandatory funded component to public schemes In these countries statutory pensions used to be relatively generous but since 2005 the elderly have seen a rapid decline in their conditions Expenditure on pensions in these countries is low compared with the EU average

The current features of pension systems are the result of gradual reform waves initiated in the 1990s and accelerated over the last five years with the aim to improve their financial sustainability in the light of rapid population ageing Most European countries have reinforced the contributory principles in pension schemes and the link between contributions paid and benefits received All the EU countries to a greater or lesser extent have9

Adopted a multi-pillar pension system with a shrinking Pay-as-you-go (PAYG) public pillar supplemented with statutory andor occupational and individual pillars operating on a funded basis and privately managed Participation in occupational and individual

8 Social Protection Committee (2008) ldquoPrivately managed funded pension provision and their contribution to adequate and sustainable pensionsrdquo Occasional papers No 35

httpeceuropaeusocialBlobServletdocId=743amplangId=en 9 European Commission (2010) Green Paper - towards adequate sustainable and safe European pension systems SEC(2010) 830 final COM(2010)365 final Brussels

httpeceuropaeusocialBlobServletdocId=5551amplangId=en

41

_________________________________________________________________


schemes has been encouraged with tax incentives or made mandatory with automatic enrolment in addition or in substitution of public pensions

Strengthened the contributory principle implying a closer link between contributions paid and benefits received This has been achieved through a progressive shift from Defined Benefit (DB) schemes toward defined-contribution (DC) andor notional defined-contribution (NDC) schemes so that longer working lives feed into higher pensions10 Furthermore the number of contributory years required to qualify for a full pension has been raised

Raised and equalised retirement age between men and women and limited early-retirement provisions The increase in statutory pensionable ages has been accelerated in the most recent reforms (see Box 31) especially for women Early retirement options as well as other routes out of work prior to formal retirement (such as disability and incapacity schemes) have been phased out or restricted

Adopted less favourable indexation and adjustment mechanisms to lower the growth rate of pensions In the majority (19) of EU countries indexation systems for statutory pension schemes are no longer based on wage developments (more favourable for pensioners) but increasingly on changes in the cost of living andor GDP growth or ldquosustainability factorsrdquo reflecting demographic trends (as in DE FI I PT SE) These mechanisms reduce the pension replacement rate during the pensionersrsquo life thus penalising in particular women who live longer in retirement than men Automatic adjustment mechanisms have been adopted in Sweden Finland Poland and Germany while periodic reviews and adjustments have been implemented in Austria Italy and France Adjustment mechanisms reflect changes in one or more factors such as longevity (either linking contribution years to gains in life expectancy as in CZ EL F IT or linking the level of pension benefits to life expectancy gains as in PT) the dependency ratio (as in DE) reserve fund performance (SE) or general economic performance (FI SE)

Extended the calculation period for pensionable earnings to the entire employment career instead of considering only the ldquobest yearsrdquo or the ldquolast yearsrdquo Currently 24 out of the 27 EU member states consider earnings over the entire period of employment in determining pensions

Pension reforms enacted in the last five years have shortened the transition period envisaged in previous reforms and further limited pension generosity by reducing public pension benefits and coverage by raising retirement age with stiffer contribution requirements and more limited access to early and disability pension schemes

10 With the Defined Benefit (DB) formulae a given level of benefits is defined and usually low earners have higher replacement rates than high earners With the Defined Contribution (DC) formulae only contributions are defined and benefits vary according to the returns on the funds invested with the value of the pension depending not only on the contributions made but also on developments in the financial markets As a consequence the value of a pension income may decline in the case of adverse shocks affecting the value of the fund assets like the financial crisis in 2008 Furthermore DC schemes are less favourable to women than DB ones because the pension benefits are closely related to the years of contribution with shorter contribution periods resulting in lower pensions The Notional Defined Contribution (NDC) formulae are less risky for the individual than the DC schemes because the capital accumulated is only notional and the rate of returns is determined by the overall system and the same for all however with these schemes the link between contributions paid and pension benefits is also very tight

42

_________________________________________________________________________


According to recent projections for the 2010-2060 period11 the public pension benefit ratio (the ratio between the average public pension benefit and the economy-wide average wage) will decline in all countries ndash by 19 at the aggregate EU27 level A similar aggregate decline (-18) is expected in the public pensions replacement rate measuring the average first pension as a share of the economy-wide average wage at retirement Only 4 countries (Cyprus Hungary Ireland and the UK) project an increasing public replacement rate and only in a few countries (EE PL SK and SE) will the decline in public replacement rates be partly offset by greater entitlements from 2nd and 3rd pillar schemes In Denmark alone a substantial increase is expected in the total benefit ratio thanks to the contribution of private pension schemes

These reforms have different redistributive effects for women and men and across generations It is in particular women and labour market entrants that are more affected by pension reforms and will have to rely on personal accounts to complement their retirement income

The increasing importance of contribution-based occupational schemes could entail increase in old age poverty according to a recent OECD study12 low earners and those with interrupted careers (mainly women and atypical workers) are going to be much more reliant on basic means-tested or minimum pensions with the risk of a resurgence of old-age poverty due to their lower pension incomes However the redistributive effects of recent pension reforms appears rather different across EU countries13 while the Nordic countries France and the UK have protected low earners from the impact of reforms some Eastern European countries (like Poland and Slovakia) have reduced protection for low earners relative to average earners In the Continental and Southern countries the pension reforms had much the same impact on both low and average earners

Another general effect of pension reforms is the increased individual responsibility for saving decisions and pension rights people have more choices but are also exposed to increasing risks as evidenced by the effects of the financial crisis on private pension schemes This means that individuals have to be clearly informed of the options available and their associated risks and that financial literacy levels are to be improved in order to enable individuals to make informed choices on an increasingly complex issue14

The financial and economic crisis has highlighted and aggravated some of the risks associated with the previous pension reforms in terms of both sustainability and adequacy With the new pension systems benefits are more closely related to developments in the labour and financial markets and to economic growth the adequacy of pension systems being jeopardised (especially for the younger generations and women) when the labour market is unable to guarantee lifelong continuous employment the financial markets are

11 European Commission (2012) ldquoAgeing Reportrdquo Joint Report prepared by the European Commission (DG ECFIN) and the Economic Policy Committee (AWG) provisional version 12 OECD (2011) Pensions at a Glance 2011 Retirement-income systems in OECD and G20 countries httpdxdoiorg101787pension_glance-2011-en 13 A Zaidi (2009) Poverty and Income of older people in OECD countries in Banca drsquoItalia (2009) Pension Reform Fiscal Policy and Economic Perfomance Papers presented at the Banca drsquoItalia workshop Perugia 26-28 March 2009 14 The issue of financial education is becoming increasingly important and recognised by the EU institutions The Commission has taken initiatives to support the exchange of good practices develop a European database on-line tools for teachers and awareness-raising initiatives European Commission (2010) Green Paper- Accompanying document

43

_________________________________________________________________


unable to deliver the expected returns on investments in pension funds and public spending is constrained by increasing deficit and debt lower growth prospects and fiscal consolidation According to the EC Green Paper (2010)15 the crisis

- has increased the fiscal constraints on public spending and reduced growth prospects thus bringing additional pressure to bear on public pension spending and the provision of tax incentives for participation in private schemes

- has negatively affected the return rates and solvency of funded schemes with falling interest rates and asset values16 Even when insurance mechanisms17 and recovery plans have been put in place to compensate workers these are usually less generous than the expected pensions The crisis has thus highlighted the need to introduce more balanced risk sharing mechanisms between scheme members employers or insurance providers

- has demonstrated the importance of adopting effective regulatory frameworks in safeguarding private pensions which define how the risks are shared among providers contributors and recipients

The effects of the crisis differ for the different cohorts of pensioners especially in those countries where pension reforms have been more structural Current pensioners have not been greatly affected by the crisis as only a few Member States (EL PT) have cut public pension payments but it will in particular affect future pensioners who are experiencing long-term unemployment andor reduced working hours The negative effects of the crisis on the asset values of funded schemes also differ for the different cohorts being greater for those close to retirement than for those who still have some way to go and have time to recoup the value lost with the crisis

For these reasons pension reforms subsequent to the crisis will have to focus on finding the right balance between PAYG schemes and funded systems to fill the adequacy gaps in pension income especially for the currently active population and the young generations together with the need to improve the sustainability for public finance of pension spending currently undergoing serious fiscal deterioration as a result of the crisis

In order to address the risks associated with the above-mentioned reforms in relation to pension system adequacy and fairness some countries have recently adopted measures to

Broaden pension coverage supporting the extension of rights easing access to pensions for vulnerable groups and reducing treatment disparities among workers in different sectors andor occupations

15 European Commission (2010) Green Paper - towards adequate sustainable and safe European pension systems SEC(2010) 830 final COM(2010)365 final Brussels

httpeceuropaeusocialBlobServletdocId=5551amplangId=en 16 According to OECD estimates16 private pension funds lost over 20 of their value during 2008 In addition several sponsors of occupational pension funds were compromised in their ability to honour their obligations Even if pension funds were able to recoup some of their losses in 2009 many still remain far off their required solvency levels OECD (2008) ldquoOECD Private Pension Outlook 2008rdquo OECD Paris 17 The EU Directive 200894EC on the protection of employees in the event of insolvency of their employer ensures payment of employeesrsquo outstanding claims in this eventuality It requires Member States to set up an institution to guarantee the payments

httpeur-lexeuropaeuLexUriServLexUriServdouri=CELEX32008L0094ENNOT

44

_________________________________________________________________________


Raise the benefit levels of minimum pension schemes increasing the financial support provided by minimum pensions for poor pensioners In some countries the redistributive role of public schemes has been strengthened to protect low earners from the cuts in benefits deriving from pension reforms (FI FR IT SE UK) Finland France and Sweden for example have protected low earners from the full force of benefit cuts while the United Kingdom has used some of the fiscal room created by higher pension ages to increase benefit levels targeting in particular low-income retirees In contrast Austria and Germany have cut benefits across the board including those for low earners while Hungary Italy Poland and the Slovak Republic have tightened the link between contributions and benefits significantly reducing redistribution

Improve the regulation of private funded pension schemes to support wider risk sharing consumer information and protection and the quality of financial products

The latest pension reforms are outlined in Box 31

Box 31 Latest pension reforms in EU countries

Austria The April 1st 2012 pension reform extends the number of contributory years entitling for the corridor pension and the long term insurance pension from 375 to 40 years restricts access to disability pension by raising eligibility from 57 to 60 years and by strengthening ldquofit2workrdquo ndash an initiative aiming to maintain and improve the employability and the ability to work of citizens abolishes the system of parallel accounting to increase the replacement rate between the old and new law in a budgetary neutral way (enhancing transparency about actual individual pension entitlements) increases the deduction in the case of early retirement from the current 42 to 51 reduce the adjustment of pension benefits to the consumer price index in 2013 and 2014 and raises the maximal ceiling of the contributory base and the contributory rate of farmers and the self -employed Belgium The December 2011 pension reform (which was subject to minor changes up to April 30th 2012) gradually increases the minimum early retirement age and the minimum number of working years required for eligibility from 60 to 62 years and from 35 to 40 years respectively between 2013 and 2016 People with 42 yearsrsquo work behind them will still be eligible for early retirement at 60 (and at 61 with after 41 years of work) In the civil service scheme the pension amount will take into account the earnings over the last 10 years instead of the last 5 years (not applicable to those who had reached the age of 50 by January 1st 2012) For preacutepensions the minimum period of work required will be gradually increased to 40 years The minimum age will remain 60 years in general and be increased to 60 years for specific cases to which a lower age presently applies Pension entitlements for preacutepension before the age of 60 years as well as entitlements for certain periods of unemployment and certain career interruptions will be reduced Bulgaria Legislative changes adopted in December 2011 increase the retirement age as of 2012 instead of 2021 for both genders and all work categories The increase is of 4 months each year until reaching 65 years of age for men in 2017 and 63 years of age for women in 2020 As of 2013 old-age pensions will be indexed according to the CPI As of 2017 the increase in the accrual rate will be applied only to the new pensions and the already granted pensions will not be recalculated Cyprus According to the 2009 reform of the Social Insurance Fund contribution rates will increase by 13 pp between 2009 and 2039 in 5-year intervals contribution periods for old-age pension eligibility increased with the minimum contributory period from 3 to 10 years a 6-year ceiling on educationtraining credits granted in the contributory system was introduced access to unemployment benefits for beneficiaries of occupational pensions has been restricted periodic actuarial review of pension system has been introduced A package of consolidation measures was announced in August 2011 including a permanent contribution of 3 on gross earnings of public sector employees for public pensions - as of 01102011 newcomers in the civil service are only included in the Social Insurance Fund (not in the occupational pensions scheme) - as of 01102011 an increase in the rate of contribution to the Widows and Orphans Fund by 125 pp to 2 on gross earnings ndash as of 01102011 The Czech Republic in November 2011 a reform to introduce a 2nd pillar as of 112013 was approved However due to the current consolidation efforts the implementation of the reform could be postponed The new system is based on an opt-out principle workers may decide to lower their contribution to the PAYG system by 3 pp and transfer these contributions to the 2nd pillar with the

45

_________________________________________________________________


addition of 2 pp of gross wage As a consequence the contribution rate to the 1st pillar would become 25 (instead of 28) and the contribution rate to the 2nd pillar would be 5 (hence 30 in total) People aged 35 and older can decide to opt-in until the 1st of July 2013 The under 35-yearshyolds have decide by the end of the calendar year in which the age of 35 is reached Denmark The reform agreed in May 2011 accelerates the retirement age increase specified in the 2006 Welfare Agreement The voluntary early retirement age (VERP) will be increased from 60 to 62 years as from 2014-2017 (formerly 2019-2022) while the public old-age pension age will be increased from 65 to 67 years in 2019-2022 (formerly 2024-2027) VERP is reduced from 5 to 3 years from 2018- 2023 The basic figure for VERP is increased while private pension wealth reduces the VERP figure below the current level () Furthermore the automatic possibility for beneficiaries of the unemployment insurance scheme to access early retirement is cancelled A new senior disability pension is introduced as an administrative fast track into the disability pension for persons 5 years before the statutory retirement age Estonia The main measures implemented during 2009-2011 were ad hoc changes in the indexation rule of pensions which smoothed the value of nominal pensions and a temporary suspension of the transfers to the funded pension system in the second half of 2009 and in 2010 These transfers were partially resumed in 2011 and fully from 2012 with a compensation mechanism to be implemented during 2014-2017 The pension age will be raised to 65 during 2017-2026 In the compulsory funded pension scheme the crisis has resulted in stricter control and clearer rules over the management of the funds and more flexibility for employees and employers Germany An increase in pensionable age from 65 to 67 between 2012 and 2029 was enacted in 2007 The reduction of the public pension benefit level is to be compensated for by capital-funded pensions In order to prevent old age poverty from growing a new pension supplement (Zuschussrente) is now under discussion In addition an extension of coverage in social pension insurance for self-employed people who are not members of a mandatory pension scheme is discussed Greece According to the auxiliary pension reform legislated in March 2012 many of the larger auxiliary pension funds are merged into one and the old Defined Benefit system is turned into a balanced Notional Defined Contribution system precluding any kind of fund transfer from the National Budget In addition more pension funds can be added in the future on contributorsrsquo request

social partners agreed in 2009 to raise the effective retirement age to at least age 624 by 2025 Finland pension benefits were linked to a life expectancy coefficient in 2009 The Government and

France The retirement age increase specified in the November 2010 pension reform is accelerated Retirement ages for both men and women will increase by 5 months per generation instead of the 4 months initially determined from age 60 to 62 (legal retirement) and from age 65 to 67 (full rate retirement) The new age limits will be reached for the 1955 generation instead of the 1956 generation a year earlier than scheduled with the 2010 law Hungary To increase the average retirement age from January 2012 early retirement schemes are gradually eliminated by either phasing out several forms of entitlements or by transformation into non-pension benefits From January 2012 pensions are indexed only to inflation Ireland Since the National Pensions Framework of March 2010 legislation has been brought in to raise the State Pension retirement age to 66 in 2014 67 in 2021 and 68 in 2028 Moreover tax-free pension lump sums have been capped at euro200000 From 2011 Social Insurance and Universal Social Charge no longer attract relief on pension contributions New pension arrangements for new public servants base full pension on career average earnings rather than final salary and a series of measures ease funding pressures on DB schemes such as changing priority of payment in the event of wind-up establishment of a Pensions Insolvency Payment Scheme and changes to the funding standard Italy During 2011 three legislative interventions have modified the pension framework The last one (Dec 2011) drastically reduced the transition period and anticipated the shift to the contribution based system for all pension schemes raised retirement ages (especially for women) and introduced flexibility in retirement age As from Jan 1st 2012 the retirement age has been raised to 66 for male employees to age 62 for female employees in the private sector age 63 and 6 months for female self-employed and 65 for public workers It will gradually increase to age 66 by 2018 when it will be the same for men and women The retirement age will then rise according to actual increases in life expectancy Starting in 2021 no workers will be able to retire before the age of 67 The seniority system which in the past facilitated early retirement will be phased out by 2018 The new minimum contribution for early retirement rises to 42 years and one month in 2012 increasing to 42 years and six months beginning in 2014 for men 41 years and one month in 2012 increasing to 41 years and six months beginning in 2014 for women A reduction of the total pension benefit will be applied for each year before the minimum retirement age is reached The reforms also accelerate and

46

_________________________________________________________________________


broaden the use of contribution-based accounting for pension benefits from January 2012 all pensions are calculated pro-rata on a Notional Defined Contribution (NDC) based method rather than earnings-based More flexible retirement options are introduced between the ages of 62 and 70 Those who choose to leave the work force earlier will receive smaller benefits while those who work longer will receive larger ones In addition pensions will be frozen for the next two years except for index-linked increases to the two lowest brackets below euro936 a month However minimum pensionsshy-of less than EUR500 a month--will still rise with the inflation index while those up to twice that amount will partially do so as well The value of the pension will be lower than under the previous system making top-upsupplementary pension plans more important Latvia Since July 2008 the Latvian authorities have frozen indexation in 2009 until 31st December 2013 and reduced contribution rates to the mandatory funded pension scheme to 2 in 2009-2011 while in 2013 and subsequent years it will fall from 10 to 6 Changes to pension age are to be brought in providing for an increase starting from 2016 by 6 months per year up to 65 years in 2021 Lithuania The 2011 reform raises the retirement age to 65 for both men and women by 2026 Social insurance contributions to the mandatory funded pension scheme have been reduced from 55 to 2 with the possibility of increasing them again after the crisis upon the decision of the Government Luxembourg The National Reform Programme outlines the main features of a draft reform The right to increased pension benefits will be more restricted Beneficiaries must have reached the age of 60 (instead of 55) and be able to prove 40 years (instead of 38) of pension contributions Malta The 2006 reform increased pensionable age to 65 for women and men by 2026 with a lengthening of the contribution period It changed the calculation of pensionable income from the best three years out of the last 10 years to the best ten years from the last 40 years In addition a Guaranteed National Minimum Pension payable at a rate of no less than 60 of the Median Income was introduced for those born after the 1st January 1962 Following the 2006 reform the Maximum Pensionable Income for persons born after 1st January 1962 will follow a more dynamic path with indexation of 70 to Wage Growth and 30 to Inflation In 2007 the medical review for invalidity pensions was made more rigorous and following the 2008 Budget pensioners were allowed to continue working without any reduction in the pension whilst paying social security contributions A Pension Working Group made recommendations including introducing a link between pension age and life expectancy assessing further the introduction of a notional defined contribution 1st pillar by 2013 as well as the introduction of 2nd and 3rd pension pillars Poland Bridging pensions have been implemented as from 2009 to replace and limit access to early retirement provision for some categories of workers who started work in special conditions before 1999 The contribution to the DC scheme has been reduced from 73 to 23 of gross wages in 2011 The difference has been diverted to the PAYG scheme The contribution will gradually increase to reach 35 by 2017 and thereafter The newly re-elected Government has proposed to raise the current 6560 (MW) pension ages to 67 between 2013 and 2020 (for men) and 2040 (for women) Portugal the 2007 pension reform increased retirement age to 65 years extended the assessment period to cover the entire employment career dissuaded early retirement reduced the transition period introduced a sustainability factor that automatically adjusts benefits to changes in the remaining life-expectancy-at-65-years Romania the Dec 2010 pension reform integrates special schemes into the social insurance system introduces a mechanism for recalculating the special pensions and raises the retirement age to 65 years for men and 63 years for women by 2030 Early retirement is more strictly regulated while disability pensions are granted under more severe conditions Moreover the government has suspended legal provisions that would have seen contributions to the mandatory DC scheme rise from 2 to 25 of employeesrsquo gross wages in 2009 The scheduled increase was resumed in 2010 so that ultimately the contribution rate should reach 6 of wage some time in the future Slovakia allowed workers to opt out of the funded scheme and return to the PAYG scheme in 2008 and the DC scheme has become optional for all new entrants to the labour market A 2010 legislative change stipulates the lack of income from work as a basis for entitlement to an early retirement pension In 2011 changes to the fully-funded pension pillar were passed enabling savers to regain the possibility to invest in more risky securities and thus potentially attain higher returns Moreover mandatory participation of young people will be reintroduced as of 01042012 as a default option with the possibility to leave the scheme in the first two years of saving

men) was rejected in a referendum in 2011 Slovenia the proposed pension reform (including the equalisation of pension ages for women and

Spain The 20102011 pension reform increased the pensionable age from 65 to 67 (gradually between 2013 and 2027) increased the length of contribution period for a full pension benefit from 35 to 37 years increased early retirement age to 63 from 61 (but with the possibility to retire at 61

47

_________________________________________________________________


retained during the economic crisis for those with at least 33 years of contributions) increased penalisation for early retirement extended the period of contributions taken into calculation of base pension from 15 to 25 in 2022 introduced a sustainability factor from 2027 with cyclical revisions every 5 years and introduced longer periods for childcare crediting reduced the fragmentation of the overall system (agricultural and domestic workers schemes were integrated into the general scheme) On 28th October 2011 the Government approved the Global Employment Strategy for Older Workers 2012-2014 to complement the reform of the pension system Sweden In 2010 the automatic balancing mechanism in the adjustment system of pension income has been smoothened it is now based on a rolling average of 3 years instead of 1 year as previously so as to avoid sharp changes in pensions in the eventuality of an economic downturnupturn The Netherlands The retirement age for the state pension AOW will be increased from 65 to 66 in 2020 and linked to life expectancy after that date Further increases in the retirement age will be announced 11 years before they are implemented This procedure will take place by the end of each period of five calendar years and for the first time on January 1st 2014 Based on current projections on rising life expectancy it is expected that in 2014 an increase to 67 in 2025 will be announced An increase of the retirement age to 68 will according to current estimates be announced in 2024 and take place in 2035 Within the 2060 time horizon of the AWG pension projections a fourth step to the age of 69 is envisaged in 2050 Moreover the increase in the eligibility age for occupational pensions will also be linked to life expectancy using the same formula as used for the first pillar pensions UK Access to the basic state pension has been improved in recent years its uprating has been enhanced and workers are to be automatically enrolled in occupational schemes (with a possibility to opt-out) from 2012 Legislation is in place to increase the State pension age to 68 from 65 in stages from 2020 to 2046 Following new legislation which came into effect in January 2012 the State pension age is now being equalised for both genders by 2018 (previously 2020) and this also brought forward the timing of the increase in the state pension age from 65 ndash 66 by 5 frac12 years beginning in 2018 Proposals to speed up the subsequent increase from age 66 to 67 have been announced (pending legislation) and options to speed up the increase from 67 to 68 are under discussion Source EC (2012) ldquoAgeing Reportrdquo pg 97-98 for Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech Republic Denmark Greece France Hungary and The Netherlands EC (2012) ldquoAn Agenda for Adequate Safe and Sustainable Pensionsrdquo pg 23-40 for all other countries except Italy

32 Gender effects of pension reforms and women living alone

The pension systems of the EU27 MSs are usually deemed gender-neutral since most rules are the same for men and women The gender neutrality of the rules results however in pension systems that reproduce (or even reinforce in the case of contribution defined schemes) existing gender inequalities in the labour market and in the division of roles within households producing gender differences in pension income Indeed the literature on gender effects of pension systems shows that womenrsquos retirement decisions crucially depend on their discontinuous working lives and on their key role within the family (Ginn 2003) Boeri and Brugiavini (2008) considering the effects of pension reforms on the planned retirement age of women find that women are less responsive than men to changes in pension policies since they have binding constraints due to gaps in their contributory history The discontinuity in womenrsquos careers and their role within the family also play an important role in determining the gender bias induced by minimum pensions

These negative effects for women are often (at least partially) offset with care pension credits (which however do not apply to single women without children or dependants) minimum pensions and unisex tariffs as well as derived pension rights in cases of marriage or divorce and for survivors (which apply to elderly women living alone without dependants but not to single women) Furthermore recent pension reforms affect the incentives to labour market participation for women of working age

Women living alone are more likely to be penalized relative to other women and men by the stricter proportionality of pension benefits to previous earnings and contributions due

48

_________________________________________________________________________


to the lack of other sources of income in the household and their weaker labour market conditions As pointed out in the previous chapter older women and especially those living alone continue to experience higher poverty risks than their male counterparts Among the poorer pensioners single women are to be considered most at risk of poverty because they cannot count on survivor pensions or the income of the partner

As shown in Table 31a in 2010 the un-weighted EU27 average of the median equivalised net income of the retired female population18 was lower than that of the corresponding male population (being 91 of the male pensionersrsquo net income) and declining relative to 2005 (when it was 928) even if gender differences are slightly smaller for the retired population than for the overall population while in Malta and Spain retired women even earn more than men probably due to the possibility to integrate the widowsrsquo pension with the personal old-age or contributory pension The wider gaps are to be found in the Baltic countries Slovenia Sweden and Finland the latter two countries presenting however relatively high pension incomes both for men and women Between 2005 and 2010 the median equivalised net income of the retired increased more for men (+15) than for women (+13) with considerable differences across countries

The aggregate replacement ratio at retirement 19(table 31b) is an indicator of income maintenance after retirement It shows that the EU27 un-weighted average of pension income reached in 2010 was 56 of current earnings for men relative to 52 for women Bulgaria and Slovenia showed the lowest replacement rates for women in 2010 while the highest are reported for Luxemburg France and Estonia Again the improvement in female replacement rates between 2005 and 2010 was lower than the male rate Gender and country differences ldquocan be due to low coverage andor low income replacement from statutory pension schemes but can also reflect maturing pension systems and incomplete careers or under-declaration of earnings in the pastrdquo20

The main reason for gender differences in retirement income and replacement rates is due to the combined effect of derived pension rights and minimum pensions the only source of income for many retired women living alone The worsening of retired womenrsquos income conditions relative to the menrsquos in the period considered must have to do with the greater negative impact that recent pension reforms have had on women According to many European and national studies21 the recent trends in pension reforms and especially the

18 The relative median income ratio is defined as the ratio of the median equivalised disposable income of people aged above 65 to the median equivalised disposable income of those aged below 65 The equivalised disposable income is the total income of a household after tax and other deductions that is available for spending or saving divided by the number of household members converted into equalised adults It is used for the calculation of poverty and social exclusion

httpeppeurostateceuropaeustatistics_explainedindexphpGlossaryRelative_median_income_ratio 19 The aggregate replacement ratio is the ratio of median personal (non-equivalised) income from pensions of persons aged 65-74 years to median personal (non-equivalised) income from work of persons aged 50-59 years Only persons who have spent the total reported time in the relevant activity status are considered EU aggregates are Eurostat estimates obtained as a population-size-weighted average of national values 20 European Commission (2010) Joint Report on Pensions - Progress and key challenges in the delivery of adequate and sustainable pensions in Europe httpeceuropaeueconomy_financepublicationsoccasional_paper2010pdfocp71_enpdf 21 Samek Lodovici MCrepaldi CCorsi M (2011) The socio-economic impact of pension systems on the respective situations of women and men and the effects of recent trends in pension reforms EGGSI Synthesis Report httpeceuropaeujusticegender-equalityfilesequal_economic_independencepensions_report_enpdf

49

_________________________________________________________________

MEMBER STATES RATIO OF WOMENrsquoS INCOME TO MENrsquoS RATIO OF RETIRED WOMENrsquoS INCOME TO MENrsquoS

MEMBER STATES MEN WOMEN 2005 2010 2005 2010


closer link between benefits and lifetime contributions and the shift to diversified multi-pillar schemes have slowed down the narrowing of gender gaps in pensions that had come under way

Table 31a Ratio of women median equivalised income (of total female population and retired women) over menrsquos income 2010

EU27 89 91 BE 93 96 BG 87 88 CZ 93a 94a

DK 94 95 DE 96 96 EE 86 85 IE 95 97 GR 92 91 ES 95 109 FR 87 88 IT 90 96 CY 94 100 LV 86a 86a

LT 86 85 LU 97 100 HU 93 93 MT 98 114 NL 95 95 AT 90 92 PL 85 85 PT 89 88 RO 86a 87a

SI 83a 83a

SK 94 95 FI 85a 85a

SE 82 84 UK 90 92

Notes a 2011 instead of 2010 Source Eurostat data on Living condition and social protection (EU-SILC)

Table 31b Aggregate replacement ratio of income from pensions of persons aged 65-74 and income from work of persons aged between 50-59 2005 and 2010

EU27 054 056 051 052 BE 045 046 047 047 BG 064 051 059 04 CZ 049 052 058 055 DK 032 042 039 046 DE 047 049 051 052 EE 04 047 054 06 IE 04 046 051 054 GR 056 048 047 044 ES 062 061 06 047 FR 062 071 052 06 IT 064 058 049 044 CY 034 04 034 041 LV 052 045 07 05 LT 05 062 044 059 LU 058 065 058 074 HU 06 061 064 06 MT 049 045 039 045 NL 048 053 052 049 AT 069 068 067 059 PL 066 064 057 055 PT 058 057 064 055 RO 068 058 SI 052 051 038 042 SK 053 059 056 059 FI 046 051 046 049 SE 062 065 056 056 UK 042 047 043 047

Notes a Break in series Source Eurostat data on Living condition and social protection (EU-SILC)

321 The closer link between contributions and benefits

The move to defined contribution schemes the introduction of actuarial insurance principles the changes in the indexation mechanisms for pension benefits and the increase in minimum contribution years have made the link between contributions and benefits much more stringent than in the past with significant differences in the effects on women and men both in relation to expected income in old age and to changes in incentives to labour market participation

Horstmann S Huumlllsman J(2009) The Socio-Economic Impact of Pension Systems on Women Gesellschaft fuer Versicherungswissenschaft und ndash Gestaltung (GVG) European Commission Directorate-General for Employment Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities httpeceuropaeusocialBlobServletdocId=5001amplangId=en

50

_________________________________________________________________________


Actuarially fair insurance systems like those envisaged in contribution based systems compare an individualrsquos lifetime contributions with the individualrsquos expected life-time benefits According to this principle life expectancy automatic adjustment mechanisms have been introduced in Denmark France and Italy for pension eligibility and for the calculation of replacement rates in mandatory Defined Contribution schemes (in BG EE LV LT HU PO RO) and in Notional Defined Contribution schemes (in DE FI IT LV PO PT SE) 22

Since the life expectancy of women is longer than that of men actuarially fair insurance means that women must have either higher contribution rates or lower pension benefits than men Furthermore greater female longevity exposes elderly women to greater risk of poverty because of the expected longer period of living alone than in the case of men and more prolonged erosion of the real value of their annuities

On the other hand in the long run these changes could stimulate greater participation by women in the regular labour market and reduce incentives to retire early23 Bearing in mind the current wide gender pay gap and segregation in the labour market as well as the higher incidence of part-time temporary and irregular employment among women relative to men it is evident that these schemes reduce gender equality in pension benefits unless specific measures are taken to support womenrsquos employment even in older ages and reconciliation between family and market work

The situation is highly differentiated among the EU countries Little or no link between pension entitlements and pre-retirement earnings is in place in Ireland and the United Kingdom (which provide however very low pension incomes) or in Denmark24 On the other hand in Austria the Baltic countries Bulgaria the Czech Republic Hungary Italy Portugal and the Slovak Republic the link between pension entitlements and preshyretirement earnings is very close The schemes prevalent in Continental Southern and Eastern European countries that are in general particularly less favourable to women due to the tight link with employment careers they imply

22 The way DC and NDC schemes are calculated may have significant effects on gender differences in pension income when based on sex differentiated tariffs given the differences in life expectancy at the age of retirement between men and women these schemes will determine higher contribution rates or lower pensions for women 23 Horstmann SHuumlllsman J (2009) The Socio-Economic Impact of Pension Systems on Women Gesellschaft fuumlr Versicherungswissenschaft und ndash Gestaltung (GVG) European Commission Directorate-General for Employment Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities

httpeceuropaeusocialBlobServletdocId=5001amplangId=en 24 OECD (2011) Pensions at a Glance 2011 Retirement-income systems in OECD and G20 countries httpdxdoiorg101787pension_glance-2011-en

51

_________________________________________________________________


Studies on the gender impact of pension reforms in Eastern European countries25 show in fact that the closer link between contributions and pension benefits introduced by the reforms entail greater pension benefit losses for women than for men because of persistent gender inequalities in labour market participation and unequal division of caring roles The simulations provided in the Horstmann S- Huumlllsman J (2009) study for the 2008-2050 period in five European countries (Estonia Germany Italy Poland and the UK) confirm the importance of supporting longer employment careers and wages for women to reduce gender gaps in pension income The position of women is also greatly improved with child care pension credits

The formulae adopted for the calculation of pension benefits could also increase gender inequalities in the labour market Significant gender effects are in fact associated with

unisex vs sex defined tariffs in life expectancy adjustment mechanisms

weighting criteria for contributory years

criteria for the indexation of benefits

A substantial redistributive mechanism between the sexes is to be seen in the configuration of tariffs used to calculate the incidence of life expectancy in benefit formulae

To the extent that womenrsquos life expectancy in old age is longer than menrsquos in Defined Contribution schemes with sex differentiated tariffs women will either receive lower benefits even if they have paid the same contributions as men or in order to have the same benefits as men they would have to pay contributions either higher or over longer periods It must also be considered that higher contribution rates for women may discourage employers from hiring women On the other hand unisex tariffs are favourable to women redistributing pension benefits from men to women

25 Horstmann SHuumlllsman J (2009) The Socio-Economic Impact of Pension Systems on Women Gesellschaft fuumlr Versicherungswissenschaft und ndash Gestaltung (GVG) European Commission Directorate-General for Employment Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities

httpeceuropaeusocialBlobServletdocId=5001amplangId=en Fultz ERuck MSteinhilber S (2003) The Gender Dimension of Social Security Reforms in Central and Eastern Europe Case Studies of The Czech Republic Hungary and Poland ILO Subregional Office for Central and Eastern Europe Budapest

Fultz Elaine (2006) The Gender Dimensions of Social Security Reform Volume 2 Case Studies of Romania and Slovenia ILO Subregional Office for Central and Eastern Europe Budapest Steinhilber S (2004) The Gender Implications of Pension Reforms General remarks and evidence from selected countries Draft paper prepared for the UNRISD report ldquoGender equality Striving for justice in an unequal world

httpwwwunrisdorg80256B3C005BCCF928httpPublications2952DBB0B27C54635CC12570350048ED4EO penDocument Staringhlberg A-CCohen Birman MKruse ASunden A (2006) Pension Reforms and Gender Analyses of Developed and Developing Countries in Gender and Social Security Reform The case of Sweden International Social Security Series Volume 11 Balcerzak-Paradowska B et al (2003) The Gender Dimensions of Social Security Reform in Poland in Fultz Elaine Martin Ruck und Silke Steinhilber (eds) The Gender Dimension of Social Security Reforms in Central and Eastern Europe Case Studies of The Czech Republic Hungary and Poland ILO Subregional Office for Central and Eastern Europe Budapest Muumlller K (2006) CEE Pension reforms in comparative perspective A discussion of reform paths and their gender implications Presentation at the International Conference ldquoWelfare States in Central and Eastern Europe Social Policy and Gender in Transformationrdquo Hattingen 4-6 October 2006

52

_________________________________________________________________________


Gender differentiated tariffs are more common in private schemes26 while in almost all countries unisex tariffs are usually adopted in statutory public schemes to reduce gender differences in pension income

Equity would require that women and men with comparable employment histories should receive an equal monthly benefit27 and gender-neutral annuity rates should be applied in order to guarantee equal remuneration for equal contribution28 In fact studies conducted in Sweden show that the distributional effects of unisex tariffs are greater than those deriving from care pension credits29 and benefit a larger group of women (including women with no dependants) Thus a unisex tariff would better compensate for the disadvantaged situation of women in the labour market However according to some other experts30 unisex tariffs are not the most effective instrument to achieve social goals because they redistribute from men (both high and low income) to women (both high and low income) and create distortions in the insurance market

Pension reforms have also extended the minimum contributory years necessary to be eligible to pension entitlements and tightened the link between contributory years and pension benefits In particular pension payments have been linked to lifetime earnings rather than the last or best years

The increase in minimum contribution years has different gender effects depending on gender differences in the career and wage profiles and on employment patterns Indeed the increase in minimum contributory years could exclude from benefit claims people with interrupted employment careers and shorter insurance periods among whom women are overrepresented as they are more likely to hold part-time jobs and take career breaks due to family responsibilities

Reforms linking pension benefits to lifetime earnings have opposite effects on men and women on the one hand they proportionally penalise men more as on average they enjoy more advancement in their careers than women on the other hand women may suffer greater reductions in benefits when lifelong earnings are considered since they exhibit more irregular and interrupted career patterns In order to reduce the possible penalisation of women (and men) with interrupted working careers in some countries compensatory

26 This practice is allowed under the Directive 2004113 on equal treatment between men and women due to the fact that as women live longer and at the end they receive more monthly payments than men The March 2011 ruling by the ECJ on the Test-Achats case (Court of Justice of the European Union Press Release No 1211 Luxembourg 1 March 2011 Judgment in Case C-23609 Association belge des Consommateurs Test-Achats ASBL and Conseil des ministres) has however challenged this approach stating that permanent sex differentiated premiums are discriminatory This ruling has fuelled the debate on unisex vs sex differentiated tariff in pension systems (and especially in occupational schemes) For discussion of this issue see Mabbett Deborah (2011) A Rights Revolution in Europe Regulatory and judicial approaches to nondiscrimination in insurancerdquo Birkbeck University of London

httpwwwbbkacukpoliticsour-staffacademicdeborah-mabbettRightsrevolutioninEppdf See also the European Parliament study on ldquoThe use of gender in insurance pricingrdquo available at httpwwweuroparleuropaeucommitteesenstudiesdownloadhtmllanguageDocument=ENampfile=60175 27 Muumlller K (2006) CEE Pension reforms in comparative perspective A discussion of reform paths and their gender implications Presentation at the International Conference ldquoWelfare States in Central and Eastern Europe Social Policy and Gender in Transformationrdquo Hattingen 4-6 October 2006 28 Zaidi A (2007) Challenges in Guaranteeing Adequate Pension Incomes for Women European Centre Policy Brief March httpwwweurocentreorgdata1175071450_4527pdf 29

Anita Nyberg (2011) The socio-economic impact of pension systems on the respective situations of women and men and the effects of recent trends in pension reforms EGGSI National report Sweden mimeo 30 James ECox Edwards A Wong R (2003) The Impact of Social security Reform on women in three countries NCPA Policy Report No 264 httpwwwncpaorgpdfsst264pdf

53

_________________________________________________________________


measures have been introduced such as credits for non-contributory periods for care responsibilities or unemployment or measures to improve access for part-time and atypical workers or measures to upgrade insured income for low wage earners (as in BE)

The indexation of benefits is also a relevant feature in the gender perspective The move in the indexation of benefits from wage to price inflation or to other sustainability indexes can negatively impact retired women more than men because of their longer life expectancy

322 Increase and equalization in retirement age

In all Member States recent pension reforms have extended working lives by increasing statutory retirement age equalising the retirement age of women to that of men reducing access to early retirement or allowing for greater flexibility in the choice of retirement age These changes are very relevant for gender equality although whether higher retirement age favours women or not remains controversial

All the countries have extended more or less gradually the statutory female retirement age to equal that of men so that the heavier burden of adjustment is placed on women especially those of the younger generations The increase in statutory retirement age has been particularly high in Eastern European countries which used to have very low retirement ages for women in the socialist period In order to reduce the penalisation of women and other care providers in most countries pension credits for care periods have been introduced andor extended

In some countries increased retirement age has been accompanied by flexible retirement windows and part-time pensions as well as active ageing policies The latter measures appear particularly relevant in reducing gender differences in income in old age even if they have been implemented with little attention to gender differences (see chapter 4)

Table 32 presents the effective and statutory retirement age in 2010 and the expected increases in 2020 and 2060 according to recent reforms As shown in the table in 2010 in 13 out of the EU27 MSs women still have lower statutory retirement ages than men even if the effective exit age from the labour market is usually lower than the statutory retirement age and differs little between men and women

Consequent to the current reforms until 2020 gender differences in retirement age will remain only in 8 countries (Austria Bulgaria Croatia Czech Republic Lithuania Poland Romania and Slovenia) After 2020 only in three EU Member States (BG PO and RO) will the retirement age of women remain lower than that of men

In the future regulation of statutory retirement age is likely to become less relevant as with contribution-based schemes individuals will be induced to retire later to increase pension benefits In some countries encouragement to increase the effective retirement age is indeed provided by the financial incentives introducing partial or full actuarial adjustments of the amount of pension income received by individuals proportionally with their contributory years and residual life expectancy31

31 Actuarial corrections have recently been introduced in Austria France Finland Spain Portugal the Netherlands and Italy while similar provisions are already in place in Germany Belgium Luxemburg Hungary the Baltic countries Poland Slovakia Slovenia and Sweden Corsi MSamek Lodovici MBotti FDrsquoIppoliti C (2011) Active ageing and gender equality The employment and social inclusion of women and men of late working and early retirement age Final Synthesis Report European Commission

54

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________


Table 32 Gender differences in life-expectancy effective and statutory retirement age in Member States

LIFE EXPECTANCY AT AGE 65 (2010)i

LABOUR MARKET EXIT AGE (2010)ii

LABOUR MARKET EXIT AGE (2020)iii


STUATUATORY RETIREMENT AGE

(2010)iii

STATUATORY RETIREMENT AGE

(2020)iii


(2060)iii MEMBER STATES

W M W M W M W M W M W M W M BE 213 176 619c 612c 615 614 615 614 65 65 65 65 65 65 BG 17 136 641d 641d 612 630 621 642 60 63 60 63 63 65 CZ 19 155 596 614 609 631 646 651 58y8m 62y2m 61y8m 63y8m 68+ 68+ DK 197 17 614a 632a 628 642 651 654 65 65 65 65 68+ 68+ DE 209 178 627 622 643 649 649 651 65 65 65y9m 65y9m 67 67 EE 194 142 626f 626f 643 639 646 647 61 63 63y9m 63y9m 65 65 IE 211 181 647d 635d 657 644 657 644 66 66 66 66 68 68 GR 204 185 616a 613a 627 627 638 639 60 65 65 65 68+ 68+ ES 227 186 628 618 651 641 655 650 65 65 658 658 67 67 FR 234 189 601 604 621 621 627 627 60-65 60-65 62-67 62-67 62-67 62-67 IT 60 608 649 654 667 668 60y4m 65y4m 66y11m 66y11m 68+ 68+ CY 209a 181a 628e 628e 635 650 635 650 65 65 65 65 65 65 LV 182 133 627fb 627fb 631 636 631 636 62 62 62 62 62 62 LT 184 135 599fd 599fd 627 637 636 640 60 625 63 64 65 65 LU 216 173 57e 581e 605 595 604 595 65 65 65 65 65 65 HU 182 141 587a 601a 625 628 629 632 62 62 65 65 65 65 MT 211 184 603f 603f 617 628 626 638 60 61 63 63 65 65 NL 21 177 631a 639a 622 639 622 639 65 65 65 65 65 65 AT 214 179 594c 626c 612 624 623 625 60 65 60 65 65 65 PL 195 151 575c 614c 603 636 607 640 60 65 60 65 60 65 PT 206 171 623c 629c 644 643 646 647 65 65 65 65 65 65 RO 172 14 632d 655d 612 632 620 632 59 64 61 65 63 65 SI 21 168 598fd 598fd 620 631 631 631 61 63 61 63 61 63 SK 18 14 575a 604a 612 615 612 615 579 62 617 62 62 62 FI 215 175 611a 623a 637 636 637 636 63-68 63-68 63-68 63-68 63-68 63-68 SE 212 183 637 65 641 651 641 651 61-67 61-67 61-67 61-67 61-67 61-67 UK 209 183 62a 641a 639 643 653 653 60 65 66 66 68 68 NO 212 18 633a 63a 641 646 641 646 67 67 67 67 67 67 Source (i) Eurostat Demographic statistics data (ii) Eurostat Sustainable development indicators (iii) European Commission (2012) ldquoAgeing Reportrdquo pg 99 Notes (a) 2009 instead of 2010 (b) 2008 instead of 2010 (c) 2007 instead of 2010 (d) 2006 instead of 2010 (e) 2003 instead of 2010 (f) average labour market exit age (WM breakdown not available)

55

_________________________________________________________________


Whether higher retirement age favours women or not is however as we have seen a controversial issue

Arguments against the increase in retirement age for women32 are based on the assertion that women contribute to unpaid family work both for children and increasingly for the elderly and should be compensated for this by earlier access to the pension system

In favour of increasing retirement age for women are those who hold that equalising menrsquos and womenrsquos retirement age conveys a cultural message of gender equality and reduces the financial incentives for families to have women stay at home33 Furthermore it is argued that as recent pension reforms tighten the link between contributions and benefits a low retirement age will lead to low pension claims and put women at greater risk of poverty given their short contributory years Postponing retirement would then contribute to the adequacy of womenrsquos pension entitlements in old age improve the long-run sustainability of pension systems and stimulate increases in the labour supply of women

Raising the retirement age could also be an incentive for women to stay longer in the formal labour market However for this to come about the appropriate employment policies and care services must be provided otherwise the higher retirement age will only result in later access to the pension system and lower pension payments for women than for men

The second stream of reforms aiming at extending menrsquos and womenrsquos working lives is the gradual abolition of most options for early retirement (ie before the official statutory retirement age) The effective exit age from the labour market is in fact usually lower than statutory retirement age due mainly to the early retirement provisions and does not differ greatly between men and women as shown in Table 32 In many countries this apparently gender neutral measure in practice involves a significant gender imbalance Generally male early retirement is associated with full completion of the obligatory working years or with generous early retirement incentives while for women it is usually related to career interruptions motivated by family care needs especially when legislation provides for a minimum pension For these reasons women retiring early are more likely to be at risk of poverty than men since their benefits are lower than those of a full-life worker and when living alone cannot depend on the income of a lsquobreadwinnerrsquo partner

Country-specific institutions and regulations determine the diffusion and gender impact of early retirement schemes34 For example men are frequently over-represented among early pensioners (eg BE FR) as a consequence of early retirement being frequently related to long records of past contributions advantaging men and depending on sector-specific collective labour agreements (as in BE) or sector-specific favourable regulations (as in RO) in practice favouring male-dominated occupations Early retirement has been allowed in some Member States for workers employed in physically demanding jobs or in jobs with difficult working conditions in many countries it has long been an option in the public sector (where women are largely employed) in others (as PT and I) it is allowed for

32 See for example Ginn J (2003) Gender Pensions and the Life Course ndash How Pensions Need to Adapt to Changing Family Forms Bristol 33 See Corsi M and DrsquoIppoliti C (2009) Poor Old Grandmas On Gender and Pension Reforms in Italy Brussels Economic Review - Cahiers Economiques De Bruxelles vol 52 n 1 34 European Commission (2010) 2009 Ageing Report Economic and budgetary projections for the EU-27 Member States (2008-2060) European Economy 2|2009 Luxembourg httpeceuropaeueconomy_financepublicationspublication14992_enpdf

56

_________________________________________________________________________


older unemployed people These options are no longer available in many countries where the contributory years required to early retire have been increased

Another way introduced to support longer working lives is part-time pensions Many countries (especially Nordic and Eastern European) have introduced the possibility to cumulate pension income and part-time work in the final stages of the working career These schemes create more favourable conditions for the employment of persons of retirement age and are particularly relevant for women they allow a reduction of the work load especially in those sectors with heavy working conditions (such as shift work in the care sector) and they entail the possibility to increase the period of contributions and guarantee higher future pensions benefits

Particularly interesting are the provisions available in countries with flexible retirement age (NO and SE) andor part-time retirement (as in the UK) because they allow a greater flexibility in individual decisions and give women the possibility to work longer if they need to increase their pension income

323 The move toward multi-pillar systems

In order to restore the (future) adequacy of benefits levels curtailed by the reduction of the role of the public pensions schemes private provision for retirement income (both occupational and individual schemes) has been encouraged in most European countries This diversification of retirement schemes is however likely to increase pension income inequalities between those who are on occupational schemes andor can afford individual retirement savings and those who do not qualify for these schemes and must rely solely upon either an old-age minimum or a contributory public minimum pensions

A 2007 study35 shows that the downsizing of the role of public schemes over the last decade in most of the European countries will affect women to a larger extent than men Comparing pension reforms in the Netherlands and Denmark and their gender impact another study36 concludes that a shift from public schemes to occupational pensions in those countries has had a negative impact on womenrsquos pensions

Women are overrepresented in public schemes in most countries especially in minimum pension schemes while they are far less covered by occupational schemes than are men due to gender differences in the labour market with men more likely to be employed in occupations and sectors providing occupational pension schemes andor likely to be able to access individual schemes Furthermore individual and occupational pension schemes are more directly linked to employment and wealth accumulation and are usually based on actuarial fairness thus penalizing women with sex-differentiated tariffs37

Vesting conditions are also relevant for atypical workers frequently changing jobs (a category in which women are over-represented) as they may have difficulties in meeting

35 Frericks P Maier R (2007) The gender pension gap effects of norms and reform Policies In Kohli MArza C (2007) The political Economy of pensions Politics Policy Models and Outcomes in Europe London 36 Frericks PMaier Rde Graaf W (2006) Shifting the pension mix consequences for Dutch and Danish women Social Policy and Administration Vol 40 37 The European Court of Justice Test-Achats ruling of March 2011 will have a significant effect on the level of pension premiums throughout the EU as insurers are prohibited from taking gender into account when calculating premiums

httpwwwdilloneustaceiedownload1ECJ20Ruling20on20Unisex20Insurance20Premiumspdf

57

_________________________________________________________________


the minimum conditions within the same occupational fund and in transferring their position from one occupational fund to another

Finally the crisis has highlighted the risks associated with these schemes when employment interruptions are widespread and the capital markets are unable to guarantee the expected returns on financial assets

Occupational schemes are usually attested in large companies and in unionised public and industrial sectors and are characterised by closer links between paid contributions and benefits relative to public statutory schemes Only limited information is available on the gender coverage of occupational schemes However according to the Survey of Health Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) relative to 12 European countries38 there is a clear gender gap in most countries men are more likely to receive a supplementary pension from occupational schemes than women For example in the Netherlands and Germany almost twice as many male as female pensioners receive company pension payments By contrast there is no gender gap in accessing supplementary pension schemes in Sweden Women are less covered by these schemes than men especially in countries where womenrsquos employment rates are low (as in Southern European countries) and where they are more likely to be employed in the informal economy or in sectorsfirms where these types of pension schemes are less widespread andor less generous Women are also more likely to be employed in part-time and temporary low wage jobs which do not afford access to occupational schemes in many countries (like CY ES IT LU LI NO SK TK)

The Report of the European Network of Legal Experts in the Field of Gender Equality39

shows that only in a few countries (FR NL and ES) are periods of unemployment taken into consideration while survivorsrsquo pensions are available in occupation schemes for civil servants in Austria Belgium and in Cyprus France Greece Italy Liechtenstein the Netherlands and Portugal

As for gender-specific actuarial factors they are applied in DB occupational pensions in the public sector in many countries (AT BE CY CZ ES IE IT LU MT PT UK) They are not applied in Denmark France Greece and Sweden In the Netherlands gender-related actuarial factors are applied by occupational funds and insurance companies for funding purposes but contributions and benefits remain gender-neutral while in Germany unisex tariffs have been mandatory since December 2005 In Italy the Vigilance Commission on Pensions (COVIP) and the Equal Opportunity National Committee control for the legitimacy and non-discriminatory nature of the actuarial factors applied in occupational pension schemes

It is not possible to assess the coverage of individual voluntary pension schemes by sex as no data are available According to Eurostat data however gender differences appear to be relevant when considering income from private pension funds (Tab 33)

38 SHARE - Survey of Health Ageing and Retirement in Europe Lisa Callegaro Christina Benita Wilke Public Occupational and Individual Pension Coverage chapter 6 The countries analysed are DK SE AT FR DE BE NL ES IT EL CZ PO and Switzerland and Israel

httpwwwshare-projectorgt3sharefileadminpdf_documentationFRB2Chapter_6pdf 39 Renga S Molnar-Hidassy D Tisheva G (2010) Direct and Indirect Gender Discrimination in Old-Age Pensions in 33 European Countries European Network of legal experts in the field of gender equality European Commission Directorate-General for Justice

58

_________________________________________________________________________


Table 33 Percentage of income from individual private pension plans of total income of persons aged +65 2006

Country Women Men Austria 013 025 Belgium 009 032 Estonia 000 001 Ireland 175 315 Italy 020 022 Poland 001 003 Portugal 001 037 Sweden 462 536 United Kingdom 016 090 Source EU-SILC UBD 2006 cit in Horstmann SHuumlllsman J (2009) The Socio-Economic Impact of Pension Systems on Women

Various barriers are likely to reduce access to individual voluntary schemes for women reflecting the gender segregation in the labour market (gender pay gap lower employment rates and the large proportion of part-time and temporary employment for women) These schemes are usually affordable only by high income workers and even when they are provided by employers as fringe benefits it is the managers and workers in high positions that are usually entitled Even in the Member States which have introduced measures to support membership of voluntary individual schemes through tax exemptions they remain more beneficial for high income earners (who are less likely to be women) For this reason direct subsidies are considered a more effective means of support for women to access private pension schemes40

Furthermore these schemes have so far often been based on sex-disaggregated tariffs which penalise women and early membership is necessary to accumulate sufficient income in old age The recent ECJ Test-Achats ruling of March 201141 to eliminate gender discrimination in insurance products may change this although it may only apply to new contracts as a transitory period is granted and national laws have to be adopted42

324 The role of public minimum pension schemes

Minimum pensions are particularly relevant when assessing the adequacy of pension systems in supporting old-age income as they provide a safety net for low earners or those with no or limited employment histories Women are usually overrepresented in minimum pension schemes For example in Sweden the social pension and housing supplement is provided to low-income groups who have the right to a full guarantee pension or a top-up

40 Horstmann Sabine Huumlllsman Joachim (2009) The Socio-Economic Impact of Pension Systems on Women Gesellschaft fuumlr Versicherungswissenschaft und ndash Gestaltung (GVG) European Commission Directorate-General for Employment Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities httpeceuropaeusocialBlobServletdocId=5001amplangId=en 41 Court of Justice of the European Union Press Release No 1211 Luxembourg 1 March 2011 Judgment in Case C-23609 Association belge des Consommateurs Test-Achats ASBL and Conseil des ministres See on this also the European Parliament study ldquoThe use of gender in insurance pricingrdquo httpwwweuroparleuropaeucommitteesenstudiesdownloadhtmllanguageDocument=ENampfile=60175 42 Slauther and May can gender differentiated actuarial factors still be used when determining premiums and benefits under insucrance contracts The Test-Achats chase

httpwwwslaughterandmaycommedia1524002the-test-achats-casepdf

59

_________________________________________________________________


The social pension is disbursed to four times as many women as men43 since women generally have lower income-related old-age pensions than men and are more represented in the older age groups

According to the 2008 EGGSI assessment of National Reports on Strategies for Social Protection and Social Inclusion from a Gender perspective44 minimum pensions generally allow for acceptable living standards in old age (in BE CZ DK FR LT LU PL SE SK) but in many cases (DE EL ES HU MT NL PT SI FI UK BG) the risk of poverty for those living on the minimum pension is still very high despite the improvements made in the last few years

Assessment of the gender effects of minimum pensions must take into consideration not only income support in old age but also their effects on labour supply and lifetime savings An increase in minimum pension levels for example is a positive measure for women and men already retired or near retirement age (especially elderly single women) for whom this benefit often represents the only income but could also be an incentive for individuals in active age to retire early or to reduce lifetime savings45 an effect which is likely to apply more to women than to men due to the greater elasticity of womenrsquos labour supply to earnings

The magnitude of these effects however depends on the design of minimum pensions

The residence based minimum pensions of the Nordic countries46 are the more most favourable to women as they are not based on the individual employment history However with these schemes the risk of reducing incentives to work in the regular economy is high even if the data on countries with residence-based minimum pensions do not show this disincentive effect applying as they present the highest activity rates for women Indeed Siegenthaler (1996)47 based on a country-by country analysis of the US and five European countries argues that a minimum benefit provided to all would be the most effective ndash even if costly ndash instrument to combat poverty in old age for women (and men)

43 Prime Ministerrsquos Office (2005) The Swedish National Strategy Report on Adequate and Sustainable Pensions Stockholm Chapter 332 httpwwwswedengovsesbd574a48098 44 Corsi M Guelfi A Samek Ludovici M Sansonetti S- (2008) Assessment of National Reports on Strategies for Social Protection and Social Inclusion from a Gender Perspective EGGSI Synthesis Report November 2008 45 Horstmann SHuumlllsman J (2009) The Socio-Economic Impact of Pension Systems on Women Gesellschaft fuumlr Versicherungswissenschaft und ndash Gestaltung (GVG) European Commission Directorate-General for Employment Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities

httpeceuropaeusocialBlobServletdocId=5001amplangId=en and Staringhlberg Ann-CharlotteCohen Birman MarcelaKruse AgnetaSunden Annika (2004) Retirement income security for men and women Technical Commission on Old-age Invalidity and Survivors Insurance Technical report 23 Beijing 12-18 September 2004 httpwwwissaintcontentdownload558821022762version6fileTR-23-2pdf and Monticone CRuzik ASkiba J (2008) Womenrsquos Pension rights and Survivorsrsquos Benefits ndash A comparative analysis of EU Member States and Candidate countries ENEPRi Research Report No 53April 2008 46 Residency based minimum pensions are granted in Nordic countries and in the Netherlands Access to minimum pensions is based on years of residence in the country and is usually part of the statutory pension scheme They are universal as they do not require any contributory payments and benefits are not means-tested but only tested against the income from other pensions 47 Siegenthaler Jurg K (1996) Poverty among Single Elderly Women under Different Systems of Old-Age Security A Comparative Review Social Security Bulletin 59 31-44

60

_________________________________________________________________________


In the case of contributory minimum pensions48 common to the majority of EU MSs the eligibility criteria are relevant especially in relation to the length of the contributory period necessary to be entitled to the minimum pension Long contributory period requirements may penalize women more than men as they are more likely to have interrupted employment careers due to family responsibilities or to have part time jobs To improve the position of women it is important for special care credits periods (as in the UK and IE) and part-time work (as in BE) to be included in the qualifying periods49

Social assistance means-tested benefits50 to top up low pensions may represent an effective way to increase access to pension income for individuals with a short or null employment history An important aspect in this case from the gender perspective is the individualisation of pension rights Women benefit more from the focus on individual rather than family income Means-tested benefits based on the family income rather than their own can represent a disincentive to work and generate a poverty trap Furthermore when means testing is based only on pension income the income situation of older women may be improved but voluntary personal savings and support from other extended family members are discouraged

The level of minimum benefits is also crucial to prevent poverty in old age according to the Horstmann SHuumlllsman J (2009) study cited above51 only in Belgium and Portugal is the benefit level set at about 100 of the national poverty thresholds for contributory minimum pensions in the other EU25 MS it is usually below this threshold

Finally the indexation system is also important as in many countries the minimum benefits are not fully indexed to prices or wages or indexation is discretionary which aggravates the relative income position of pensioners on minimum benefits (mostly women)

325 Pension care credits

In recent years as the emphasis on pension adequacy has increased many countries have taken better account of care-credits at least in statutory public schemes

48 Contributory minimum pensions can only be claimed by people who are covered by the public pension scheme and meet certain criteria usually based on a minimum number of contributory years In some countries the amount provided by minimum pensions may not be connected with the contributory years and be either means-tested as in Austria and Belgium or flat-rate as in Hungary and Poland where the pension amount does not depend on the number of contributory years or in Italy where the minimum contribution period is rather short In most of these countries however the full amount of the minimum pension (either on a means tested or flat rate basis) is granted only provided that the required contributory period is fully reached (as in PT) and the benefit is proportionally reduced for shorter insurance periods Also in Ireland and the United Kingdom a flat-rate pension is provided if a minimum period of pension scheme membership is reached 49 Horstmann SHuumlllsman J (2009) The Socio-Economic Impact of Pension Systems on Women Gesellschaft fuumlr Versicherungswissenschaft und ndash Gestaltung (GVG) European Commission Directorate-General for Employment Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities P 80 httpeceuropaeusocialBlobServletdocId=5001amplangId=en 50 Social assistance benefits usually means-tested are the only provision available to guarantee a minimum income in old age in Germany Romania and Lithuania In Austria and Poland social assistance allowances are available for the general population while in Belgium Ireland Italy Malta Portugal Sweden and the United Kingdom there are social assistance benefits for the elderly in addition to other minimum income provisions These benefits are means-tested and the eligibility criterion is age 51 Horstmann SHuumlllsman J (2009) The Socio-Economic Impact of Pension Systems on Women Gesellschaft fuumlr Versicherungswissenschaft und ndash Gestaltung (GVG) European Commission Directorate-General for Employment Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities P 80 httpeceuropaeusocialBlobServletdocId=5001amplangId=en

61

_________________________________________________________________


Care credits are registered contributions based on periods spent out of employment taking care of children and other dependents (disabled or older persons) They are considered an important compensating mechanism to close at least in part the gaps in the pension rights of those taking care of children or other dependent family members For this reason they have a major role in reducing gender inequalities in pension income as it is women that usually provide care services within households However they could also act as disincentives to work with a risk of long-term negative effects reducing the chances of reshyentering the labour market after prolonged employment interruption (the so-called inactivity trap)52 These potential negative effects depend largely on the design of care credits For example the negative gender effects on labour market participation are stronger when care credits are only available for women and gender stereotypes in the division of care and market work are thus reinforced53

Child care credits exist in the public pension schemes of all Member States while in occupational schemes they are not very common even if in some countries with privately managed mandatory funded schemes the state provides for payment of contributions to these schemes during child care (SE DK DE EE HU) Other forms of care credits (for the elderly the disabled or for severely ill family members) are less widespread and have been introduced only very recently

Usually care credits take reference from a general standard value or are considered contributory periods for minimum income guarantees (IE UK) alternatively it is possible to pay contributions on a voluntary basis for a certain period (IT) Eligibility conditions are fairly restrictive as the need must be officially recognized and full-time care is usually required

Overall from the gender point of view care credits are subject to many limitations Most countries only recognise pension credits for periods of childcare and not of care in general (for example not for eldercare)54 In some countries care credits are recognised only for employees eligible for maternity paternity or parental leave and not for the unemployed or inactive (except for instance in BG CY EE) or for the self-employed In some countries the acquisition of care credits does not allow for parallel employment (IE IT LT MT PT RO) or only allows for very marginal parallel employment (IE) Only in some countries is employment allowed during parental leave (part-time or reduced) (AT BE DE DK EE EL FI HU HR LU SE SI) but often the benefit paid is reduced accordingly (as in DK FI)

In order to support the building up of pension entitlements for persons caring for children or other dependents and to reduce gender inequalities it would be necessary to address these limitations to the current provisions and

allow parallel (part-time) employment to build up pensionable rights

52 Word Bank (2004) Gender-differentiated impacts of pension reform PremNotes Gender No 85 httpwww1worldbankorgpremPREMNotespremnote85pdf 53 To avoid this risk the 1996 EC Parental Leave Directive (9634EC)53 provides that a minimum leave of three months as from the birth of a child will be given to both mothers and fathers and in some countries (like SE and NO) part of the parental leave should be taken by the father ECJ rulings such as the Griesmar ruling also support a more gender neutral approach to care credits 54 Corsi M et al (2010) Gender Mainstreaming Active Inclusion Policies Final report prepared by the EGGSI network European Commission httpeceuropaeusocialBlobServletdocId=6335amplangId=en

62

_________________________________________________________________________


fully count care periods for pension entitlements in the statutory pension schemes and also for women unemployed inactive or self-employed

support the implementation of care credits also in occupational and individual saving pension schemes especially for mandatory funded schemes

326 Provisions for atypical workers

Traditionally pension systems have favoured continuous full-time employment histories and the recent move toward defined contribution schemes will reinforce this feature Workers involved in the informal sectors and in atypical jobs normally have fewer rights in terms of pension provisions which grant them a smaller pension income when they retire However the labour markets are becoming increasingly flexible and no longer guarantee lifelong continuous employment patterns Considering the overrepresentation of women in part time and temporary jobs and of men among the self-employed the current provisions even if formally gender neutral affect men and women in different ways Women living alone are particularly affected as they are more likely to be employed in temporary and part time jobs relative to men (including those living alone) even if they are less likely than married women to be employed part-time

In some countries recent pension reforms have taken into account the need to ensure that pension systems are compatible with the increasing flexibility of the labour market in order to avoid higher poverty risks in old age The inclusion of part-time and atypical workers in the pension system varies greatly across the European countries while they are still not eligible for a public or occupational pension in a few member states in others they are treated pro-quota as full-time workers or are the object of specific ad hoc regulations

Periods of part-timeatypical work in most countries (17) are eligible for benefits in statutory earnings related schemes In some countries (eg FI FR and SI) part-timers can pay an over-contribution to align with full-time with some restrictions by sector and profession In other countries on the contrary atypical contract forms allow for different and normally worse treatment in terms of pension rights For example in the case of Austria Malta and Slovenia part-time workers (where women are over-represented) are subject to special provisions often less favourable than those applying to full-time workers

In countries where the situation of atypical workers and the self-employed had been particularly penalising reforms are progressively being introduced with the focus on

1 The inclusion of atypical contract forms in social security regulations due to the fact that these employment forms are becoming increasingly widespread in several European countries in particular among younger workers women and in recent years also men

2 The introduction of specific provisions for part-time workers to ensure that the full contributory entitlement is paid by both employee and employers

3 The introduction of specific provisions to cover for periods of unemployment and of precarious position in the labour market a situation that young people and women are more likely to find themselves in

For example in Germany and Italy coverage of atypical workers has recently been extended (for low paid jobs in Germany and occasional jobs in Italy) Periods spent in unemployment andor training are also being increasingly recognised as the greater

63

_________________________________________________________________


flexibility of labour markets has reduced the share of lifelong stable jobs and training on the job

327 The role of derived pension benefits

Derived pensions rights include survivorsrsquo benefits spousal benefits and divorcee benefits

Survivors benefits represent the largest share of the income of elderly widows living alone and are particularly important for women lacking an employment history

All EU countries offer protection for widows and some (like BE DE EL SI SE UK) also to divorcees through contributory or non-contributory benefits In most countries these pension rights are gender-neutral but as women live longer than men they usually benefit older women more than their male counterparts Table 34 shows that in almost all EU countries women represent the larger proportion of beneficiaries of survivor pensions due also to their longer life expectancy Indeed survivor pensions provide a large number of elderly women living alone with an income that is higher than the one they would get from their own pension and reduce the poverty risks of older women living alone

In several countries according to Missoc 2010 cohabiting (DE DK ES FI HU HR LI LU NL NO PT SE SI UK) and divorced partners (AT BE DE DK EE EL ES FI FR MK HR HU IE IT LI LU NL NO PL PT SK SI) are eligible for survivor benefits as long as they are not remarried or cohabiting with other people have children below a certain age and had been living together with the deceased for a certain time The level of benefits refers to the number of contributory years of the deceased

In recent years most countries have been trying to restrict survivor pensions and to link benefits more closely to the eligibility criteria of age and the survivorsrsquo income

64

_________________________________________________________________________


Table 34 Female beneficiaries of survivors pensions 2006 women

over total old age beneficiaries women over total

survivors beneficiaries Austria 525 879 Belgium 398 98 Bulgaria 632 802 Czech republic 64 841 Cyprus 337 972 Germany 559 856 Denmark 567 100 Estonia 681 534 Greece 466 941 Spain 503 736 Finland 592 837 France 496 918 Hungary 60 779 Ireland 426 879 Italy 546 871 Lithuania 67 798 Luxembourg 291 929 Latvia 675 70 Malta 308 993 The Netherlands 565 846 Norway 577 777 Portugal 51 802 Poland 585 809 Romania 543 905 Sweden 558 954 Slovenia 567 781 Slovakia 658 917 Female beneficiaries of survivors pensions (without double counting in old-age and in survivors functions) over the total beneficiaries of the same pension category Source Eurostat data - ESSPROS (No data for Iceland and the United Kingdom) httpcircaeuropaeuircdsisessprosinfodataesspros_public_datapbpb_datapb_b2htm

Specific measures in the case of divorce are also adopted in many Member States (BE DE EL SI SE UK)55 in Germany for example after divorce the partnersrsquo pension entitlements are equally divided on the basis of pension predicted at the time of the divorce In the UK pension sharing between spouses can be negotiated by agreement or court order (this applies to both statutory earnings-related and private pensions) In France if the income is below a certain level and the person has not remarried heshe can receive 54 of the deceasedrsquos pension proportionately divided among all eligible former spouses In Sweden earned pension rights are not divided in connection with divorce although splitting is possible for part of the social security premium pension

In some countries there are also spousal benefits the working partner benefits from an additional provision should heshe support with hisher pension income the dependent spouse Such for example is the case of Belgium Greece Spain France Ireland Cyprus Malta the Netherlands Norway Austria Sweden and the United Kingdom

The capacity of norms to follow the evolution of social customs and behaviours is very different across countries especially in relation to eligibility for survivorsrsquo pensions for

55 Corsi MGuelfi ASamek Lodovici MSansonetti S (2008) Assessment of National Reports on Strategies for Social Protection and Social Inclusion from a Gender Perspective EGGSI Synthesis Report November 2008

65

_________________________________________________________________


unmarried partners or samendashsex couples Eligibility limitations are also often particularly strict in the case of migrants

It is difficult to assess the adequacy of survivorsrsquo benefits because they depend on the level of the pension of the former spouse Although the aim of the survivor pension is to maintain the previous standard of living in many cases survivor pensions are insufficient to guarantee an adequate standard of living Preliminary calculations presented in Choi (2006)56 show that in the OECD countries examined non-working and working widows receive on average pension amounting to 36 and 50 of average earnings respectively compared to an average pension level for couples of nearly 60 of average earnings This is confirmed by the high poverty rate of older women living alone and suggests that survivorsrsquo pension schemes or pension benefits for divorcees are not entirely successful in providing old-age income security for women and men According to some studies reported in Choi (2006) an increase in survivor pension benefits funded by a reduction in the benefits for couples would result in a sizeable reduction in the poverty rate of widows and only in a small increase in the poverty rates for couples

Derived pensions rights are however somewhat controversial Besides failing to protect single or divorced elderly women and encouraging women to stay at home or work in the informal economy they represent a redistribution in favour of one-earner couples subsidized by single men and women and two-earner couples One example is offered by Belgium where the spousal pension credits covering housewives have raised a great deal of criticism being entirely financed by collective solidarity This subsidy results in a significant number of women with only partial rights to pensions opting for their husbandsrsquo rights (pension au taux meacutenage ndash extra 25 of pension) if this means a more advantageous pension for the couple Comparing the case of a couple where both members are working with that of a couple with a single earner and the same total monthly earnings the total pension entitlements for the household are much lower for the two-earner couples than for the one-earner household57

According to some authors flat-rate benefits or topping-up benefits through a minimum pension guarantee are more effective measures to prevent women (and men) from falling into poverty in old age In addition they do not disincentivise labour market participation for women and do not discriminate against unmarried individuals The situation in the Nordic countries is interesting in this respect as here poverty prevention among older women and men living alone is based on universal minimum pensions rather than derived pension rights As such these countries usually have no provisions for survivors spousal benefits and divorcee benefits but these individuals have access to guarantee minimum pensions if they fall below the poverty line As reported in EGGSIrsquos 2008 Assessment of National Reports on Strategies for Social Protection and Social Inclusion from a Gender Perspective 58 both in Denmark and in Sweden widowrsquos pensions have been abolished and a survivor pension for both women and men is available only for a short period of time In Sweden minimum guarantee pensions are increased for single persons while in Denmark the minimum pension is considered sufficient to ensure an adequate standard of living

56 Choi J(2006) The role of derived rights for old-age income security of women OECD Social Employment and

Migration Working Papers No 43 httpwwwoecdorgelsworkingpapers

57 Wuiame N (2011) EGGSI national report for Belgium mimeo 58 Corsi MGuelfi ASamek Lodovici MSansonetti S (2008) Assessment of National Reports on Strategies for

Social Protection and Social Inclusion from a Gender Perspective EGGSI Synthesis Report November 2008

66

_________________________________________________________________________


Whether poverty prevention for this group is best addressed by benefits from derived rights or by the general old-age safety net depends on the degree of full-time female labour force participation and the trend in the poverty of older women living alone relative that of the overall older population

As an increasing number of women work and earn their own pension entitlements derived pension rights may become less important for the future However adequate pensions will require full-time work throughout working life In the countries (like the Mediterranean ones) where female labour participation rates are still low and where women work mostly part-time and experience long career interruptions due to caring for children or the elderly pensions based on own contributions may prove quite low Thus in these countries retaining the present setting of derived rights is currently the only opportunity to maintain reasonable standards of living for women in old age

33 Examples of good practices

This section presents examples of good practices in pension provisions with the focus on those particularly relevant for women living alone minimum pension guarantees provisions for atypical workers care benefits derived pension rights and access to occupational and individual pension schemes59

331 Good practices in public pension schemes

Overall apart from care credits survivors and divorceersquos pension rights there are no specific pension provisions directly targeting women and the particular case of women living alone even if in some countries (especially the Nordic ones and the UK) some provisions prove particularly effective in reducing poverty risks for older women living alone

Many countriesrsquo reforms have in fact increased redistribution in their retirement-income systems and this choice could affect women (and women living alone) in particular Finland France and Sweden for example protect low earners from the full force of benefit cuts

The United Kingdom has used some of the fiscal room made with higher pension ages to increase benefit levels and these increases have targeted low-income retirees

In Sweden even if women on average receive lower pension benefits than men they have a higher replacement rate and a higher rate of returns on lifetime contributions thanks to unisex life tables minimum pension guarantees and the childcare credit system Furthermore specific provisions have been introduced for categories at risk of poverty in old age including provisions for women and men who engage in domestic work and have no children and therefore do not receive an adequate pension from the national pension

59 The examples presented in this section are derived from different sources the Member Statesrsquo National Reform Programmes the European Commission Joint Report on Social Protection and Social Inclusion the 2011 EGGSI National Reports on lsquoThe socio-economic impact of pension systems on the respective situations of women and men and the effects of recent trends in pension reformsrsquo

67

_________________________________________________________________


system These categories are eligible to guaranteed pensions or maintenance support for the elderly sometimes with the addition of a housing supplement60

The United Kingdom is considering proposals to address gender poverty in retirement and gender inequality in pension provisions by reducing to 30 the years required to build up a full Basic State Pension (BSP) The reforms treat caring and paid contributions equally meaning that women and care-givers will find it easier to build up full entitlement to a BSP61

Austria is one of the very few European countries providing for persons caring for a frail or disabled family member These persons may pay voluntary contributions at a reduced rate Up to 100 of contributions are paid by the state for up to 4 years depending on the form and volume of care necessary

In Belgium in the case of divorce the partner with the lower income and contributions benefits from those of the former partner 625 of the income of the former partner during the marriage minus the divorced spousersquo own income during the marriage is recognised as for the pension

In France the 2010 Pensions Reform requires companies with 50 or more employees to adopt a collective bargaining agreement in favour of job equality or failing that a unilateral plan of action The purpose of this provision is to improve the integration of women in the workplace and to secure their career paths thus promoting the maintenance of women in employment The pension reform is also encouraging industry level negotiations over physically demanding or stressful jobs On an experimental basis until the end of 2013 agreement in a given sector can lead to the creation of a mechanism to alleviate the stress of (part-time working or mentoring etc) or compensate (via bonuses or rest days etc) for physically demanding or stressful work to be jointly financed by the companies within the industry sector Other recent measures are helping to improve the situation for elderly people living in precariousness In 2010 surviving spouses on low pensions and with few resources have seen an increase in their basic survivorrsquos pension up to a certain ceiling (euro800 in 2010) ldquosmall farmersrsquo pensionsrdquo have also been improved recently and the pension reform adopted in autumn 2010 has made it easier for self-employed farm workers to receive the elderly personrsquos solidarity allowance

Interesting practices are in place in some countries for atypical workers where women are usually overrepresented

In Belgium in view of the particular situation of women with atypical jobs a ldquoguaranteed minimum pension amount per career yearrdquo has been introduced Provided that the combined working time of the years considered adds up to a minimum of 104 full workdays the guaranteed remuneration substitutes the actual remuneration of that year if the former is higher than the latter Furthermore part-time work is encouraged by prolonging parental leave and the associated pension credit

60 A Nyberg (2011) EGGSI National report mimeo 61 Corsi MSamek Lodovici MBotti FDrsquoIppoliti C (2011) Active ageing and gender equality The employment and social inclusion of women and men of late working and early retirement age Final Synthesis Report European Commission

68

_________________________________________________________________________


In Germany mini jobs62 have been included into the social security scheme with social contributions paid only by employers up to a maximum of 3077 as a lump-sum of which 15 covers pension insurance People working in mini-jobs have the option to increase their contributions to the pension scheme by 49 in order to reach a pension contribution of 199 However as the level of contributions is very low this means that the benefits will be very low too

In Italy the vouchers for occasional jobs include a 13 social security contribution paid by the employer Social security contributions for ldquocollaboratorsrdquo have been gradually increased to reach those of dependent employment in order to secure higher pension entitlements Italy also presents an interesting example of the potential role of the trade unions and womenrsquos movements in supporting better pension conditions for women in 2010 the trade unions and women movements obtained that the increase in statutory retirement age for women in the public sector would be accompanied by a commitment to channel the associated budget savings to expand the provision of care services andor other measures to support womenrsquos labour market participation and employment However this commitment has not been maintained by the Italian Government and the budget savings have been used to finance other measures63

Particularly interesting too are the provisions for flexible retirement age and part time pensions in place in Sweden where there is no definite retirement age Pensions can be drawn from the age of 61 at the earliest In collective agreements there is a contractual retirement age of 65 Parts of the pension benefits may be drawn as a temporary pension for example between 60 and 65 Under the Employment Protection Act an employee is entitled to go on working up to 67 years of age and the possibility is now being examined to prolong entitlement to 69 years Pension rights may be earned for an unlimited time as the concept of ldquofull pensionrdquo does not exist There is no lower or upper age limit to earning pension credit If the individual continues to work after beginning to draw the pension new pension rights are earned irrespective of age64

332 Good practices in occupational and individual pension schemes

Overall occupational schemes may increase gender income inequalities in old age To reduce these risks in some countries especially where participation is mandatory special regulations have been introduced to support the adoption of unisex tables and childcare credits in occupational and personal pension schemes (as in DE and FR) to favour access by part-time and temporary workers with no or very low minimum qualifying conditions (as in BE BG MK IE) and to facilitate transferral from one occupational fund to another (as in SE PT FR NL PL and TK) The following are some examples of good practices in this respect

In France there are various different and mandatory occupational old-age schemes in all the economic sectors In these schemes part-time workers are treated as in the statutory schemes and leave periods for unemployment are considered Also there are no differences

62 Introduced in Germany in 2003 as part of a wide-ranging labour market reform mini-jobs are marginal jobs where the earnings do not exceed 400 euros per month tax-free likely to be extended to euro450 in 2013 63 In Genere - httpwwwingenereit 64 Corsi MSamek Lodovici MBotti FDrsquoIppoliti C (2011) Active ageing and gender equality The employment and social inclusion of women and men of late working and early retirement age Final Synthesis Report European Commission

69

_________________________________________________________________


in pensionable years for women and men and some gender-neutral advantages for care periods are provided

In Ireland the portability of pensions is facilitated by the fact that workers may transfer funds accumulated with one insurer to another There are however information deficits and significant costs involved in doing this

In the Netherlands employees leaving the occupational pension scheme are entitled to their accrued pension rights The pension fund or insuring company is however ndash as far as the pension scheme allows for this ndash entitled to surrender the pension two years after leaving the scheme if the pension is low

In Romania a Law on the Private Pension Guarantee Fund is under discussion to support the development of the complementary private pension system and regulate the setting up management and function of the fund guaranteeing the participantsrsquo and beneficiariesrsquo rights including compensation for losses due to administrator incapability or pension providers failing () to pay the due obligations and assurance of the payment rights of participants or beneficiaries to privately manage pension funds Furthermore a draft Law on management and functioning of the payment system for pensions on pillars II and III contains provisions regarding the principles to set up manage and operate the payment system for pensions on these pillars

In Sweden almost all employees are covered by one of the existing occupational pension schemes based on collective agreements In these schemes there are no lengthy qualification periods and they are gender-neutral regarding pensionable age and calculation of benefits The pension capital is regarded as private property and can be moved from one fund to another without any restrictions

In the UK since April 2006 it has been possible to go on working with the same employer also on a part-time basis while starting to draw an occupational pension However at the same time the age as from which an occupational or private pension can be drawn was raised from 50 to 55 Further proposals seek to improve the provision of private pensions for low earners many of whom are women through individual transferable pension savings accounts65 In October 2012 the United Kingdom is also introducing a nation-wide auto-enrolment retirement savings system for all workers who are not currently covered by private pension plans This should further increase the coverage rate of occupational pension schemes currently standing at 433 of the working age population The contribution rate of 8 in the auto-enrolment system should allow the average worker with a full career to reach a gross replacement rate of nearly 70 (32 from public PAYG pensions and 37 from the auto-enrolment retirement savings system) The net replacement rate would be around 80 for workers on average earnings66

Good practice examples for individual pension schemes are the German Riester-Riente which operates with unisex tariffs and where child allowance is paid by the State topping up individual savings and the Hungarian Veacutenusz Life Insurance Programme which explicitly targets women

65 Annesly C (2011) EGGSI National Report mimeo 66 OECD (2012) Oecd Pensions outlook 2012

httpwwwoecdorgdaffinancialmarketsinsuranceandpensionsprivatepensions50560110pdf

70

_________________________________________________________________________


In Germany the State supports with direct subsidies some types of individual voluntary schemes within the ldquoRiester-Renterdquo pension system which particularly concerns low wage earners with children ndash in practice mostly women The Riester-Rente pension schemes are part of the governmental plan to promote individual and company schemes which do not discriminate against women and low wage earners The state subsidy provided to Riester pension plans has promoted greater participation among lower income workers who normally benefit little from the tax incentives traditionally used to promote private pensions Providing direct subsidies rather than tax incentives for enrolment in individual pension schemes is more favourable to women Besides State subsidies since 2006 this scheme has been applying unisex tariffs and a child allowance is paid by the State topping up individual savings Periods for child care are recognised in the personal pension scheme ldquoRiesterrdquo and the allowance for children has been increased from 185 euro to 300 euro for children born after the year 2008 The level at which the number of full contributory years is set in public schemes does not explicitly take the gender dimension into consideration but as periods for child care are covered the still dominant female responsibility for children is recognised The existing pension scheme recognises the three years following the birth of a child as a compulsory pension contribution period at the level of average employment These contributions are paid by the State The Riester pensions in Germany have also been widely taken up notably among the young and low earners ndashcategories that other countries have found hard to reach However the Riester plans rely on relatively generous fiscal incentives rather than automatic enrolment to encourage take-up

In Hungary the AVIVA Insurance Company implemented a project (lsquothe 21st century is the century of womenrsquo) 67 targeting working age women who intend to secure their future financial and economic well-being The insurance company offers financial planning a life-insurance package and a voluntary pension provision for working age women

In relation to derived pension rights in Liechtenstein a reform of company pension schemes provides that if a woman stops working in order to take care of her family she is in the event of divorce entitled to half the pension expectancy earned by her husband based on his work for the years they have been married

In recent years some steps were taken to overcome the problems encountered by funded schemes with the crisis For example in Ireland pension funds were given more time to submit funding status reports and recovery plans in Denmark a financial stability package for pensions has been implemented to ensure market stability and prevent substantial losses for pension savers In the Netherlands the existing risk-sharing mechanisms between employers and workers have been used to lower or freeze indexation of benefits andor increases of contributions


Recent pension reforms have improved the sustainability of public pension schemes but at the cost of reduced replacement rates growing individual risks and increasing complexity in pension systems

The financial and economic crisis has highlighted and aggravated some of the risks associated with the previous pension reforms in terms of both sustainability and adequacy

67 httpwwwavivahupenzugyi_szolgaltatasoknok_evszazada

httpwwwavivahuopencmsexportsitesdefaultmagunkrolhirekA_nyugdijhiany_Magyarorszagonpdf

71

_________________________________________________________________

Depends on gender differences in employment patterns career and wage profiles Reduces gender differences in pensions related to the more dynamic careers of men but penalises women with irregular and interrupted career patterns Enhances intra generational fairness


and demonstrated the interdependence of the various pension pillars in each country For these reasons the current debate on pensions calls for a holistic approach integrating pension reform with appropriate labour market and social policies and considering sustainability and adequacy as ldquotwo sides of the same coinrdquo In achieving these two goals the balance of transfers between different generations and the changing nature of labour markets and of family structures should be considered with a view to improving the capacity to adapt to these changes without reducing pension coverage and adequacy

The effects of reforms on the capacity of pension systems to alleviate poverty in old age should be taken into account while clearly indicating how reforms affect future costs and the relative entitlements for women and men and for different generations Moreover in a gender perspective when simulating the effects of pension reforms it is necessary to consider men and women with different wage levels and employment patterns rather than focusing solely on average earners with full careers Finally the increasing role of occupational and individual voluntary pensions schemes calls for more stringent pension fund regulation in terms of risk sharing and some form of protection against insolvency to prevent the risks associated with financial crises from being disproportionally borne by individuals The growing individual responsibility on saving decisions entailing different risks also means that individuals have to be clearly informed of the options available and the associated risks and have to be supported in improving their financial literacy level in order to be able to make informed decisions on an increasingly complex issue

The different effects that pension reforms and implementation methods may have on women and in particular on lone women are presented in table 35

Table 35 Pension reforms and their specific impact on women and men

Measure Gender impact Impact on lone women

Raising of retirement age Flexible retirement age

Positive impact on income for both men and women but requires active ageing policies in the labour market and the provision of care services Flexible retirement age is better for gender equality because it allows women to retire later increasing their pension income

Positive impact on women living alone

Restraint of early retirement

Positive impact on work incentives for women and men Positive impact on work incentives

Shift from best years toward career average as calculation base for earnings related benefits

-

Negative impact on women with irregular or interrupted careers

Indexation of benefits

Positive impact on pension incomes of older women (and men) with wage indexation negative impact (especially for women of very advanced age) with indexation to sustainability indexes

Positive effect for elderly lone women with wage indexation

Increase of minimum pension

Positive impact on-old age income especially for women overshyrepresented in these schemes due to their lower labour market participation shorter employment histories and lower pay then men residence-based minimum pensions are more favourable to gender equality as the full basic pension is paid irrespective of the previous employment status and family conditions Possible negative impact on work incentives especially when means-tested

Positive effect for elderly lone women

72

_________________________________________________________________________

Negative impact on work incentives Positive impact on older womenrsquos pension incomes Redistribute from single households (men and women) to one earnersrsquo married couples


andor non-contributory Individualisation of rights encourages labour market participation

Contributions related pension

Positive impact on work incentives negative impact on pension income levels for low earners those with interrupted careers and atypical jobs

Negative impact on pension income for low earners those with interrupted careers and atypical workers

Actuarial principle

Increased influence of labour market gender-gaps on pensions Increased gender-gap in pension income if conversion rates are not unisex Positive impact on work incentives

Negative impact on women with irregular or interrupted careers and on elderly women living alone

Survivorsrsquo pensions and derived rights

Positive effect for widows Negative impact for single women

Extension of multi-pillar pension schemes

Increase in gender differences in pension income as non statutory pension schemes are more closely related to gender differences in the labour market (gender segregation and gender pay gaps) and in access to non-statutory schemes Positive impact on work incentives Need for greater regulation of DC occupational and individual schemes to ensure that the financial crisis is not borne solely by individuals Need to increase financial literacy as pensions systems become more complex and uncertain in the returns

Negative impact on lone women and lone mothers who have to increase savings

Care credits Positive impact on incomes and on work incentives should be increased extended to men and to the care of dependents other than children

Positive impact for lone mothers and for women caring for disabled or dependent relatives

With contribution-based and multi-pillar pension systems gender disparities in activity employment and unemployment rates and in earnings as well as the greater incidence of part-time temporary and informal jobs and of careers breaks gender disparities in pension income are bound to become even greater than in the past Furthermore longer female longevity exposes elderly women to greater poverty risks due to the fact that the period of living alone is expected to be longer than in the case of men and more marked erosion of the real value of their annuities

As indicated in the 2008 report68 every deterioration in pension provisions could have a greater negative impact on women who cannot rely on a partnersrsquo income Furthermore some measures can have a great influence on single women and widows with different effects depending on the womenrsquos status for example survivorsrsquo pensions penalise the pension benefits of insured singles (men and women) and are a disincentive to work for the younger female generations but play an important part in reducing the poverty risks in old age for widows

The gender effects of pension reforms also differ among generations Some measures can have an immediate impact on current elderly women and some will have an effect only on younger generations also affecting their labour market participation decisions which are usually more responsive to changes in pension reforms than menrsquos

The current economic situation of women who have already retired or are near retirement age is mainly affected by the generosity of entitlements related to minimum pensions and derived pension rights Indeed in some countries these schemes are so generous that older women enjoy higher pension replacement rates than their male counterparts

68 IRS (2008) Women living alone Evaluation of their specific difficulties European Parliament 2008

73

_________________________________________________________________


However while the increase in minimum pension levels positively affect retired women (especially elderly lone women) it may also be an incentive for women in active age to retire early

As regards the younger generations increases in statutory retirement age may support the labour market participation of women of working age thus improving their pension coverage and income providing that their employment rate increases On the contrary if appropriate policies supporting the employment and earnings levels of women are not put in place pension reforms may result in increasing gender inequalities in pension income penalising in particular lone women who are (or will be) forced to contribute more to occupational and personal schemes than they can afford because of their lower family incomes For the younger generations the design of means-tested minimum pensions and derived pension rights is also relevant when these benefits are based on the family rather than on their own income employment interruptions are encouraged while the individualisation of pension rights encourages labour market participation

To conclude some features of the pension systems appear to have a particularly important part to play in reducing current gender gaps in pension income

Effective redistributive elements in the public pension schemes through universal residence-based or flat rate minimum pensions indexed to wages and pension credits for unemployment and training periods

Adequate pension credits for care periods (fully replacing employment based contributions) available also to men and for the care of other dependents besides children allowing (part-time) employment during care periods and available also in private funded pension schemes

Specific provisions for atypical and part-time employment

The facilitation of access to occupational and voluntary personal funded schemes for all and the introduction of provisions offsetting gender inequalities in privately managed schemes (for example provisions on survivor benefits and care periods)

Adoption of unisex life tariffs in both public and private funded pension schemes so that women can be ensured equal pension annuities for equal contributions even if they live longer than men

Adoption of flexible retirement provisions allowing retirees to combine pension and part-time work and for greater individual choice

The adoption of individual rather than family related pension entitlements to reduce work disincentives and gender stereotypes while allowing for accrued pension rights to be divided in the event of break up (divorce or separation) The focus on the individual is important for single women as it stresses the womenrsquos role in the labour market rather than that in the family (as wife or widow) It also implies taking maternity into consideration also outside marriage

Pension policies alone cannot however reduce gender differences in pension income as they largely reflect gender differences in the labour market Policies to reduce gender gaps in the labour market and active ageing policies are also needed to guarantee gender equality in future pensions

74

_________________________________________________________________________


4 LABOUR MARKET REFORMS AND ACTIVE AGEING POLICIES AND THEIR EFFECTS ON WOMEN LIVING ALONE

The following chapter is focused on policies and measures that have an impact on the living conditions of women living alone with particular attention on the elderly More specifically the chapter 4 provides (i) an overview of recent trends in active ageing policies training and labour policies for the elderly in order to identify and discuss what their expected effects are on the conditions of elderly women living alone (examples of good practices in the active ageing field are reported) and (ii) an overview of recent trends in labour market integration and social inclusion policies designed for adults that can directly or indirectly also effect the condition of women living alone

41 Recent trends in active ageing training and labour policies and their (expected) effects on women living alone

The objective of this chapter is to provide an overview of recent trends in active ageing policies in order to identify and discuss what their expected effects are on the living conditions of elderly women living alone While active ageing policies usually target the elderly in general measures specifically designed to address the needs of women living alone as independent target groups are still lacking in all Member States Therefore this chapter for the purpose of the study presents a qualitative analysis of the main active ageing policies produced in the six Member States selected that ndash even if not directly - may indirectly (albeit not specifically women-targeted) affect women living alone The review of active ageing policies is achieved through existing secondary materials (these include programming documents such as NRP - National Reform Programme - and various other European and national documents studies and comparative researches

Active ageing and intergenerational solidarity are becoming central to the European political agenda According to Laacuteszloacute Andor Commissioner for Employment Social Affairs and Inclusion lsquothe key to tackling the challenges of an increasing proportion of older people in our societies is ldquoactive ageingrdquo encouraging older people to remain active by working longer and retiring later by engaging in volunteer work after retirement and by leading healthy and autonomous livesrsquo69

Active ageing represents a policy response (or strategy) to face the impact of the demographic changes on the European social models (low fertility rates increase in life expectancy and the approaching retirement age of the baby-boom cohort) including population ageing with quantitative increase in the female component (lsquothe ageing of the agedrsquo process) Women in Europe in fact show longer life expectancy partially due to the level of education and information both being factors that positively influence the use of health services Demographic changes are also having a significant impact on the composition of the European workforce even if lsquothere is indeed robust evidence that older women are still under-represented in employment in comparison with older menrsquo70

69 Opening speech of the European Year for Active Ageing 31 January 2012 70 According to the author lsquothis should change due to the combined effect of two elements Firstly participation rates in the 50-60 age range will partially align with those currently observed in some Nordic countries (Sweden Iceland) because successive cohorts of women with an increasing history of youth and prime-age participation are

75

_________________________________________________________________


(Vanderberghe 2011) older women workers tend to represent an increasing proportion of the workforce in the European Union especially in the 55-64 year age group (Eurostat data)

In such a context the elderly including women can play a crucial role in tackling the challenges of population ageing by remaining active and autonomous after retirement and delaying exit from the labour market lsquoThe historical increases in educational levels and substantial improvements in health conditions make elderly people a great potential for social and economic development Thus active ageing emerges as a key factor in the process of optimising opportunities for health participation and security and as a way to enhance the quality of life as people age In view of population ageing increases in participation and employment rates for older workers are essential to help sustain economic growth reinforce social cohesion and the adequacy of pensions and manage the rising financial burden on social protection systems (Botti Corsi and DrsquoIppolito 2011)

Meanwhile the literature shows some critical aspects related to the active ageing strategy as viewed from the gender perspective

Many elderly women are at risk of poverty This is particularly true for women living alone - single widowed or divorced ndash who are more dependent on income redistribution schemes than older couples Gender differences and inequalities are related to old age socioshyeconomic status and the employment path

Women are mostly concentrated in fixed-term contracts and in part-time employment (OECDStat) experiencing a lower protection in a period of economic downturn As highlighted by Corsi and Samek Lodovici (2010) lsquoThe twofold discrimination against older women workers based on gender and age stereotypes combined with their greater vulnerability in the labour market caused by women-specific work trajectories (ie career breaks part-time employment and the gender pay gap) compound with institutional arrangements in producing high risks of poverty in old age for women more than for menrsquo

Income inequality women-specific employment paths and living arrangements are some of the main determinants of poverty and social exclusion for elderly lone women

Finding innovative ways to encourage healthy and active ageing entails relevant gender aspects potentially impacting on the living conditions and quality of life of women While good health is a prerequisite of active ageing ndash and health promotion and well-being throughout life are important ways undertaken to foster active ageing ndash the active aging strategy has been predominantly implemented in Europe by means of labour market policies (EEO Review Active Ageing 2012) namely

a Pension system changes (increasing the statutory age at which workers can retire and early retirement pension reforms offering additional benefits for additional years worked see chapter 3)

lsquoIn the last fifteen years various pension reforms have been implemented with the final aim of raising the pensionable age and thus increasing the number of active elderly people assuming that declining birth rates will result in fewer workers contributing to the pension

reaching older ages Secondly labour policy will try to close the gender participation gap that persists beyond 50 independently of the above-mentioned trendrsquo

76

_________________________________________________________________________


system and that labour force participation for younger workers is relatively lowrsquo (Crepaldi Pesce 2012 p 7)

b Measures to improve the employability for the elderly The measures most often adopted include age-management policies employment services for older workers policies and provisions which improve healthy working conditions and maintain workersrsquo well-being employment-friendly tax-benefit systems government subsidies for employers to retain and recruit older workers and measures to update the skills of the elderly through education and training (at the same time optimizing their existing knowledge and competencies)

In any case a comprehensive approach to active ageing is not limited to the employment dimension According to the World Health Organization (2002) in fact active ageing lsquois the process of optimizing opportunities for health participation and security in order to enhance quality of life as people agersquo Active ageing is a multi-sectoral strategy and there is a variety of ways for older men and women to remain active in Europe as well as measures and policies to enhance housing and the living environment

The following Table summarizes the way in which different welfare regimes have covered the issues

Table 41 Labour market reforms and active ageing policies that may have a positive effect on women living alone

Housing benefit Tax credit

Unemployment benefit Workers well being

Liberal welfare regimes Breadwinner state-centred regimes

Breadwinner Family-centred regimes Fiscal deductions


Unemployment benefit Workersrsquo wellbeing

Skills updating

Universalistic welfare regimes

Housing benefit Eastern European countries in transition

Fiscal deductions

411 Measures to improve the employability for the elderly

Amongst the labour market changes and measures which have occurred in the six countries under investigation the following initiatives have been selected because of their indirect impact on active ageing for women and women living alone In particular these measures whether targeting women or broader in scope address

extending the working life of the elderly including elderly women for example by avoiding early exit from the labour force and gradually reducing working hours

promoting equality between man and women in the workplace introducing age-friendly practices within the company and combating age discrimination in the labour market

providing training and lifelong learning for older workers

77

_________________________________________________________________


In order to facilitate identification of various levels of attention on gender issues and types (directindirect) of active ageing policies for elderly and lone women selected information for the intervention area indicated above is reported for the countries under investigation

Table 42 Synthesis table of Policies and Measures considered in the chapter by typology and country

Country Extending the working life

Working condition and equal opportunities

Training and lifelong learning for the elderly worker - Technological skills and closing the

digital divide New Deal 50 Plus Right to Request

Work Beyond Retirement Age

Survey on retirement related age limits and

opportunities for a longer working life

National Action plan for a revitalised work

environment policy Swedish Work Environment

Authority

Local projects for senior workers

UK

Sweden

Germany

France

Italy

Romania

Incentives to employ elderly people

Fiscal deduction

Scheme to curb early retirement

Wage subsidies for older workers

Deducibility of the costs of tutoring of junior staff by

older workers

Postponing retirement age

Fiscal deductions for employers

Employment Equality and Age Regulations

The Health and Wellbeing Award

New Quality of Work Initiative

Action plans and agreements in individual

companies


Adult education for senior workers



companies for employment and skill-upgrading of older

workers

412 Extending working life

Besides the lsquoNew Deal 50 Plusrsquo aiming to help people aged 50 and over who are looking for or are considering a return to work and the lsquoRight to Request Work Beyond Retirement Agersquo set up in 2006 further steps are being taken by the UK Government to address long-term fiscal challenges related to an ageing population In this direction the Government announced that the 2012 Budget would commit to ensuring that the state pension age is increased in the future to take into account the increase in longevity (UK National Reform Programme 2012)

As for the impact of recent policy measures implemented in the UK on the employment rates of older workers lsquoit is expected that activity rates of both men and women will increase but that the equalisation of the state pension age will have the greatest effect on womenrsquos participation Also it is expected that there will be an increasing demand for part-time work as workers approach the age at which they can take their pensionrsquo (EEO Review Active Ageing 2012 p 17)

78

_________________________________________________________________________


In Sweden the special employerrsquos contribution for people over the age of 65 has been abolished to allow for more appealing incentives to employ elderly people The 1st January 2007 marked the introduction of new-start jobs which are more beneficial for people between the ages of 55 and 65 as they are eligible for new-start jobs for twice the length of time they have been unemployed but not for more than ten years or up to the age of 65 To increase employment rates for senior workers the Swedish government eliminated the special employerrsquos contribution on wages and the tax on income from active business activities for people over 65 in 201071 That same year a higher in-work tax credit for people who have turned 65 was introduced

In order to avoid early labour force exit with unemployment benefits some countries have implemented labour market reforms In Sweden lsquothe activation requirements associated with unemployment insurance together with restrictions on the duration of benefits and requalification of a new benefit period inhibit people nowadays from using unemployment insurance as a means of early retirementrsquo (EEO Review Active Ageing 2012 pp 14-5)

In Germany lsquothe unemployment benefit scheme was used for many years as an early retirement scheme but the generosity of the scheme has been reduced over time Up to the end of 2007 older unemployed people aged 58 and above were exempted from job-search requirements while still receiving unemployment benefits A second change introduced in the same year concerned the means-tested unemployment benefit II for recipients aged 58 and over who had been unemployed for more than one year and who have been obliged to enter the old-age pension as early as possible even on a reduced pension (against the objective of lengthening working lives) In addition a gradual retirement scheme based on part-time work (Altersteilzeit) introduced in 1996 for workers older than 55 years and involving subsidies from the PES was removed in 2009

In Germany wage subsidies (Eingliederungszuschuumlsse) for older workers aged 50 and over and an integration wage subsidy voucher (Eingliederungsgutschein) have been developed to encourage recruitment The subsidy can go up to 70 for severely disabled older workers while an extension of the subsidy period is envisaged to 60 months for those aged 50 to 55 and to 96 months for those over the said age threshold Even if it does not specifically target women this measure can have an impact on elderly women

An increase in the share of people who continue to work past retirement age is observed in France where the 2010 Act on pensions introduced deducibility of the costs of tutoring junior staff by older workers from the professional training tax A new bonus of EUR 2000 was granted in the spring of 2011 with the introduction of exemptions of social contributions under professionalization contract (contrat de professionalisation) when recruiting unemployed people aged 45 and over In terms of gender equality France has undertaken reforms to develop ldquoflexicurityrdquo tools and promote gender equality in the workplace (The Pensions Reform Act 2010-1330 of 9 November 2010) aiming at securing career paths preventing harsh working conditions and identifying occupational risk factors

As reported in the EEO Review Employment Policies to Promote Active Ageing 2012 lsquoPolicy measures specifically targeted at older workers are rare in Italy The most direct one aiming at lengthening working careers which has been introduced in recent years is the postponement of the retirement age foreseen in the 2011 pension reformrsquo In Italy the Solidarity Agreement between Generations targeting older workers introduced with the

71 See also The New Start Jobs programme including a provision to reduce employersrsquo tax contributions for a period equal to the unemployment spell of a new worker

79

_________________________________________________________________


Budget Law 2007 (Law 2962006) aims to support the creation of new jobs and reduce exit from the labour market transforming on voluntary bases contracts of workers over 55 from full to part time The Solidarity Agreement between Generations also introduces part-time contracts for people under 25 or people under 30 with a university degree

Measures to tackle the increasing propensity towards inactivity of older workers which women can also benefit from have been considered in Romania with the introduction of two types of deductions to be granted to employers when they hire new employees These deductions came from the employerrsquos contributions to the unemployment insurance fund For unemployed individuals over the age of 45 the subsidy runs for 12 months lsquoFor individuals three years before their statutory retirement age or alternatively three years before being eligible for early retirement the subsidy is granted up to the time when the employee reaches statutory pension age or is eligible for early retirementrsquo (EEO Review Active Ageing 2012 p 31)

413 Working conditions and equal opportunities

Considering the impact of recent reforms in terms of promoting equality between men and women in the workplace and combating age discrimination (also by means of age-friendly practices within the company) changes in the Equality infrastructures are to be noted While development in gender equality policy and revision of the Equal opportunities policy frameworks can be observed in some Member States Among the countries selected for in-depth analysis it is only in the UK that the equality infrastructures have been re-designed in recent years with lsquoThe Employment Equality (Age) Regulationsrsquo introduced in 2006 and incorporated into the lsquoEquality Actrsquo 2010 Specifically lsquothe Equality Actrsquo extends the prohibition of age discrimination beyond that of employment requires the use of gender pay and equality reports and extends the scope to use positive action so that employers would be able to take into account the under-representation of disadvantaged groups including women and ethnic minorities when selecting between two equally qualified candidates (Villa and Smith 2011) lsquoThe act covers nine protected characteristics72 which cannot be used as a reason to treat people unfairly Every person has one or more of the protected characteristics so the act protects everyone against unfair treatment The new Equality Duty will require public authorities to consider the needs of all the protected groups for example in employment and when designing and delivering servicesrsquo (EHRC Equality Act key legal changes web-pages)

Provision of good working conditions in the UK is the aim of lsquoThe Health and Wellbeing Awardrsquo (part of the Investors in People IIP programme) including self-diagnostic tools and support action In addition in 2012 an lsquoall age national careers servicersquo was introduced in the UK This service incorporates pre-existing services offering advice and guidance with online telephone and community face-to face support

Regarding the lsquoworking environmentrsquo the Swedish Government has developed the following initiatives a special inquiry (Overhaul of retirement-related age limits and opportunities for a longer working life) carried out with the objective to analyze the current retirement-related age limits identify obstacles and opportunities to work longer and suggest alternative strategies related to age limits and a National Action Plan for a revitalised work environment policy for 2010ndash2015 With specific reference to the target of lsquowomenrsquo the lsquoassignment to develop and implement special measures to prevent women

72 The protected characteristics are age disability gender reassignment marriage and civil partnership pregnancy and maternity race religion or belief sex sexual orientation

80

_________________________________________________________________________


from being excluded from working life due to work environment related problemsrsquo given by the Swedish Government in 2011 to the Swedish Work Environment Authority has to be noted (NRP 2012 p 25)

414 Training and lifelong learning for elderly workers

Training lifelong learning and skills transmissiontutoring for elderly workers represent key factors to enhance performance of an ageing workforce in the labour market Even though not specifically targeting women there are different levels of designs and implementation of measures and policies aiming to support older workers updating their skills through education and training (optimizing at the same time their existing knowledge and competencies) across the selected European countries Among the initiatives and measures carried out in the six countries considered in this review the following information and trends are worth mentioning

Adult education (AE) is a part of the education and employment Swedish system and includes different activities such as labour market training for the unemployed in-service training such as skills enhancement in the workplace lsquoAlthough the incidence of formal and informal training declines by age in Sweden the participation of older workers (50-64 years old) in traininglearning activities remains relatively high On-the-job training (OJT) at the company level accounts for 50 of the same underlying population The data for Sweden reveals that the incidence of OJT declines also with age but is still high among senior workersrsquo (EEO Review Active Ageing 2012 p 23)

Due to budgetary constraints support for lifelong learning in the UK has decreased (eg Train to Gain) Train to Gain (T2G) is a UK government funded initiative to deliver vocational training to employed individuals in the UK primarily those in the 25+ age band who do not already have a Full Level 2 Qualification via the Skills Funding Agency formerly the Learning and Skills Council (LSC) On 24 May 2010 the UK government announced a pound200 million reduction in this programme as part of its planned pound62 billion reduction in expenditure in the 2010-11 government financial year

In Germany the data show an increasing participation rate of older workers in work-related further training over the past decade especially with regard to large companies (Sachverstaumlndigenkommission 2010) Nevertheless more effort needs to be made in order to raise the participation rates of older workers in training within SMEs The Federal Government is supporting the creation of appropriate working environments for older workers through activities developed within the New Quality of Work Initiative 2012 has been declared by the Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency the Year against Age Discrimination

In Italy lifelong learning for senior workers is lacking According to the National Strategy Report on Social Protection and Social Inclusion 2008-2010 in Italy lsquospecific local projects are being launched to meet the needs of both those senior citizens who desire to remain active at work and of certain enterprises that require highly skilled and experienced staff albeit with flexible employment arrangementsrsquo (p 27) To update skills to provide market opportunities for elderly workers and transform the work experience of older workers into social opportunities are some of the key objectives of these projectsrsquo (ibid p 59) Publicly financed lifelong learning activities in Italy are organised through national laws on continuous training (Laws 23693 and 5300) the European Social Fund (ESF) and inter-professional funds managed by the social partners (introduced by the Budget Law for 2001 and effective as from 2004)

81

_________________________________________________________________


In France the action plans and agreements in individual companies related to the employment of older workers (mandatory since 2010 in all companies with more than 50 employees) indicates that the most covered areas are training and lifelong learning It can be assumed that women too benefit from these measures

415 Other active ageing practices and policies

Other active ageing practices and policies implemented across the European countries selected that can have an impact on the living condition and the quality of life of elderly women especially women living alone are (See 42)

improving elderly-friendly public spaces and mobility (transport and urban policies)

encouraging age-friendly environment and volunteercommunity work

developing technological skills and closing the digital divide

Using technologies has an impact not only in terms of employment opportunities but also on avoiding social isolation Enabling active ageing factors allows a better level of involvement of women in society of participation in socio-cultural activities and of the effectiveness of the social networks and local ties in terms of support and social protection sharing information and easier access to the social services health and long-term care and to resources and opportunities in the area (neighbourhood) where they live The evidence suggests that the broader benefits of social networks include improving access to employment opportunities by improving service delivery supporting families and communities as well as favouring mutual support Social networks especially those facilitated by online social media can also play a role in helping to update and develop skills or enable people to have a voice in local communities At the same time not all people have the ability to use social networks and technologies73 For these reasons such kinds of training activities have been selected and reported as examples of good practices (See 422)

Instead obstacles to active participation in the life of the community are often due to family and care-giving duties (even for women living alone care for elderly parents or grand-children) women tend to have little time for self-care (health-enhancing physical activity) or civic involvement Thus policies and measures addressing elderly women to favour social and civic involvement (sports voluntary work and participating in association) on the one hand and reconciliation measures on the other hand may positively impact on health outcomes and social inclusion as well as on the participation of women in the society

Table 43 Potential effects of active ageing policies on women living alone Gender implicationsaspects Recommendations

Extending the working life Burden care (both for elderly parents and for grandchildren)

Postponing female retirement age should be accomplished by increasing care facilities and support

Working conditions and Flexibility in access to the Possibility of considering

73 For example in Italy the cultural digital divide is very marked According to Istat (2011) 417 per cent of Italian families do not have access to internet because they do not have the skills to use it Considering that 93 of young people use internet daily the digital divide applies mainly to the elderly

82

_________________________________________________________________________


equal opportunities labour market (for example part-time) or interrupted work paths can also become obstacles in careers and thus aggravate the chances of receiving lower pensions

interrupted work paths in pensions Paying attention to real choices in flexible working patterns

Training and lifelong learning for the elderly worker - Technological skills and closing the digital divide

Less participation of women in training and lifelong initiatives

Increasing female participation

42 Labour market integration and social inclusion policies

Flexibility in access to the labour market or interrupted work paths less participation of women in training and lifelong initiatives family and care-giving duties a vulnerable position in the labour market and the socio-economic position of disadvantaged groups can also become obstacles in careers and thus aggravate the living conditions of women

Labour market integration and social inclusion policies might also affect the condition of women living alone This paragraph is addressed to investigate such kind of policies targeted both at people in working age and at women specifically

As far as labour market polices are concerned increased employment among women and men improvement of the labour market situation for groups with a relatively weak position (people with relatively short education foreign-born people and older people who are at greater risk of long spells of unemployment) and reduced exclusion are some of the policy challenges for Sweden In order to address these major challenges in the labour market and to favour social inclusion the Government has introduced employment policy reforms (see the Swedish Reform Programme for Growth and Jobs 2006ndash2008 and 2008ndash2010 the progress reports for 2007 and 2009 the Swedens National Reform Programme 2011 the labour market package included in the Budget Bill for 2012)74 With the labour market package the Government aimed to improve the Public Employment Service promoting lsquostronger support and mediation for those at risk of long-term unemployment better monitoring of job-seeking activities and higher quality and activities in the special employment support mechanism and the job guarantee for young peoplersquo (NRP 2012 p 19) More specifically the special employment support mechanism a sort of subsidised employment was reinforced in 2011 and 2012 and extended through to 2013 Adjustments were also made to tax (eg in-work tax credit with the higher in-work tax credit for people over 6575) and education policies As regards the latter it should be noted that the reform

74 To consider the lsquoreforms to encourage labour force participation by older people and to improve opportunities for older unemployed people to stay in the labour market [and the reduction] of the qualifying time for a ldquonew startrdquo job has been temporarily shortened from twelve to six months for people who have turnedrsquo (NRP 2012 p 24) 75 lsquoIncome from work for those over 65 who are born in 1938 or later are only subject to a pension contribution ndash no other social security contributions are payable For those born in 1937 or earlier no social security contributions are payable at all In addition people aged 55ndash64 are eligible for new start jobs for up to ten years which is twice as long as people aged 26ndash54 In addition the qualification period for new start jobs have been temporarily shortened from 12 to 6 months for persons over 55 to improve the possibilities for the older unemployed to remain in the labour marketrsquo (NRP 2012 p 59)

83

_________________________________________________________________


of upper secondary school established in 2011 had the objective among others of avoiding skill mismatch and of adapting vocational education and training to labour market demand (see also the new teacher training investment so-called Boost for Teachers and the efforts in terms of additional resources allocated to higher vocational education adult vocational initiative and apprenticeship programmes for adults)

The lsquoIntroduction Act implemented in Sweden is targeting arriving refugees and their families The act provides a series of measures (such as Swedish language lessons for Immigrants civic orientation and employment preparation activities) supporting the integration of the foreign-born into working and community life The newly implemented Introduction Act reform has a clear impact on gender equality helping more foreign-born women to support themselves The reform includes the introduction of an individual social benefit that is not affected by other household membersrsquo incomes It works as an incentive for both women and men to participate - besides their introduction activities - in labour market programme or labour preparation activities (NRP 2012 pp 22-23)

Local solutions to problems and work as the best route out of poverty remain major principles in UK Some of the actions to prevent social exclusion carried out in the UK (April 2011) are included in the Social Mobility strategy (April 2011) the Social Justice strategy (March 2012) the Governments strategy for disability policy including measures to overcome the impaired capacity to work of people with disabilities and the Child poverty strategy (2011) The main strategies tracked in the new approach to improve childrenrsquos future life chances and break intergenerational cycles of poverty include strengthening families encouraging responsibility promoting work guaranteeing fairness and providing support to the most vulnerable as well as investing in the public services

In 2011 Germany introduced lsquoThe Act to Improve the Chances of Integration in the Labour Marketrsquo designed with the goal lsquoto make better use of the resources available and [] to expedite integration into gainful employment particularly in jobs that require the payment of social security contributionsrsquo (NRP 2012 p 27) Among labour market measures that can have an impact on skilled women there is the Skilled Workers Strategy (June 2011) Skill-development Integration and qualified immigration are some of the areas of intervention76

Regarding social inclusion policies the Federal Government has put forward measures to implement the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (see Inclusion Initiative within the National Action Plan) and measures to address challenges related to the integration and participation of Sinti and Roma people in Germany (an integrated package of measures supporting the EU Framework for National Roma Integration Strategies up to 2020)

Addressing the persistence of structural regional disparities the 2012 Economic and Financial Document (Section III) indicates for Italy two main strategies to tackle the unemployment of young people and increase the level of participation and employment of women (a) to reframe the current dual labour market structure and to counter segmentation (b) to introduce tax regulation

Womenrsquos access and continued presence in the labour market is partly due to the gender imbalance in the distribution of care duties and the lack of services for the elderly associated with regional disparities in terms of quality of services provided

84

_________________________________________________________________________


Among other measures it is necessary to note the lsquoSimplified Italy decreersquo and the promotion of lifelong learning through interprofessional funds the deduction of labour costs for women and young people under 35 from the IRAP tax base starting from 2012 (the lsquoSalva Italiarsquo decree) the growing importance of the apprenticeship contracts (Article 22 of the 2012 Stability Law) and the Consolidated Act on Apprenticeship the lsquointegration contractrsquo77 enhancing the access of women (with at least six months of unemployment and living in some Regions with low female employment rates) to the labour market78

The reform of the labour market will introduce changes also as far as social security and income support measures are concerned It extends the coverage of both Italyrsquos wage support scheme (CIG Cassa Integrazione Guadagni) and the insurance for employment (ASPI Assicurazione Sociale per lrsquoimpiego) Active Labour Market Policies and employment services are under reform Finally with regard to inclusion policies the regional operating programme co-financed by Structural Funds use resources to finance care service end work-life balance instruments Experimentation of new means of assignment of a purchase card (Carta Acquisti) in municipalities with more than 250000 inhabitants has been adopted to help fighting against poverty

Among policy initiatives favouring the labour market integration the recent measures promoting education and lifelong learning in France are a long-term unemployed person (jobless for more than two years) is offered by the Pocircle Emploi an including training subsidised contracts or support in returning to employment and the prolongation of the Training Completion Benefit (R2F) in 2012 (euro9m in 2012 for the 30000 job seekers concerned) Attention continues to be paid to initiatives encouraging access to jobs for the disabled lsquoA large-scale training operation by the central governments offices and the Departmental Disability Centres (MDPH) is designed to move beyond local approaches when paying the Adult Disability Benefit to ensure equal treatment throughout France A trial was started in ten Departments on a voluntary basis in 2011 to test a new process for assessing the employability of disabled personsrsquo (NRP 2012 p 34)

The Romanian Government Strategy for Roma Inclusion 2011 ndash 2020 was approved in Romania on December 14 2011 with the aim of increasing the social and economic inclusion of Roma people Roma women have fewer job opportunities and poorer access to income than Roma men and non-Roma women Among the actions implemented the project lsquoWomen for women ndash training and accreditation programme for women in child care employed in the public systemrsquo that comprise training activities for 665 women selected to be qualified for the occupation of babysitter and to be employed in the public day-care system for children

Other active social inclusion initiatives undertaken in Romania include 60 projects financed by the ESF to integrate vulnerable groups (such as Roma disabled young people leaving the public child care system and drug and alcohol addicted persons) into the labour market

76 See the amending of the immigration law and the key priorities of the National Action Plan 77 Article 22 Paragraph 3 Law no 1832011 78 See also the measures targeting disabled workers provided for with the DL 1382011 (L 1482011) and the tax credit hiring of full-time employees in southern Italy (Art 2 DL 702011 L 1062011)

85

_________________________________________________________________


43 Examples of good practices in active ageing policies

As pointed out in the previous section active ageing is a multisectoral strategy and different policy answering the needs of the elderly have been adopted by different countries just as the impact of active ageing policies on lone elderly women may differ The analysis mainly investigates the six Member States identified as being representative of the different welfare regimes

In detecting good practices the study has selected the following measuresinterventionsprogrammesprojects which for the different areas or fields that make up an active ageing strategy can be considered innovative Specific initiatives aimed at favouring active ageing for lone women are described when available even if the majority of active ageing policies are not specifically targeted to women Thus in selecting the good practices attention has been paid both to policies and measures that

directly address lone elderly women

indirectly affect lone elderly women

The examples and measures mentioned respond to the different needs of the target group of this study

The following Table summarizes the examples mentioned by typology and country

86

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

OldrsquoUp 2011 - France

50+ WORKS - United Kingdom


Table 44 The selected good practices

Supporting longer working lives better working conditions and

measures to promote access to lifelong learning

Training qualification and new technologies for the

ageing workforce

Intergenerational solidarity and Housing policies

Measures to improve elderly friendly public spaces mobility and

avoid social isolation

Offering meeting points and voluntarism

Mobility

Mehrgenerationenhaumluser (Multigenerational Houses)

- Germany

Nachbarschaftsheim St Pauli

(Neighbourhood Home St Pauli) -

Germany i2i-Project From Isolation to Inclusion -(Re-)integration of

isolated seniors into community life - Austria the Czech Republic Germany Italy Lithuania and the

UK

The project Volunteers ndash

Ambassadors of Change - Romania

Active Ageing for Competencies Transfer and

Training ndash Italy

Memory Garden -Municipality of Genoa - Italy

Employment Pacts for Older People - Germany

AQUA ndash Alternsgerechte Qualifizierung (Age appropriate

qualification) - Germany

MiaA ndash Menschen in altersgerechter Arbeitskultur (People in an age-appropriate working culture) -

Germany Perspektive 50plus ndash

Beschaumlftigungspakte fuumlr Aumlltere in den Regionen (Perspective 50plus ndash

Employment Pacts for the Elderly throughout the Regions) - Germany

ldquoLa Posterdquo (Adapting postmen rounds in the Postal service) 2007 - France

ldquoTransrsquofairerdquo (Age management and knowledge transmission among

generations in a construction firm ndash Bourdarios Pocircle construction Groupe

Vinci) 2005 ndash France

Granny Aupair - Germany

Bicycle for elderly -

Province of Treviso - Italy

87

_________________________________________________________________


431 Supporting longer working lives better working conditions and measures to promote access to lifelong learning

- Employment Pacts for Older People in Germany

In Germany the Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs has launched a national programme ldquoPerspectives 50plus ndash employment pacts for older workers in the regionsrdquo (Perspektive 50plus ndash Beschaumlftigungspakte fuumlr aumlltere in den Regionen) In 2011 the third programme period started to run on until 2015 About 78 regional employment pacts have been established so far The partners include centres as well as a wide range of local stakeholders and key actors such as companies chambers and various associations trade unions municipalities training institutions churches and social service providers The measures implemented include training in communication skills and job application training internships and wage subsidies In 2011 more than 200 000 out of 550 000 older long-term unemployed people were successfully activated and 70 000 of them were placed on the regular labour market An earlier evaluation of the first phase of the programme conducted in 2007 showed that the success rested on the combination of individualized counselling and coaching as well as on proactive and targeted outreaching of the employer The quality of the pre-selection of candidates for vacancies was highly valued by small enterprises Both older long-term unemployed people and employers assessed the programme positively

Source EEO Review Active Ageing (2012 p 29)

- AQUA ndash Alternsgerechte Qualifizierung (Age appropriate qualification) -Germany

AQUArsquos aim is to involve elderly employees more in further education To this end it develops and tests self-regulated forms of learning that are close to the working situation and broadly formed independently by the participants By doing so they become reacquainted with their expertise and are able to prove themselves to the executives The core of AQUArsquos activities is the relevance of their practical and everyday life as well as the mobilisation of experience AQUA also works as a part of a regional network

Source Mens Sana in Corpore Sano Policies and Instruments for a healthy and dignified active Ageing for Elderly Women 2012 (EU Progress)

- MiaA ndash Menschen in altersgerechter Arbeitskultur (People in an age-appropriate working culture) - Germany

The funding focus of the Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs Altersgerechte Arbeitsbedingungen (Age-friendly Working Conditions) aims at demonstrating and implementing new and practical ways of maintaining health and employability of employees aged 55+ MiaA one of the sponsored projects pursues the following

To gain insights into the motivation and job satisfaction of elderly employees to support executives and to approach the demographic challenge

To gain insights into the needs of companies in order to raise their awareness of the topic

To give information and support about how to handle the demographic change by developing concepts and tools

88

_________________________________________________________________________


To identify the needs and demands of human resource development of elderly employees

One of the results of MiaA is the implementation of guidelines for executives of elderly employees


- Perspektive 50plus ndash Beschaumlftigungspakte fuumlr Aumlltere in den Regionen (Perspective 50plus ndash Employment Pacts for the Elderly throughout the Regions) - Germany

Perspektive 50plus is a programme launched by the Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs with the aim of improving the chances of employment of the elderly long-term unemployed More than ever the creative potential of the regions (in addition to the federal states) is to be used to integrate the unemployed The programme forms the umbrella of 78 regional employment pacts throughout Germany being based on a regional approach that allows for the employment pacts to apply an integration strategy specifically appropriate for their particular regional features Thus different ways are used to offer to the long-term unemployed a chance on the labour market Perspektive 50plus pursues a learning approach ie that not only the primarily job centres responsible are involved but also partners of the regional networks eg companies organizations professional and social associations municipal institutions educational providers politics unions and churches The programmersquos goal for 2011 was to enable approx 200000 older long-term unemployed and to integrate approx 65000 women and men into the labour market


- ldquoLa Posterdquo (Adapting postmen rounds in the Postal service) 2007 - France

The project aims at finding solutions to favour job maintenance for postmenwomen with temporary or permanent medical incapacities (recognised by the occupational health doctor) including seniors The provider and partner involved are La Poste and the Ministry of Economics Industry and Employment The project target group are postmenwomen with incapacities

Source EGGSI 2010 Active Ageing and Gender Equality Policies The employment and social inclusion of women and men of late working and early retirement age

- ldquoTransrsquofairerdquo (Age management and knowledge transmission among generations in a construction firm ndash Bourdarios Pocircle construction Groupe Vinci) 2005 ndash France

The overall aim of ldquoTransrsquofairerdquo was to manage the end of working careers by adapting tasks to the workerrsquos trajectory and profile facilitating knowledge transmission

Every senior worker has a vocational interview 5 years before retirement and may be offered adaptation of hisher job mobility towards a supporting function (working with a newcomer) or another adapted function (reduction in working-time etc)

89

_________________________________________________________________


The provider and partner involved are Bourdarios Pocircle construction Groupe Vinci and the Ministry of Economics Industry and Employment The project target group are senior workers (manual as well as non-manual)


432 Training qualification and new technologies for the ageing workforce

- OldrsquoUp 2011 - France

OldrsquoUp is a non-profit French organization that has been organising a number of life-long learning activities for its members since November 2011 Taught by younger generations more than 250 senior citizens receive lessons on all aspects of modern life from buying transport tickets from a vending machine to online purchase communicating through Skype or using a state-of-the art camera Generations are thus brought together through a teaching experience as younger students become the teachers and senior citizens go back to school but with the luxury of enjoying home lessons More than 1000 candidates have applied to join this initiative Applicants are primarily students from the fields of medicine law or psychology Forty students are already participating in the Ile-de-France area OldUp is preparing a forum about active ageing and solidarity between generations which will be held in 2013

Mens Sana in Corpore Sano Policies and Instruments for a healthy and dignified active Ageing for Elderly Women 2012 (EU Progress)

- 50+ WORKS - United Kingdom

The project 50+ WORKS was launched by TAEN - The Age and Employment Network in association with the European Social Fund and the Department for Work and Pensions Although its focus is on the 50+ jobseekers the programme addresses professionals who help people in this particular age group back to work 50+ WORKS offers ideas tips case studies guidance on good practice and background information via a guide It includes the following issues ndash all of them with the focus on 50+ jobseekers characteristics overcoming barriers confidence and motivation customer journey finding work training and skills networking and referrals engaging with employers advisertrainer skills age and the law finance

Mens Sana in Corpore Sano Policies and Instruments for a healthy and dignified active Ageing for Elderly Women 2012 (EU Progress))

- Active Ageing for Competencies Transfer and Training ndash Italy

The project promoted by the IFOA ndash Instituto Formazione Operatori Aziendali targeting senior workers includes the following activities

Research with a survey on professional profiles and distinctive competencies of senior workers mastering key processes within enterprises on seniorsrsquo competencies gaps with regard to new technologies production and organisation methods The activity was carried out in 6 Regions of 4 Member States

Tool development with production of a set of tools for companies institutions and training centres such as a self-evaluation guide to implementing active ageing

90

_________________________________________________________________________


policies in companies a guide to selecting the most apt toolsmethods to favour the knowledge and skills transfer training units case studies etc

Experimentation with a number of pilot training sessions both for re-qualification of senior workers either on organisational subjects or on becoming mentorstrainers for younger colleagues and for supporting company management in setting up active ageing policies

Raising awareness on active ageing through actions (4 workshops 2 conferences 1 study tour in the UK) directed at major stakeholders and aiming at comparing and transferring European good practices to Italy


433 Intergenerational solidarity and Housing policies

- Mehrgenerationenhaumluser (Multigenerational Houses) - Germany The action programme Mehrgenerationenhaumluser was initiated by the Federal Government in 2006 The 500 institutions participating took on the task of transferring the principle of former extended families into the modern society ie the natural give-and-take between people of different age groups is activated again in the Mehrgenerationenhaumlusern The young and the old meet in a public place in their neighbourhood and benefit from different competencies experiences and interests In almost every county and urban district at least one Mehrgenerationenhaus has been established resulting in an extensive social infrastructure that contributes to society solidarity The houses strengthen peoplersquos self responsibility vis-agrave-vis their surroundings and encourage them to actively participate and get involved Also the compatibility of family and work is thus promoted The Mehrgenerationenhaumluser pursue seven fields of action 1 Four ages under one roof 2 Cross-generational offers 3 Childcare 4 Voluntary commitment 5 Centre for information and services 6 Involving the local economy and 7 Open venue In 2012 the action programme Mehrgenerationenhaumluser II started with the aim of advancement of the cross generational work The main focus now lies on the fields of age and care integration and education offering and facilitating domestic services as well as promoting citizenrsquos involvement


434 Measures to improve elderly friendly public spaces mobility and avoid social isolation

- i2i-Project From Isolation to Inclusion -(Re-)integration of isolated seniors into community life - Austria the Czech Republic Germany Italy Lithuania and the UK The i2i project focused on the identification and the improvement of measures enabling older people to fully participate in community life in particular those at high risk of social exclusion such as single older people from ethnic minorities older persons with disabilities or chronic diseases older persons in need of support and care older women affected by poverty and older persons threatened by homelessness A major focus was on strengthening initiatives by older persons for older persons and on supporting networks of

91

_________________________________________________________________


these initiatives The i2i-project took place in Austria the Czech Republic Germany Italy Lithuania and the UK In each country a public authority (regional or local) and an external consultancy organisation cooperated at a regional level ldquoBy combining political impetus expert know-how and direct links into practice the project intended to increase the chances for a successful implementation of socio-political measures in favour of isolated older personsldquo (CoR 2009)

Source httpwwwi2i-projectnet


- Nachbarschaftsheim St Pauli (Neighbourhood Home St Pauli) - Germany The Nachbarschaftsheim St Pauli a senior citizenrsquos day centre has been running for more than 55 years with the overall aim of stabilizing the social psychological mental and physical health of their senior citizen guests with the focus on elderly migrants The Nachbarschaftsheim considers the particular problems and context background by providing a low-threshold and integrative structure The project has proven to be very successful as in 2007 alone there were 33414 contacts a third of which by migrants The offers include both one-on-one and group conversations games activities and excursions to help reduce the isolation and increase the independence of the people Furthermore special cross-cultural and cross-generational activities especially addressed to elderly women are organised


- The project Volunteers ndash Ambassadors of Change Romania The project Volunteers ndash Ambassadors of Change which has been run by The Princess Margarita of Romania Foundation since 2006 aims to fight loneliness and poverty by offering assistance to the elderly who are confined in their homes or in retirement homes It also encourages senior citizens to participate and contribute to society by offering them the chance to take part in cultural and social activities including volunteering initiatives Volunteers ndash Ambassadors of Change promotes both intergenerational activities and exchanges and volunteering activities ie it trains and assists volunteers who offer assistance to the elderly Furthermore the project raises awareness among the general public regarding the needs and realities of the elderly At present the project Volunteers ndash Ambassadors of Change looks after about 400 senior citizens with 60 volunteers The funding enables to transport the volunteers for regular home visits and to the centre as well as to transport the beneficiaries to the doctor hospital events or activities Besides occasional support is provided in terms of medicines or other special and critical needs for senior citizens with the lowest pensions

Source httpwwwfpmrroindexphppage=volunteers-ambassadors-of-change

- Memory Garden - Municipality of Genoa Italy The Memory Garden developed by the Municipality of Genoa is an innovative approach to interlink physical and mental training of the elderly in one of the city parks It needs small-scale investment only but can communicate the opportunities to be exploited by active ageing especially through its high visibility The Memory Garden is located in one of the parks in Genoa In the frame of Q-AGEING the Municipality has created several signboards which contain both mental and physical exercises for the visitors These boards are placed

92

_________________________________________________________________________


in the park and visitors can walk along the ldquothematicrdquo track and do the exercises without time limit The Municipality of Genoa also organised training courses for final beneficiaries as well as for trainers A promotional event with demonstration of exercises for elderly was also organised The Municipality of Genoa worked together with the relevant local NGOs to promote the memory garden for the local elderly The Municipality of Genoa implemented the pilot project between September 2010 and July 2011

Success factors of the project are Good relations with local NGOs (pensionersrsquo associations) so as to involve the local elderly efficiently finding a suitable location and finding suitable exercises clear notice-boards on the equipment explaining their use

Benefits Access to recreation for elderly reducing the risk of dementia improving the self-esteem of the elderly improving physical and health conditions of the elderly enhancing older peoplersquos mental and physical health enhancing the quality of life of the elderly

Source Q-AGEING Quality Ageing in urban Environment Toolbox of tested solutions promoting active ageing at local level CENTRAL EUROPE project 2011 pp 35-6

Improving mobility

- Granny Aupair - Germany The programmes Granny Aupair launched in 2010 provide women aged 50+ with the opportunity to travel abroad and work as au pairs in host families or as volunteers in a social project These programmes promote the cross-cultural exchange especially for elderly women by providing the opportunity to learn another language and get to know another country At the same time the women participants gain a greater understanding of the host family or a social project Granny Aupair is based on the assumption that women who belong to the generation 50+ seldom had the opportunity for such experiences when they were young


- Bicycle for elderly - Province of Treviso Italy During the Q-AGEING project the Province of Treviso had to create a ldquospecific transport toolrdquo for elderly people ensuring their physical activity and independence in terms of mobility The Province of Treviso developed a bike (ELDbicycle) which aimed to mobilise the elderly who cannot ride a bicycle anymore (eg living in elderly houses) and thus to improve their quality of life by spending more time outdoors Therefore it is more a lsquowellnessrsquo tool than a means of transport used by an older person The ELDbicycle is an electric bicycle drawing a kind of rickshaw which has two seats The rickshaw is covered by a solar cell providing energy to the battery ELDbicycle has been developed for street use The development stages for the bike were joint project planning together with technicians and final users clarifying and getting intellectual property rights over the bicycle in order to enable local municipalities to have the bicycle feasibility study creation and testing of the prototypes as well as efficient promotion among municipalities and elderly associations

It took almost 14 months for the Province of Treviso to implement this pilot (between March 2010 and May 2011)

93

_________________________________________________________________


Benefits Access to outdoor recreation for elderly improvement of physical activities of elderly efficient and visible promotion of active ageing enhancing quality of life of the elderly



Even if active ageing has relevant gender aspects (increasing womenrsquos life expectancy the greying female workforce reconciliation issues) most of the practices and innovative initiatives of active ageing implemented across Europe do not specifically target women (direct effects) Neither is there much attention paid to specific groups of women such as those living alone Thus in trying to understand to what extend recent active ageing policies affect elderly women living alone it is also necessary to consider active ageing measures and policies designed to address the situation of old people as a whole and their effects on elderly women living alone (indirect effects)

Attention paid to promoting an active ageing strategy - where the main goals are Health Participation and Security - varies across countries just as there are different levels of attention placed on the different fieldsareas to support active ageing and different levels of awareness of gender aspects Policies promoting active ageing imply good health Health promotion and well-being throughout life are important ways undertaken to foster active ageing however the active aging strategy has been predominantly implemented in Europe recently through labour market polices (eg pension system changes and efforts to reduce the gender pension gap measures to improve the employability for the elderly such as reducing working hours gradually age friendly practices within the company training and lifelong learning for older workers) Labour market integration and social inclusion policies might also affect the living condition of women living alone and the active ageing of women

Prolonging the working life of women has relevant effects on private and professional life reconciliation Active ageing from a gender perspective should therefore focus on (a) measures for reconciliation of work and family life in terms of balancing work for older women and caring for relatives on one hand the impact of the kind of prevalent distribution of tasks and responsibilities of care work within the European societies on the other hand (b) the different cultural models and assumptions on gender roles (eg the concept of family the degree of recognition of individual rights) underlying different social policies and welfare system models Of particular concern are grandparents as caregivers and more generally care-giving issues

To investigate the impact of practices and measures of active ageing policies on women living alone it is also necessary to analyse a variety of practices implemented across Europe to promote quality housing conditions and living arrangements elderly-friendly public spaces and mobility (urban policies to foster active ageing) age-friendly environment and volunteercommunity work social participation and leisure activities dissemination of and access to social networks development of technological skills and overcoming the digital divide More effort must be made for effective legitimacy and a real multi-sectoral and intergenerational active ageing strategy People need to see the benefit in a longer working-life Social inclusion meaning in life life satisfaction positive

94

_________________________________________________________________________


subjective social status are key factors in implementing successful actions supporting active ageing especially at the local level

Obstacles and barriers that denied many elderly women active and healthy ageing are socio-economic status and working life a condition of vulnerability and multiple disadvantages Many older women face poverty illness or disability Specific active ageing policies need to be designed for these target groups such as synergies between social inclusion labour market polices and active ageing policies which must be identified Giving visibility to gender inequality of older women belonging to specific target groups represents a preliminary step in this direction

95

_________________________________________________________________


5 CHANGES IN ASSISTANCE SCHEMES AND THEIR EFFECTS ON WOMEN LIVING ALONE

51 Recent trends in assistance schemes and their (expected) effects on women living alone

The objectives of this chapter are (i) to provide an introductory overview of the different macro factors that may directly and indirectly affect policies addressing women and women living alone in Europe with a particular attention on the impact of these schemes on the elderly and (ii) identify the main changes occurring in the assistance schemes and social policy across the selected European countries

The general aim is to offer a context for discussion on how the different types of assistance schemes and social policies affect the living conditions of women living alone and what the expected effects of the recently policy changes are on the same target group

511 The policy framework

Different welfare state models and the degree to which policies toward equality are provided within the different countries have an impact on the living condition of women living alone and the active ageing of women In trying to understand to what extent recent changes in assistance schemes affect women living alone it is necessary to consider

(a) The kind of prevalent distribution of tasks and responsibilities of care work within the European societies and the impact of work life balance measures

The evidence shows that the percentage of total female population having care responsibilities (inactivity and part-time work among women due to the lack of care services for children and other dependent persons) within the EU‑ 27 in 2010 is 283

(European Commission - Progress on equality between women and men in 2011)

Focusing on elderly women European countries show different degrees of inactivity According to the Eurostat Report (2012) the main reasons for inactivity for people aged 50 to 64 years within the EU‑ 27 in 2010 are early retirement illness or disability family or

personal responsibilities In particular the last-mentioned point applies much more to women (123) than to men (15)

Concern over the inactivity rate of older women and the informal care faced by women should be accompanied by awareness of the impact that raising the retirement age and employment rate for older women has on the labour supply of mothers of young children

(b) The different welfare system models including cultural models and assumptions on gender roles underlying social policies

The evidence shows that the living conditions of women living alone are better where the welfare systems are focusing on the individual rather than the family and where they are available to support the care of family members On the contrary in countries where the family still plays an important role as a welfare provider women are expected to have the care and the responsibility of family members as well as to provide domestic labour In these cases the living conditions of women are worse off presenting poorer health

96

_________________________________________________________________________


conditions especially among women from disadvantaged groups and those lacking economic independence

(c) Expenditure in provision of social services and in promoting gender equality

In analyzing social assistance schemes (but also pension reforms and active ageing policies) it is useful to bear in mind the common contextual and policy issues debated at both the European and Member State level such as the need to guarantee employability for European citizens and questions about the affordability of the welfare state in a shifting context characterized by rising costs scarcity of public resources and a growing demand for health and social services due mainly to the ageing of the European population and the increase in chronic diseases (EC 2010)

The fiscal consolidation measures and expenditure cuts on social policies that characterized all the European Member States have in fact an impact on gender policies and therefore on the condition of women

Since 2009 the vast majority of European countries have undertaken or announced consolidation plans to rebalance public finances so as to avoid the risk of sovereign debt crisis The amount of the stimulus packages varies across countries with the UK and Germany adopting the largest packages in 2009 or 2010

According to the study lsquoRestoring Public Financesrsquo (2011) carried out by the OECD (i) consolidation is achieved primarily through expenditure cuts (rather than increases in fiscal revenue) accounting for half or more of the cumulative consolidation in all the European countries except Belgium and Sweden (ii) health welfare pensions and infrastructure provisions are the main sectors in which cuts occurred79

Analysing the National Response Plans adopted during crisis years Villa and Smith (2011) argue that consolidation programmes have hardly benefitted from preliminary gender impact assessment A similar position is expressed by the country experts from the EGGE and the EGGSI networks80 as shown in Box 51

Box 51 Some examples of gender-blindness in public cuts in selected EU member states France Public cuts risk being the primary targets of public sector reductions which contradicts the spirit of the Europe 2020 strategy Alongside a reduction of 64000 civil servants by 2013 the government plan is to freeze their pay Moreover the number of subsidized jobs will be halved from 400000 to 200000 by 2013

Germany The fiscal stabilization programme includes massive reductions of social policies as financial support in the form of unemployment assistance decreases (via cuts affecting parental leave allowance transition payments and the heating allowance) and the parental leave allowance will be lowered for all new parentshellipThe overall reduction in parental leave allowance will primarily hit families with higher incomes and therefore reduce the fathersrsquo propensity to take leave

79 See also the age-related expenditure projections by 2012 reported in lsquoThe 2012 Ageing Report Underlying Assumptions and Projection Methodologies 80 F Bettio et al (2011) The impact of the economic crisis on the situation of women and men and on gender equality policies Synthesis Report 2011

97

_________________________________________________________________


United Kingdom The Coalition Government has since its formation in May 2010 chosen to reduce the public debt mainly by cutting government spending The Emergency Budget in June 2010 and the Spending Review in October 2010 both announced significant cuts to welfare expenditure and public services The Government has a legal obligation to take lsquodue regardrsquo of the impact of its decisions on different equality strands including gender Despite this legal duty no equalities impact assessment was conducted on the 2010 Emergency Budget leading the Fawcett Society to seek a judicial review of the budget in the High Court

Sources The Impact of the economic Crisis on the Situation of Women and Men and on Gender Equality Policies Synthesis Report 2011 pp 89-90

To what extent do expenditure cuts in social policies impact on gender equality policies and the condition of women living alone

From the judgment of the EGGE and EGGSI networks experts on the consolidation measures are likely to be more consequential for gender equality and their expected repercussions for example it emerges that the measures most implemented are

wage freezes or wage cuts in the public sector staffing freezes or personnel cuts in the public sector and tightening of eligibility criteria for unemployment and assistance benefits or reductions in replacement rates

staffing freezes or personnel cuts in the public sector pension reforms postponing retirement andor bringing the age of retirement for women in line with that for men

cuts and restrictions in care related benefitsallowancesfacilities

reduction of housing benefits or family benefits

cost savings deriving mainly from public expenditure restraint which also includes reduction of National Health Service costs

The provisions judged by the EGGSI national expert to carry at least some risks for gender equality amount to less than one percent of GDP in all the consolidation years in France and Sweden In Germany and the UK the share of GDP accounted for by such measures is little more than one percent in at least one consolidation year (ibid p 93) Even if the evaluative exercise from the national experts cannot substitute rigorous analysis this first assessment can stimulate a debate as the gender impact of public cuts and encourage more extensive analysis of differential repercussions on gender equality in terms of the quantitative effects the EGGSI national expert observed across countries (between France and Sweden and Germany and UK)

512 Changes in assistance schemes and social policies

Support policies for women living alone as independent target groups is still lacking in all Member States This is true also for social research Therefore in this framework indirect policies or measures not specifically women-targeted are relevant For this purpose this chapter presents a qualitative analysis of the main policies and assistance schemes produced at the country level that may indirectly affect the category of women considered in this study

98

_________________________________________________________________________


The analysis of the National Strategy Reports and the MISSOC database offer indications on the main changes in assistance schemes and measures implemented in each country shytargeted both at adults and at disadvantaged people - to be outlined for their (direct or indirect) effect on women living alone A particular attention has been paid on the impact of these schemes on the elderly

Four macro-areas of policy intervention can be distinguished in order to identify which measures may cover the populations of lone women and elderly lone women

1) minimum resource benefits

2) housing policies

3) provision and access to essential (and quality) social services healthcare and long term care

5121 Minimum resource benefits

Many women living alone and elderly women are subject to vulnerability disadvantages poverty andor illness The provision of assistance schemes have a direct impact on women living alone contributing to alleviate a situation of poverty or social exclusion At the same time given the more fragmented working careers for women due to family responsibilities and their lower earnings they also have a greater dependency on public benefits

What are the minimum resource benefits available in the selected countries on which women can rely Detailed information on the minimum resources benefits - focusing on minimum income and its link with other social benefits - in the six selected European countries is given in the ldquocountry boxesrdquo below

Different forms of social assistance aimed to guaranteed minimum resources are taken into account distinguishing minimum income protection for able-bodied persons at working age and general social assistance schemes guaranteeing a minimum income for disadvantaged people All these measures indirectly address women because they target broad categories under specific restrictions or to specific groups of the population such as the elderly disabled and unemployed

Particular attention should be paid to minimum income protection for Europersquos elderly and minimum income schemes (MIS)

With regard to minimum income guarantees targeting the elderly (mid-2000s) all the countries selected provide social pensions the Guarantee of sufficient resources during old age in Germany the Minimum Vieillesse and the Allocation de Solidariteacute aux Personnes acircgeacutees in France the lsquoAssegno Socialersquo in Italy the lsquoMaintenance Support for the Elderlyrsquo in Sweden the lsquoPension Creditrsquo in UK and the general social assistance in Romania (Goedemeacute 2012 p 33)

General social assistance schemes guaranteeing a minimum income besides the income guarantees targeted at the elderly are to be considered

Regarding this aspect all the European countries with the exception of Italy and Greece have a minimum income scheme These countries are differently positioned regarding two different approaches to the MIS (information updated to 2010)

99

_________________________________________________________________


lsquoone generalised all encompassing benefit income scheme modelrsquo as observed in Romania and France where MIS is lsquothe only (or the most important) existing income support scheme and it is open to all those who are without sufficient resources not limited to specific targets of populationrsquo (Crepaldi Castegnaro Naaf Mesini 2011 p 23)

lsquominimum income as a last resort subsidy for all those who have already exhausted all other possible claims for targeted measuresrsquo (ibidem) as observed in Sweden Germany and the UK

Romania where womenrsquos poverty rates before social transfers are higher than menrsquos raised minimum income payments by increasing public expenditure Supports and social benefits for social categories in the highest risk of poverty and social exclusion have been given by the Law on social assistance Law 416 of 18 July 2001 also has the aim to link benefits with the active participation of beneficiaries in support programmes

Romania Law 416 of 18 July 2001 established the Guaranteed Minimum Income (Legea privind venitul minim garantat) with subsequent amendments The amount of the Guaranteed Minimum Income (venit minim garantat) varies with the number of family members An individual or a family is in need when the monthly net income is lower than the Guaranteed Minimum Income (venit minim garantat)

The Social Aid aims at covering the basic needs by guaranteeing a minimum level of income according to the solidarity principle It is granted on the basis of a subjective right The Social Aid is provided in kind or in cash (differential amount) the minimum amount (ajutor social minim) being RON 10 (euro 235) per month The duration of Social Aid (ajutor social) is up to the date of ceasing to meet either the conditions or the obligations thereafter (see ldquoConditionsrdquo) If at least one family member is working the Social Aid is increased by 15 once irrespective of the number of family members working In order to be taken into account as an individual or a family member for the purposes of the calculation of the Guaranteed Minimum Income the individual or the family member who is aged between 16 years and the Standard Retirement Age not attending a full-time form of education not working but capable of working must register with the National Agency for Labour Force Employment (Agentia Nationala pentru Ocuparea Fortei de Munca) nor decline to attend a vocational training programme or accept a job offer Source MISSOC 2011

The universal social assistance scheme in Romania is controlled by the Central government and financed by local budgets The scheme provides both cash and in-kind benefits such as the Social Aid (ajutor social) the Allowance for Heating of Dwelling by Wood Coal Oil (ajutor pentru incalzirea locuintei cu lemne cărbuni şi combustibili petrolieri) and the Allowance for Heating of Dwelling by Gas (ajutor pentru incalzirea locuintei cu gaz) (MISSOC database)

With regard to the recent social assistance reform Law No 2922011 lsquointroduced a unitary approach of the social assistance system and its components namely the social benefit and social service systems in order to increase the share of services over the social benefits classification granting criteria and the organization and administration of benefits and social services regulation of contracting social services by private providers regulation of the calculation and setting up the amount of social benefits based on a single indicator ndash social reference indicator used to determine the unemployment benefitsrsquo (Romaniarsquos National Reform Programme 2011ndash2013 Implementation Report March 2012 p 26)

100

_________________________________________________________________________


More generally reforms were made in the fields of the labour market education and social assistance systems with the adoption of the Labour Code the Law on social dialogue the Law on national education the Law on social assistance and the modification of the Law No 762002 on unemployment insurance system and the employment stimulation These measures to tackle poverty and social exclusion can probably influence the condition of women positively

New minimum income schemes (The Social Inclusion Benefit) have recently been introduced in France rationalizing already existing measures As observed in other countries also in this case there is the intention to link income support with the participation and inclusion of the recipients in the labour market According to a preliminary assessment of the Inclusion Benefit (RSA Revenu de Solidariteacute Active) carried out by the National Evaluation Committee (2011) living standards for RSA beneficiaries have increased (NRP 2012 p 32)

France Benefits are set at national level and granted on the basis of a subjective right for the calculation of which the household situation is taken Differential allowances are - Active solidarity income (Revenu de Solidariteacute Active RSA) supplement income from work for those with insufficient professional income to ensure a minimum income for persons without resources to promote professional activity whilst fighting exclusion It is granted for periods of 3 months and includes the obligation to look for work to take the necessary steps to generate onersquos own activity or to follow the integration activities that are stipulated It amounts to euro 46699 per single person -Allowance for disabled adults (Allocation pour Adulte Handicapeacute AAH) guarantees minimum resources for disabled persons for minimum 1 year maximum 5 years or 10 years if the disability cannot improve -Solidarity allowance for the elderly (allocation de Solidariteacute aux Personnes Ageacutees ASPA - euro 74227 per month for a single person) and Supplementary invalidity allowance (Allocation Suppleacutementaire drsquoInvaliditeacute ASI) supplement social security benefits for old or disabled persons without (sufficient) insurance record Two ceilings are given for a single person and for couple81 Both ASPA and ASI are granted as long as the qualifying conditions are fulfilled -Allowance of specific solidarity (Allocation de Solidariteacute Speacutecifique ASS) guarantees a minimum income for persons capable of working (granted for renewable periods of 6 months) Full allowance when income is below a certain ceiling Partial allowance on the part of income exceeding this ceiling -Temporary waiting period allowance (Allocation Temporaire dAttente ATA) provides a temporary income to certain jobseekers who are not entitled to unemployment insurance benefits -Retirement-equivalent benefit (Allocation Equivalent Retraite AER) guarantees a decent amount of resources for older unemployed persons until their retirement No new beneficiaries since 1 January 2011 ATA and AER are renewable each month or a maximum period of 12 months Source MISSOC 2011

Women can benefit from category schemes supporting specific target groups such as the Allowance for disabled adults (Allocation pour Adulte Handicapeacute AAH) the supplementary social security benefits for old or disabled persons without (sufficient) insurance records

81 euro 38805 per month for a single person

101

_________________________________________________________________


According to the NRP 2012 lsquothe adjustment plan for certain social benefits paid to vulnerable groups such as the Adult Disability Benefit and the Old Age Benefit has led to a 25 increase in these benefits over five years and was continued in 2011 These benefits increased from euro621 to euro777 per month between 2007 and 2012rsquo (p 34)

The minimum income in Sweden is designed for all those who are without sufficient resources (not targeting specific population groups) The Social service Act regulates nationally the minimum income scheme in Sweden while the municipalities are responsible for the administration

Sweden

Entitlement is granted to everyone assessed as in need of the support The amount depends on the personrsquos needs Social assistance is organised locally Social security benefits may be combined with social assistance Social assistance is complementary to all other subsistence allowances and is provided as a last resort (safety net) It is granted if the income (including social security benefits) is not sufficient to meet the necessary costs of living Income and benefits are deducted from the amount of social assistance

Monthly maximum amounts (excluding other benefits such as family benefits) covering expenditures on food clothing and footwear play and leisure disposable articles health and hygiene daily newspaper telephone and television fee is SEK 2830 (euro 310) for a single person For common expenditures in the households a special amount is added depending on the size of the household (1 person SEK 890 euro 98)

Patient participation for health care and dental services and for the purchase of glasses may be covered by social assistance Source MISSOC 2011

Activity compensation a benefit for people between the ages of 19 and 29 and who have permanently impaired work capacity Within the framework of the compensation young people are offered activities to improve their working ability

The (reformed) Sickness insurance it should provide economic security in the event of illness but at the same time there should be clear incentives to work and increased opportunities to get back to employment among other things through active rehabilitation Source NRP 2012 Various types of social security schemes exist in Sweden The proportion of expenditure on social security of GDP in Sweden was over 20 per cent for the year 2010 (and more than 40 per cent of total general government expenditure) while for education and health care the percentage is respectively of 7 and 71 (Statistics Sweden and NRP calculations)

According to the NRP 2012 lsquoThe trend towards fewer social assistance recipients was broken in 2008 In 2010 437000 people received social assistance at some point during the year compared with 422000 in 2009 hellip38 per cent cited unemployment as the reason for needing assistance Of those close to two-thirds were not receiving unemployment compensation The next most cited reason for social assistance was unemployment obstacles due to social reasonsrsquo (NRP 2012 p17) Changes for more sustainable sickness insurance and unemployment insurance are under investigation

The minimum income in Germany is equivalent to a last resort subsidy for all those who have already claimed all other means of support (Crepaldi Castegnaro Naaf Mesini 2011 p 23)

102

_________________________________________________________________________


Germany

Individuals incapable of work are entitled to Assistance towards living expenses (Hilfe zum Lebensunterhalt)Needs-based pension supplement in old age and in the event of reduced earning capacity (Grundsicherung im Alter und bei Erwerbsminderung) The income and assets of the claimant and spouse or partner who share the same household is considered for calculation of benefits All persons in need who are capable of working - if they are not excluded due to particular circumstances - and their family members are potential beneficiaries of the Basic security benefits for jobseekers (Grundsicherung fuumlr Arbeitsuchende) which is an individual entitlement Excluded from benefits are foreigners who are neither employed nor self-employed in Germany nor falling under the free movement provisions of national or EU law as well as their family members for the first three months of their stay Foreigners (as well as their family members) whose stay in Germany is solely for job hunting are also excluded

From April 2012 the Act to Improve the Chances of Integration in the Labour Market will provide job centres with greater scope for integrating long-term unemployed people Persons capable of work (eg when as result of sickness or infirmity she or he is not able to work during an indefinite period for at least 3 hours a day under the regular labour market conditions) person in need of help (eg he or she is not able to earn his or her living through the income or the assets to be considered or from other aid) are entitled to receive unemployment benefit II From the age of 65 and in case of permanent full earning incapacity from the age of 18 the needs-based pension supplement in old age and in the event of reduced earning capacity is granted instead of the assistance towards living expenses The amounts of the standard rates (Regelsaumltze) vary according to the age and the beneficiarys position in the household82 As from 1 January 2011 the normal requirements (Regelbedarfe) are euro 364 for the head of the household or for a person living alone Source MISSOC 2011

In Germany major changes were launched recently with regard to childcare and youth welfare facilities (eg the Initiative to Support Structural Change ndash IFLAS the Germany Scholarship programme the Early Opportunities initiative the family care leave The Opportunities for Parents Are Opportunities for Children federal programme) Civil unions singles and women living alone are excluded from the benefits deriving from a system of combinations of wage tax category and the additional option of a lsquoFaktorverfahrenrsquo or marginal burden introduced in 2009 targeting married couples Applying the income splitting method in conjunction with the joint assessment of income tax lsquoallows each married partner to distribute their monthly tax burden individually according to the income share between married partnersrsquo (NRP 2012 p 17)

To be noted also is the introduction of a new mechanism for social benefits rates in social welfare and the basic cover for jobseekers the adjustment of the benefits follows the changes in prices for social benefit-related goods and services and the development of net wages and salaries of employees It is expected that these changes will positively contribute to prevent vulnerability

In the UK there is a comprehensive social assistance scheme and people who benefit from MISs (Minimum Income Schemes) can also require assistance for other needs

82 The standard rates are not supplemented by the single women target group

103

_________________________________________________________________


UK The following benefits are administered and paid centrally They are granted on the basis of a subjective right Income Support Means-tested tax-financed scheme providing financial help for people who are not in full-time work (16 hours or more a week for the claimant 24 hours or more for claimants partner) who are not required to register as unemployed and whose income from all sources is below a set minimum level

Jobseekers Allowance (Income-based) Income-based means-tested tax-financed scheme for registered unemployed people whose income from all sources is below a set minimum level and who are not in full-time work (16 hours or more a week for the claimant 24 hours or more for claimants partner)

Pension Credit Means-tested tax-financed minimum income guarantee scheme for men and women over 60

Employment and Support Allowance Income-based means-tested tax-financed social assistance scheme for people unable to work because of sickness or disability

Housing Benefit Means-tested tax-financed social assistance scheme to help people in and out of work who are on a low income and who need help to meet their rent liability Benefit paid through local authority (municipality)

Council Tax Benefit Means-tested tax-financed social assistance scheme to help people on low incomes meet up to 100 of their liability to contribute to the cost of local authority services Benefit paid through the local authority (municipality)

Guaranteed minimum benefits are payable to people whose income from all sources is below a specified minimum level set by the Government The threshold Applicable Amount with which income is compared is the sum of personal allowances and premiums appropriate to the family plus certain housing costs (not rent) A residential allowance is added for certain people in care homes

Personal Allowances Single aged 25 or over GBP 6750 (euro 75) Premiums Family GBP 1740 (euro 19) Pensioners (rate applies for all) Couple GBP 10375 (euro 115) Disability Single GBP 2885 (euro 32) Couple GBP 4110 (euro 45) Severe disability (single) GBP 5530 (euro 61) Severe disability couple (oneboth qualify) One qualifies GBP 5530 (euro 61) Both qualify GBP 11060 (euro 122) Enhanced disability premium Single GBP 1405 (euro 16) Couple GBP 2025 (euro 22) Disabled child GBP 5362 (euro 59) Enhanced disability premium per qualifying child GBP 2163 (euro 24) Carer GBP 3100 (euro 34) Source MISSOC ndash Situation on 01012012

The New Universal Credit it provides a new single system of means-tested support for working-age people in and out of work Support for housing costs children and childcare costs will be integrated in the new benefit It will also provide additions for disabled people and carers Source NRP 2012

Important changes to the welfare system in the UK have been introduced with the lsquoWelfare Reform Actrsquo (March 2012) which reforms the social security system The new Universal Credit substitutes current working age means-tested benefits making it easier also for women to claim full entitlement lsquoFor the first time this single working age benefit will enable people to make the transition from benefits into work in the knowledge that they will always be better off workingrsquo (ibid) The Disability Living Allowance Reform that

104

_________________________________________________________________________


substitutes the Disability Living Allowance with the Personal Independence Payment83 a new non-means-tested benefit for extra costs should also be mentioned

According to the NRP lsquothe Government is also making concrete progress in terms of transferring unemployed people from lsquopassiversquo benefits (where no conditionality is attached) to lsquoactiversquo benefits (where claimants are obliged to seek employment)rsquo (2012 p 30)

No universal guaranteed minimum income scheme exists in Italy where women can only benefit from category schemes or local measures However some regions have established minimum income mechanisms

Italy

Every municipality acting in accordance with regional legislation and depending on the available budgetary resources implements its own policies of social intervention on its territory The law does not provide for general conditions or requirements for entitlement to municipal support This support can be either in cash or in kind (intervention by social workers) Individuals andor families in need of socio-economic support are the beneficiaries Source MISSOC 2011

The law n 10492 (art33) entitles workers taking care of a disabled relative to three days off work per month or two hours off per day to give assistance and supply care services to them

The Italian Government is planning to provide for a national information system for social services (The lsquoSemplifica Italiarsquo decree) and for definition of the essential service levels and the related standard cost per item other than healthcare to be addressed

Fiscal federalism and state-property federalism in Italy enforced control regarding the concession of social benefits and amendment of requisites regarding the Indicator of the Equivalent Economic Situation and the spending review process are some structural adjustments to reduce expenditure84

5122 Housing policies

Housing policies are particularly important to lone women and elderly women living alone Many countries provide a range of social and affordable housing programmes and schemes to assist households currently unable to meet their housing needs through the private market Most Member States acknowledge that housing is one of the fields where a growing number of lone women and elderly women living alone have been facing increasing difficulties in recent years with negative consequences for the health and wellbeing The need persists for comprehensive and consistent strategies to address the shortage of dwellings the qualitative mismatch between supply and demand and the rise in prices for

83 httpwwwdwpgovukpolicydisabilitypersonal2Dindependence2Dpayment 84 See also the regional measures for NRP

105

_________________________________________________________________


both renters and buyers Housing support measures are particularly implemented for single disadvantaged women who have monetary difficulties in buying a home of their own Social housing and intergenerational housing are the main responses in terms of policy mainly offered at local level through public-private partnerships and publicno-profit partnerships

Concerning housing policies the UK Government has implemented a broad set of measures and policy instruments (eg Laying the Foundations A Housing Strategy for England 201185) to reform the housing sector with among others the aim to enable more people to own their own home In particular the Government has the intention to reinvigorate the Right to Buy scheme to support two million social tenants who aspire to own their own home and to deliver up to 170000 affordable homes

Promoting access and tenure in housing for the homeless and people in substandard housing are initiatives taken by the French government lsquoThe focus has also been on making existing housing structures more efficient The first nationwide cost survey of the sector and the support plan for the players (central government agencies and NGOs) should contribute to this purposersquo (NRP 2012 p 34)

In Italy as a response to the crisis several special allowances related to housing costs have been increased or newly introduced They include electricity and gas water rates municipal taxes for the collection of solid waste etc The municipalities manage these allowances and they target the most vulnerable groups of the population To be noted also is the experimental application in 2012 of the municipal tax on real property (IMU) including owner occupied housing and land holdings (Decree Law no 2012011) Recent simplifications have been introduced with the lsquoPiano casarsquo and the lsquoPiano di Edilizia abitativarsquo

Social housing is one of the fields of intervention covered by 30 projects developed in Romania by the Ministry of Regional Development and Tourism in 2012 for improving the quality of the social services through the rehabilitation of social infrastructures

In Germany the Federal Government promotes lsquomulti-generation households as part of the Mehrgenerationenhaumluser action programme Through flexible and specially tailored care services and by providing and arranging household-related services this programme helps people to combine family life and work or care-giving and workrsquo (NRP 2012 p 36)

5123 Healthcare and long term care

Access to (quality) essential social health services and long term care contributes to the good health of women to the level of autonomy of the elderly and to their active participation in society Next to the workplace access to financial products and services and health care are the most common areas of gender and age discrimination (Eurobarometer 2012)

Good health is a prerequisite of active ageing and the evidence suggests a series of relationships between health opportunities and quality of life Both socio-economic conditions and subjective social status represent determinants in health outcomes with specific features from a gender perspective The literature shows that lsquofor older people a

85 httpwwwcommunitiesgovukpublicationshousinghousingstrategy2011

106

_________________________________________________________________________


lack of satisfaction with life and a negative subjective well-being can cause mental illnesses such as depression and dementiarsquo (Crepaldi Pesce 2012) Women suffering from dementia have particularly pressing needs for support and care for their every day needs and this becomes a very important problem for women living alone who moreover may also face poverty Social isolation and lack of physical activity can be further contributory factors of depression that are particularly prevalent among older women The care needs of the population with a migration background - which are likely to increase over the coming years ndash are specific (eg attitudes to illness language food) and present serious challenges to policy makers in several European countries Migrants and irregular migrants tend to have a low level of access to mainstream services particularly the preventative services

Following a gender perspective these considerations together with those made in the previous chapter suggest that the increase in life expectancy for women is not automatically accompanied by an increase in lsquohealthy life expectancyrsquo The component of health care and long term care becomes predominant in the daily life of women both for themselves and for the relatives Thus the following section explores in more detail measures concerning health services and long term care that can have effects on women living alone drawing on information reported in the NRP documents Annex III reports detailed information on healthcare and long term care in place in the six selected countries (Sources MISSOC and Guides on social Security Rights European Commission Employment Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities 2011)

The issue of long-term care is placed on the social inclusion of the elderly agenda by the Swedish Government which lsquohas commissioned the National Board of Health and Welfare in cooperation with the Swedish Association of Local Authorities and Regions to develop a national system for open comparison of quality costs and efficiency in municipal health and social care for the elderly and the country councilsrsquo home medical care Also the Government has chosen to broadly tackle a major social problem namely violence against womenrsquo (Swedenrsquos strategy for social protection and social inclusion 2008-2010 p 29) In order to comply with the goals of the national action plan for disability policy more efforts are being made to increase accessibility for people with disabilities in order to attain the set goals in the national action plan for disability policy up to 2010 (ibid p 21) Digital inclusion e-services and IT in healthcare are other enhanced areas of intervention in Sweden Another Swedish example lsquothe Government has given the National Institute of Public Health the task of presenting specific proposals for activity programmes adapted to the needs of the elderly and to come up with proposals on how to create meeting places in the local area that promote both physical activity and good dietary habits among the elderly thus reducing isolation and a sedentary lifestylersquo (Swedenrsquos strategy for social protection and social inclusion 2008-2010 p 20)

Regional Programmes for Access to Preventive Treatments and Healthcare for the Poor are being developed in France including publication of a methodological guide for the Regional Health Agencies (NRP 2012 p 34)

To address the growing demand for health and care services shown by the old people Germany has developed The Care Structures Act (Versorgungsstrukturgesetz - January 2012) The act constitutes a lsquoframework to ensure that all insured persons in Germany can access universal needs-based healthcare delivery in their local area Providing medical care in structurally weak areas will be a priorityrsquo (NRP 2012 p 40) Preventive healthy strategy and company health promotion programmes will also be implemented In addition a new concept of persons in need of long-term care is to be introduced in the bill proposing reform

107

_________________________________________________________________


of long-term care insurance presented by The Federal Government to the effect that lsquoindividuals suffering from dementia will receive more and better benefits as of 1 January 2013 These benefits are to be granted until legislation governing the granting of benefits based on a new concept of persons in need of long-term care is enactedrsquo (ibidem)

In Germany the statutory long-term care insurance for caring family members and other informal carers provides for the payment of the pension insurance contributions accident insurance coverage contribution payment for the unemployment insurance during periods of caring as well as other supporting benefits eg free training courses possibilities of respite and substitute care etc

Rationalization of health expenditure was introduced in Italy with Article 17 of Decree Law no 982011 Innovations have been introduced in the accounting and monitoring procedures in standard cost and requirement for the Region (eg the lsquoHealth care Systemrsquo) Some regions have adopted financial recovery plans to cut healthcare expenditure Among the changes that can have an impact on the situation of women to be noted is the intention of the Government (i) in lsquorationalizing and strengthening social and health care programmes to support non self-sufficient elderly people (ii) to lsquore-organize information flows to make welfare benefits more effective and efficientrsquo (iii) to lsquo reform the ISEE indicatorrsquo (Indicatore della situazione economica equivalente) which combines household income and wealth to regulate access to welfare benefits ndash to improve the ability of policies to select among welfare benefit applicantsrsquo (NRP 2012 p 103)

Actions supporting family care work - including time for care of the elderly the disabled and children - and actions promoting equal opportunities and reconciliation policies are contained in the National Plan for the Family (June 2012) adopted in Italy Even though the Plan appears to take into consideration womenrsquos needs and specificities adequately it risks remaining ineffective with no provision of new financial resources for its effective implementation

In the health and long-term care areas Romania carried out a national healthcare system reform including the Programme for a 90 refund on the standard prices of drugs and the implementation of a Strategy on primary healthcare assistance and medical care services in rural areas Other measures implemented are the Integrated Information System and National Health Card programmes the Electronic Patient Card e-prescribing and Application of decentralization in the health system projects

Analyzing the response to the specific needs of women living alone means not only considering the needs of women to have carers and care services for themselves but also being able to rely on measures supporting their caring for relatives In order to decrease the percentage of workless households and to prevent welfare dependency the UK Government is engaged in a series of measures targeting those who are inactive because of caring responsibilities including lone parents In particular two reforms have been implemented the Work Programme a single employment programme promoting an integrated and personalized approach introduction of the Universal Credit aimed at simplifying the welfare system with an investment of pound2 billion over the Spending Review period ldquoThe Universal Credit due to start in 2013 will provide greater incentives to work by simplifying the working age benefit system providing one streamlined paymentrdquo (NRP 2012 p 28)

108

_________________________________________________________________________


Extra help for care-givers - UK

Most care-givers of working age want to retain a foothold in the labour market The Universal Credit will include a care-giver element which will continue for as long as the care-giver provides care for at least 35 hours per week to a severely disabled person This aims to remove the discontinuity for those whose earnings mean they are no longer entitled to Carerrsquos Allowance Care-givers who are in receipt of the care-giver element will fall into the no conditionality group44 in Universal Credit ndash which means that no work-related conditions will be applied For other care-givers different levels of conditionality may apply Access to the Work Programme will depend on the care-giverrsquos conditionality group Carerrsquos Allowance will continue to exist as a separate benefit outside of Universal Credit



Health promotion

Care needs and access to services tackling Barriers to Healthcare Services for Migrant women

Care and networking for elderly migrants Gender and

diversity perspectives

The lsquoAgeing and Health ndash Training for Female Patientsrsquo programme shy

Germany

Meacutedicins du Monde (MDM) - France

MECOPP (Minority Ethnic Carers of Older People Project) - Edinburgh UK

Leeds Dementia Cafeacutes for Elders from Ethnic Minorities - Leeds UK

Network Migrant Elders Kiel-Gaarden Kiel-Mettenhof - Kiel Germany

Multicultural volunteering in the neighbourly help - Dortmund Germany

GRUNDEN GENDER PROJECT - Sweden

521 Health promotion

Health promotion and well-being throughout life are ways to foster active ageing and better living condition of women living alone

The lsquoAgeing and Health ndash Training for Female Patientsrsquo programme - Germany

The project Aumllterwerden und Gesundheit - Die Patientinnenschulung addresses socially disadvantaged women aged between 40 and 70 years with a German or non-German background Against the backdrop of existing differences regarding gender and health the health situation of women at this stage of life is of particular importance Furthermore most women ndash especially those who live in poor circumstances ndash are insufficiently informed about their rights as patients and rarely enforce their needs within the scope of the health care system Thus the aim of the project is to inform women about health issues to prevent diseases and to teach them how to value and use their own self-help potential Furthermore women are enabled to orientate themselves in the health care system as

109

_________________________________________________________________


capable and self-reliant persons A free training programme lasting several weeks based on the womenrsquos cultural social and individual background has been developed


Difficulties and negative experience of the health and social care services can be due to problems of communicating with service providers and lack of adequate preparation by health professionals to overcome factors that reduce the accessibility of these services for ethnic minority women (providing information material in minority languages interpreting and mediating services to assist ethnic minority women in hospitals)

An example of programmes addressing this issue is given below

In some areas of France Meacutedecins du Monde (MDM) provides free health care to socially disadvantaged and excluded people and to illegal immigrants in particular There are 31 free medical centres managed by the association one in Paris and others in different cities Women represent an increasing proportion (45) of the patients consulting the MDM centres they are mostly quite young (under 25) or older (55 and over) patients nine out of ten are foreigners especially from Sub-Saharan Africa Maghreb and Romania A similar service is provided in Italy with the NGO NAGA

Source InnoServ Project httpinno-serveu

522 Care and networking for elderly migrants

MECOPP (Minority Ethnic Carers of Older People Project) - Edinburgh UK MECOPP helps Minority Ethnic care-givers to access the supports and services necessary to undertake or sustain a caring role Care-givers are family members who provide support in daily living activities to people who are affected by old age frailty disability and long-term health conditions The MECOPP Board of Directors is made up of Ethnic Minority older people who are either actively caring or who are former care-givers (p 11)

Leeds Dementia Cafeacutes for Elders from Ethnic Minorities - Leeds UK Dementia Cafeacutes for Elders from Ethnic Minorities were set up to improve quality of life participation and active ageing of dementia sufferers from Black and Ethnic Minorities (BME) They integrate cultural and medical knowledge and bring public services voluntary groups and BME citizens together to offer new culturally sensitive activities and services which improve the care and the wellbeing of elders There are 11 Cafeacutes ensuring ample coverage across the city (p 22)

Network Migrant Elders Kiel-Gaarden Kiel-Mettenhof - Kiel Germany In order to improve the situation of migrant elders in the districts of Kiel-Gaarden and Mettenhof on a lasting basis providers of social assistance and healthcare as well as migrant organisations have come together to form an interdisciplinary local network bringing together different organisations for the first time The project comprises the organisation of a) trainings for intercultural communication for staff working with senior citizens b) information events on senior-specific topics for migrant elders Special services for migrants are also to be integrated in this offer (p31)

110

_________________________________________________________________________


Multicultural volunteering in neighbourly help - Dortmund Germany In order to improve the provision of services for migrant elders and to facilitate access to offers of elderly care in Dortmund for this group of people the office for senior citizens in the neighbourhood of Innenstadt Nord established a voluntary group of neighbourly helpers This group consists mainly of elderly people of different nationalities The project aims at establishing contacts and encounters social networks participation as well as support and assistance Migrants of different ethnic groups become active in their neighbourhood depending on their needs and competence (p 18)

Source ELAC for migrant elders httpwwwaktioncourageorgfileadminpdfshyelacELAC_en_kl_finalpdf

523 Gender and diversity perspectives

Making gender inequality visible

To improve the living condition of women living alone there is the need to invest not only in basic assistance policies but also in empowerment initiatives In addition to the institutional interventions civil society organizations and NGOs are playing an important role in raising womenrsquos voices and encouraging gender equality as in the case of organization for and with people with intellectual disabilities

Sweden GRUNDEN GENDER PROJECT Grunden is a national organization in Sweden for and with people with intellectual disabilities In 2010 members of Grunden started a gender equality project to show that gender inequality exists and to make it visible During these years some of the things they discovered were

People with intellectual disabilities and the people working with them were sadly ill-informed about gender equality

It was easier for men to get personal assistance and help according to the law

In the daily activity they looked at how the space was used who most of the space was for and what different contributions were made by men and women

- They also found out that men and women were offered or chose different activities based on tradition

After realizing this the group started to educate themselves even more in these issues also producing material for training both people with intellectual disabilities and staff This was the first time training material on gender equality had been produced by the target group itself in Sweden

Sourcehttpenileu201106good-example-grunden-gender-project httpwwwgrundensepdfengpdf


Support policies for women living alone as independent target groups is still lacking in all Member States which makes indirect policies or measures not specifically women targeted all the more relevant

111

_________________________________________________________________


Common issues for the countries analyzed are to increase the employability and the inclusion of women into the labour market in a situation of rising costs scarcity of public resources and a growing demand for health and care services where the main drivers are the ageing of the European population with quantitative increase in the female component

Cuts in public services and welfare provisions will have a greater impact on women than men as women work mostly in the public sector and use public services more than men Cuts in public services and welfare provisions are likely to increase the amount of unpaid work and care responsibilities with greater impact on women than on men This will worsen the already existing disparity in the care workload between women and men

Response to the specific needs of women (and women living alone) means considering both changes in assistance schemes with their effects on women living alone and different policy fields dealing with all the different aspects of lone womenrsquos living conditions by combining access to employment and training affordable health housing health and social services

Many women (and a growing number of elderly women) face poverty or are at risk of exclusion so a preliminary set of measures that affect the living conditions of women are social assistance programmes aimed to guarantee minimum resource benefits (eg income support housing benefits unemployment benefits) Particularly relevant are the minimum income schemes and the minimum income protection for Europersquos elderly

All the countries selected provide social pensions targeting the elderly The review reveals major differences related to the minimum income schemes Of the countries analysed Italy is the only one where women cannot benefit from a minimum income scheme In Sweden Germany and the UK the minimum income is conceived as a last resort subsidy (2011) while lsquoone generalised all encompassing benefit income scheme modelrsquo is observed in France and Romania All the countries have introduced changes in their assistance system that can potentially impact on the living conditions of women living alone (eg the new mechanism for social benefits rates in social welfare and the basic cover for jobseekers in Germany changes for a more sustainable sickness insurance and unemployment insurance under investigation in Sweden the social assistance system reform in Romania the new minimum income schemes in France the lsquoWelfare Reform Actrsquo that reforms the social security system in the UK and the introduction of the new Universal Credit as well as enforced control regarding the concession of social benefits and the amendment of requisites regarding the Indicator of the Equivalent Economic Situation in Italy) Policy responses to the family structures and labour market changes also need to be considered

The living conditions of women living alone are better where social services are available to support both the care role of lone elderly women and the care needs of the same target group On the whole very few measures of reconciliation of work and family life in terms of balancing work for older women and caring for relatives can be found across the European countries analyzed Three major trends emerge in Europe (a) linking income support with the participation and inclusion of the recipients into the labour market (eg the new minimum income schemes in France) (b) a lack of measures of reconciliation of work and family life declined in term of balancing work for older women and caring for relatives especially in those countries with a strong Christian tradition (c) the emphasis on reducing residential provision in favour of supporting people in their own home and third sector partnership for public service delivery How societies and welfare states organize and balance care-giving and work has an effect on the level of activity and on the quality of life for women

112

_________________________________________________________________________


Social benefits and public transfers individually based rather than ldquofamilyrdquo based positively impact on the living conditions of women living alone (gender inequality and womenrsquos welfare as opposed to childrenrsquos or familiesrsquo welfare) However some of the latest changes in the social schemes embody a concept of lsquotraditional familyrsquo such as the case of Germany with the introduction of wage tax category and the additional option of a lsquoFaktorverfahrenrsquo or marginal burden targeted married couples

There is a need for policies and distribution of resources in support of women living alone especially targeting vulnerable groups but also interventions that empower women to control their time (eg involvement in activities which promote active engagement learning and computer skills) and their access to care services and long term care services

Targeting services to the most excluded groups acknowledging the needs of elderly women and men with a migration background in the planning of care services and long term care services are some of the indications that emerge from this study

113

_________________________________________________________________


6 CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS

Since 2008 many changes have occurred both in the socio-economic situation of EU countries and in policy-making due to the effects of the financial and economic crisis The fiscal consolidation policies and welfare reforms adopted in recent years by European countries to deal with the crisis and demographic and socio-economic pressures are likely to have differentiated effects on women and men and for different groups of women and men

61 Recent Trends in Labour Market and Living Conditions of Women Living Alone

In 2010 345 million women were living alone (with no dependents) in the EU27 (142 of the total female population) and 251 million men (108 of the total male population) Women living alone are on average older than men living alone and also tend to show higher educational levels

In the last decade there has been an increase of single households across Europe both for men and for women particularly in the Northern countries and among the older population As individuals living alone are more fragile in coping with socio-economic risks since they rely on a single source of income the growing share of single households determines increasing poverty rates with the economic crisis Furthermore the lone women are mostly elderly and this has many social consequences and political implications This trend is accentuated due to extension of life expectancy for women as shown by the population projections for 2060

Recent developments in the labour market and living conditions of women living alone show that

The differences between people lsquoliving alonersquo of both sexes and those lsquonot living alonersquo are now more significant than gender and age differences The fact of living alone makes more difference in living conditions than gender or age at least during the first phase of the economic down-turn considered in this report Nevertheless the single status for women depends more on the events of life such as separation divorce widowhood rather than choices

The comparative analysis in chapter 2 shows wide differences both among and within the countries grouped according to the traditional classification of welfare models The institutional regulation framework does not seem to be as important as in the past in affecting the living conditions of women living alone Economic difficulties can affect the population living alone in all countries whatever the regulatory framework The situation appears to be more mixed than in the past and less consistent with the ideal-model of country classification As many researches are showing there is an ongoing process of hybridization of the welfare state models resulting from common socioshyeconomic and demographic pressures and the effects of the EU regulatory framework so that it is harder to pinpoint systematic differences across such models

In almost all the European countries lone women register lower labour market participation and lower employment than lone men as was also the case in the past Conversely lone womenrsquos activity and employment levels are often higher than those of women not living alone especially in the Continental and Mediterranean countries However women living

114

_________________________________________________________________________


alone generally face higher unemployment rates than other women except in the Mediterranean countries where they show lower labour participation than elsewhere as the result of discouragement and exit strategies

As for the effects of the crisis previous experience shows that economic crisis has long-run effects on female labour market participation and on employment and unemployment rates What is fairly sure is that nowadays the central economic role played by women - both as family bread-winners and as second earners - will prevent their exit from the labour market contradicting the labour reserve hypothesis which argues that women are driven out of employment when the demand declines What has really changed from the past is the increasing use of flexible work and nonstandard employment contracts affecting all components of the labour force Even though European comparison shows a composite and mixed picture temporary contracts are more frequent on average for lone women than other groups of workers and a significant share of single women earners are becoming contingent workers according to the segmentation theory Part-time contracts are instead more common among women not living alone as second earners They still represent however almost a quarter of the total of employed lone women Very widespread among all the population groups here considered is working in atypical hours (above all on Saturdays)

The evolution of living conditions shows that the share of people reporting difficulties in making ends meet is very high (more than 50) and the situation of women living alone is quite similar to that of other women and also of single men In any case when we consider other indicators of economic difficulties (eg risks of poverty) the picture changes women living alone (and also men living alone) have on average twice the probability of experiencing poverty than women not living alone and the risk has risen since 2005 As in the other population groups people with low educational levels are much more vulnerable than more educated persons Elderly women are particularly at risk of poverty in Southern Europe but also in Finland Sweden the UK and Slovenia

These trends are related to the possible effects of policy changes introduced in recent years in pension reforms active ageing strategies and assistance schemes

62 Recent Policy Changes affecting women living alone

Demographic trends and the financial and economic crisis have obliged European countries to revise their welfare policy approach drastically Sustainability is now the major goal for welfare systems as the need to proceed with fiscal consolidation is becoming ever more pressing in Member States to avoid state default Budget cuts closer targeting in welfare policies and the acceleration of pension reforms have characterized recent years in all countries However the gravity and duration of the crisis is highlighting the risks associated with reduced welfare provisions in terms of increased poverty risks and social conflict

Women living alone are among the population groups at greater risk of poverty and more affected by recent changes in welfare policies The main question is thus lsquoHave policy changes taken into account the specificities of womenrsquos conditions and their labour market position and career paths And how can these reforms help women living alone

621 Pension reforms

Recent pension reforms have improved the sustainability of public pension schemes by reinforcing the link between the contributions paid and the benefits received and increasing

115

_________________________________________________________________


the role of private occupational and individual pension schemes at the cost of reduced replacement rates growing individual risks and complexity in pension systems

The shift toward contribution-based occupational schemes could increase old age poverty among women as low earners and those with interrupted careers (mainly women and atypical workers) will be much more reliant on basic means-tested or minimum pensions with a risk of a resurgence of old-age poverty due to their lower pension incomes Another general effect of pension reforms is the increased individual responsibility for saving decisions and pension rights which exposes the elderly to increasing individual risks as shown by the effects of the financial crisis on private pensions schemes

The financial and economic crisis has highlighted and aggravated some of the risks associated with pension reforms in terms of both sustainability and adequacy With new pensions systems benefits are more closely related to developments in the labour and financial markets and to economic growth and the adequacy of pension systems is jeopardised (especially for the younger generations and women) when the labour market is unable to guarantee lifelong continuous employment and when the financial markets are unable to deliver the expected returns on investments in pension funds and public spending is constrained by increasing deficit and debt lower growth prospects and fiscal consolidation The effects of the crisis differ for different cohorts of pensioners especially in those countries where pension reforms have been more structural Current pensioners have not been greatly affected by the crisis as only a few Member States (EL PT) have cut public pension payments but it will in particular affect labour market entrants and future pensioners who are experiencing long-term unemployment andor reduced working hours

For these reasons pension reforms subsequent to the crisis will have to focus on filling adequacy gaps in pension income especially for the currently active population and the younger generations together with the need to improve the sustainability for public finance of pension spending currently undergoing serious fiscal deterioration as a result of the crisis In order to address pension system adequacy and fairness some countries have recently adopted measures to broaden pension coverage raise the benefit levels of minimum pension schemes and improve the regulation of private funded pension schemes to support wider risk sharing consumer information and protection and the quality of financial products


With contribution-based and multi-pillar pension systems gender disparities in activity employment and unemployment rates and in earnings as well as the greater incidence among women of part-time temporary and informal jobs and of careers breaks will produce even larger gender disparities in pension income than in the past Furthermore greater female longevity exposes elderly women to higher poverty risks due to the expected period of time living alone longer for them than for men and the greater erosion of the real value of their annuities

Every deterioration in pension provisions can have a greater negative impact on women who cannot rely on a partnersrsquo income and a number of measures may have different effects for women living alone according to their specific status being single rather than widows or lone mothers Even measures which at first sight may seem to be favourable for elderly women living alone such as survivorsrsquo pensions may penalise insured women and men who have not been married and may reduce

116

_________________________________________________________________________


the incentive for young women to participate in the regular labour market while increasing the incentive to marry On the other hand these schemes have played an important part in reducing poverty risks in old age for widows and their children

The increasing individualisation and privatizations of pension rights have also brought out the need to consider gender differences in the division of care and market work and to integrate pension reforms with appropriate labour market and social policies supporting women continuous participation to the labour market as well as reducing gender gaps in pay and occupational patterns In achieving the sustainability and adequacy goals the balance of transfers between different generations and the changing nature of labour markets and of family structures should be considered with a view to improving the capacity to adapt to these changes without reducing pension coverage and fairness in pension entitlements between women and men and between generations

622 Labour market and active ageing policies


To reduce gender gaps in pension income it is thus necessary to improve womenrsquos access and length of time spent in the labour market as well as promoting equal pay through gender sensitive employment and active ageing policies anti-discrimination policies to eliminate gender pay and career gaps care services and policies to support the reconciliation between work and private life policies to encourage men to increase their role in the household with appropriate paternity and parental leave measures and awareness-raising campaigns

Gender is however rarely a qualifying requirement for participation in labour market programmes though in some cases incentives are higher if the employer hires (elderly) women However the higher unemployment and inactivity rates of women suggest that such policies should benefit comparatively more women than men

Pension reforms imply longer working lives the European countries have dismantled or curtailed incentives to retire early embedded in their pension systems and are raising statutory pension ages especially for women However older workers face a range of barriers to finding and retaining jobs

Active ageing is defined as the process of optimizing opportunities for health participation and security in order to enhance quality of life as people age and includes the notion of continuing activity in the labour force and the participation of older people in society A comprehensive approach to active ageing is thus not limited to the employment dimension but is a multi-sectoral strategy involving employment and healthcare policies as well as policies improving the living environment of the elderly

The promotion of active ageing is relatively recent and varies across countries showing different levels of attention placed on the various fieldsareas of active ageing and on gender aspects The review of active ageing policies in EU countries presented in chapter 4 underlines the following aspects

Active aging strategies have been predominantly implemented by means of labour market polices while still little attention has been given to health promotion and

117

_________________________________________________________________


well-being Measures adopted to improve the employability for the elderly include age-management policies employment services for older workers policies and provisions to improve healthy working conditions and maintain workersrsquo well-being employment-friendly tax-benefit systems and government subsidies for employers to retain and recruit older workers as well as measures to update the skills of the elderly through training and lifelong learning

Even if active ageing has significant gender aspects (increasing womenrsquos life expectancy the greying female workforce reconciliation issues) most of the practices and active ageing innovative initiatives implemented across Europe do not specifically target women Neither is much attention paid to specific groups of women such as those living alone Despite the increased attention being paid to the consequences of demographic change and the issue of active ageing Member States and the other European countries still lack a consistent and integrated policy strategy for the employment and social inclusion of women and men of late working and early retirement age as well as a clear understanding of the gender implications of active ageing strategies Most policies and programmes are gender-blind do not explicitly target elderly women but rather aim to the social inclusion of more generic ldquovulnerable groupsrdquo Some initiatives that could have significant indirect impact on active ageing for women and women living alone are those supporting a) extension of working life for example by avoiding early exit from the labour force and gradually reducing working hours b) gender equality in the workplace by introducing age-friendly practices within companies and combating age discrimination in the labour market and c) provision of training and lifelong learning for older workers

To investigate the impact of active ageing policies on women living alone it is also necessary to analyse a variety of practices implemented across Europe to promote quality housing conditions and living arrangements elderly-friendly public spaces and mobility age-friendly environment and volunteercommunity work social participation and leisure activities dissemination of and access to social networks development of technological skills and closing the digital divide

623 Assistance policies

Assistance policies directly targeting women living alone are still lacking in all Member States however as women living alone (and especially the growing number of elderly women) face increasing poverty risk social assistance measures aimed to guarantee minimum resource benefits (eg minimum income support housing benefits unemployment benefits) are particularly important to improve their situation

The evidence shows that the living conditions of women living alone are better where the welfare systems focus on the individual rather than the family and where care services are available to support the care of family members By contrast in countries where the family still plays an important role as a welfare provider women are expected to care for family members as well as taking care of the household chores and their living conditions are worse especially in the case of women from disadvantaged groups andor lacking economic independence

Most European countries have minimum pension provisions and minimum income schemes targeting the elderly without incomes The review presented in chapter 5 reveals major differences in minimum income schemes For example of the selected countries Italy is the only one where there is no national minimum income scheme but with assistance

118

_________________________________________________________________________


schemes implemented at the local level In Sweden Germany and the UK the minimum income is conceived as a last resort subsidy while one generalised all encompassing benefit income scheme is present in France and Romania

All the countries have recently introduced changes in their assistance systems that can potentially impact on the living conditions of women living alone as for example the new mechanism for social benefits and the basic cover for jobseekers in Germany the more sustainable sickness insurance and unemployment insurance under investigation in Sweden the social assistance system reform in Romania the new minimum income schemes in France the reform of the social security system in the UK the enforced control regarding the concession of social benefits and the amendment of requisites to have access to assistance measures in Italy

Housing policies are also particularly important for lone women and elderly women living alone Most Member States acknowledge that housing is one of the fields where a growing number of lone women and elderly women living alone have been facing difficulties in recent years with negative consequences for their wellbeing For this reason many countries provide a range of social and affordable housing programmes and schemes to assist households currently unable to meet their housing needs through the private market

Health care and long term care are a predominant issue in the daily life of women both for their relatives and for themselves as the increase in life expectancy for women is not automatically accompanied by an increase in lsquohealthy life expectancyrsquo On the whole very few measures for the reconciliation of work and family life in terms of balancing work for older women and caring for relatives are to be seen across the analyzed European countries

How societies and welfare states organize and balance care giving and work has an effect on the level of activity and on the quality of life for women with better living conditions for women (living alone) where care services are available

Social benefits and public transfers individually based rather than ldquofamilyrdquo based positively impact on the living conditions of women living alone However some of the latest changes in the social schemes embody a lsquotraditional familyrsquo concept that risks penalising women Furthermore three major trends emerging in Europe good aggravate conditions for women


(b) lack of measures to support the reconciliation of work and caring for relatives to accompany increasing retirement age for women

(c) emphasis on reducing residential provisions in favour of supporting people in their own homes

63 Policy implications

The current cuts in public services and welfare provisions are likely to have a greater impact on women (and women living alone) than men as women work more in the public sector and use public services more than men Cuts in public services and welfare provisions are also likely to increase the amount of unpaid work and care responsibilities

119

_________________________________________________________________


within households worsening the existing disparity in the care workload between women and men and making it even more difficult for women to participate fully and continuously in the labour market

To avoid increases in gender disparities and in poverty risks it is necessary to assess the (potential) gender impact of proposed changes and cuts in welfare provisions and public services This calls for greater attention to evaluation of the potential differentiated effects of both dedicated and general policies (such as pension employment and assistance policies) on women and men with special attention to their impact on women living alone and on women (and men) with low incomes incomplete or fragmented employment careers and family constraints The European Institutions could play an important role in supporting adequacy and sustainability by providing information advisory activities and setting guidelines and minimum standards in a gender perspective as well as developing more disaggregated statistics and research Improvement in the assembly of EU and national statistics on pensions and welfare policies streamlining sexshydisaggregated data and indicators could also support the monitoring and evaluation of the gender effects of pension and welfare reforms as well as affording more accurate simulations of the potential effects of proposed reforms

Furthermore some general features of policy approaches to support women living alone should be considered in policy making

The individualisation of social rights irrespective of household and marital relations both in pension and assistance policies Social benefits and public transfers individually based rather than ldquofamilyrdquo based positively impact on the living conditions of women living alone For example some of the provisions adopted by Nordic countries appear to be supportive of the living conditions of women living alone Other examples are to be seen in consideration of care years for pension entitlements both in public and compulsory private schemes whatever the care-giver status adoption of residence based minimum pensions which allow for the removal of derived pension rights with their many shortcomings including the disincentives for married women to participate in the labour market and the iniquity of single individuals subsidising married ones

Addressing the specific needs of women living alone also means developing integrated policy packages dealing with all the different aspects of lone womenrsquos living conditions by combining access to employment and training affordable health care and housing social assistance and services empowerment policies should also be considered integrating several welfare domains and distinctive approaches

The involvement of local communities and local actors (usually municipalities charities and NGOs) in policy design and implementation is also important to sustain the creation of extended support services and networks at the local level

The continuity of interventions is another important issue Country specific conditions should be carefully considered in order to promote effective and sustainable programmes to be integrated within the existing main body of welfare schemes

In greater detail some specific features supportive of gender equality in pension systems which are relevant for women living alone are

The application of universal residence-based or flat rate minimum pensions indexed to wages and of pension credits for unemployment and training periods As discussed in chapter 3 the universal residence-based minimum pensions of Nordic countries appear

120

_________________________________________________________________________


to be more favourable to gender equality than contributory-based minimum pensions because the full basic pension is paid irrespective of the previous employment status and family conditions

The provision of public subsidies to support access to occupational and individual supplementary pensions by women and other groups usually less involved in these schemes Furthermore provisions should be introduced offsetting gender inequalities in pension benefits in occupational schemes for example supporting the introduction of unisex life tariffs (as required by the ECJ Test-Achats ruling of March 2011) and care credits Provisions regulating the transferral of workersrsquo positions from one occupational fund to another should also be improved and rules introduced that afford a more even balance in risk sharing between workers employers and insurance agencies

The presence of adequate pension credits for care periods (fully replacing employment based contributions) available also for men and for the care of other dependants besides children allowing (part-time) employment during care periods made available also in private funded pension schemes and extended to the self-employed inactive and unemployed


The adoption of flexible retirement provisions and the possibility to combine pension and part-time work (as in Sweden)

The adoption of individual rather than family related pension entitlements to reduce work disincentives and gender stereotypes while allowing for accrued pension rights to be divided in the event of break up (divorce or separation) The focus on the individual is important for single women as it stresses the womenrsquos role in the labour market rather than that in the family

Policies to reduce gender gaps in the labour market and active ageing policies are also needed to guarantee gender equality in future pensions

For women obstacles to active participation in the labour market and community life are mainly related to family and care-giving duties gender vertical and horizontal segregation and gender wage gaps A gender mainstreaming approach to labour market and active ageing policies is however lacking in most European countries Furthermore prolonging the working life of women has relevant effects on reconciliation policies as the increase in the employment of (elderly) women will reduce the provision of informal care at home This calls for an enhancement in the provision of care services Active ageing from a gender perspective should therefore also focus on measures supporting the reconciliation of market and family work and revise cultural models and assumptions on gender roles underlying the various welfare models

Women tend to have little time also for self-care (health-enhancing physical activity) or civic involvement Policies and measures directly addressing elderly women to favour social and civic involvement (sports voluntary work and participating in association) and reconciliation measures could positively impact both on health outcomes and social inclusion and the participation of women in society

More effort must be made for effective multi-sector and intergenerational active

121

_________________________________________________________________


ageing strategies The issue is very much a gendered one because women are often and increasingly over-represented among the lonely elderly as a consequence of rising divorce rates and womenrsquos longer life expectancy Thus especially after retirement the active participation of elderly women in voluntary activities may help reduce their risk of isolation as well as contributing to the development of solidarity


Many older women face poverty illness or disability Specific social assistance policies need to be designed for these target groups To improve the living condition of women living alone it is necessary to invest not only in basic assistance policies (such as minimum income and pension schemes) but also in empowerment initiatives to promote active engagement

A gendered approach to healthcare and especially long term care brings out the necessity to consider both the needs of caregivers who are predominantly women and of elderly women living alone who are increasingly requiring long term care due to their longer life expectancy and their reliance on formal care for the lack of alternatives in their households

122

_________________________________________________________________________


REFERENCES

Annesly C (2011) ldquoThe socio-economic impact of pension systems on the respective situations of women and men and the effects of recent trends in pension reformsrdquo EGGSI National Report UK May 2011 mimeo

Balcerzak-Paradowska B et al (2003) ldquoThe Gender Dimensions of Social Security Reform in Polandrdquo in Fultz Elaine Martin Ruck und Silke Steinhilber ldquoThe Gender Dimension of Social Security Reforms in Central and Eastern Europe Case Studies of The Czech Republic Hungary and Polandrdquo ILO Subregional Office for Central and Eastern Europe Budapest

Bettio F et al (2011) ldquoThe impact of the economic crisis on the situation of women and men and on gender equality policiesrdquo Synthesis Report 2011

Boeri T and Brugiavini A (2008) ldquoPension Reforms and Women Retirement Plansldquo IZA Discussion Papers 3821 Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA)

Calafa L and Bonardi O (2011) ldquoThe use of gender in insurance pricingrdquo European Parliament httpwwweuroparleuropaeucommitteesenfemmstudiesdownloadhtmllanguage Document=ENampfile=60175

Callegaro L Wilke C B ldquoPublic Occupational and Individual Pension Coveragerdquo chapter 6 Survey of Health Ageing and Retirement in Europe

Castel N (2010) ldquoSalaire ou revenu diffeacutereacute Vers un nouveau systegraveme de retraitesrdquo in Revue Franccedilaise de Sociologie ndeg51

Choi J(2006) ldquoThe role of derived rights for old-age income security of womenrdquo OECD Social Employment and Migration Working Papers No 43 httpwwwoecdorgelsworkingpapers

Corsi M Guelfi A Samek Lodovici M Sansonetti S (2008) ldquoAssessment of National Reports on Strategies for Social Protection and Social Inclusion from a Gender Perspectiverdquo EGGSI Synthesis Report November 2008

Corsi M DrsquoIppoliti C (2009) ldquoPoor old grandmas A note on the gender dimension of pension reformsrdquo in Brussels Economic Review Vol 52 No1

Corsi M et al (2010) ldquoGender Mainstreaming Active Inclusion Policiesrdquo Final report prepared by the EGGSI network European Commission httpeceuropaeusocialBlobServletdocId=6335amplangId=en

Corsi M Samek Lodovici M Botti F DrsquoIppoliti C (2011) ldquoActive ageing and gender equality The employment and social inclusion of women and men of late working and early retirement agerdquo Final Synthesis Report European Commission

Esping Andersen G (2003) ldquoWhy We Need a New Welfare Staterdquo Oxford University Press

123

_________________________________________________________________


Esping Andersen G (1990) ldquoThe Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalismrdquo Princeton University Press

Eurofoundation (2007) ldquoParental leave in European Countriesrdquo Established Survey on working time 2004-2005

European Commission (2010) ldquo2009 Ageing Report Economic and budgetary projections for the EU-27 Member States (2008-2060)rdquo European Economy 2|2009 Luxembourg httpeceuropaeueconomy_financepublicationspublication14992_enpdf

European Commission (2010) ldquoGreen Paper - towards adequate sustainable and safe European pension systemsrdquo SEC(2010) 830 final COM(2010)365 final Brussels httpeceuropaeusocialBlobServletdocId=5551amplangId=en

European Commission (2010) ldquoJoint Report on Pensions - Progress and key challenges in the delivery of adequate and sustainable pensions in Europerdquo httpeceuropaeueconomy_financepublicationsoccasional_paper2010pdfocp71_ enpdf

European Commission (2010) ldquoJoint report on Social Protection and Social Inclusion 2010rdquo DG Employment Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities Brussels


European Commission (2012) ldquoAgeing Reportrdquo Joint Report prepared by the European Commission (DG ECFIN) and the Economic Policy Committee (AWG) provisional version

European Commission (2012) ldquoAn Agenda for Adequate Safe and Sustainable Pensionsrdquo

Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini (2011) ldquoGender aspects of the economic downturn and financial crisisrdquo Study requested by the European Parliamentrsquos Committee on Womenrsquos Rights and Gender Equality available at httpwwweuroparleuropaeucommitteesenstudiesdownloadhtmllanguageDocum ent=ENampfile=49228

Fornero E and Monticone C (2010) ldquoWomen and PensionsEffects of Pension Reforms on Womenrsquos Retirement Securityrdquo in B Marin E Zolyomi (eds) Womenrsquos Work and Pensions What is Good What is Best Ashgate ndash European Centre Vienna 2010

Frericks P Maier R de Graaf W (2006) ldquoShifting the pension mix consequences for Dutch and Danish womenrdquo in Social Policy and Administration Vol 40

Frericks P Maier R (2007) ldquoThe gender pension gap effects of norms and reform Policiesrdquo in Kohli MArza C (2007) ldquoThe political Economy of pensions Politics Policy Models and Outcomes in Europerdquo London

124

_________________________________________________________________________


Fultz E Ruck M Steinhilber S (2003) ldquoThe Gender Dimension of Social Security Reforms in Central and Eastern Europe Case Studies of The Czech Republic Hungary and Polandrdquo ILO Subregional Office for Central and Eastern Europe Budapest

Fultz E (2006) ldquoThe Gender Dimensions of Social Security Reform Volume 2 Case Studies of Romania and Sloveniardquo ILO Subregional Office for Central and Eastern Europe Budapest

Ginn J (2003) ldquoGender Pensions and the Life Course ndash How Pensions Need to Adapt to Changing Family Formsrdquo Bristol

Ginn J (2004) European Pension Privatisation Taking Account of Gender Social Policy amp Society 3

Horstmann S Huumlllsman J (editors) (2009) ldquoThe Socio-Economic Impact of Pension Systems on Womenrdquo Gesellschaft fuumlr Versicherungswissenschaft und ndash Gestaltung (GVG) European Commission Directorate-General for Employment Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities httpeceuropaeusocialBlobServletdocId=5001amplangId=en

IRS (2008) ldquoWomen living alone Evaluation of their specific difficultiesrdquo European Parliament 2008

James E Cox Edwards A Wong R (2003) ldquoThe Impact of Social security Reform on women in three countriesrdquo NCPA Policy Report No 264 httpwwwncpaorgpdfsst264pdf

Mabbett D (2011) ldquoA Rights Revolution in Europe Regulatory and judicial approaches to nondiscrimination in insurancerdquo Birkbeck University of London httpwwwbbkacukpoliticsour-staffacademicdeborahshymabbettRightsrevolutioninEppdf

Monticone C Ruzik A Skiba J (2008) ldquoWomenrsquos Pension rights and Survivorsrsquos Benefits ndash A comparative analysis of EU Member States and Candidate countriesrdquo ENEPRi Research Report No 53 April 2008

Muumlller K (2006) ldquoCEE Pension reforms in comparative perspective A discussion of reform paths and their gender implicationsrdquo Presentation at the International Conference ldquoWelfare States in Central and Eastern Europe Social Policy and Gender in Transformationrdquo Hattingen 4-6 October 2006

Nyberg A (2011) ldquoThe socio-economic impact of pension systems on the respective situations of women and men and the effects of recent trends in pension reformsrdquo EGGSI Sweden National Report May 2011 mimeo

OECD (2008) ldquoOECD Private Pension Outlook 2008rdquo OECD Paris

OECD (2011) ldquoPensions at a Glance 2011 Retirement-income systems in OECD and G20 countriesrdquo httpdxdoiorg101787pension_glance-2011-en

OECD (2012) Pensions Outlook 2012Paris

125

_________________________________________________________________


Popescu L (2011) ldquoThe socio-economic impact of pension systems on the respective situations of women and men and the effects of recent trends in pension reforms National Report Romaniardquo EGGSI group of experts in gender equality social inclusion healthcare and long-term care mimeo

Prime Ministerrsquos Office (2005) ldquoThe Swedish National Strategy Report on Adequate and Sustainable Pensionsrdquo Stockholm Chapter 332 httpwwwswedengovsesbd574a48098

Renga S Molnar-Hidassy D Tisheva G (2010) ldquoDirect and Indirect Gender Discrimination in Old-Age Pensions in 33 European Countriesrdquo European Network of legal experts in the field of gender equality European Commission Directorate-General for Justice

Samek Lodovici M Crepaldi C Corsi M (2011) ldquoThe socio-economic impact of pension systems on the respective situations of women and men and the effects of recent trends in pension reformsrdquo EGGSI Synthesis Report November 2011

httpeceuropaeujusticegendershyequalityfilesequal_economic_independencepensions_report_enpdf

Siegenthaler Jurg K (1996) ldquoPoverty among Single Elderly Women under Different Systems of Old-Age Security A Comparative Reviewrdquo in Social Security Bulletin Vol 59 pg 31-44

Social Protection Committee (2008) ldquoPrivately managed funded pension provision and their contribution to adequate and sustainable pensionsrdquo Occasional papers No 35 httpeceuropaeusocialBlobServletdocId=743amplangId=en

Staringhlberg Ann-CharlotteCohen Birman MarcelaKruse AgnetaSunden Annika (2004) ldquoRetirement income security for men and women Technical Commission on Old-age Invalidity and Survivors Insurancerdquo Technical report 23 12-18 September 2004 Beijing httpwwwissaintcontentdownload558821022762version6fileTR-23-2pdf

Stahlberg A-C Cohen Birman M Kruse A Sunden A (2006) ldquoPension Reforms and Gender Analyses of Developed and Developing Countriesrdquo in ldquoGender and Social Security Reform The case of Swedenrdquo International Social Security Series Vol 11

Steinhilber S (2004) ldquoThe Gender Implications of Pension Reforms General remarks and evidence from selected countriesrdquo Draft paper prepared for the UNRISD report ldquoGender equality Striving for justice in an unequal world httpwwwunrisdorg80256B3C005BCCF928httpPublications2952DBB0B27C54 635CC12570350048ED4EOpenDocument

Trifiletti R (1999) ldquoSouthern European Welfare Regimes and the Worsening Position of Womenrdquo in Journal of European Social Policy Vol 9 (1) 49ndash64 SAGE Publications London

Zaidi A (2007) ldquoChallenges in Guaranteeing Adequate Pension Incomes for Womenrdquo European Centre Policy Brief March httpwwweurocentreorgdata1175071450_4527pdf

126

_________________________________________________________________________


Zaidi A (2009) ldquoPoverty and Income of older people in OECD countriesrdquo in Banca drsquoItalia (2009) Pension Reform Fiscal Policy and Economic Perfomance Papers presented at the Banca drsquoItalia workshop Perugia 26-28 March 2009

Word Bank (2004) ldquoGender-differentiated impacts of pension reformrdquo httpwww1worldbankorgpremPREMNotespremnote85pdf

Wuiame N (2011) ldquoThe socio-economic impact of pension systems on the respective situations of women and men and the effects of recent trends in pension reformsrdquo EGGSI National Report Belgium May 2011 mimeo

127

__________________________________________________________________


ANNEX I ndashDATA SOURCES AND DEFINITIONS

This section contains a descriptive overview of the gender statistical databases available of use in analysing the particular condition of women living alone

Given the target of this study it was necessary to collect micro-data which provide detailed information on the family composition and on the socio-economic characteristics of each member Most of the data used in this report are based on ad-hoc elaboration of Eurostat Microdata in particular from the EU LFS and the EU-SILC data bases

Eurostat ndash European Labour Force Survey

The European Union Labour Force Survey (EU LFS) provides population estimates for the main labour market characteristics such as employment unemployment inactivity hours of work occupation economic activity and much else as well as important socioshydemographic characteristics such as sex age education households and region of residence Additional information may be gathered on the basis of the so called ldquoad hoc modulesrdquo which collect data on specific topics

The LSF is based on the resident household approach considering individuals living in private households and excluding persons living in collective or institutional households in all EU Member States

The classification of the population into employed persons unemployed persons and inactive persons follows the International Labour Organisation definition

The data available from the EUROSTAT database do not allow for identification of the target of the study In order to identify single women without dependants it was necessary to collect micro-data The latest release currently available is of 2010

Realiability limits provided by Eurostat were considered in every ad-hoc elaboration for each country and year Regarding reliability restrictions Eurostat flags estimates below certain limits as a and b Those reliability limits depend on the sample size and design in the individual Member States This applies to quarterly data annual averages yearly data and ad hoc modules results Figures flagged a should not be published figures flagged b whenever applicable can be published with a warning concerning their limited reliability

Eurostat ndashEuropean Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC)

The lsquoEuropean Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditionsrsquo (EU-SILC) is a survey collecting timely and comparable cross-sectional and longitudinal multidimensional microdata on income poverty social exclusion and living conditions

The survey unit is the family and the reference population is all private households and their current members residing in the territory of the States participating in survey persons living in collective households and in institutions are generally excluded from the target population

Cross-sectional survey collects data for 29 countries (all Member States plus Norway and Island) Data has been collected annually since 2004 The latest release currently available is of 2010

128

_________________________________________________________________________


All the different sources of income (labour income pension social benefits allowances income from interests and dividends alimonies inter-household transfers) are recorded and several measures of wealth (home ownership house characteristics mortgage) and poverty (ability to pay bills unexpected expense buy fishmeat holiday etc) are surveyed

However in some cases processed data must be interpreted with great caution given the small number of observations

Eurofound European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS)

This Survey provides an overview of working conditions of both employees and the self- employed across Europe on a harmonised basis

The themes covered include employment status working time duration and organisation work organisation learning and training physical and psychosocial risk factors health and safety work-life balance worker participation earnings and financial security as well as work and health

For each wave a random sample of workers (employees and self-employed) was interviewed face-to-face Following European enlargement the geographical coverage of the survey has expanded 2010 extending to nearly 44000 workers interviewed in the EU27 Norway Croatia the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Turkey Albania Montenegro and Kosovo

The 2010 wave is particularly interesting for our purpose as it collects more information about family members (gender age employment status part-time) some information on the effects of the crisis (eg change of time and wages compared to January 2009) more questions about reconciling work and private life (eg possibility to take short leave (1 or 2 hours) to deal with personal issues or family) and financial difficulties of the family (and self-employed)

Processed data must be interpreted with great caution given the small number of observations

Eurofound European Quality of Life Survey (EQLS)

Eurofoundrsquos second European Quality of Life Survey which was carried out in 2007 offers a wide-ranging view of the diverse social conditions in the 27 Member States as well as Norway and the candidate countries The questionnaire covers a broad spectrum of living domains with the emphasis on income and financial situation education housing and local environment family relations work health work-life balance subjective well-being social participation quality of social services and quality of society

The sample of the European Quality of Life Survey is representative of the adult persons who were living in private households during the fieldwork period in each of the countries covered

Even if the latest data available date back to 2007 the survey collects interesting information not found in other datasets such as subjective judgment of the quality of life and the demand for economicsocial support

129

__________________________________________________________________



Eurobarometer Survey

The Eurobarometer survey is conducted on a regular basis in all European countries and provides information on the public opinion of the European population on social and economic questions Even though the survey is unsuitable for comparative analysis at the European level due to its rather small sample size (approximately 1000 face-to-face interviews per Member State with different sample sizes in some countries) it provides a preliminary picture of the opinions related to different issues

The Special EB or the Flash EB (an ad hoc survey conducted at the telephone) provides more detailed information on specific issues In this report we considered Eurobarometer 721 on Poverty and Social Exclusion Social Services Climate Change and the National Economic Situation and Statistics (2009) which collected data on populations most at risk of poverty the role of EU in the fight against poverty optimism and feelings of being left out by society accessibility of financial services risk of over-indebt


Definitions adopted in the study

Active population (labour force) sum of employed and unemployed persons

Adequacy of income share of people reporting difficulties in making ends meet

Employed persons persons who during the reference week worked at least one hour for pay or profit or were temporarily absent from such work

Gender pay gap defined as the difference between average gross annual income of male and female employees as of male income

General status of health share of people reporting bad health

Lone womenmen (20-64 and over 65) womenmen living in a one-person household

Medium-high education at least upper secondary education

Non lone womenmen (20-64 and over 65) womenmen living in couple (husbandwife partner) without dependants (LFS) womenmen living in a household with more than one member included includes couples with our without dependants and people not living in couples with dependants (EU SILC)

Low education up to lower secondary education

Unemployed persons persons who were not employed during the reference week and actively sought work during the past four weeks and were ready to begin working immediately or within two weeks

People with disability People with serious limitation in daily activities for at least the last 6 months because of health problems

130

_________________________________________________________________________


Poverty rate of people at risk of poverty Following the Eurostat definition we consider as being at risk of poverty all the individuals living in households with a disposable equivalised income below 60 of the median disposable equivalised income

Workers with atypical hours employees who customarily do shift work or work in the evening or in the night or during the weekend

131

__________________________________________________________________


ANNEX II ndash STATISTICS

Table A1 Main characteristics within 20-64 age class (LP w LP m NLP w) and over 65 class (EP w EP m NEP w) in 2010 at EU27 level

age education labour

share of category population over malefemale

population ()

LP W 15410264 63 modal

class

()

average

H M L

activity

rate

employm

ent rate

unemploym

ent rat

self

employe

d

temporary

part‐time

pove

rty rate

60‐65 (188) 45 301 241 458 704 649 79 94 143 235 264 LP M 19029143 82 30‐35 (1275) 42 258 239 503 798 707 115 176 133 103 265 NLP W 31202177 128 60‐65 (234) 48 253 298 450 642 599 66 96 115 282 149

EP W 19142153 79 75‐80 (237) 77 75 673 252 274 EP M 6090456 26 65‐70 (244) 76 150 516 335 188 NEP W 17789942 73 65‐70 (357) 73 88 613 299 136

Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata Labour Force Survey 2010 EU-SILC 2010 Poverty rates NLP w and NEP w include all the women not living alone with and without dependants

Figure A1 Age dependency ratio in EU Member States ndash 2000 2005 2010

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

EU

-27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY PT MT

BG CZ EE LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t

2000 2005 2010

Source Eurostat Demographic statistics

132

_________________________________________________________________________


Figure A2 Old age dependency ratio in EU Member States ndash 2000 2005 2010

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35 EU

-27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY PT MT

BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t 2000 2005 2010


Figure A3a Proportion of female population aged 65 and over in comparison with the total female population in EU Member States - 1995 2010

0

5

10

15

20

25

EU

-27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t

1995 2010


133

__________________________________________________________________


Figure A3b Proportion of male population aged 65 and over in comparison with the total male population in EU Member States - 1995 2010

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20 EU

-27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK

GR

ES IT CY


SK

Perc

en

t

1995 2010


Figure A4 Total fertility rate in EU Member States - 2000 2005 2010

0

1

1

2

2

3

EU

-27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Nu

mber

of

childre

n p

er

wom

an

2000 2005 2010

Source Eurostat Demographic statistics 2000 and 2010 EU-27 average not provided by EUROSTAT

134

_________________________________________________________________________


Figure A5 Single men (aged 20 and over) in relation to the total male population (aged 20 and over) in EU Member States - 2005 2010

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50 EU

27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t

single 2010 m single 2005 m

Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata Labour Force Survey ndash 2005 2010 Missing data for Malta 2005 EU average is calculated on available country data

Figure A6 WidowedDivorcedLegally separated men (aged 20 and over) in comparison with the total male population (aged 20 and over) in EU Member States ndash 2005 2010

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

EU27 BE DE FR LU NL


Per

cen

t

sep 2010 m sep 2005 m


135

__________________________________________________________________


Figure A7 Proportion of elderly womenmen living alone in comparison with the total femalemale population in EU Member States 2005 (women) - 2010

0

2

4

6

8

10

12 EU

27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t EP 2010 W EP 2010 M EP 2005 W


Table A2 Lone womenmen (aged 20-64) with no dependants lone elderly womenmen over 65 in proportion to the total femalemale population in EU Member States ndash 2005 2010 MEMBER STATES

Lone Women Lone Elderly Women Lone Men Lone Elderly Men 2005 2010 2005 2010 2005 2010 2005 2010

EU27 58 63 77 79 75 82 24 26 AT 84 88 82 83 104 114 22 29 BE 66 70 70 70 90 95 23 25 DE 87 101 95 101 127 136 27 31 FR 77 80 86 85 91 100 26 27 LU 69 76 62 61 97 111 18 19 NL 77 88 75 77 106 117 22 28 DK FI SE IE 43 47 51 24 UK 68 68 76 75 90 93 33 37 CY 33 41 35 34 23 40 09 08 ES 21 31 46 51 34 46 14 15 EL 47 54 71 75 55 62 19 21 IT 43 52 94 98 58 70 29 32 MT 22 48 31 18 PT 23 24 54 57 26 32 14 16 BG 37 41 74 89 41 47 27 34 CZ 48 56 77 79 58 74 21 23 EE 68 85 48 52 73 101 17 15 HU 46 41 81 78 43 43 20 18 LT 43 72 72 93 32 82 21 25 LV 44 48 48 61 41 52 12 17 PL 38 40 58 56 34 35 15 14 RO 28 30 57 58 27 30 18 20 SI 36 44 80 85 45 67 19 23 SK 25 31 51 57 22 29 12 15


136

_________________________________________________________________________


Figure A8 Proportion of female population aged 0-14 in comparison with the total female population in EU Member States ndash 1995 2010

0

5

10

15

20

25

30 EU

-27 BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t

1995 2010


Figure A9a Female activity rate and gender gap in EU Member States - 2005

Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata Labour Force Survey 2005 - 2010 Data on Malta based on Eurostat Labour Market Statistics

137

__________________________________________________________________


Figure A9b Female activity rate and gender gap in EU Member States - 2010

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t 2010 w 2010 gap

Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata Labour Force Survey 2010

Figure A10a Female employment rate and gender gap in EU Member States -2005


138

_________________________________________________________________________

2010


Figure A10b Female employment rate and gender gap in EU Member States -

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90 EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t

2010 w 2010 gap

Source Elaboration on Eurostat Microdata Labour Force Survey 2010

Figure A11a Female unemployment rate and gender gap in EU Member States -2005

Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata Labour Force Survey 2005 Missing data for Malta

139

__________________________________________________________________

2010


Figure A11b Female unemployment rate and gender gap in EU Member States -


Figure A12 Share of self-employed workers on lone women without dependants (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants (NLPw) lone men without dependants (LPm) in 2010 and lone women without dependants change (in percentage points) between 2005-2010 in EU Member States

Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata Labour Force Survey 2005 - 2010 Missing data for Denmark Finland Sweden in 2005 and 2010 and for Ireland and Malta in 2005 Data not reliable (not published because under limit a see Annex I) LP w 2010 for MT NLP w 2010 for MT LP m 2010 for MT Data weakly reliable (under limit b see Annex I) Lp w 2010 for LU CY EE LT SI NLP w 2010 for LU SI LP w 2005 for LU CY BG EE LT SI SK

140

_________________________________________________________________________

2005


Figure A13 Share of lone women without dependants (LPw) wishing to work morelessequal than currently worked hours per week in EU Member States -

Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata Labour Force Survey 2005 Missing data for Denmark Finland Sweden in 2005 and 2010 and for Ireland and Malta in 2005 Data not reliable (not published because under limit a see Annex I) LP heq m 2005 for BE Es SI SK UK LP hmore m 2005 for LT PT LP hless m 2005 for BG CY LP heq w 2005 for BE ES SI SK UK LP hmore w 2005 for BG LT LV PT LP hless w 2005 for BG Data weakly reliable (under limit b see Annex I) LP heq m 2005 for MT LP hmore m 2005 for EE LU LP hless m 2005 for LT LV SI SK LP hmore w 2005 for EE RO LP hless w 2005 for CY LT LV SI

Figure A14 Share of lone women without dependants (LPw) wishing to work morelessequal than currently worked hours per week in EU Member States 2010

Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata Labour Force Survey 2010 Missing data for Denmark Finland Sweden in 2005 and 2010 and for Ireland and Malta in 2005 Data not reliable (not published because under limit a see Annex I) LP heq m 2010 for BE ES SI UK LP hmore m 2010 for IE LT LP hless m 2010 for MT Lp heq w 2010 for BE ES LP hmore w 2010 for IE LT PT RO Lp hless w 2010 for MT SK Data weakly reliable (under limit b see Annex I) LP hmore for CY EE LP hless for BG EE SK LP heq w 2010 for MT LP hmore w 2010 for CY EE HU LP hless w 2010 for BG CY

141

__________________________________________________________________


Figure A15 Share of workers having a second job on lone women without dependants (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants (NLPw) lone man without dependants (LPm) in 2010 and lone women without dependants - change (in percentage points) between 2005-2010 in EU Member States

Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata Labour Force Survey 2005 - 2010 Missing data for Denmark Finland Sweden in 2005 and 2010 and for Ireland and Malta in 2005 Data not reliable (not published because under limit a see Annex I) LP w 2010 for LU IE CY MT BG LT RO SI SK NLP w 2010 for IE MT BG SK LP m 2010 for IE MT BG LT LV RO SK LP w 2005 for LU CY BG LT RO SK Data weakly reliable (under limit b see Annex I) LP w 2010 for GR HU NLP w 2010 for LU CY HU LT RO SI LP m 2010 for LU CY EE HU SI LP w 2005 for GR EE HU HU SI

Figure A16a Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) lone men without dependants 20-64 (LPm) regularly taking care of elderlydisabled in EU Member States - 2005

S Source Irs elaboration on Eurofound microdata European Working Conditions Survey 2005

142

_________________________________________________________________________


Figure A16b Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) lone men without dependants 20-64 (LPm) regularly taking care of elderlydisabled in EU Member States - 2010

Source Irs elaboration on Eurofound microdata European Working Conditions Survey 2010

Figure A17 Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) lone men without dependants 20-64 (LPm) having experienced a decrease in hours worked per week since 2009 in EU Member States - 2010

S


143

__________________________________________________________________


Figure A18 Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) lone men without dependants 20-64 (LPm) having experienced a decrease in income since 2009 in EU Member States 2010


Figure A19a Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) lone men without dependants 20-64 (LPm) with working hours fitting wellvery-well with familysocial commitments in EU Member States - 2005


144

_________________________________________________________________________


Figure A19b Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) lone men without dependants 20-64 (LPm) with working hours fitting wellvery-well with familysocial commitments in EU Member States - 2010


Figure A20a Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) lone man without dependants 20-64 (LPm) having been subjected to age discrimination at work in EU Member States - 2005 2010

S Source Irs elaboration on Eurofound microdata European Working Conditions Survey 2005-2010

145

__________________________________________________________________


Figure A20b Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) lone men without dependants 20-64 (LPm) having been subjected to discrimination at work involving race ethnic background or colour in EU Member States - 2005 2010


Figure A20c Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) lone men without dependants 20-64 (LPm) having been subjected to discrimination at work involving nationality in EU Member States - 2005 2010


146

_________________________________________________________________________


Figure A20d Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) lone men without dependants 20-64 (LPm) having been subjected to gender discrimination at work in EU Member States - 2005 2010


Figure A20e Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) lone men without dependants 20-64 (LPm) having been subjected to religion-related discrimination at work in EU Member States - 2005 2010


147

__________________________________________________________________


Figure A20f Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) lone men without dependants 20-64 (LPm) having been subjected to discrimination associated with disability at work in EU Member States - 2005 2010


Figure A20g Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) lone men without dependants 20-64 (LPm) having been subjected to discrimination associated with sexual orientation at work in EU Member States - 2005 2010


148

_________________________________________________________________________


Figure A21 Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) lone men without dependants 20-64 (LPm) feeling their health or safety at risk because of work in EU Member States - 2010


Figure A22a Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) and women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) having being subjected to verbal abuse at work over the last months in EU Member States - 2010


149

__________________________________________________________________

2010


Figure A22b Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) and women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) having being subjected to unwanted sexual attention at work over the last month in EU Member States -


Figure A22c Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) and women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) having being subjected to threats and humiliating behaviour at work over the last month in EU Member States - 2010


150

_________________________________________________________________________


Figure A22d Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) and women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) having being subjected to unwanted sexual attention at work over the last 12 months in EU Member States ndash 2005

S Source Irs elaboration on Eurofound microdata European Working Conditions Survey 2005 Notes Changes in the definition of the variable concerned between 2005 and 2010

Figure A22e Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) and women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) having being subjected to threats of physical violence at work over the last 12 months in EU Member States- 2005


151

__________________________________________________________________

2010


Figure A22f Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) and women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) having been subjected to physical violence at work in the past 12 months in EU Member States -


Figure A22g Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) and women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) having been subjected bullyingharassment at work in the past 12 months in EU Member States - 2010


152

_________________________________________________________________________


Figure A22h Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) and women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) having been subjected to sexual harassment at work in the past 12 months in EU Member States - 2010


Figure A22i Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) and women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) having been subjected to physical violence from people belonging to their workplace at work in the past 12 months in EU Member States - 2005

S


153

__________________________________________________________________


Figure A22j Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) and women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) having been subjected to physical violence from other people at work in the past 12 months in EU Member States - 2005


Figure A23 Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) and women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) satisfied or very satisfied with working conditions in the main paid job in EU Member States - 2005 2010


154

_________________________________________________________________________

2007


Figure A24 Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) lone elderly women without dependants +65 (EPw) and all women (allW) having participated in the political life of their country (attending political meetings demonstrating or contacting politicians) over the last year in EU Member States -

S Source Irs elaboration on Eurofound microdata European Quality of Life Survey 2007

Figure A25 Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) lone elderly women without dependants +65 (EPw) and all women (allW) having voted in the last national election in EU Member States - 2007


155

__________________________________________________________________


Figure A26 Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) lone elderly women without dependants +65 (EPw) and all women (allW) regularly attending to cooking and housework outside of paid work - 2007

Source Irs elaboration on Eurofound microdata European Quality of Life Survey 2007

Figure A27 Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) lone elderly women without dependants +65 (EPw) and all women (allW) regularly taking

S

care of elderlydisabled relatives outside of paid work - 2007


156

_________________________________________________________________________

2007


Figure A28 Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) lone elderly women without dependants +65 (EPw) and all women (allW) regularly in voluntary and charitable activities outside of paid work in EU Member States -


Figure A29 Average quality of life (from 0 to 10) for lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) lone elderly women without dependants +65 (Epw) and all women (allW) in EU Member States - 2007


157

__________________________________________________________________


Figure A30 Share of lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) lone elderly women without dependants +65 (EPw) and all women (allW) regularly using internet over the past month in EU Member States - 2007


Figure A31 Average quality of public services (from 0 to 10) for lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) lone elderly women without dependants +65

S

(EPw) and all women (allW) in EU Member States - 2007


158

_________________________________________________________________________


Figure A32 Feelings of optimism about the future by lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) lone elderly women without dependants +65 (EPw) women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) and total female population (allW) in EU Member States ndash 2009

Source Irs elaboration on Eurobarometer microdata ndeg 721 2009

Figure A33 Difficult access to financial services by lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) lone elderly women without dependants +65 (EPw) women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) and total female population (allW) in EU Member States ndash 2009

S Source Irs elaboration on Eurobarometer microdata ndeg 721 2009

159

__________________________________________________________________


Figure A34 Risk of being over-indebted run by lone women without dependants 20-64 (LPw) lone elderly women without dependants +65 (EPw) women with a partner and without dependants 20-64 (NLPw) and total female population (allW) in EU Member States ndash 2009


Figure A35 Gender pay gap in EU Member States (age 20-64)ndash 2005 2010

S

-30

-15

0

15

30

45

60

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK

ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK

Lone women

2010 2005

160

_________________________________________________________________________


Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata EU-SILC Notes EU 2005 refers to EU-25 excluding MT EU 2010 refers to EU27 excluding IE and CY Gender pay gap is defined as the difference between average gross annual income of male and female employees as of male income

Figure A36 Gender pay gap for non lone women by education in EU Member States (age 20-64)ndash 2005 2010

Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata EU-SILC Notes EU 2005 refers to EU-25 excluding MT EU 2010 refers to EU27 excluding IE and CY

161

__________________________________________________________________

2010


Figure A37 General health by education in EU Member States (age 20-64) ndash 2005


162

_________________________________________________________________________


Figure A38 General health in EU Member States (age 65+) ndash 2005 2010

0

20

40

60

80 EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE UK ES GR IT PT

CZ

EE HU LT LV PL SI SK

Lone women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

EU AT

BE

DE

FR LU NL


CZ EE HU LT LV PL SI SK

Other women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

EU AT

BE

DE

FR LU NL


CZ EE HU LT LV PL SI SK Lone men

2010 2005

Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata EU-SILC Notes EU 2005 refers to EU-25 excluding MT EU 2010 refers to EU27 excluding IE and CY Data not reliable due to the small sample size (not published because based on less than 20 observations) share of lone men reporting bad health in 2005 for LU DK SI share of lone men reporting bad health in 2010 for LU DK SE Data weakly reliable due to the small sample size (based on less than 50 observations) lone women in 2005 for LU DK other women in 2005 for NL DK SE lone men in 2005 for AT BENLFI SE GR PT CZ EE LT LV lone women in 2010 for LU SE other women in 2010 for NL DK SE lone men in 2010 for AT BE NL FIUK ES EE SI SK

163

__________________________________________________________________

2010


Figure A39 General health by education in EU Member States (age 65+) ndash 2005


164

_________________________________________________________________________


Figure A40 Chronic illness and disability in EU Member States (age 20-64) ndash 2005 2010

Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata EU-SILC Notes EU 2005 refers to EU-25 excluding MT EU 2010 refers to EU27 excluding IE and CY Data weakly reliable due to the small sample size (based on less than 50 observations) lone women in 2005 for GR lone men in 2005 for GR PT LT SI SK lone men in 2010 for GR PT

165

__________________________________________________________________

2010


Figure A41 Chronic illness and disability in EU Member States (over 65) ndash 2005

Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata EU-SILC Notes EU 2005 refers to EU-25 excluding MT EU 2010 refers to EU27 excluding IE and CY Data weakly reliable due to the small sample size (based on less than 50 observations) lone men in 2005 for LU DK LT SI lone men in 2010 for LU

166

_________________________________________________________________________


Figure A42 Share of people with disability in EU Member States (age 20-64) ndash 2005 2010

0

5

10

15

20

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Lone women

2010 2005

0

5

10

15

20

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Other women

2010 2005

0

5

10

15

20

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ

EE HU LT LV PL SI SK Lone men

2010 2005

Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata EU-SILC Notes EU 2005 refers to EU-25 excluding MT EU 2010 refers to EU27 excluding IE and CY Data not reliable due to the small sample size (not published because based on less than 20 observations) disability rate for lone women in 2005 for LU DK GR SI disability rate for other women in 2005 for DK disability rate for lone men in 2005 for LU DK GR PT LV PL SI SK disability rate for lone women in 2010 for EE disability rate for lone men in 2010 for GR PT EE LT SK Data weakly reliable due to the small sample size (based on less than 50 observations) lone women in 2005 for BE PT CZ EE LT LV PL SK lone men in 2005 for AT BE FR NL ES CZ EE HU LT lone women in 2010 for LU DK FI SE ES GR IT PT CZ LT LV SI lone men in 2010 for BE LU DK SE ES IT CZ HU LV PL SI

167

__________________________________________________________________


Figure A43 Adequacy of income by education in EU Member States (age 20-64)ndash 2005 2010


168

_________________________________________________________________________


Figure A44 Adequacy of income in EU Member States (age 65+)ndash 2005 2010

0

20

40

60

80

100 EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Lone women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Other women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


2010 2005

Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata EU-SILC Notes EU 2005 refers to EU-25 excluding MT EU 2010 refers to EU27 excluding IE and CY Data not reliable due to the small sample size (not published because based on less than 20 observations) share of lone men reporting having difficulties in making ends meet in 2005 for LU DK share of lone men reporting having difficulties in making ends meet in 2010 for LU Data weakly reliable due to the small sample size (based on less than 50 observations) lone women in 2005 for LU DK other women in 2005 for LU lone men in 2005 for AT NLFI SE EE SI lone women in 2010 for LU lone men in 2010 for NL DK FISE SI

169

__________________________________________________________________


Figure A45 Adequacy of income by education in EU Member States (age 65+)ndash 2005 2010


170

_________________________________________________________________________


Figure A46 Poverty rate in EU Member States (age 20-64) ndash 2005 2010

Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata EU-SILC Notes EU 2005 refers to EU-25 excluding MT EU 2010 refers to EU27 excluding IE and CY Data weakly reliable due to the small sample size (based on less than 50 observations) lone women in 2005 for CZ for lone men in 2005 for GR PT SK for lone women in 2010 for PT for lone men in 2010 for PT SK

171

__________________________________________________________________

2010


Figure A47 Poverty rate by education in EU Member States (age 20-64) ndash 2005


172

_________________________________________________________________________


Figure A48 Poverty rate in EU Member States (age 65+) ndash 2005 2010

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Lone women

2010 2005

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Other women

2010 2005

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Lone men

2010 2005

Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata EU-SILC Notes EU 2005 refers to EU-25 excluding MT EU 2010 refers to EU27 excluding IE and CY Data not reliable due to the small sample size (not published because based on less than 20 observations) poverty rate for lone women in 2005 for LU poverty rate for other women in 2005 for CZ poverty rate for lone men in 2005 for AT LU NL CZ HU LT SI SK poverty rate for lone women in 2010 for LU poverty rate for lone men in 2010 for LU NL HU SISK Data weakly reliable due to the small sample size (based on less than 50 observations) lone women in 2005 for NL other women in 2005 for LU NL SE SK lone men in 2005 for BEDKFI SE GR EE LV PL other women in 2010 for LU NL CZ SK lone men in 2010 for AT FR DK FIPT CZ EELT

173

__________________________________________________________________

2010


Figure A49 Poverty rate by education in EU Member States (age 65+) ndash 2005


174

_________________________________________________________________________


Table A3 Income distribution in EU Member States (age 20-64) ndash 2005 2010 2005 2010

Quintile LF noLF LM LF noLF LM AT 1 1854 2805 1025 1327 2532 927

2 1518 3071 1358 1505 3062 1425 3 1734 1985 2088 2489 214 2156 4 2575 1227 2516 2698 129 2734 5 2319 913 3013 1981 976 2757 1 2358 3073 1602 2195 2622 1737 2 2356 2678 1482 2197 265 162 3 191 1753 2117 165 1935 219 4 1689 1472 2605 2081 1653 2481 5 1686 1024 2193 1876 114 1973 1 1199 2586 117 1798 2674 1335 2 2133 287 1575 1975 281 1626 3 2447 2244 1696 2317 2164 1946 4 2286 1455 2338 2232 1555 2548 5 1934 845 3221 1677 798 2545 1 1978 253 1814 1914 2145 1896 2 2075 2538 1747 2211 2553 179 3 2126 2017 2304 2016 2155 2066 4 1937 1614 1862 1922 1828 2247 5 1884 1301 2273 1936 1319 2001 1 1697 3689 956 1454 3364 1394 2 2079 2227 1403 2037 2231 2019 3 1224 1941 1915 2005 1839 168 4 286 1424 2374 2585 1473 1928 5 214 719 3353 1918 1093 298 1 2137 2026 1992 2502 1798 1513 2 2082 3594 1515 2038 3402 2045 3 2421 2466 2017 2654 2479 2333 4 2371 1296 2213 2005 1436 2417 5 988 617 2263 801 885 1694 1 2084 1395 2222 2305 1083 1937 2 3312 2702 1716 273 2523 232 3 1714 2686 1852 2102 2696 1967 4 1537 1998 215 1649 2226 1886 5 1353 1219 2059 1214 1472 1889 1 1838 1504 1549 1462 138 1717 2 2369 2434 2143 2131 2685 2035 3 2462 2784 1849 2598 2614 17 4 2061 2019 2404 2354 2001 2169 5 127 1259 2055 1454 1321 238 1 2113 1561 1468 2178 1546 1743 2 2354 28 2069 2695 2749 1553 3 2179 2683 1939 219 2617 2144 4 2124 1761 2339 1869 1777 2439 5 1229 1195 2185 1067 1311 2121 1 201 2268 1163 2 1664 2586 1723 3 2379 1966 158 4 1637 178 2814 5 2311 14 272 1 1333 2639 822 1693 2801 87 2 1924 2744 1172 2157 2468 981 3 2252 1934 2305 2137 1968 2341 4 2303 1482 2871 2205 1636 2968 5 2189 1201 283 1807 1126 2839 1 1856 26 951 2 1812 2959 1864 3 2837 1792 1465 4 1907 1276 2844 5 1589 1373 2877 1 1541 3147 1065 1145 2614 1349

BE

DE

FR

LU

NL

DK

FI

SE

IE

UK

CY

ES

175

__________________________________________________________________


2 1969 2536 2101 2242 2497 1719 3 1941 1659 1849 2183 1864 1872 4 1828 1356 1947 2081 1509 2696 5 2721 1301 3038 2349 1516 2363

GR 1 1822 2831 1087 2771 2532 1304 2 1887 2312 1767 249 2208 1152 3 2364 1825 2162 1411 2151 2527 4 215 1715 2742 2433 1756 2959 5 1777 1317 2243 896 1353 2059

IT 1 1848 2694 1444 1347 2375 128 2 2271 2574 1755 2317 2656 1412 3 1903 1945 1871 189 1882 2248 4 228 1715 2238 2068 1718 2386 5 1698 1072 2693 2378 137 2674

MT 1 1985 2561 1133 2 1082 2274 1543 3 897 1861 1581 4 2818 1962 253 5 3218 1341 3214

PT 1 3038 2677 93 1946 2525 1191 2 2293 2437 1609 1246 2478 798 3 1408 1682 2816 957 1856 253 4 1296 1558 1851 2874 1496 3182 5 1966 1645 2793 2977 1645 2298

BG 1 1593 2102 1574 2 1651 2605 2199 3 2528 1972 1786 4 1985 1791 2832 5 2243 153 1609

CZ 1 2715 2864 1341 2665 262 1285 2 184 2599 1574 2271 2835 1583 3 1457 18 1762 1608 1867 1601 4 2737 1707 2191 1782 1601 2281 5 1252 1031 3133 1675 1076 325

EE 1 1792 2271 1323 1365 2035 2251 2 2584 2676 1842 2197 2683 1612 3 2561 2126 1976 2302 2305 1715 4 1796 1726 172 202 175 2049 5 1267 1201 3138 2116 1227 2374

HU 1 158 2004 2221 1697 2009 2124 2 1591 2095 1961 2152 2219 1451 3 1523 23 118 1358 2135 1292 4 1926 1923 1703 1687 2057 2284 5 3381 1679 2935 3106 1579 2849

LT 1 1607 2177 2486 1803 1904 3269 2 2577 2207 1204 2333 2091 1235 3 2522 2055 2148 2282 207 1007 4 2135 192 1714 1364 1951 1838 5 1158 1641 2448 2218 1984 2651

LV 1 2083 2583 1696 1508 1863 2345 2 1848 2228 1221 1395 2199 1708 3 2773 2307 2791 2276 2204 1769 4 188 141 1814 2019 2049 2312 5 1417 1472 2478 2802 1685 1867

PL 1 216 2127 2135 1531 2343 1358 2 1121 2265 1676 1607 2335 1238 3 1861 2025 2032 1845 2025 15 4 2134 1902 2027 187 1748 2622 5 2725 1682 213 3147 1548 3282

RO 1 1605 2728 1307 2 1711 225 1991 3 1612 1848 2062 4 1954 1821 1991 5 3118 1353 2649

SI 1 1818 1665 1271 1251 1685 114

176

_________________________________________________________________________


SK

2 2212 2507 969 2172 2426 2863 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

Source Irs elaboration on Eurostat Microdata EU-SILC Share of working individual in each income quintile

1282 2147 2828 168 2093 2683 129 1716 2632 1888 1829 1915 3399 1965 2299 301 1967 14 2201 2845 1752 2195 2119 1192 188 2326 171 215 2804 1291 1942 216 1615 1521 2083 1497 2241 154 1972 2166 1793 221 1736 1129 2951 1968 12 3809

177

__________________________________________________________________


ANNEX III ndash COUNTRY FICHES

All the data presented in the first table (including Demographic indicators socio-economic indicators and macroeconomic indicators) are taken from the Eurostat database on Population and social conditions The socio-economic indicators are based on Labour Force Survey and the macroeconomic indicators on the data on Living condition and Welfare

The second table showing the national welfare systems (reference year 20112012) are based on the following sources

1 the Comparative Tables on Social Protection presented in the Mutual Information System on Social Protection (MISSOC)1 - MISSOC provides qualitative information on the social protection legislation and its financing sources as well as relevant organisations responsible for social protection for all European countries It provides data for all areas of social protection which enables assessment of changes in the social protection systems over time and within the European countries The database includes a special section on ldquoold-agerdquo including information on the applicable statutory basis basic principles fields of application benefits and taxation and social contributions Other sections are for instance family benefits or unemployment

2 International Review of leave policies and related research 2012 by Peter Moss (2012)2

3 The National reform programmes of 2012

4 European Commission on ldquoYour social security rightsrdquo3

Information on the pension system is drawn from MISSOC as well as from the Country profiles of the Joint report on pensions from the European Commission

Additional country sources are drawn from national websites and included in the respective country scheme

When data are said to be on the total population they refer to both males and females

The country fiches are ordered by welfare regime

1 httpeceuropaeuemployment_socialmissocdbpubliccompareTablesdo 2 Moss Peter (2012) International review of leave policies and related research 2012 Institute of education University of London httpwwwleavenetworkorgfileadminLeavenetworkAnnual_reviews2012_annual_reviewpdf 3 httpeceuropaeusocialmainjspcatId=858amplangId=en

178

_________________________________________________________________________

688


Country FRANCE

CONTEXT

Demographic Indicators 2006 2011 Malefemale population under 25 years out of the total malefemale population

332 (M) 300 (F)

326 (M) 294 (F)

Malefemale population aged 25-64 out of the total malefemale

530 (M) 513 (F)

531 (M) 516 (F)

Malefemale population aged over 64 out of the total malefemale population

138 (M) 188 (F)

143 (M) 190 (F)


61 (M) 101 (F) 68 (M) 108 (F)

Total fertility rate (number of children per woman)

200 203 (2010)

Mean age of women at childbirth (2006) 297 300 (2010) Age dependency ratio 536 545 Old age dependency ratio 251 259 Single women aged 20 and over out of the same age female population

265 (2005) 289 (2010)

WidowedDivorcedLegally separated women aged 20 and over out of the same age female population

216 (2005) 215 (2010)

Lone women (20-64) with no dependants out of the same age female population

77(2005) 8 (2010)

Lone elderly women (aged 65 and over) with no dependants on the same age female population

86 (2005) 85 (2010)

Socioeconomic Indicators 2006 2011 Gender gap in activity rate (Age group 15shy64)

101 86

Gender gap in employment rate (Age group 15-64)

103 84

Gender gap in unemployment rate (Age group 15-64) (20062011)

16 09

Gender pay gap (in unadjusted form) 154 16 (2010) Employment rate of lone women with no dependants (20-64)

631 (2005) 634 (2010)

Activity rate of lone women with no dependants (20-64)

699 (2005) 693 (2010)

Unemployment rate of lone women with no dependants (20-64)

97 (2005) 85 (2010)

Employment rate of single women (aged 25shy64) with children

706

Employment rate of single women (aged 25shy64) with no child

624 611

At risk of poverty rate 123 (M) 140 (F)

126 (M) 139 (F) (2010)

At risk of poverty rate - under 16 years 130 (M) 140 (F)

179 (M) 180 (F) (2010)

At risk of poverty rate ndash Single person 187 177 (2010)

At risk of poverty rate ndash Lone parent 286 346 (2010) At risk of poverty rate ndash over 65 years 161 (Total)

140 (M) 177 (F) (2010)

106 (Total) 87 (M) 120 (F) (2010)

Macroeconomic Indicators 2006 2009 Social protection expenditure of GDP 294 316

179

__________________________________________________________________


132 144

Public expenditure on sicknesshealth care of 88 94 GDP

25 26

Public expenditure on old age and survivors pensions of GDP

Public expenditure on familychild care policies of GDP

THE WELFARE SYSTEM

A- Income support

Measure Social assistance (Revenu de solidariteacute active RSA) Institutional level responsible State

Financing type institutional level (ie Taxation state) Beneficiaries (requirements) Stable and effective resident over 25 years or under 25

with at least one child

Disabled over 20 years Presence of eligibility test (ie means test)

Yes household means test

Duration Granted for periods of 3 months which can be renewed

Amount Depends on household composition (monthly payment) Single euro 467 Single-parent family with 1 child euro 799 Couple with 2 children euro 980 Couple with 3 children euro 1167

Measure Unemployment insurance

Institutional level responsible State Financing type (ie Contributions and taxation)

Contribution

Beneficiaries (requirements) Contributors up to pensionable age Presence of eligibility test (ie means test)

No

Duration Depends on duration of insurance (4 to 24 month or 3 years if over 50 years)

Amount Depends on previous contributions (Min euro27 per day)

The daily allowance is composed of a fixed part and a variable part amounting to 404 of the standard wage it cannot be lower than 574 of the standard wage nor exceed it by 75 or over

Notes No family supplements Measure Unemployment assistance (Reacutegime de solidariteacute) Institutional level responsible State Financing type institutional level (ie state)

Taxation

Beneficiaries (requirements) Unemployed (5 years activity during the previous 10 years)

Presence of eligibility test (ie means test)

Yes

Duration 6 months renewable Amount Flat-rate benefit paid fully or differentially according

to the persons income

B ndash Childcare provisions

180

_________________________________________________________________________

Measure Family allowance (for large families) (Compleacutement familial)


Measure Compulsory maternity leave Institutional level responsible State Financing type institutional level (ie state)

Health insurance (contributions of employees and employers)

Beneficiaries (requirements) All employees and self-employed workers


No

Duration 16 weeks (6 before confinement and 10 after) 26 weeks in case of 3rd child 34-46 in case of multiple births

Amount 100 of basic salary without social contributions (=80) with ceiling (3031 euro) In the public sector leave is fully paid (no ceiling)

The difference can be supplemented by the employer Notes Flexibility in use 2 weeks can be taken before or

after birth Measure Basic allowance (allocation de base)4

Institutional level responsible State Financing type institutional level (ie state)

Social security

Beneficiaries (requirements) Every child lt3 years of age


Yes

Duration Three years Amount 18243 euromonthly Measure Parental leave (Le compleacutement de libre choix dactiviteacute CLCA) Institutional level responsible State Beneficiaries (requirements) Families with children below 3 years employed in

the previous 2 years before the child birth Presence of eligibility test (ie means test)

No

Beneficiaries (requirements) Family with at least one child under the age of 3 or An adopted child

Amount Eligible for basic Allowance Not in employment 383 euro part time employment 248 euro between part-time and 45 145 euro5

Not eligible for basic allowance Not in employment 566 euro part time employment 430 euro between part-time and 45 325 euro

4 httpvosdroitsservice-publicfrF2552xhtml 5 httpwwwmsafrfrontid=msafrS1096461900197S1096559562898S_Prestationsshyfamilialespubli_complement-libre-choix-d--39-activite--PajeshyhtmlampDossierPubliMere=msafrS1096461900197S1096559562898S_Prestations-familialespubli_Paje---modeshyd--39-emploihtml

181

__________________________________________________________________

Measure Lone parent allowance (Allocation de soutien familial (ASF))6


Institutional level responsible State Beneficiaries (requirements) All families with

at least two children Presence of eligibility test (ie means test) Duration Up to the childacutes age of 20 years if its income does

not exceed 55 of the Minimum Income Amount Monthly payment

2 children euro 126 3 children euro 288 4 children euro 450 5 children euro 612 6 children euro 774 Each subsequent child euro 16197

Measure Care Benefit for large families - II (Complement optionel de libre choix dacuteactiviteacute ndash COLCA) Beneficiaries (requirements) Parents of at least three children who stop working

completely Duration One year Amount euro 805 per month in case of complete suspension

of activity Notes Parents can choose between COLCA and CLCA

No possibility of part time employment Measure Care Benefit (Complement de libre choix de mode de garde) Institutional level responsible State Beneficiaries Working parents with children under 6 years

officially hiring a baby-sitter at her house or at the family home for min 16 hours

Means test Yes Amount Between 285 euro and 827 euromonthly depending on

the age of child and income Measure Child care services Institutional level responsible Municipalities departments or the State and

private organisations Financing type institutional level (ie state) Beneficiaries (requirements) Children from 0 to 5 years


Yes

C ndash Special provisions or lone parents

Institutional level responsible State Beneficiaries (requirements) Lone parents in charge of a child under 20 years of

age Presence of eligibility test (ie means test)

Yes

Duration (Six month from the end of maternity leave (2006)

6 httpvosdroitsservice-publicfrF815xhtml

182

_________________________________________________________________________


Amount 8934 euromonthly

D- Pension

Measure Old age pension

Legal Retirement age 62 years (2018) 60 years for persons with 41 contributory years (2012)

Complementary schemes for employees (ARRCO) and management staff (AGIRC) Between 65 and 67 or upon receipt of the basic pension at full rate7

Early retirement General scheme for employees Between 56 and 60 years of age (Long career) according to the year of birth the age at commencement of activity and the duration of insurance

For people with severe disability From 56 to 59 years of age

Complementary schemes for employees and management staff Between the ages of 55 and 57 with an anticipation coefficient according to the birth year or without coefficient if the insuree obtained the basic pension at a full rate

Flexibility in exit General scheme for employees 6062 years A bonus is paid only if the insuree meets the insurance condition for a full pension

Beyond the age at which the pension is paid automatically at the full rate (between 65 and 67 according to the year of birth)

Increase of the insurance duration if the insured does not meet the insurance period required depending on the year of birth

Complementary schemes for employees and management staff No specific measure because the number of pension points is related to the duration of contributions

Pension earnings related Pension based on annual that calculated on the basis of the 24 best earning years for the insured born in 1947

Persons born after 1947 The duration will increase to 25 years

Multi-pillar schemes Mandatory partially funded schemes in the private sector Minimum Pension General scheme for employees euro7297 per year (if eligible

for full pension) It is prorated if the insurance period is below the duration required

Is increased for periods of effective contributions euro7974 It is supplemented after a means test by a maximum amount paid as Solidarity allowance for the elderly person euro8907 per year

Complementary schemes for employees and management staff No statutory MP

Indexation of benefits Annual adjustment based on expected evolution of consumer prices (tobacco excluded)

7 httpwwwcleissfrdocsregimesregime_francean_3html

183

__________________________________________________________________

113


Survivors pension benefit 54 of real or hypothetical old-age pension of the deceased person If divorced widow(er) pension is divided in proportion to the years of marriage

A supplement of euro93 is paid if the surviving spouse has a child under 16 years An increase of 10 is granted if the surviving spouse has raised three or more children

Country GERMANY

CONTEXT


271 (M) 248 (F)

256 (M) 235 (W)


567 (M) 531 (F)

564 (M) 533 (W)


163 (M) 221 (F)

180 (M) 232 (W)


57 (M) 106 (F)

70 (M) 114 (W)


133 139 (2010)

Mean age of women at childbirth 291 304 (2010) Age dependency ratio 501 515 Old age dependency ratio 289 312 Single women aged 20 and over out of the same age female population

204 (2005) 23 (2010)


226 (2005) 229 (2010)


87(2005) 101 (2010)

Lone elderly women (aged 65 and over) with no dependants out of the same age female population

95 (2005) 101 (2010)

Socioeconomic Indicators 2006 2011 Gender gap in activity rate (age group 15shy64)

128 107

Gender gap in employment rate (age group 15-64)

96

Gender gap in unemployment rate (age group 15-64)

-02 -06


683 (2005) 746 (2010)


768 (2005) 805 (2010)


111 (2005) 73 (2010)


646 700


702 73

At risk of poverty rate 121 (M) 130 (W)

149 (M) 164 (W) (2010)

At risk of poverty rate - under 16 years 122 (M) 118 (W)

181 (M) 162 (W) (2010)

184

_________________________________________________________________________

At risk of poverty rate ndash Single person


215 30 (2010)

At risk of poverty rate ndash Lone parent 244 43 (2010)

At risk of poverty rate ndash over 65 years 125 (total) 108 (M) 139 (W)

141 (total) 121 (M) 159 (W) (2010)

Macroeconomic Indicators 2006 2009 Social protection expenditure of GDP 278 301 Public expenditure on old age and survivors pensions of GDP

119 121

Public expenditure on sicknesshealth care of GDP

81 97


29 32

THE WELFARE SYSTEM

A- Income support

Measure Social assistance

Institutional level responsible State Laumlnder

Financing type institutional level (ie Taxation state) Beneficiaries (requirements) Residents aged 15-64


Yes individual or members of a household unit

Duration Unlimited

Amount Single person 364 euro per month for the head of the household or for a person living alone euro 215 for household members below 6 years euro 251 for household members between 6 and 14 years euro 287 for household members above 14 years

The standards may be supplemented for certain groups such as single parents or pregnant women

Notes Single parents caring for and living together with one or more minor children receive a supplement



Contribution

Beneficiaries (requirements) Previous contributors (at least 12 month during the last 2 years) from 15 to 65 years old


No

Duration Depends on the duration of compulsory insurance coverage and on the age of the beneficiary

Amount 60 of net earnings without children 67 with children

Measure Basic resources for jobseekers (Unemployment benefit II) Institutional level responsible State

185

__________________________________________________________________


Financing type institutional level (ie state)

Taxation

Beneficiaries (requirements) Residents from 14-64 years Presence of eligibility test (ie means test)

Yes

Duration Basic security benefits for employable persons (jobseekers) Single person euro 359 per month Partners over the age of 18 90 of the regular benefit Other employable family members 80 of the regular benefit

Amount Lone mothers are also considered available for gainful employment after the childrsquos first year and receive Unemployment Benefit II only if they accept job offers or supportive measures from the new job centres


Measure Compulsory maternity leave (Mutterschutz) Institutional level responsible State Financing type institutional level (ie state)

Contributions to health insurance and employers contributions

Beneficiaries (requirements) All women employees also part-time even if below the statutory social insurance threshold Self-employed and non-employed women are not eligible


No

Duration 6 weeks prior to and 8 weeks after confinement (12 weeks in cases of premature birth from the medical point of view or multiple births)

Amount 100 of the salary

Measure Parental Leave (Elternzeit)

Beneficiaries (requirements) All parents gainfully employed at date of birth or who reduced their employment hours


No

Duration 12 months 14 if the father takes at least two months

67 of earnings min euro 300 and maximum euro 1800 per monthAmount

Flexibility in use can be spread over 24 (+4) months Notes with half benefit level Part time work allowed

Measure Child benefit

Institutional level responsible Beneficiaries (requirements)

Duration

Amount


Federal state Men and women with children up to 18 years of age

No

Up to the childacutes age of 21 if child not in employment or registered as jobseeker up to the age of 25 if in education Disabled no limit Flat rate monthly amount 184 euro (for 1st and 2nd child) 3rd child 190 euro 4th and subsequent children 215euro

Measure Parental allowance (Elterngeld) Institutional level responsible Federal state

186

_________________________________________________________________________


Beneficiaries (requirements) Non-working or part-time working (up to 30 hours a week) mothers or fathers


Yes

Duration Until the child reaches the age of 14 month Amount It replaces in principle 67 of the adjusted net

income for low income families replacement rate is 100 (300 euromonth for 2 years 450 euromonth for 1

Families with several small children receive a siblingrsquos bonus to the amount of 10 of the parental allowance they are entitled to which corresponds to at least euro 75 per month8

Municipalities But due to federal framework the distribution of responsibilities may differ (mostly under socialfamily services but sometimes local ministry of education)

Measure Care services

Institutional level responsible

year)

Financing type institutional level (ie Parents contribute to the costs of all publicly funded state) services taking account of the family income and

number of children There is a subsidy for low income parents using private family day care services approved by local authorities or publicly funded centres

Beneficiaries (requirements) Until child is 6 years old (child care facilities mostly for children aged 2-6)


Yes

C- Pension


Legal Retirement age From 65 gradually increased to 67 years in 2029

It will still be possible for insured persons to retire at the age of 65 years without having their pensions reduced if they complete 45 years of compulsory contributions from employment and care and from child-raising periods up to the age of 10 of the child

8 European Commission (2009) Your social rights in Europe ndash Germany

httpeceuropaeuemployment_socialempl_portalSSRinEUYour20social20security20rights20in20Ge rmany_enpdf

187

__________________________________________________________________


Early retirement 63 (from 62 for severely disabled persons) after 35 years of pension insurance periods

From the age of 60 with deduction for women (born before 1952) after at least 15 years of contribution and substitute periods if compulsory contributions were paid for more than ten years as from the age of 40

From the age of 63 with deduction for persons (born before 1952) after at least 15 years of contribution and substitute periods if they were compulsorily insured for at least 8 in the last 10 years are unemployed at the commencement of the pension and were unemployed for 52 weeks after completion of the age of 585 years or have worked part-time for elder workers for 24 calendar months

Flexibility in exit Deferment possible up to the age of 65 years

Pension earnings related Amount of employment income insured through contributions during the entire insured life voluntary contributions (contribution periods) and periods of child-raising

Multi-pillar schemes Funded additional old-age pension provision in second pillar (obligatory) and third pillar (voluntary)

Five options for occupational provision book reserves support fund direct insurance pension fund Since 2002 a new voluntary by state- subsidised fully funded direct-contribution scheme (Riester-Rente) (privately managed funded scheme)9

Minimum Pension No statutory minimum pension For low income groups (including needy elderly) there is a Needs-based pension supplements = universal basic income scheme (social security support)

Indexation of benefits Annually adjusted on 1 July according to the incomewage development the sustainability factor (demographic factor) and the increase in the pension contribution rate10 (=economic and demographic factors)

Survivors pension benefit Marriage after 31122001 or both spouses born after 111962 pension amounts to 55 of the old-age pension for which the deceased spouse would have been eligible including supplementary periods

Marriage before 112002 or at least one spouse born before 211962 or decease before 112002 pension amounts to 60 of the pension for which the deceased spouse would have been eligible No supplement for child-raising Income from property is not taken into account The same benefits are granted in the case of survivors of a registered civil union

9 European Commission (2010) Country profiles of the Joint report on pensions 10 European Commission (2010) Country profiles of the Joint report on pensions

188

_________________________________________________________________________

Gender pay gap (in unadjusted form)


Country ITALY

CONTEXT


258 (M) 231 (F)

255 (M) 227 (F)


573 (M) 545 (F) 569 (M) 545 (F)


169 (M) 224 (F)

176 (M) 228 (F)


70 (M) 114 (F)

79 (M) 122 (F)


135 141 (2010)


21 (2005) 212 (2010)


211 (2005) 218 (2010)


43(2005) 52 (2010)


94 (2005) 98 (2010)


238 216


242 21


33 20

44 55 (2010)

Employment rate of lone women with no dependants (20-64)

602 (2005) 637 (2010)


638 (2005) 679 (2010)


56 (2005) 63 (2010)


763 729


617 659


168 (M) 195 (F) (2010)

At risk of poverty rate - under 16 years 241 (M) 248 (F) 235 (M) 250 (F) (2010)


At risk of poverty rate ndash Lone parent 319 373 (2010) At risk of poverty rate ndash over 65 years 217 (total)

178 (M) 245 (F)

166 (total) 126 (M) 195 (F) (2010)


189

__________________________________________________________________


155 171


12 14



THE WELFARE SYSTEM

A- Income support

Measure Guaranteed minimum income Institutional level responsible

Financing 1 institutional level (ie state)

Beneficiaries (requirements)

Regional

Regional

Taxation

Residents in the region (or municipality)

Financing 2 type (ie Contributions and taxation)


Family

Duration The regulations vary according to the regions and the municipalities

In general fixed term oriented11

Amount The regulations vary according to the regions and the municipalities

(Between euro 300 ndash 560monthly per individual12) Measure Ordinary Unemployment allowance (indennitagrave di disoccupazione ordinaria) Institutional level responsible State Financing 1 institutional level (ie state)

Regional


Contributions

Beneficiaries (requirements) Previous contributors (52 weekly contributions during the last 2 years)


No

Duration 8 month (240 days) if aged under 50 and 12 months (360 days) if aged over 50 years

Amount Average remuneration during the last 3 months No ceiling

Under 50 years 60 of the previous wage for 6 month 50 up to eighth month and 40 for the remaining 4 months13

Persons aged 50 or over 60 for the first 6 months 50 for the following 2 months 40 for the following 4 months

11 httpwwwpeer-review-social-includependent-expertsreports2009-first-semesteritaly-1-2009-en 12 httpwwwpeer-review-social-inclusioneunetwork-of-independent-expertsreports2009-first-semesteritalyshy1-2009-en

190

_________________________________________________________________________



Notes Persons receiving unemployment benefit are paid family allowances (assegni familiari) under the same conditions as those in work14

B ndash Childcare provisions Measure Maternity leave (Congedo di Maternitagrave) Financing Contributions

Employees

For insured self-employed women maternity leave is not compulsory but a 5 month allowance is paid15

Homeworkers with a minimum contribution of 52 weeks

Duration 5 month compulsory 2 months before the expected date of birth until 3 months after (optionally 6 supplementary months) with the possibility to postpone by one month

In the case of multiple or premature births the length of leave increases by 12 weeks16

Amountservices 80 of earnings for the compulsory period (30 for the supplementary period)

Public employees receive 100 of earnings Notes No full-time or part-time employment allowed If

employment is taken up the right of maternity payment finishes

The optional supplementary parental leave (Congedo parentale) may be requested by the father if the mother does not claim or if the father has sole charge

Measure Parental Leave (Congedo Parentale) Beneficiaries (requirements) All employed parents except domestic workers and

home-helps

Self-employed 3 months of parental leave with an allowance in the childrsquos 1st year of life

The father is entitled even if the mother is not (eg housewife)

13 httpwwwpeer-review-social-inclusioneunetwork-of-independent-expertsreports2009-first-semesteritalyshy1-2009-en 14 European Commission (2011) Your social security rights in Italy

httpwwweuraxessitdocumentiYour20social20security20rights20in20Italy_enpdf 15 httpwwweurofoundeuropaeueiro200207featureit0207303fhtm 16 httpwwwleavenetworkorgfileadminLeavenetworkAnnual_reviews2012_annual_reviewpdf

191

__________________________________________________________________


Duration

AmountServices 80 of pay up to 11 months per family

Flexibility in use (two options) Six months per parent (not transferable) The maximum per family is 11 months per child until the child is 8 years old17

Single parents may take up to 10 months

Flexibility in use take up of a single leave period or shorter leave amounting to a max of six month until child is 8 years old Both parents can take leave at the same time

Self-employed have 3 monthsrsquo parental leave (until child is 1 year old)18

Self employed 30 of usual wages for a total of six months per child (max until child is 3 years old)

Unpaid when the child is between 3 and 8 years (but still paid at 30 for very low- income households)

Low-income families can receive the 30 stipend after the 6 months

Note Fathers who apply for at least three months are entitled to one extra month19

If both parents take their maximum allotted parental leave (11 months) six months will be paid leave and five will be unpaid leave20

Measure Family allowance (Missoc Child benefit) Institutional level responsible State Financing 1 institutional level (ie state)

Contributions to the National Institute for Social Security - INPS

Beneficiaries (requirements) The claimant the spouse not divorced nor legally separated the dependent children and grandshychildren up to the age of 18 no limit if the child is disabled


Yes (family income)

17 Ray Rebecca (2008) A Detailed Look at Parental Leave Policies in 21 OECD Countries Center for Economic and Policy Research

httpwwwlisdatacenterorgwp-contentuploadsparent-leave-details1pdf 18 httpwwwlisdatacenterorgwp-contentuploadsparent-leave-details1pdf 19 httpwwweurofoundeuropaeuewco200603IT0603NU04htm 20 httpwwwlisdatacenterorgwp-contentuploadsparent-leave-details1pdf

192

_________________________________________________________________________


AmountServices At least 70 of the earnings must derive from employed work

The annual income (household) must not exceed euro 72481

Example21 family with 4 members (no disabled) annual income up to euro 13422 monthly benefit of euro 258 annual income between euro 26308 and euro 26405 monthly benefit of euro 127 income over58 no benefit

Note Increased family allowance if lone parent with a child Measure Household allowance (Assegno familiari dei comuni) Institutional level responsible State and Region Financing 1 institutional level (ie state)

State National social insurance body INPS

Beneficiaries (requirements) Families with low income or lone parents Presence of eligibility test (ie means test)

Yes

AmountServices 12979 euromonthly22


Institutional level responsible Public child care for children lt 3 (chreches) is completely promoted and supported at the municipal level

Public child care for children gt3 (Kindergarden) is organized at both the national and local levels23


Parents pay an income-related fee which differs between municipalities and regions Only poor households pay low or no fee

Child care costs also vary by age of the child

Parents pay fees for private services There is no system of tax reduction or grants to subsidise the cost of using services


Yes

C- Pension


21 Missoc (2012) Social proteciton of the self-employed httpeceuropaeusocialBlobServletdocId=5662amplangId=en 22 State National social insurance body INPS - httpwwwinpsitportaledefaultaspxsID=3b03b56733b56743bamplastMenu=5674ampiMenu=1ampiNodo=567 4ampp4=2ampbi=22amplink=Assegni+familiari+dei+comuni 23 Child Care Choices by Italian Households IZA Discussion paper series No 983 2004 httpwwweconstoreudspacebitstream10419202181dp983pdf

193

__________________________________________________________________


Men 65 years Women 60 gradual increase to 65 years (in 2018) From 2025 67 women and men in the private sector

Persons with a disability of at least 80 and blind people 60 years for men 55 years for women Pension payment only begins after a certain period following the fulfilment of entitlement conditions This period is 12 months for employees 18 months for self-employed Early retirement pension after 40 years of contributions regardless of age

Employees 60 years (61 self-employed) with 36 years of contributions Pensions awarded to employees of companies in economic difficulties Early retirement is possible up to 5 years before normal retiring age Deferment possible up to the age of 65 years

Pension earnings related Reference earnings and length of insurance

Legal Retirement age

Early retirement

Flexibility in exit

Multi-pillar schemes Supplementary voluntary funded pensions based on three options closed (negotiated) funds regulated by collective agreements open funds managed by financial intermediaries that can be joined by workers individually or in groups and pension insurance policies

Minimum Pension Insured before 1996 Annual amount euro6076

Supplements if the annual taxable income is less than 2 times the MP

Married person if the annual taxable income is less than euro24306 (4x minimum pension)

Supplements amounts to 70 if the annual family income is between euro24306 and euro30382 and to 40 for incomes between euro30382 and euro36459

Persons insured since 1996 No statutory minimum pension

Indexation of benefits Annual adjustment based on the development of the cost of living according to the following modalities For the pension amount up to five times the MP 100 For the amount exceeding five times the MP 75

Survivors pension benefit 60 of the insured persons invalidity or old-age pension According to the widow(er)s income reduction of 25 40 or 50

194

_________________________________________________________________________

141

362 (2007) 425 (2007)


Country ROMANIA

CONTEXT


323 (M) 293(F)

300 (M) 271(F)


552 (M) 536 (F)

576 (M) 556 (F)


124 (M) 170 (F)

123 (M) 173 (F)


44 (M) 68 (F)

51 (M) 79 (F)

Total Fertility Rate (number of children per woman)

132 133 (2010)

Mean age of women at childbirth 268 269 (2009) Age dependency ratio 436 430 (2010) Old age dependency ratio 212 214 Single women aged 20 and over on the same age female population

126 (2005) 156 (2010)


23 (2005) 237 (2010)


28(2005) 3 (2010)


57 (2005) 58 (2010)

Socioeconomic Indicators 2006 2011 Gender gap in activity rate (Age group 15-64) 147

Gender gap in employment rate (Age group 15shy64)

116 130

Gender gap in unemployment rate (Age group 15-64)

-21 -11

Gender pay gap (in unadjusted form) 78 125 (2010)


503 (2005) 477 (2010)


532 (2005) 502 (2010)


55 (2005) 51 (2010)

Employment rate of single women (aged 25-64) with children

717 725

Employment rate of single women (aged 25-64) with no child

493 472

At risk of poverty rate 2430 (M) 253 (F) (2007)

219 (M) 225 (F) (2011)

At risk of poverty rate - under 16 years 326 (M) 344 (F) (2007)

311 (M) 339 (F)

At risk of poverty rate ndash Single person 267 (2010)

At risk of poverty rate ndash Lone parent 319

195

__________________________________________________________________

At risk of poverty rate ndash over 65 years


306 (total) 253 (M) 343 (F) (2007)

141 (total) 87 (M) 177 (F) (2011)

Macroeconomic Indicators 2006 2009 Social protection expenditure in GDP 124 171 Public expenditure on old age and survivors pensions in GDP

57 88

Public expenditure on sicknesshealth care in GDP 33 41 Public expenditure on Familychild care policies in GDP

18 17

THE WELFARE SYSTEM A- Income support Measure Minimum Guaranteed Income (VMG) Institutional level responsible State Financing type institutional level (ie state)

Taxation

Beneficiaries (requirements) Individualsfamily aged over 18 years (exceptions for lone parents) with income below the minimum income guarantee level


Yes Child care benefits are included in the means test

Duration Renewed after the duration has ended as many times as the beneficiary meets the conditions

Amount Depends on the number of family members The monthly guaranteed minimum income varies between 29euro (single person) to 109 euro (up to 5 family members) Additional persons 730 euro

Notes Allowance for heating can be reclaimed also

Institutional level responsible State Measure Unemployment insurance


Contributions (minim contributions 12 month)

Beneficiaries (requirements) Employees Presence of eligibility test (ie means test)

No

Duration Depends on the contributions (between 6-12 month) 6 months if at least one year of contributions and for 9 months with min 5 years of contributions

It ceases when the recipient earns from authorised activities a monthly income higher than the national minimum gross wage (and not at the moment of starting a new job as stipulated in the previous law)

Amount Monthly unemployment benefit now amounts to 75 of the national minimum gross wage in force at the date of entitlement24

Notes The accumulation with social security benefits or earnings from employment are not permitted

B ndash Childcare provisions Measure Compulsory maternity leave (Maternity Indemnity) Institutional level responsible State

24 httpwwweurofoundeuropaeueiro200601featurero0601104fhtm

196

_________________________________________________________________________


ContributionsFinancing type institutional level (ie state) Beneficiaries (requirements) Employees self-employed unemployed Only

available for the first three births Insured person must have at least 1 month of contributions in the last 12 months

NoPresence of eligibility test (ie means test) Duration 63 days prior to the birth and 63 days after birth

(total 126 calendar days)

Maternal risk leave Periods may be prolonged according to medical advice up to 120 calendar days after birth

Amountservices Since January 2009 the mother receives for the whole period 85 of her average monthly wage of the previous 6 months but no less than RON 600 (ca euro 150) and no more than RON 4000 (ca euro1000) each month The maximum monthly earnings for benefit calculation purposes amount to 12 times the national gross minimum monthly wage25

Notes Free maternity services or hospital care (benefit in-kind)

Measure Child Raising Indemnity (indemnizatie pentru cresterea copilului) Beneficiaries (requirements) Parent (including adoptive and foster parents

guardians) Presence of eligibility test (ie means test)

No

Duration Up to two years until the child reaches the age of 2 in case of disabled child 3 years (only available for the first 3 children)

AmountServices The amount of the indemnity is set at 85 of the average wage of the previous 12 months but no less than RON 600 (euro 142) and no more than RON 4000 (euro 943) monthly26

If the insured parent resumes gainful activity the benefit is suspended and is replaced by an income supplement of RON 100 (euro 24) a month

Measure Birth grant ( indemnizat ie la nas tere) Institutional level responsible State Financing 1 institutional level (ie state)

Taxation

Beneficiaries (requirements) Granted for each newly born child (only to the first four children)


No

25 European Commission Your social security rights in Romania

httpeceuropaeuemployment_socialempl_portalSSRinEUYour20social20security20rights20in20Ro mania_enpdf 26 European Commission (2011) Your social security rights in Italy

httpeceuropaeuemployment_socialempl_portalSSRinEUYour20social20security20rights20in20Ro mania_enpdf

197

__________________________________________________________________

ndash


Duration Single payment AmountServices Lump-sum set at RON 230 (euro 54) (Jan 2009) Measure State Allowance for Children (alocatie de stat pentru copii ALOCOP) Institutional level responsible State Financing 1 institutional level (ie state)

Taxation

Beneficiaries (requirements) Families with a child with a resident permit Presence of eligibility test (ie means test)

No

Duration Until child is 18 (longer if in education) AmountServices Varies with the age of the children (50euro up to the age

of 2 10 euro 2 years and over)In the case of children with disabilities the higher allowance (ie200 lei) is available until the childrsquos third year followed by an allowance of 84 lei (ca euro20) for older children27

Institutional level responsible State Measure Care service


Publically run paid by the Government Private Kindergartens ndash fees (100-400 Euro)28

Beneficiaries (requirements) Children 3-6 Presence of eligibility test (ie means test)

na

Note Low coverage of public kindergarten Children are expected to attend at least one year of kindergarten before starting school although this is not compulsory

C ndash Special provisions for lone parents

Measure Family Support allowance for single parents

Institutional level responsible State Beneficiaries (requirements) Single parents in charge of a child Presence of eligibility test (ie means test)

Yes

Duration Amount The monthly amount varies with the income

thresholds and the number of children Between 11 euro (one child) up to 42euro for 4 or more children29

Note Supplements for children with disability D ndash Pension Measure Old age pension

Men 64 years + 1 m (1 July 2011) in 2015 65 Women 59 y+ 1 m (1 July 2011) increasing to 63 years on 1 January 2030


27 httpeceuropaeusocialfamiliesindexcfmid=4amppolicyId=54amplangId=enampcountryId=26 28 httpwwwromanianeducationcomkindergarten-romania 29 In detail For Single-parent family with a monthly average net income per family member up to RON 200 (euro 47) Number of children 1 child RON 45 (euro 12) 2 children RON 90 (euro 24) 3 children RON 135 (euro 35) 4 and more children RON 180 (euro 47) For Single-parent family with a monthly average net income per family member between RON 201 (euro 47) and RON 370 (euro 87) 1 child RON 45 (euro 11) 2 children RON 90 (euro 21) 3 children RON 135 (euro 32) 4 and more children RON 180 (euro 42) Source Missoc

198

_________________________________________________________________________


Early retirement Early Retirement Pension Granted at most 5 years before the Standard Retirement Age to a person who exceeds the Full Contribution Period by at least 8 years

Reductions of retirement age for persons who contributed under special difficult or other specific working conditions persons who have had a handicap persons persecuted for political reasons (after 6 March 1945) deported abroad or taken prisoners of war blind persons other categories of persons defined by other legal acts

Partial Early Retirement Pension Granted at most 5 years before the Standard Retirement Age to a person who exceeds the Full Contribution Period by up to 8 years

Flexibility in exit Deferred pension Granted for an unlimited period to an insured person who is eligible for Old-Age Pension and who continues contributing to the public system of pensions

Pension earnings related Length of contribution period level of earnings PAYG calculated on the basis of individualrsquos accumulated points which are determined by contributorrsquos wage relative to the average wage30

Multi-pillar schemes Mandatory (privately administered) pension funds (defined contribution scheme part of the individual contribution from the public pension system is accumulated in individual accounts) and voluntary private pensions31

Minimum Pension Social Indemnity for Pensioners RON 350 (euro 83)

Indexation of benefits No adjustment in 2011

Survivors pension benefit Calculation method is based on a point system Marriage duration 10 to 15 years Pension is reduced by 05 for each month short of 15 years The duration of SP is different either permanent or temporary depending on the conditions met by the surviving spouse


199

__________________________________________________________________



Country SWEDEN

CONTEXT


307 (M) 287 (F)

308 (M) 290 (F)


542 (M) 518 (F)

526 (M) 507 (F)


151 (M) 194 (F)

166 (M) 203 (F)


69 (M) 107 (F)

68 (M) 101 (F)


185 198 (2010)


295 (2005) 394 (2010)


247 (2005) 122 (2010)


na na


na na

Socioeconomic Indicators 2006 2011 Gender gap in activity rate (Age group 15-64)

49 50


48 45


03 -01


na na


na na


na na


na 696


na 668


114 (M) 143 (F) (2010)

At risk of poverty rate - under 16 years

154 (M) 136 (F)

120 (M) 128 (F) (2010)

213 285 (2010)

At risk of poverty rate ndash Single person with dependent children

330 331 (2010)

200

_________________________________________________________________________


113 (total) 62 (M) 153 (F)

155 (total) 78 (M) 216 (F) (2010)

Macroeconomic Indicators 2006 2009



Social protection expenditure of GDP 298 118

Public expenditure on sicknesshealth 78 care of GDP Public expenditure on familychild care policies of GDP

30

315 133

80

32

THE WELFARE SYSTEM A- Income support

Measure Social assistance Institutional level responsible Municipal Financing type institutional level (ie state)

Taxation

Beneficiaries (requirements) Persons with the right to stay in the country no permanent residence required


Yes

Duration Temporarily (for a shorter or longer period) Amount Based on household income and family composition

Monthly max amount single person 310 euro couple 561 euro Children depending on age (from 183 to 303euro)

A supplement is paid for extra household expenditures (98euro to 223euro)

Notes Costs of housing are covered Measure Unemployment insurance

(basic) Financing type institutional level (ie state)

Employers contributions

Beneficiaries (requirements) Employees above 20 years of age meeting the conditions (employed or self-employed for 6 month within the last 12 month)


No

Duration 300 days For persons with children below 18 years 450 days No prolongation possible

Amount Flat-rate benefit with ceiling (max 35eurodaily) Measure Unemployment insurance

(voluntary insured) Institutional level responsible State Financing type institutional level (ie state)

Voluntary contributions

Beneficiaries (requirements) Voluntary employees contribution and membership fees for at least 12 month


No


Amount 80 of reference earnings calculated on previous earnings during a period of 12 months and 70 during 100 days Max 74eurodaily


201

__________________________________________________________________


Measure Compulsory maternity leave

(havandeskapspenning) Institutional level responsible State Financing type institutional level (ie state)

Contributions

Beneficiaries (requirements) Employed women Presence of eligibility test (ie means test)

No

Duration Two weeks before or after delivery Amount They can decide whether or not to take part in the

paid parental insurance benefit during this period of leave32

Measure Pregnancy cash benefit (graviditetspenning)

Institutional level responsible National Financing type institutional level (ie state)

Swedish Social Insurance Agency

Beneficiaries (requirements) Women with a physically demanding job in the last 60 days before expected birth of the child or during periods when a woman is forbidden to work during pregnancy according to the law on working environment and if employer cannot transfer to another job It is paid at the longest up to and including the eleventh day before the expected delivery date


No

Duration Max 50 days at the earliest from the 60th day before the expected delivery date

Amount Pregnancy benefits is 80 of sickness benefit qualifying annual income divided by 365 (max 20eurodaily)

Measure Parental leave [foumlraumlldrapenning])


Duration

Amount


Until the child is 18 months old No

Paid Parental leave is for 480 days 60 are reserved for the mother (mammamaringnader or a lsquomotherrsquos quotarsquo) and 60 days reserved for the father (pappamaringnader or a lsquofatherrsquos quotarsquo) Out of the remaining 360 days half are reserved for each parent if days are transferred from one parent to another the parent giving up his or her days must sign a consent form33

Based on income 390 days at 80 of earnings up to an earnings ceiling of SEK424000 (euro44335) per year the remaining 90 days at a flat- rate payment of SEK180 a day (euro19) A special formula introduced in January 2008 and applied to all parts of parental insurance reduced earnings by 3 before calculating the 80 payment Non-eligible parents receive SEK180 a day for 480 days

32 httpwwwleavenetworkorgfileadminLeavenetworkCountry_notesSwedenpublishedoct_2010pdf 33 httpwwwleavenetworkorgfileadminLeavenetworkCountry_notesSwedenpublishedoct_2010pdf

202

_________________________________________________________________________


Notes A gender equality bonus is applied which is maximum if both parents take the same number of days when the other family member is working

The fathersrsquo quota is 60 days as part of Parental leave Measure Child raising allowance34

(varingrdnadsbidrag) Institutional level responsible 104 of 290 municipalities Financing type institutional level (ie state)

Taxation

Beneficiaries (requirements) Parents with children age 1 to 3 years who do not use publicly funded childcare services and for whose child 250 days of parental leave are used

Cannot be used in connection with Parental leave Presence of eligibility test (ie means test)

With new child allowance total duration is 36 months (all months are paid)

In municipalities that have not included child care allowance 18 months (of which 2 are unpaid)

Duration Max SEK 3 000 (329euro) per month and child Amount Can be combined with paid employment but not with

other social security benefits due to unemployment35

The allowance cannot be used simultaneously with Parental leave and is conditional on the other adult in the household (not necessarily the other parent) working or studying36

Measure Parentacutes cash benefits [foumlraumlldrappening]

Beneficiaries (requirements) By either of the parents until the child is 8 years old This right can be transferred to the other parent with the exception of 60 benefit days each that are reserved for the mother respectively the father


To receive parentrsquos cash benefit above SEK 180 (euro 20) per day the parent must have been insured for sickness cash benefit above SEK 180 (euro 20) for at least 240 consecutive days before confinement This requirement applies for the first 180 days of receiving the benefit but not for the remaining days37

Duration 480 days per child (390 days according to sicknesscash benefit)

At the earliest 60 days before womanrsquos expected confinement

Amount A total of 480 days per child (390 days according to sickness cash benefit) (min euro20day) 90 days paid according to min amount

Measure Temporary parentacutes cash benefit (tillfaumllligfoumlraumlldrapenning) Institutional level responsible National

34 Council of Europe Family database 35 Council of Europe Family database 36 httpwwwleavenetworkorgfileadminLeavenetworkCountry_notesSwedenpublishedoct_2010pdf

European Commission Your social security rights in Sweden httpeceuropaeuemployment_socialempl_portalSSRinEUYour20social20security20rights20in20Sw eden_enpdf

203

37

__________________________________________________________________



Contributions

Beneficiaries (requirements) Is paid if the child is ill and a parent has to break off work to take care of the child until the child is 12 years old (to be extended in certain cases up to the age of 21)

Duration Maximum of 120 days per years until the child is 12 years old (the benefit can be extended in certain cases)

Amount According to the sickness cash benefit rate the minimum being SEK 180 (euro 20) per day

Measure Extended child allowance [foumlrlaumlngt barnbidrag]

Beneficiaries (requirements) For children who live in Sweden For parents with joint custody or the mother If both parents are of the same sex the money will be paid to the older of the parents


No

Duration Until child is 16 years Amount First child 122 euro Second child 245 euro third child

368euro fourth child 490 euro fifth and subsequent child 613euro38

Notes Large family supplement is paid automatically if child allowance is received for at least two children The size of the large family supplement depends on how many child allowances are received

Measure Large family supplement [flerbarnstillaumlgg] Institutional level responsible Municipal Financing type institutional level (ie state)

Taxation

Beneficiaries (requirements) All parents Presence of eligibility test (ie means test)

No

Duration Until child is 16 years old Amount Second child 16euro third child 50euro fourth child 111

euro fifth and subsequent child 137 euro39

Measure Care services Institutional level responsible Municipality Financing type institutional level (ie state)

Fees (with maximum limit)

Beneficiaries (requirements) Employed and unemployed parents and parents on parental leave


Yes

Duration Children 1-5

38 httpwwwforsakringskassansewpswcmconnect3573e1a0-c838-4e7c-bf65shyc634544bc55dbarnbidrag_flerbarnstillagg_engpdfMOD=AJPERES 39 httpwwwforsakringskassansewpswcmconnect3573e1a0-c838-4e7c-bf65shyc634544bc55dbarnbidrag_flerbarnstillagg_engpdfMOD=AJPERES

204

_________________________________________________________________________

Flexible retirement age from 61 From 65 guaranteed pension may be obtained by those with a low-income pension No early pension

Old system the annual supplementary pension is permanently decreased by 05 of the old-age pension per calendar month before the age of 65 No upper limit from when a pension has to be drawn Possibility to work over 67 years with employerrsquos


Amount Parents pay an income-related fee which may differ by municipalities40

First child 3 of family income to a maximum of euro130 per month Following children 2 of family income for the second child euro86 1 for the third child euro43 no charge for a fourth child

Starting at age four children are entitled to 525 free hours of child care a year41

C ndash Pension Measure Old age pension Legal Retirement age

Early retirement

Flexibility in exit

consent Pension earnings related Earnings-related old-age pension based on life-time

earnings age on retirement life expectancy for a cohort development of the economy

Fully funded premium reserve pension (mandatory) ordinary insurance principles and the value of the chosen funds life-time earnings age of retirement life expectancy for a cohort

Earnings-related supplementary pension number of years with pensionable income (up to 30 years) size of income age of retirement development of prices (development of income) for persons older than 65)

Guaranteed pension Residence period (up to 40 years) and amount of earnings-related pensions Earnings-related old-age pension

Separate schemes for white and blue collar workers in the private sector and for public sector employees

Multi-pillar schemes

European Commission (2009) The provision of childcare services httpeceuropaeusocialBlobServletdocId=2803amplangId=en 41 httpcupecaupdirPublic_profile_Swedenpdf

205

40

__________________________________________________________________


Minimum Pension Guaranteed pension (since 2003) for those who have a small or no pension

Full guaranteed pension amounts to SEK 91164 (euro9987) per year for a single person and to SEK 81320 (euro8909) for a married person

For those who do not meet the requirements for the Guaranteed pension there is a maintenance support corresponding to 13546 Price base amounts for a single person (11446 Price base amounts for married or co-habiting persons)

Also housing allowance for low income pensioners Indexation of benefits Earnings-related old-age pension average income

development (income index) deducting the norm of 16 percentage points

Supplementary pensions are adjusted to the development of prices for those aged 65 or younger

Guaranteed pension yearly adjustment based on development of prices (Price base amount)

Maintenance support for the elderly is price-indexed Survivors pension benefit Adjustment pension surviving spouse below 65

Guarantee adjustment pension 213 Price base amounts per year reduced in proportion as income-related adjustment pension rises Income-related adjustment pension 55 of the deceased persons pension base

The pension is paid for a period of 12 months and will be maintained for as long as the surviving spouse lives with a dependent child under 12 years of age If the child is over 12 but under 18 the adjustment pension can be paid 12 months

206

_________________________________________________________________________


Country UNITED KINGDOM

Malefemale population under 25 years out of the total malefemale population

324 (M) 297 (F)

319 (M) 294 (F)


536 (M) 525 (F)

532 (M) 523 (F)


140 (M) 179 (F)

149 (M) 183 (F)


60 (M) 93 (F)

65 (M) 93 (F)


184 198 (2010)


235 (2005) 255 (2010)


239 (2005) 233 (2010)


68(2005) 68 (2010)


76 (2005) 75 (2010)

Socioeconomic Indicators 2006 2011 Gender gap in activity rate (age group 15-64)

131 120


117 100


-08 -14


682 (2005) 652 (2010)


713 (2005) 703 (2010)


44 (2005) 72 (2010)


539 557

Employment rate of single women (aged 25-64) with no children

679 668

At risk of poverty rate 190 171 (2010) At risk of poverty rate shy under 16 years

245 200 (2010)


277 270 (2010)

364 (2010) At risk of poverty rate ndash Lone parent 416

CONTEXT

Demographic Indicators 2006 2011

207

__________________________________________________________________

THE WELFARE SYSTEM

Single aged 25 or over GBP 6750 (euro 75) Lone parent 18 or over GBP 6750 (euro 75) Couple both 18 or over GBP 10595 (euro 117) Dependent child age under 18 GBP 6233 (euro 69) Premiums Family GBP 1740 (euro 19) Pensioners (rate applies for all) Couple GBP 10375 (euro 115)

Notes An extra community care grant may be given for Families with short-term financial problems

Institutional level responsible State


261 (total) 224 (M) 290 (W)

214 (total) 176 (M) 245 (W) (2010)



Financing type 2 institutional level (ie state)

Contribution and taxation

Beneficiaries (requirements) For people working 16 hours or less every week and paid to eligible people over 18 years old and under retirement age who are out of a job but capable of working and actively seeking employment


No

Duration Up to 182 days in any job seeking period

Social protection expenditure of GDP 255 113 Public expenditure on old age and

survivors pensions of GDP Public expenditure on sicknesshealth 80 care of GDP

15 Public expenditure on familychild care policies of GDP

A- Income support Measure Income support)

Institutional level responsible State Financing type 1 institutional level (ie state)

State


Taxation

Beneficiaries (requirements) Single person and households in need with habitual residence in the UK aged 16 or older They must not work more than 16 hours per week and if they have a partner that partner cannot work more than 24 hours per week


Yes

Duration Unlimited Amount

Measure Jobseekersrsquo Allowance

282 122

87

18

Financing type 1 institutional level State (ie state)

208

_________________________________________________________________________


Amount

Notes

Aged 16-24 - GBP 53 (euro 59) aged 25 or over GBP 67 (euro 75)42

No supplements for partner or children B ndash Childcare provisions

Beneficiaries (requirements) Employees 52 weeks (26 weeks ordinary maternity leave and 26 weeks additional maternity leave) Recently employed andor self-employed women or employees not entitled to Statutory Maternity Pay (SMP)

ldquoMaternity Allowancerdquo is given to women who do not meet the work and earnings conditions for SMP but have worked for at least 26 weeks in the 66 weeks before the (expected) date of birth


Continuously employed by the same employer for 26 weeks into the 15th week before the week baby due and has earnings which average at least GBP 102 (euro 113) a week (from 18 July 2010)

Duration 39 weeks

Maternity Allowance A woman will be entitled to MA for a maximum of 39 weeks Employment is allowed (ldquoKeeping in Touchrdquo days KIT)

Amountservices 90 of average earnings for 6 weeks with no ceiling + a flat rate of either GBP 135 (euro159) or 90 of average earnings (whichever is lower) for 33 weeks The remaining 13 weeks are unpaid43

Measure Paternity leave (UK Ordinary Statutory Paternity Pay (OSPP) and Additional Statutory Paternity Pay (ASPP)) Beneficiaries (requirements) Employees who are the biological father or motherrsquos

husband or partner have upbringing responsibilities and have worked for their employer for at least 26 weeks ending with the 15th week before the baby is due


Earning an average of at least pound107 a week (before tax)

Duration 2 weeks to be used within 56 days from giving birth or 8 weeks in case of premature birth

Amountservices 2 weeks GBP 128 (euro 142) or 90 of a personsaverage earnings if less than GBP 128 (euro 142)

Notes If average weekly earnings are pound107 or more (before tax)

Ordinary Statutory Paternity Pay is paid for one or two on consecutive weeks at pound13545 or 90 per cent of your average weekly earnings if this is less

Measure Statutory maternity pay (SMP) and Maternity allowance

Measure Parental Leave

42

httpeceuropaeuemployment_socialempl_portalSSRinEUYour20social20security20rights20in20UK _enpdf 43

httpeceuropaeuemployment_socialempl_portalSSRinEUYour20social20security20rights20in20UK _enpdf

209

__________________________________________________________________


Beneficiaries (requirements) Employees completed one year continuous employment


No

Duration 13 weeks per parent per child up to the childacutes fifth birthday 18 weeks if child is disabled 26 weeks in case of multiple births

Amountservices No payment

Right to request a flexible working pattern if persons have a child aged under six or a disabled child under 18

Measure Sure Start Maternity grant

Beneficiaries (requirements) For families with low income receiving some form of income support and its first child is born after 11 April 201144

Income tested savings excluded

Duration Amountservices


Single payment pound500 (630 euro) for each baby

Measure Child benefit Institutional level responsible State Financing type institutional level (ie state)

Taxation

Beneficiaries (requirements) Parents bringing up a child under 16 or under 20 and in relevant education or training


No

Duration Up to the child age of 16 (or 21) Amountservices GBP 2030 (euro 22) a week for the eldest child and

GBP 1340 (euro 15) a week for each other child Notes Also child tax credit is granted

Measure Child tax credit Institutional level responsible


Duration

Amountservices

Measure Care services Institutional level responsible

State Taxation

Parents with a child aged 16 or younger

Yes

Families with children under age 16 or up to age 20 if the child is in full-time education


Varies according to income A couple with one child can claim tax credits if earning less than pound26000 per year

Local educational authorities or social services department until 4 years of age (nursery schools and school nursery classes)


httpwwwdirectgovukenMoneyTaxAndBenefitsBenefitsTaxCreditsAndOtherSupportExpectingorbringingupchil drenDG_10018854

210

44

_________________________________________________________________________


Beneficiaries (requirements) Child care is provided for 3shy and 4-year-olds in nursery schools (which may be in the public or independent sectors) or in nursery classes in primary schools or is provided for the same age group in reception classes in primary schools


Yes

Duration Only 25 hours a day is guaranteed to be free of charge additional hours are to be paid by the parents

Amountservices All three- and fourndashyear-olds up to school year age are entitled to 15 hours of free early years education for 38 weeks of the year45

Fee early education are provided by nursery schools and classes childrens centres day nurseries playgroups and pre-schoolrsquo46

Day nurseries for children 3-4 years Family centres (children under 5 years) Pre-school and playgroups for children aged 3-5 Out-of School childcare for children aged 3-14 years outside normal school hours

Costs vary according to region type of childcare age of the child employers subsidies

Notes There is also assistance with childcare costs for low-income employed families vidits system and for all employees if their employers adopt the tax-efficient childcare voucher system introduced in 2005

C- Special provisions for lone parents

Measure New Deal for Lone Parents Beneficiaries (requirements) Lone Parents who are not working or who work 16

hours a week or less Support for child care costs might be provided


Yes

Amountservices The Family Information Service (FIS) provides information advice and assistance to parents on the range of children family and young peoples services available within their area

Parents with low incomes can get income support andor housing benefits Transport andor childcare costs are covered when looking for work Also child tax credits and working credits are given under means-tested conditions

Measure Working tax credit Beneficiaries (requirements) Single parents working 16 hours or more a week with

low income

45 httpwwwdirectgovukenparentschildcaredg_4016029 46 httpwwwdirectgovukenparentschildcaredg_4016029

211

__________________________________________________________________


Amountservices For single parents with low incomes Working Tax Credit helps with childcare It covers 80 of the childcare cost up to a weekly limit of pound175 a week for one child and pound300 for families with two or more children47

D - Pension Measure Old age pension

Legal Retirement age Men 65 years Women 60 years (gradually rising to 65 years in

2020) Early retirement No early Basic State Pension (BSP) Flexibility in exit Unlimited deferment possible Pension earnings related Basic State Pension

Number of qualifying years

State Second Pension (S2P) Earnings-related or whether they satisfy the conditions for getting State Second Pension as a carer or long-term sickdisabled person

State Earnings-Related Pension Scheme (SERPS) Level of earnings (from 1978 to April 2002)

Graduated Retirement Benefit Amount of contributions paid between 1961 and 1975

Multi-pillar schemes Mandatory State Second pension (S2P) Earnings-related pension system for employees All employees (not the self- employed) are obliged to make contributions either to S2P or to a contracted-out private pensions

Private pension provisions fully funded occupational and personal pension schemes

Minimum Pension Basic State Pension reaching pensionable age before 5 April 2010 a minimum of 25 of full rate of basic State Pension (GBP 1880 (euro 29) (min contributions 10-11 years) Reaching pensionable age after 6 April 2010 a rate of 130th of the full rate of pension for each year of contributions paid or credited

Graduated Retirement Benefit Minimum for a person on their own contributions GBP 01189 (euro013) per week

Pension credit is granted for low income pensioners (means tested)

Indexation of benefits Annual adjustment BSP increase by the highest of the growth in average earnings or price increases or 25

47 httpgingerbreadorgukuploadsmedia176851doc

212

_________________________________________________________________________


Survivors pension benefit Bereavement Payment Lump sum payment of GBP 2000 (euro2210) on spouses death

Weekly Pension for widow(er) or surviving civil partner (up to GBP 10070 (euro111) a week) without dependent children (Bereavement Allowance) maximum of 52 weeks with dependent child under 16 (under 19 if in non-advanced full-time education) (Widowed Mothers Allowance)

Widows Pension Weekly pension paid to widows aged 45 or over if no dependent children and can be paid up to deemed State Pension age of 65

State Earnings-Related Pension (SERPS) Weekly earnings-related pension (accrued to late spouse after 5 December 2005 includes civil partner) paid with Widowed Mothers Allowance Widowed Parents Allowance and Widows Pension

213

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________


Appendix Country Fiches - Detailed information on healthcare and long term care in place in the six selected countries

Eligibility criteria What is covered

Sweden

Healthcare All residents have entitlement to healthcare There is no qualifying period

Sweden has a regional healthcare system that is largely independent of the social insurance regime Each county council (landsting) or region (region) and in one case municipality (kommun) is required to ensure that everyone domiciled in the county or region has access to quality medical care

The county councils or regions administer most medical care but there are also private doctors who have contracts with the county councils

The local authorities are responsible for some healthcare provisions primarily relating to medical care for persons living in homes for the elderly

Healthcare includes general medical assistance (including doctorrsquos visits and specialist care) hospital care physiotherapy and any other medical treatment dental care and medicine The authority responsible for medical services is required to reimburse the cost of transportation incurred for certain treatments and forms of healthcare each authority organises its own refund system

The county councils or regions provide appliances (such as prosthesis hearing aids etc) under certain conditions

Long-term Persons unable to provide for their needs or to obtain provision for As long as a person requires any kind of assistance in order to maintain a reasonable care them in any other way are entitled to assistance from the social

welfare committee National legislation ensures that the individual shall be assured a reasonable standard of living The way this takes place in practice can differ due to local conditions

Long-term care is available to all residents and is not subject to means testing age conditions or completion of qualifying periods

standard of living he or she is entitled to that support regardless of the level of dependency

Long-term care is not a stand-alone system If a person is in need of medical care that does not require hospital care he or she should according to the legislation be given such care in his or her own home Assistance in the form of home help shall also be given in a personrsquos own home

Special housing or residential care is mainly used for those in constant need of roundshythe-clock direct access to assistance such as persons with Alzheimerrsquos disease those with severe medical conditions or who suffer severely from anxiety and loneliness The municipality cannot refuse to give anyone in such need assistance in their own

214

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________


home

There is no legal responsibility for spouses or children to care for their elderly relatives User fees are low There is a national maximum cost protection In 2009 the maximum fee for elderly care was SEK 1696 (euro 186) per month For medical care the maximum cost was SEK 900 (euro 99) per year and for medicine SEK 1800 (euro 197) per year The individuals are entitled to reserve a fair amount of money for rent and at least SEK 4787 (euro 524) per month for daily living costs before the municipality can charge a fee for elderly care

UK

Healthcare General practitioners (GPs) are self-employed and have contracts to provide services for the National Health Service GPs have a measure of discretion in accepting applications to join their patient lists However they cannot turn down an applicant on the grounds of race gender social class age religion sexual orientation appearance disability or medical condition In Northern Ireland patients must be ordinarily resident in order to register with a GP Patients who have entitlement under the EHIC arrangements will be treated for free without needing to register

If you need hospital treatment or to consult a specialist your NHS doctor will arrange it for you In an emergency you may be admitted directly to a hospital

Nearly all doctors general practitioners opticians and many dentists take part in the NHS As doctors dentists and opticians taking part in the NHS are free to treat patients privately and to charge them accordingly you should ensure that the practitioner is willing to treat under the NHS The costs of private treatment are not refundable by the NHS They are your own responsibility The patient will normally have to pay some charges towards the cost of prescribed medicines dental services and certain appliances (for example wigs and fabric supports) although certain people particularly children and people on certain social security benefits do not have to pay some or all of these charges Access to NHS sight tests and help with the costs of glasses is only available to certain people all others have to pay privately for optical services

Being registered with a GP does not necessarily mean that you are entitled to free NHS hospital treatment If you ordinarily reside in the United Kingdom (ie live there on a lawful and settled basis) then you are entitled to free NHS hospital treatment Alternatively if you are exempt from charges under the NHS (Charges to Overseas Visitors) Regulations 2011 as amended (for instance by being lawfully employed by a UK based employer) then you are similarly entitled to free NHS hospital treatment Your spousecivil partner and your children under the age of 16 (or under 19 if in full time education) are also entitled to free NHS hospital treatment if they are living with you on a permanent basis or if they qualify in their own right under the above Charging Regulations There is no necessity to pay national insurance or taxes

If you are temporarily in the UK but continue to officially reside in a

215

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________


different EEA country or Switzerland then you need to carry a valid European Health Insurance Card (EHIC) from your home country when in the UK in order to access free NHS hospital treatment under EC law If you do not have this EHIC then you may face charges The EHIC entitles you free of charge to any treatment which is clinically necessary during your stay in order to prevent you from having to return home before the end of your planned stay It does not allow you to seek free treatment in the UK ndash you will need to be formally referred to the UK by your home country with an E112S2 form in order for planned treatment to be free of charge

Long-term Long-term care support is provided through a social care system The social care system in England provides care and support through a means-tested care (benefits in kind) and through the social security system (nonshy

contributory cash disability benefits) to people who have certain physical cognitive or age-related conditions and who require help with their personal care or their daily living activities The support is financed by the State and is available to people with an unrestricted right to remain in the United Kingdom Competence for social care (benefits in kind) is devolved to Scotland Wales and Northern Ireland

system which is delivered at the local level by local authorities Social care may be provided in peoplersquos own homes (eg homecare meals on wheels and special aids and equipment) residential care or nursing homes day care centres and hospitals Note that the social care system does not come within the EU social security coordination rules

For residential care in England people with assets (including the value of the family home) over GBP 23250 (euro 25691) receive no financial State support and need to fund their own care The level and type of State support for people with assets below this threshold depends on their needs and income

People with non-residential care needs who receive care or other services from the local authority have to pay reasonable charges depending on ability to pay and at the discretion of the local authority

Cash disability benefits for people who need help with personal care are not means tested

The following social security benefits may be payable to people with long-term care needs and their carers

Disability Living Allowance

If help is required with personal care or you have walking difficulties because of a physical or mental disability and you are under 65 you may be entitled to a disability living allowance The Disability living allowance may be paid in addition to other benefits and there are no contribution conditions There are currently conditions relating to residence and presence in the UK Disability living allowance is paid

216

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________


directly into a bank building society or other account of the payeersquos choice

Attendance Allowance

If you are aged 65 or over and need help with personal care because of a physical or mental disability you may be entitled to attendance allowance It may be paid in addition to other benefits There are no contribution conditions but there are conditions relating to residence and presence in the UK

The Attendance allowance is paid directly into a bank building society or other account of the payeersquos choice

Carers Allowance

The Carerrsquos allowance is a weekly benefit paid to someone who spends at least 35 hours week caring for a person receiving a disability living allowance at the middle or highest rate for help with personal care an attendance allowance or equivalent rates of the constant attendance allowance The Carerrsquos allowance may affect payment of other benefits there is an earnings limit and it is not payable to full-time students There are no contribution conditions but there are conditions relating to residence and presence in the UK which you will be required to satisfy

Carerrsquos allowance is paid directly into a bank building society or other account of the payeersquos choice

France

Healthcare Entitlement is established first and foremost on professional or similar criteria It is subject to the following prerequisites quotas for hours worked or amounts of contributions Those ceasing to fulfil the conditions for obtaining cover under a social security scheme as an insured person or as a beneficiary remain entitled to receive benefits in kind under their previous scheme for one year until they once more fulfil the conditions for obtaining cover under a compulsory scheme

Other persons who are members of the general scheme on the basis of their residence may have to pay the special CMU contribution depending on their level of income For healthcare the general scheme covers 85 of persons employed in the private sector civil

You and your dependants (spouse children under 20 years of age partner dependant living in the insured personrsquos home) are entitled to reimbursement of healthcare costs

The various basic schemes cover approximately 75 of household medical expenses A certain share of the cost remains at the expense of the patient ie the co-payment (ticket modeacuterateur) although a patient can be exempt from this in a number of cases especially for certain diseases listed as requiring prolonged treatment and particularly costly therapy This patient contribution will be higher if they do not follow the so-called lsquopatient pathwayrsquo (parcours de soins)

In addition to this co-payment a number of charges are borne by the patient specifically the flat-rate co-payment for serious medical intervention (forfait actes

217

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________


servants and persons resident in France on a continuous and legal basis and who are not protected by any cover elsewhere The benefits in kind available to nationals under the agricultural scheme and the scheme for non-agricultural self employed persons are on a par with the benefits available under the general scheme

lourds) the flat-rate co-payment per each medical intervention (participation forfaitaire sur les actes meacutedicaux) and the medical excess (franchise meacutedicale) on drugs paramedical intervention and medical transports

Long-term care

The French social security system is not based on a homogeneous approach around the loss of autonomy and ability to conduct daily living activities Long-term care benefits are instead spread over various pieces of legislation Supplement for assistance of a third party This legislation provides for a supplement for assistance of a third party (majoration pour aide dune tierce personne) in case of

- an invalidity pension (pension dinvaliditeacute) - an old-age pension (pension de vieillesse) (subject to certain

conditions) or - a work injury pension (rente daccident de travail)

The beneficiaries should not have reached the age at which they can receive a full pension regardless of the length of insurance at the time of examination of entitlement and need the assistance of another person in order to perform the majority of basic activities of daily life Special education supplement for a disabled child A special education supplement for a disabled child (compleacutement dallocation

Benefits in kind Disability compensation allowance (prestation de compensation du handicap) and allowance for loss of autonomy (allocation personnaliseacutee dautonomie) can be used to cover the costs of home care and semi-residential and residential care Regarding home care the assistance required for staying at home is assessed The amount of the benefit depends on the assistance plan used taking into account the level of participation of the beneficiary and calculated according to hisher means For semi-residential care it is possible to receive day care in a specialised centre The number of hours granted depends on an evaluation of the need of assistance With respect to residential care (ie accommodation in a social or medical-social institution hospitalisation in a health institution or in an institution for accommodating elderly dependent persons (Eacutetablissement pour heacutebergement pour personnes acircgeacutees deacutependantes EHPAD) the amount of the benefit equals the amount of the expenses corresponding to the degree of loss of autonomy according to the institutionrsquos tariffs minus the participation of the beneficiary himherself

Cash benefits

The supplement for assistance of a third party (majoration pour aide dune tierce personne) is equal to a 40-increase of the pension which cannot be lower than a minimum amount fixed by decree

deacuteducation de lenfant handicapeacute) is granted for children under the age of 20 who reside in France and who are at least 80 disabled or in specific situations disabled between 50 and 80 Disability compensation allowance and allowance for loss of autonomy Two other long-term care allowances should be mentioned

The first is the disability compensation allowance (prestation de compensation du handicap) for disabled persons who are younger than 60 years who are residing in France and whose disability meets defined criteria

The second is the allowance for loss of autonomy (allocation personnaliseacutee dautonomie) for elderly persons who are older than 60 years and who are residing in France and who suffer from a loss of autonomy The benefit is not subject to means-testing although its

The special education supplement for a disabled child (compleacutement dallocation deacuteducation de lenfant handicapeacute) comprises six categories of supplement There is a specific increase for dependent children of a single parent who is benefiting from the allowance and from a supplement for a disabled child of at least the second category

Other benefits

Other benefits include technical grants for the purchase or renting of specific equipment

adaptation of frequently used equipment housing support (adaptation) transport-related

support specific or exceptional help and assistance animals

218

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________


amount varies according to the meansincome level

Germany

Healthcare There is a general obligation for the entire population (unless their income exceeds a ceiling of euro 49950) to become affiliated with the statutory or private health insurance The following are entitled to benefits

- persons in paid employment and those receiving vocational training including trainees

- pensioners with a sufficient period of insurance - unemployed persons receiving unemployment insurance

benefits - disabled persons in sheltered employment - persons participating in vocational rehabilitation and people

being trained for some form of employment in special training institutions for youth assistance (Jugendhilfe)

- students in recognised higher education - farmers and helping members of their family - artists and writers - persons having no other right to the provision of healthcare

services (under certain conditions) No qualifying period is required

Preventive examinations

Medical care

Medicines therapeutic aids and appliances

Dental services

Domestic nursing care and domestic help

If the circumstances in your household are such that you cannot be given the necessary care and attention by a person living in your household when you are ill the sickness insurance fund will pay not only for the medical treatment but also for the necessary domestic nursing care by qualified nursing staff However this right exists only where hospital treatment is required but is not possible or where this treatment can be avoided or shortened by care at home In principle entitlement to domestic care is limited to four weeks per case of sickness In principle entitlement to domestic help is limited to four weeks per sickness episode when as a result of your illness you cannot carry out your household duties This benefit however is provided only if your household includes a child who is below the age of 12 or is disabled and who cannot be looked after by another person at home

In-patient treatment

Travel expenses

Long-term care

Long-term care benefits in case of need for care (ldquodependencyrdquo) are provided upon request under the statutory long-term care scheme

The Social long-term care insurance (Book XI of the Social Code Sozialgesetzbuch SGB XI) is an independent branch of social security which covers the risk of long-term care in a similar manner than the insurance against sickness accidents unemployment as well as old-age insurance The extensive list of long-term care benefits helps to mitigate the physical mental and financial burden for persons in need of care and their family members resulting from the need of long-

Benefits in kind

In addition to a legal entitlement to care counselling for all benefits in kind include mainly

- the provision of home care and domestic help by outpatient centres or individual carers

- a lump-sum payment for the costs of residential care (including short-term care (Kurzzeitpflege)

For category III the amount of benefits in kind is euro 1510 (form 1 January 2012

219

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________


term care and supports them to live in dignity and according to their wishes despite their need of care Everyone who is covered by statutory or private sickness insurance is automatically and mandatorily covered by the statutory or private long-term care insurance For entitlement to benefits under the statutory long-term care insurance a qualifying period of two years is required According to the requirements of the statutory long-term care insurance a person is in need of care if as a result of a physical emotional or mental disease or disability he or she is expected to need long-term assistance for at least six months to perform everyday activities The relevant need for assistance extends to the areas of personal hygiene feeding mobility as well as general care

onwards euro 1550) and for so-called cases of hardship euro 1918)

The amount of these benefits depends on the degree of dependency and is fixed by law

In addition there are accompanying benefits to complement home care such as respite care (Verhinderungspflege) short-term care (Kurzzeitpflege) as well as day and night care (Tages-und Nachtpflege)

Benefits for home care may also be complemented by aids and appliances to facilitate the provision of care or household activities or by measures for the improvement of the living conditions

and domestic help Rather than on age or income the amount of the long-term care benefits is based on the extent of care needs as determined by the medical service of the sickness insurance This means that in principle only persons of at least

Additional care benefits are available for persons with an extensive general need of care (eg people with dementia mentally disabled people and people with mental illnesses)

category I are granted long-term care benefits For certain benefits - so-called ldquolow-threshold offersrdquo - a lower level of care needs is sufficient to be entitled to those benefits Persons with minor care needs (under 90 minutes per day) or persons with partial insurance coverage (ldquoTeilkaskoversicherungrdquo) for whom the capped benefits are not sufficient to cover the real costs can in specific cases receive care benefits under the social assistance scheme Social assistance care benefits the so-called ldquocare assistancerdquo are only granted in case of financial dependency of the person concerned ie if the person in need of care can neither bear the total costs of the care service him-herself nor receive it from others Moreover the statutory long-term care insurance for caring family members and other informal carers provides for the payment of the pension insurance contributions accident insurance coverage contribution payment for the unemployment insurance during periods of caring as well as other supporting benefits eg free training courses possibilities of respite and substitute care etc

Benefits have an unlimited duration as long as the entitlement conditions are fulfilled

Cash benefits If a person in need of care wants to provide for the care him-herself heshe can claim a care allowance in order to assure necessary basic care and household assistance in an adequate way The amount of this benefit varies according to the degree of dependency For category III it equals euro 685 (from 1 January 2012 onwards euro 700) Cash benefits and benefits in kind may be combined if the person in need of care only partly claims the benefits in kind heshe is also entitled to receive a proportionate care allowance Apart from the entitlement to day care the person maintains a 50- entitlement to the respective care benefit in kind or care allowance There is a free choice between benefits in kind and cash benefits Benefits have an unlimited duration as long as the entitlement conditions are fulfilled

Italy

Healthcare The public health service is based on residence Healthcare is provided to all those registered with the local health centres (Azienda sanitaria locale) and all those who are eligible under the applicable

The treatment or medicine may be supplied free of charge by the local health centre or by doctors or pharmacists attached to the health system or the patient may pay the cost of the benefits received and be reimbursed

220

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________


national and Community legislation Each Italian national resident in Italy and everyone affiliated to the health insurance system of another Member State of the European Union working in Italy and their dependants are covered for medical assistance

There is a user fee for diagnostic and laboratory tests However hospital care is free of charge in public hospitals and in private clinics that are attached to the National Health Service (Servizio Sanitario Nazionale SSN) Admission to accredited institutions has to be approved by local health centre Hospitalisation is free Particularly as far as maternity benefits in kind are concerned general obstetric care is given directly and free of charge in the local health centre dispensaries including all preconception and pre-natal analysis It can also be given at home by a midwife attached to the National Health Service (Servizio Sanitario Nazionale SSN) If the family income does not exceed a given amount per year as fixed by law medical visits and laboratory analysis for mothers and children up to the age of six are also given free of charge Although the guaranteed minimum benefits are the same everywhere in Italy since the Italian regions have considerable autonomy in this domain there may be slight regional variation in the conditions and methods of payment of medical pharmaceutical and supplementary benefits Available medical assistance includes the services of a general practitioner outside a hospital paediatric obstetric and gynaecological care the services of a specialist (including dental care) in public and private

dispensaries that have contracts with the national health service hospitalisation (including for childbirth) in public hospitals clinics etc and

private institutions that have contracted with the national health service medicine and pharmaceutical products on prescription by general practitioner

or specialist who is employed in or accredited by the National Health Service

Benefits for patients affected by tuberculosis Other supplementary benefits

Long-term care

Benefits covering the risk of long-term care are provided under both the social security (contribution based) and the social welfare system (welfare-based and provided in the form of both benefits in kind and cash benefits to disabled citizens who are not self sufficient regardless of the fact that theyhave already been granted an invalidity allowance or a disability pension Beneficiaries have to meet the following qualifying conditions

to be incapable of walking without the constant assistance of an attendant or carer

to be in need of constant attendance in order to perform daily life activitiesfunctions

Entitlement is subject to the assessment of the level of dependency carried out by a forensic medical ldquomixedrdquo board (made up of forensic doctors from both the local health centre and the INPS) that can also

c The attendance allowance for persons with disabilities is euro 48047 (euro 47245 for re ipients of the disability pension euro 78360 for totally blind people) For persons with disabilities deaf dumb and totally blind persons in hospitals and partially blind persons the cash benefit is

euro 25667

Home care services and day care centre stays are provided for offering home help meal delivery medical treatment and nursing care Residential care is provided for in the most

serious cases The length of stay varies according to the seriousness of the situation of

dependency Technical aids are provided in the most serious cases of disability There

221

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________


require follow-up checks and it is not subject to means testing is

also provision for benefits (also in the form of VAT tax reduction when purchasing the

needed tools) contributing to

the purchase of prostheses or other necessary medical equipment the purchase or adaptation of private means of transport the purchase of tools which make it possible to carry out a self-employed

activity Romania

Healthcare All persons legally residing in Romania are covered by the national health insurance fund including foreign nationals permanently residing in the country

In order to receive healthcare the insured person and hisher dependants must have paid at least 6 months of contributions during the 12 previous calendar months In case of an emergency surgery tuberculosis AIDS or other contagious illnesses no qualifying conditions apply

Healthcare is also provided to university students persons engaged in military service and prisoners

Voluntary coverage is available for temporary residents and for diplomatic staff accredited in Romania

A package of basic medical services is covered by the health insurance which is updated periodically by the Ministry of Health The package of basic medical services is provided free of charge but the patient has to pay for medicines (outpatient care) and for dental and optical services A list of medicines is provided at a discount price of for certain categories of persons (mainly pensioners)

Long-term Long-term care is not covered by a specific scheme but by different Long-term care benefits for disabled care schemes covering invalidity old age and employment injuries

Therefore the main beneficiaries are persons with a handicap and senior persons while the services provided are adapted to the individual needs of the person Long-term care benefits for disabled Persons with a handicap ie persons for whom the social environment misfit to their physical sensorial psychological or mental impairments obstructs or limits their access to society based on equal opportunities are entitled to long-term care benefits according to the handicap degree and type Thus a person with a handicap according to the handicap degree and type may be entitled to home care semi-residential care

Home care is rendered by personal assistants who ensure care and protection for a period longer than 24 hours Semi-residential care is provided by day centres that ensure social services integrated with medical educational housing labour force employment and other similar services up to 24 hours or by qualified personal assistants who ensure care and protection for a period longer than 24 hours (for the latter on the person with a handicap are imposed apart from the handicap degree condition two other conditions ndash no lodging and an income below the average net wage) The residential care is provided by residential centres (ie care and assistance centres recovery and rehabilitation centres integration centres providing vocational therapy centres of training for an independent life crisis centres centres for community and training services sheltered housing etc) that ensure social services

222

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________


residential care and cash social benefits The duration of long-term care benefits is the period of the handicap Long-term care benefits for seniors A senior person at standard retirement age is entitled to long-term care benefits according to the dependency degree Thus according to the dependency degree the senior person in question may be entitled to home care semi-residential care and residential care but not to cash social benefits The duration of long-term care benefits is the period of the dependency

integrated with the medical educational housing labour force employment and other similar services for a period longer than 24 hours A user charge must be paid An array of cash social benefits is also available for the person with the handicap according to the invalidity degree and type Some cash social benefits are specific for children and others for adults The cash social benefits are not subject to income tax Long-term care benefits for seniors Home care is provided by caregivers who ensure social and socio-medical services for a period longer than 24 hours A user charge has to be paid if the senior person earns an income over a certain threshold The semi-residential care is provided by day centres night centres and other specialized centres for senior persons that ensure socio-medical services up to 24 hours The residential care is provided by homes for senior persons that ensure social sociomedical and medical services for a period longer than 24 hours A user charge has to be paid if the senior person earns some income and has legal supporters

Source lsquoYour social security rightsrsquo Country Report (2011) - European Commission Employment Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities

223

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________


Legal retirement age

Early retirement Flexibility in exit

Pension earnings related


Minimum pension (MP)


Survivors pension (SP) benefits

France 62 (2018) 60 for those with 41 contributory years (2012)

Complementary schemes for employees (ARRCO) and management staff (AGIRC) Between 65 and 67 or upon receipt of the basic pension at a full rate 4

48

General scheme for employees Between 56 and 60 years of age (Long career) according to the year of birth the age at commencement of activity and the duration of insurance


Complementary schemes for employees and management staff Between the ages of 55 and 57 with an anticipation coefficient according to the birth year or without coefficient if the insured obtained the basic pension at a full rate

General scheme for employees 6062 years A bonus is paid only if the insuree satisfies the insurance condition for a full pension

Beyond the age at which the pension is paid automatically at the full rate (between 65 and 67 according to the year of birth) Increase in insurance duration if the insuree does not satisfy the insurance period required depending on the year of birth

Complementary schemes for employees and management staff No specific measure for women the number of pension points is linked to the duration of contributions

Pension based on annual that calculated on the basis of the 24 best earning years for the insuree born in 1947


Mandatory partially funded schemes in the private sector

General scheme for employees euro7297 per year (if eligible for full pension) It is prorated if the insurance period is below the duration required

Is increased for periods of effective contributions euro7974

It is supplemented after a means test with a maximum amount paid as Solidarity allowance for the elderly person euro8907per year


Annual adjustment based on expected evolution of consumer prices (tobacco excluded)

54 of real or hypothetical old-age pension of the deceased person If divorced widow(er) pension is divided in proportion to the years of marriage


224

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

From 65 gradually increasing to 67 years by 2029 It will still be possible for insured persons to retire at the age of 65 years without having their pensions reduced if they complete 45 years of compulsory contributions from employment and care and from child-raising periods up to the age of 10 of the child

63 (from 62 for severely disabled persons) after 35 years of pension insurance periods from the age of 60 with deduction for women (born before 1952) after at least 15 years of contribution and substitute periods if compulsory contributions were paid for more than ten years as from the age of 40 from the age of 63 with deduction for persons (born before 1952) after at least 15 years of contribution and substitute periods if they were compulsorily insured for at least 8 in the last 10 years are unemployed at the commencement of the pension and were unemployed for 52 weeks after completion of the age of 585 years or have worked part-time for elder workers for 24 calendar months

Funded additional oldage pension provision in second pillar (obligatory) and third pillar (voluntary) Five options for occupational provision book reserves support fund direct insurance pension fund Since 2002 a new voluntary by state- subsidised fully funded direct-contribution scheme (Riester-Rente) (privately managed funded scheme)49

No statutory minimum pension For low income groups (including needy elderly) there is a Needs-based pension supplements

universal basic income scheme (social security support)

Annually indexed on 1 July according to income wage dynamics the sustainability factor(demographic factor) and the increase in the pension contribution rate50 ( economic and demographic factors)









Germany Possibility of unlimited deferment

For early retirement reduction of 03 for each month during which the pension is claimed earlier

Amount of employment income insured through contributions during the entire insured life voluntary contributions (contribution periods) and periods of child-raising

-

=

=

Marriage after 31122001 or both spouses born after 111962 pension amounts to 55 of the old-age pension for which the deceased spouse would have been eligible including Supplementary periods

Marriage before 112002 or at least one spouse born before 211962 or deceased before 112002 pension amounts to 60 of the pension for which the deceased spouse would have been eligible No supplement for child-raising Income from property is not taken into account The same benefits are granted in the case of survivors of a registered civil union

225

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________









Italy Men 65 years Women 60 gradual increase to 65 years (in 2018) From 2025 67 women and men in the private sector

Persons with a disability of at least 80 and blind people 60 years for men 55 years for women

Pension payment only begins after a certain period following satisfaction of entitlement conditions This period is 12 months for employees 18 months for self-employed

Early retirement pension after 40 years of contributions regardless of age

Employees 60 years (61 self-employed) with 36 years of contributions

Pensions awarded to employees of companies in economic difficulties Early retirement is possible up to 5 years before normal retiring age

Deferment possible up to the age of 65 years

Reference earnings and length of insurance

Supplementar y voluntary funded pensions based on three options closed (negotiated) funds regulated by collective agreements open funds managed by financial intermediaries that can be joined by workers individually or in groups and pension insurance policies

Insured before 1996 Annual amount euro6076

Supplements if the annual taxable income is less than 2 times the MP Married person if the annual taxable income is less than euro24306 (4x minimum pension) Supplements amounts to 70 if the annual family income is between euro24306 and euro30382 and to 40 for incomes between euro30382 and euro36459


Annual adjustment based on the cost of living trend thus

For the pension amount up to five times the MP 100 For the amount exceeding five times the MP 75

60 of the insured persons invalidity or old-age pension According to the widow(er)s income reduction of 25 40 or 50

226

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Men 64 years + 1 m (1 July 2011) In 201565 Women 59 y+ 1 m (1 July 2011) increasing to 63 years on 1 January 2030

Early Retirement Pension Granted at most 5 years before the Standard Retirement Age to a person who exceeds the Full Contribution Period by at least 8 years Reductions of retirement age for persons who contributed under special difficult or other specific working conditions persons who have had a handicap persons persecuted for political reasons (after 6 March 1945) deported abroad or taken prisoners of war blind persons other categories of persons defined by other legal acts Partial Early Retirement Pension Granted at most 5 years before the Standard Retirement Age to a person who exceeds the Full Contribution Period by up to 8 years

Length of contribution period level of earnings PAYG calculated on the basis of individual s accumulated points which are determined by contributorrsquos wage relative to the average wage51

Social Indemnity for Pensioners RON 350 (euro 83)

No adjustment in 2011









Romania Deferred pension Granted for an unlimited period to an insured person who is eligible for Old-Age Pension and who continues contributing to the public system of pensions

rsquo

Mandatory (privately administered) pension funds (defined contribution scheme part of the individual contribution from the public pension system is accumulated in individual accounts)

and voluntary private pensions 52

Calculation method is based on a point system

Marriage duration 10 to 15 years Pension is reduced by 05 for each month short of 15 years The duration of SP is different either permanent or temporary depending on the conditions met by the surviving spouse

227

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________









Sweden Flexible retirement age from 61

From 65 guaranteed pension may be obtained by those with a low-income pension

No early pension

Old system the annual supplementary pension is permanently decreased by 05 of the old-age pension per calendar month before the age of 65

No upper limit from when a pension has to be drawn

Possibility to work over 67 years with employerrsquos consent

Earnings-related old-age pension based on lifeshytime earnings age of retirement life expectancy for a cohort economic trends

Fully funded premium reserve pension(mandatory) ordinary insurance principles and the value of the chosen funds life-time earnings age of retirement life expectancy for a cohort

Earnings-related supplementary pension number of years with pensionable income (up to 30 years) size of income age of retirement trend in prices (trend in income) for persons older than 65)

Guaranteed pension Residence period (up to 40 years) and amount of earnings-related pensions

Earnings-related old-age pension


Guaranteed pension (since 2003) for those who have a small or no pension


For those who do not meet the requirements for the Guaranteed pension there is a maintenance support corresponding to 13546 Price base amounts for a single person (11446 Price base amounts for married or coshyhabiting persons)

Also housing allowance for low income pensioners

Earnings-related old-age pension average income trend (income index) deducting the norm of 16 percentage points

Supplement ary pensions are adjusted to the trend in prices for those aged 65 or younger

Guaranteed pension yearly adjustment based on trend in prices (Price base amount)

Maintenance support for the elderly is price-indexed

Adjustment pension surviving spouse below 65 Guarantee adjustment pension 213 Price base amounts per year reduced in proportion as income-related adjustment pension rises Income-related adjustment pension55 of the deceased personrsquos pension base


228

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Men 65 years Women 60 years (gradually rising to 65 years in 2020)

No early Basic State Pension (BSP)

Unlimited deferment possible

Basic State Pension Number of qualifying years State Second Pension (S2P) Earnings-related or whether they satisfy the conditions to receive a State Second Pension as a carer or long-term sickdisabled person State Earnings-Related Pension Scheme (SERPS) Level of earnings (from 1978 to April 2002) Graduated Retirement Benefit Amount of contributions paid between 1961 and 1975



Early retirement

Flexibility in exit






United Kingdom

Mandatory State Second pension (S2P) Earnings-related pension system for employees

All employees (not the self-employed) are obliged to make contributions either to S2P or to a contracted- out private pensions


Basic State Pension reaching pensionable age before 5 April 2010 a minimum of 25 of full rate of basic State Pension (GBP 1880 (euro 29) (min contributions 10-11 years)

Reaching pensionable age after 6 April 2010 a rate of 130th of the full rate of pension for each year of contributions paid or credited



Annual adjustment

BSP increase by the highest of the growth in average earnings or price increases or 25

Bereavement Payment Lump sum payment of GBP 2000 (euro2210) on spouses death


Widows Pension Weekly pension paid to widows aged 45 or over if no dependent children can be paid up to deemed State Pension age of 65

State Earnings-Related Pension (SERPS) Weekly earnings-related pension (accrued to late spouse since December 2005 includes civil partner) paid with Widowed Mothers Allowance Widowed Parents Allowance and Widows Pension

Source EUs Mutual Information System on Social Protection (MISSOC) Comparative Tables on Social Protection (01072011) and European Commission (2010) Country profiles of the Joint report on pensions

229

Annexes final JEpdf




This document was requested by the European Parliamentrsquos Committee on Womenrsquos Right and Gender Equality

AUTHORS

Istituto per la Ricerca Sociale (IRS)-Italy Project Direction Manuela Samek Lodovici (IRS) Renata Semenza (University of Milano-Italy) Research team Eugenia De Rosa (IRS) Marco Fregoni (IRS) Sandra Naaf (IRS) Monica Patrizio (IRS) Flavia Pesce (IRS) Sara Pinoli (IRS)

RESPONSIBLE ADMINISTRATOR

Ms Claire GENTA Policy Department Citizensrsquo Right and Constitutional Affairs European Parliament b-1047 Brussels E-mail poldep-citizenseuroparleuropaeu

LINGUISTIC VERSIONS

Original EN

ABOUT THE EDITOR

To contact the Policy Department or to subscribe to its newsletter please write to poldepshycitizenseuroparleuropaeu

Manuscript completed in October 2012 European Parliament copy European Union 2012

This document is available on the Internet at httpwwweuroparleuropaeustudies

DISCLAIMER

The opinions expressed in this document are the sole responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official position of the European Parliament

Reproduction and translation for non-commercial purposes are authorized provided the source is acknowledged and the publisher is given prior notice and sent a copy

_________________________________________________________________________


CONTENTS






21 INTRODUCTION20

































3

_________________________________________________________________












LIVING ALONE96









ALONE 114







4

_________________________________________________________________________


LIST OF TABLES




TABLE 35

TABLE 41






LIST OF FIGURES




5

_________________________________________________________________



LIST OF BOXES


6

_________________________________________________________________________


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY










7

_________________________________________________________________














8

_________________________________________________________________________









9

_________________________________________________________________











10

_________________________________________________________________________





Assistance policies





11

_________________________________________________________________







Policy implications





12

_________________________________________________________________________














13

_________________________________________________________________








14

_________________________________________________________________________











15

_________________________________________________________________









16

_________________________________________________________________________









17

_________________________________________________________________
















18

_________________________________________________________________________











19

_________________________________________________________________



21 Introduction











20

_________________________________________________________________________












21

_________________________________________________________________



0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45 EU

27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY


SK

Perc

en

t







22

_________________________________________________________________________



4 2 0 2 4

0-4

10-14

20-24

30-34

40-44

50-54

60-64

70-74

80-85

of total population

Male Female 2010

4 2 0 2 4

0-4

10-14

20-24

30-34

40-44

50-54

60-64

70-74

80-85

of total population

Male Female

2060





0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

EU27 BE DE FR LU NL


Per

cen

t

sep 2010 w sep 2005 w





23

_________________________________________________________________





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Ehellip

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY


SK

Perc

en

t

EP 2010 w EP 2010 m









24

_________________________________________________________________________










-20

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

LP 2010 w NLP 2010 w LP 2010 m LP w 2010-2005


25

_________________________________________________________________







-20

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

LP 2010 w NLP 2010 w LP 2010 m LP w 2010-2005



26

_________________________________________________________________________





-10

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

LP 2010 w NLP 2010 w LP 2010 m LP w 2010-2005






27

_________________________________________________________________





-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK






28

_________________________________________________________________________





‐10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

EU27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES GR IT

MT

PT

BG CZ

EE HU LT LV PL

RO SI SK




29

_________________________________________________________________










30

_________________________________________________________________________










31

_________________________________________________________________



0

5

10

15

20

25

30 EU A

TBE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE


SK


2010 2005

0

10

20

30

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK


2010 2005

0

10

20

30

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK


2010 2005





32

_________________________________________________________________________




0

20

40

60

80

100

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK


2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU27 AT BE DE

FR LU NL



2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU27 AT BE DE

FR LU NL



2010 2005





33

_________________________________________________________________











34

_________________________________________________________________________






EU 2872 1652 2008 2737 1356 1878 AT 2894 1028 2929 1303 128a BE 275 1776 28a 2109 1974 2134 DE 2447 1126 1341 2523 1087 20 FR 2399 142 2163 1516 841 1141a

LU 909a 666a NL 79a 723a 879 712a DK 1968 1591 244a 2063 1429 2437a

FI 3968 769 2733a 4026 634 3592 SE 225 45a 152a 3804 633 2121a

UK 3708 2407 2652 341 2069 2256 ES 5236 256 3323 3624 1966 1816 GR 3592 2682 314a 3116 207 26 IT 3857 1886 2542 3232 1298 2159 PT 4245 2381 451 3924 1754 2644a

CZ 176 2438 23a 61a

EE 4407 1073 290a 2801 857 241a

HU 128 516 874 36 LT 3773 1229 1587 786 166a

LV 4587 1472 371a 3719 1188 2818 PL 831 1067 72a 2376 1353 1776 SI 4913 115 5038 925 SK 1418 579a 1812 5a






35

_________________________________________________________________





0

20

40

60

80

100

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK

ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK

Lone women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK

Other women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU AT

DE LU FI GR PT CZ

HU LV SI

Lone men

2010 2005





36

_________________________________________________________________________









37

_________________________________________________________________







38

_________________________________________________________________________










39

_________________________________________________________________










40

_________________________________________________________________________











41

_________________________________________________________________









42

_________________________________________________________________________








43

_________________________________________________________________













44

_________________________________________________________________________







45

_________________________________________________________________





46

_________________________________________________________________________





47

_________________________________________________________________







48

_________________________________________________________________________








49

_________________________________________________________________






EU27 89 91 BE 93 96 BG 87 88 CZ 93a 94a



SI 83a 83a

SK 94 95 FI 85a 85a

SE 82 84 UK 90 92








50

_________________________________________________________________________








51

_________________________________________________________________













52

_________________________________________________________________________










53

_________________________________________________________________












54

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________








(2010)iii


(2020)iii




55

_________________________________________________________________









56

_________________________________________________________________________












57

_________________________________________________________________











58

_________________________________________________________________________










59

_________________________________________________________________









60

_________________________________________________________________________









61

_________________________________________________________________









62

_________________________________________________________________________













63

_________________________________________________________________









64

_________________________________________________________________________









65

_________________________________________________________________










66

_________________________________________________________________________












67

_________________________________________________________________










68

_________________________________________________________________________









69

_________________________________________________________________











70

_________________________________________________________________________











71

_________________________________________________________________














-








72

_________________________________________________________________________







Actuarial principle















73

_________________________________________________________________













74

_________________________________________________________________________









75

_________________________________________________________________












76

_________________________________________________________________________













Skills updating



Fiscal deductions






77

_________________________________________________________________













Authority


UK

Sweden

Germany

France

Italy

Romania


Fiscal deduction




older workers







companies






workers




78

_________________________________________________________________________









79

_________________________________________________________________









80

_________________________________________________________________________









81

_________________________________________________________________















82

_________________________________________________________________________












83

_________________________________________________________________









84

_________________________________________________________________________








85

_________________________________________________________________









86

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________








ageing workforce





Mobility


- Germany





UK




















87

_________________________________________________________________














88

_________________________________________________________________________














89

_________________________________________________________________















90

_________________________________________________________________________











91

_________________________________________________________________










92

_________________________________________________________________________






Improving mobility





93

_________________________________________________________________









94

_________________________________________________________________________




95

_________________________________________________________________
















96

_________________________________________________________________________












97

_________________________________________________________________














98

_________________________________________________________________________





2) housing policies










99

_________________________________________________________________









100

_________________________________________________________________________







101

_________________________________________________________________




Sweden








102

_________________________________________________________________________


Germany







103

_________________________________________________________________












104

_________________________________________________________________________





Italy








105

_________________________________________________________________












106

_________________________________________________________________________







107

_________________________________________________________________








108

_________________________________________________________________________






Health promotion





Germany











109

_________________________________________________________________












110

_________________________________________________________________________
















111

_________________________________________________________________








112

_________________________________________________________________________





113

_________________________________________________________________











114

_________________________________________________________________________









621 Pension reforms


115

_________________________________________________________________









116

_________________________________________________________________________












117

_________________________________________________________________









118

_________________________________________________________________________













119

_________________________________________________________________











120

_________________________________________________________________________












121

_________________________________________________________________






122

_________________________________________________________________________


REFERENCES














123

_________________________________________________________________















124

_________________________________________________________________________
















125

_________________________________________________________________














126

_________________________________________________________________________





127

__________________________________________________________________















128

_________________________________________________________________________














129

__________________________________________________________________



















130

_________________________________________________________________________




131

__________________________________________________________________






population ()

LP W 15410264 63 modal

class

()

average

H M L

activity

rate

employm

ent rate

unemploym

ent rat

self

employe

d

temporary

part‐time

pove

rty rate

60‐65 (188) 45 301 241 458 704 649 79 94 143 235 264 LP M 19029143 82 30‐35 (1275) 42 258 239 503 798 707 115 176 133 103 265 NLP W 31202177 128 60‐65 (234) 48 253 298 450 642 599 66 96 115 282 149

EP W 19142153 79 75‐80 (237) 77 75 673 252 274 EP M 6090456 26 65‐70 (244) 76 150 516 335 188 NEP W 17789942 73 65‐70 (357) 73 88 613 299 136



0

10

20

30

40

50

60

EU

-27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY PT MT


SK

Perc

en

t

2000 2005 2010


132

_________________________________________________________________________



0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35 EU

-27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY PT MT

BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t 2000 2005 2010



0

5

10

15

20

25

EU

-27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t

1995 2010


133

__________________________________________________________________



0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20 EU

-27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK

GR

ES IT CY


SK

Perc

en

t

1995 2010



0

1

1

2

2

3

EU

-27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Nu

mber

of

childre

n p

er

wom

an

2000 2005 2010


134

_________________________________________________________________________



0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50 EU

27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t




0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

EU27 BE DE FR LU NL


Per

cen

t

sep 2010 m sep 2005 m


135

__________________________________________________________________



0

2

4

6

8

10

12 EU

27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t EP 2010 W EP 2010 M EP 2005 W






136

_________________________________________________________________________



0

5

10

15

20

25

30 EU

-27 BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t

1995 2010




137

__________________________________________________________________



0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t 2010 w 2010 gap




138

_________________________________________________________________________

2010



-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90 EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t

2010 w 2010 gap




139

__________________________________________________________________

2010






140

_________________________________________________________________________

2005






141

__________________________________________________________________






142

_________________________________________________________________________





S


143

__________________________________________________________________






144

_________________________________________________________________________






145

__________________________________________________________________






146

_________________________________________________________________________






147

__________________________________________________________________






148

_________________________________________________________________________






149

__________________________________________________________________

2010






150

_________________________________________________________________________






151

__________________________________________________________________

2010






152

_________________________________________________________________________





S


153

__________________________________________________________________






154

_________________________________________________________________________

2007






155

__________________________________________________________________





S



156

_________________________________________________________________________

2007






157

__________________________________________________________________





S



158

_________________________________________________________________________






159

__________________________________________________________________





S

-30

-15

0

15

30

45

60

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK

ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK

Lone women

2010 2005

160

_________________________________________________________________________





161

__________________________________________________________________

2010




162

_________________________________________________________________________



0

20

40

60

80 EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Lone women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

EU AT

BE

DE

FR LU NL



Other women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

EU AT

BE

DE

FR LU NL



2010 2005


163

__________________________________________________________________

2010




164

_________________________________________________________________________




165

__________________________________________________________________

2010




166

_________________________________________________________________________



0

5

10

15

20

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Lone women

2010 2005

0

5

10

15

20

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Other women

2010 2005

0

5

10

15

20

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


2010 2005


167

__________________________________________________________________




168

_________________________________________________________________________



0

20

40

60

80

100 EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Lone women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Other women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


2010 2005


169

__________________________________________________________________




170

_________________________________________________________________________




171

__________________________________________________________________

2010




172

_________________________________________________________________________



0 10 20 30 40 50 60

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Lone women

2010 2005

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Other women

2010 2005

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Lone men

2010 2005


173

__________________________________________________________________

2010




174

_________________________________________________________________________




2 1518 3071 1358 1505 3062 1425 3 1734 1985 2088 2489 214 2156 4 2575 1227 2516 2698 129 2734 5 2319 913 3013 1981 976 2757 1 2358 3073 1602 2195 2622 1737 2 2356 2678 1482 2197 265 162 3 191 1753 2117 165 1935 219 4 1689 1472 2605 2081 1653 2481 5 1686 1024 2193 1876 114 1973 1 1199 2586 117 1798 2674 1335 2 2133 287 1575 1975 281 1626 3 2447 2244 1696 2317 2164 1946 4 2286 1455 2338 2232 1555 2548 5 1934 845 3221 1677 798 2545 1 1978 253 1814 1914 2145 1896 2 2075 2538 1747 2211 2553 179 3 2126 2017 2304 2016 2155 2066 4 1937 1614 1862 1922 1828 2247 5 1884 1301 2273 1936 1319 2001 1 1697 3689 956 1454 3364 1394 2 2079 2227 1403 2037 2231 2019 3 1224 1941 1915 2005 1839 168 4 286 1424 2374 2585 1473 1928 5 214 719 3353 1918 1093 298 1 2137 2026 1992 2502 1798 1513 2 2082 3594 1515 2038 3402 2045 3 2421 2466 2017 2654 2479 2333 4 2371 1296 2213 2005 1436 2417 5 988 617 2263 801 885 1694 1 2084 1395 2222 2305 1083 1937 2 3312 2702 1716 273 2523 232 3 1714 2686 1852 2102 2696 1967 4 1537 1998 215 1649 2226 1886 5 1353 1219 2059 1214 1472 1889 1 1838 1504 1549 1462 138 1717 2 2369 2434 2143 2131 2685 2035 3 2462 2784 1849 2598 2614 17 4 2061 2019 2404 2354 2001 2169 5 127 1259 2055 1454 1321 238 1 2113 1561 1468 2178 1546 1743 2 2354 28 2069 2695 2749 1553 3 2179 2683 1939 219 2617 2144 4 2124 1761 2339 1869 1777 2439 5 1229 1195 2185 1067 1311 2121 1 201 2268 1163 2 1664 2586 1723 3 2379 1966 158 4 1637 178 2814 5 2311 14 272 1 1333 2639 822 1693 2801 87 2 1924 2744 1172 2157 2468 981 3 2252 1934 2305 2137 1968 2341 4 2303 1482 2871 2205 1636 2968 5 2189 1201 283 1807 1126 2839 1 1856 26 951 2 1812 2959 1864 3 2837 1792 1465 4 1907 1276 2844 5 1589 1373 2877 1 1541 3147 1065 1145 2614 1349

BE

DE

FR

LU

NL

DK

FI

SE

IE

UK

CY

ES

175

__________________________________________________________________


2 1969 2536 2101 2242 2497 1719 3 1941 1659 1849 2183 1864 1872 4 1828 1356 1947 2081 1509 2696 5 2721 1301 3038 2349 1516 2363

GR 1 1822 2831 1087 2771 2532 1304 2 1887 2312 1767 249 2208 1152 3 2364 1825 2162 1411 2151 2527 4 215 1715 2742 2433 1756 2959 5 1777 1317 2243 896 1353 2059

IT 1 1848 2694 1444 1347 2375 128 2 2271 2574 1755 2317 2656 1412 3 1903 1945 1871 189 1882 2248 4 228 1715 2238 2068 1718 2386 5 1698 1072 2693 2378 137 2674

MT 1 1985 2561 1133 2 1082 2274 1543 3 897 1861 1581 4 2818 1962 253 5 3218 1341 3214

PT 1 3038 2677 93 1946 2525 1191 2 2293 2437 1609 1246 2478 798 3 1408 1682 2816 957 1856 253 4 1296 1558 1851 2874 1496 3182 5 1966 1645 2793 2977 1645 2298

BG 1 1593 2102 1574 2 1651 2605 2199 3 2528 1972 1786 4 1985 1791 2832 5 2243 153 1609

CZ 1 2715 2864 1341 2665 262 1285 2 184 2599 1574 2271 2835 1583 3 1457 18 1762 1608 1867 1601 4 2737 1707 2191 1782 1601 2281 5 1252 1031 3133 1675 1076 325

EE 1 1792 2271 1323 1365 2035 2251 2 2584 2676 1842 2197 2683 1612 3 2561 2126 1976 2302 2305 1715 4 1796 1726 172 202 175 2049 5 1267 1201 3138 2116 1227 2374

HU 1 158 2004 2221 1697 2009 2124 2 1591 2095 1961 2152 2219 1451 3 1523 23 118 1358 2135 1292 4 1926 1923 1703 1687 2057 2284 5 3381 1679 2935 3106 1579 2849

LT 1 1607 2177 2486 1803 1904 3269 2 2577 2207 1204 2333 2091 1235 3 2522 2055 2148 2282 207 1007 4 2135 192 1714 1364 1951 1838 5 1158 1641 2448 2218 1984 2651

LV 1 2083 2583 1696 1508 1863 2345 2 1848 2228 1221 1395 2199 1708 3 2773 2307 2791 2276 2204 1769 4 188 141 1814 2019 2049 2312 5 1417 1472 2478 2802 1685 1867

PL 1 216 2127 2135 1531 2343 1358 2 1121 2265 1676 1607 2335 1238 3 1861 2025 2032 1845 2025 15 4 2134 1902 2027 187 1748 2622 5 2725 1682 213 3147 1548 3282

RO 1 1605 2728 1307 2 1711 225 1991 3 1612 1848 2062 4 1954 1821 1991 5 3118 1353 2649

SI 1 1818 1665 1271 1251 1685 114

176

_________________________________________________________________________


SK

2 2212 2507 969 2172 2426 2863 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5


1282 2147 2828 168 2093 2683 129 1716 2632 1888 1829 1915 3399 1965 2299 301 1967 14 2201 2845 1752 2195 2119 1192 188 2326 171 215 2804 1291 1942 216 1615 1521 2083 1497 2241 154 1972 2166 1793 221 1736 1129 2951 1968 12 3809

177

__________________________________________________________________














178

_________________________________________________________________________

688


Country FRANCE

CONTEXT


332 (M) 300 (F)

326 (M) 294 (F)


530 (M) 513 (F)

531 (M) 516 (F)


138 (M) 188 (F)

143 (M) 190 (F)


61 (M) 101 (F) 68 (M) 108 (F)


200 203 (2010)


265 (2005) 289 (2010)


216 (2005) 215 (2010)


77(2005) 8 (2010)


86 (2005) 85 (2010)


101 86


103 84


16 09


631 (2005) 634 (2010)


699 (2005) 693 (2010)


97 (2005) 85 (2010)


706


624 611


126 (M) 139 (F) (2010)


179 (M) 180 (F) (2010)



140 (M) 177 (F) (2010)

106 (Total) 87 (M) 120 (F) (2010)


179

__________________________________________________________________


132 144


25 26



THE WELFARE SYSTEM

A- Income support










Contribution


No





Taxation



Yes




180

_________________________________________________________________________







No






Social security



Yes



No





181

__________________________________________________________________
















Yes




Yes



182

_________________________________________________________________________



D- Pension



















183

__________________________________________________________________

113




Country GERMANY

CONTEXT


271 (M) 248 (F)

256 (M) 235 (W)


567 (M) 531 (F)

564 (M) 533 (W)


163 (M) 221 (F)

180 (M) 232 (W)


57 (M) 106 (F)

70 (M) 114 (W)


133 139 (2010)


204 (2005) 23 (2010)


226 (2005) 229 (2010)


87(2005) 101 (2010)


95 (2005) 101 (2010)


128 107


96


-02 -06


683 (2005) 746 (2010)


768 (2005) 805 (2010)


111 (2005) 73 (2010)


646 700


702 73


149 (M) 164 (W) (2010)


181 (M) 162 (W) (2010)

184

_________________________________________________________________________



215 30 (2010)



141 (total) 121 (M) 159 (W) (2010)


119 121


81 97


29 32

THE WELFARE SYSTEM

A- Income support






Duration Unlimited






Contribution



No




185

__________________________________________________________________



Taxation


Yes








No






No






Duration

Amount



No



186

_________________________________________________________________________




Yes







year)





Yes

C- Pension






187

__________________________________________________________________














188

_________________________________________________________________________



Country ITALY

CONTEXT


258 (M) 231 (F)

255 (M) 227 (F)


573 (M) 545 (F) 569 (M) 545 (F)


169 (M) 224 (F)

176 (M) 228 (F)


70 (M) 114 (F)

79 (M) 122 (F)


135 141 (2010)


21 (2005) 212 (2010)


211 (2005) 218 (2010)


43(2005) 52 (2010)


94 (2005) 98 (2010)


238 216


242 21


33 20

44 55 (2010)


602 (2005) 637 (2010)


638 (2005) 679 (2010)


56 (2005) 63 (2010)


763 729


617 659


168 (M) 195 (F) (2010)




178 (M) 245 (F)

166 (total) 126 (M) 195 (F) (2010)


189

__________________________________________________________________


155 171


12 14



THE WELFARE SYSTEM

A- Income support




Regional

Regional

Taxation




Family





Regional


Contributions



No






190

_________________________________________________________________________





Employees










home-helps





191

__________________________________________________________________


Duration















Yes (family income)



192

_________________________________________________________________________








Yes










Yes

C- Pension



193

__________________________________________________________________







Early retirement

Flexibility in exit









194

_________________________________________________________________________

141

362 (2007) 425 (2007)


Country ROMANIA

CONTEXT


323 (M) 293(F)

300 (M) 271(F)


552 (M) 536 (F)

576 (M) 556 (F)


124 (M) 170 (F)

123 (M) 173 (F)


44 (M) 68 (F)

51 (M) 79 (F)


132 133 (2010)


126 (2005) 156 (2010)


23 (2005) 237 (2010)


28(2005) 3 (2010)


57 (2005) 58 (2010)



116 130


-21 -11



503 (2005) 477 (2010)


532 (2005) 502 (2010)


55 (2005) 51 (2010)


717 725


493 472


219 (M) 225 (F) (2011)


311 (M) 339 (F)



195

__________________________________________________________________



306 (total) 253 (M) 343 (F) (2007)

141 (total) 87 (M) 177 (F) (2011)


57 88


18 17


Taxation











No







196

_________________________________________________________________________











No





Taxation



No




197

__________________________________________________________________

ndash



Taxation


No







na





Yes







198

_________________________________________________________________________












199

__________________________________________________________________



Country SWEDEN

CONTEXT


307 (M) 287 (F)

308 (M) 290 (F)


542 (M) 518 (F)

526 (M) 507 (F)


151 (M) 194 (F)

166 (M) 203 (F)


69 (M) 107 (F)

68 (M) 101 (F)


185 198 (2010)


295 (2005) 394 (2010)


247 (2005) 122 (2010)


na na


na na


49 50


48 45


03 -01


na na


na na


na na


na 696


na 668


114 (M) 143 (F) (2010)


154 (M) 136 (F)

120 (M) 128 (F) (2010)

213 285 (2010)


330 331 (2010)

200

_________________________________________________________________________


113 (total) 62 (M) 153 (F)

155 (total) 78 (M) 216 (F) (2010)






30

315 133

80

32



Taxation



Yes









No







No




201

__________________________________________________________________




Contributions


No








No





Duration

Amount






202

_________________________________________________________________________





Taxation


















203

37

__________________________________________________________________



Contributions







No





Taxation


No







Yes



204

_________________________________________________________________________








Early retirement

Flexibility in exit









205

40

__________________________________________________________________












206

_________________________________________________________________________




324 (M) 297 (F)

319 (M) 294 (F)


536 (M) 525 (F)

532 (M) 523 (F)


140 (M) 179 (F)

149 (M) 183 (F)


60 (M) 93 (F)

65 (M) 93 (F)


184 198 (2010)


235 (2005) 255 (2010)


239 (2005) 233 (2010)


68(2005) 68 (2010)


76 (2005) 75 (2010)


131 120


117 100


-08 -14


682 (2005) 652 (2010)


713 (2005) 703 (2010)


44 (2005) 72 (2010)


539 557


679 668


245 200 (2010)


277 270 (2010)


CONTEXT


207

__________________________________________________________________

THE WELFARE SYSTEM





261 (total) 224 (M) 290 (W)

214 (total) 176 (M) 245 (W) (2010)







No







State


Taxation



Yes



282 122

87

18


208

_________________________________________________________________________


Amount

Notes







Duration 39 weeks













42



209

__________________________________________________________________




No











Taxation



No





Duration

Amountservices


State Taxation


Yes







210

44

_________________________________________________________________________




Yes











Yes




low income


211

__________________________________________________________________

















212

_________________________________________________________________________






213

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________




Sweden













214

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________


home


UK






215

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________












216

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________






Carers Allowance



France






217

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________




Long-term care






Cash benefits






Other benefits




218

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________



Germany









Medical care


Dental services




Travel expenses

Long-term care



Benefits in kind





219

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________












Italy



220

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________








Long-term care






euro 25667




221

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________






activity Romania









222

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________





223

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________











48

















224

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________


















-

=

=



225

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
























226

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________















rsquo





227

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________











No early pension




















228

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________







Early retirement

Flexibility in exit






United Kingdom








Annual adjustment







229

Annexes final JEpdf




_________________________________________________________________________


CONTENTS






21 INTRODUCTION20

































3

_________________________________________________________________












LIVING ALONE96









ALONE 114







4

_________________________________________________________________________


LIST OF TABLES




TABLE 35

TABLE 41






LIST OF FIGURES




5

_________________________________________________________________



LIST OF BOXES


6

_________________________________________________________________________


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY










7

_________________________________________________________________














8

_________________________________________________________________________









9

_________________________________________________________________











10

_________________________________________________________________________





Assistance policies





11

_________________________________________________________________







Policy implications





12

_________________________________________________________________________














13

_________________________________________________________________








14

_________________________________________________________________________











15

_________________________________________________________________









16

_________________________________________________________________________









17

_________________________________________________________________
















18

_________________________________________________________________________











19

_________________________________________________________________



21 Introduction











20

_________________________________________________________________________












21

_________________________________________________________________



0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45 EU

27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY


SK

Perc

en

t







22

_________________________________________________________________________



4 2 0 2 4

0-4

10-14

20-24

30-34

40-44

50-54

60-64

70-74

80-85

of total population

Male Female 2010

4 2 0 2 4

0-4

10-14

20-24

30-34

40-44

50-54

60-64

70-74

80-85

of total population

Male Female

2060





0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

EU27 BE DE FR LU NL


Per

cen

t

sep 2010 w sep 2005 w





23

_________________________________________________________________





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Ehellip

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY


SK

Perc

en

t

EP 2010 w EP 2010 m









24

_________________________________________________________________________










-20

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

LP 2010 w NLP 2010 w LP 2010 m LP w 2010-2005


25

_________________________________________________________________







-20

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

LP 2010 w NLP 2010 w LP 2010 m LP w 2010-2005



26

_________________________________________________________________________





-10

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

LP 2010 w NLP 2010 w LP 2010 m LP w 2010-2005






27

_________________________________________________________________





-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK






28

_________________________________________________________________________





‐10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

EU27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES GR IT

MT

PT

BG CZ

EE HU LT LV PL

RO SI SK




29

_________________________________________________________________










30

_________________________________________________________________________










31

_________________________________________________________________



0

5

10

15

20

25

30 EU A

TBE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE


SK


2010 2005

0

10

20

30

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK


2010 2005

0

10

20

30

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK


2010 2005





32

_________________________________________________________________________




0

20

40

60

80

100

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK


2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU27 AT BE DE

FR LU NL



2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU27 AT BE DE

FR LU NL



2010 2005





33

_________________________________________________________________











34

_________________________________________________________________________






EU 2872 1652 2008 2737 1356 1878 AT 2894 1028 2929 1303 128a BE 275 1776 28a 2109 1974 2134 DE 2447 1126 1341 2523 1087 20 FR 2399 142 2163 1516 841 1141a

LU 909a 666a NL 79a 723a 879 712a DK 1968 1591 244a 2063 1429 2437a

FI 3968 769 2733a 4026 634 3592 SE 225 45a 152a 3804 633 2121a

UK 3708 2407 2652 341 2069 2256 ES 5236 256 3323 3624 1966 1816 GR 3592 2682 314a 3116 207 26 IT 3857 1886 2542 3232 1298 2159 PT 4245 2381 451 3924 1754 2644a

CZ 176 2438 23a 61a

EE 4407 1073 290a 2801 857 241a

HU 128 516 874 36 LT 3773 1229 1587 786 166a

LV 4587 1472 371a 3719 1188 2818 PL 831 1067 72a 2376 1353 1776 SI 4913 115 5038 925 SK 1418 579a 1812 5a






35

_________________________________________________________________





0

20

40

60

80

100

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK

ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK

Lone women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK

Other women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU AT

DE LU FI GR PT CZ

HU LV SI

Lone men

2010 2005





36

_________________________________________________________________________









37

_________________________________________________________________







38

_________________________________________________________________________










39

_________________________________________________________________










40

_________________________________________________________________________











41

_________________________________________________________________









42

_________________________________________________________________________








43

_________________________________________________________________













44

_________________________________________________________________________







45

_________________________________________________________________





46

_________________________________________________________________________





47

_________________________________________________________________







48

_________________________________________________________________________








49

_________________________________________________________________






EU27 89 91 BE 93 96 BG 87 88 CZ 93a 94a



SI 83a 83a

SK 94 95 FI 85a 85a

SE 82 84 UK 90 92








50

_________________________________________________________________________








51

_________________________________________________________________













52

_________________________________________________________________________










53

_________________________________________________________________












54

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________








(2010)iii


(2020)iii




55

_________________________________________________________________









56

_________________________________________________________________________












57

_________________________________________________________________











58

_________________________________________________________________________










59

_________________________________________________________________









60

_________________________________________________________________________









61

_________________________________________________________________









62

_________________________________________________________________________













63

_________________________________________________________________









64

_________________________________________________________________________









65

_________________________________________________________________










66

_________________________________________________________________________












67

_________________________________________________________________










68

_________________________________________________________________________









69

_________________________________________________________________











70

_________________________________________________________________________











71

_________________________________________________________________














-








72

_________________________________________________________________________







Actuarial principle















73

_________________________________________________________________













74

_________________________________________________________________________









75

_________________________________________________________________












76

_________________________________________________________________________













Skills updating



Fiscal deductions






77

_________________________________________________________________













Authority


UK

Sweden

Germany

France

Italy

Romania


Fiscal deduction




older workers







companies






workers




78

_________________________________________________________________________









79

_________________________________________________________________









80

_________________________________________________________________________









81

_________________________________________________________________















82

_________________________________________________________________________












83

_________________________________________________________________









84

_________________________________________________________________________








85

_________________________________________________________________









86

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________








ageing workforce





Mobility


- Germany





UK




















87

_________________________________________________________________














88

_________________________________________________________________________














89

_________________________________________________________________















90

_________________________________________________________________________











91

_________________________________________________________________










92

_________________________________________________________________________






Improving mobility





93

_________________________________________________________________









94

_________________________________________________________________________




95

_________________________________________________________________
















96

_________________________________________________________________________












97

_________________________________________________________________














98

_________________________________________________________________________





2) housing policies










99

_________________________________________________________________









100

_________________________________________________________________________







101

_________________________________________________________________




Sweden








102

_________________________________________________________________________


Germany







103

_________________________________________________________________












104

_________________________________________________________________________





Italy








105

_________________________________________________________________












106

_________________________________________________________________________







107

_________________________________________________________________








108

_________________________________________________________________________






Health promotion





Germany











109

_________________________________________________________________












110

_________________________________________________________________________
















111

_________________________________________________________________








112

_________________________________________________________________________





113

_________________________________________________________________











114

_________________________________________________________________________









621 Pension reforms


115

_________________________________________________________________









116

_________________________________________________________________________












117

_________________________________________________________________









118

_________________________________________________________________________













119

_________________________________________________________________











120

_________________________________________________________________________












121

_________________________________________________________________






122

_________________________________________________________________________


REFERENCES














123

_________________________________________________________________















124

_________________________________________________________________________
















125

_________________________________________________________________














126

_________________________________________________________________________





127

__________________________________________________________________















128

_________________________________________________________________________














129

__________________________________________________________________



















130

_________________________________________________________________________




131

__________________________________________________________________






population ()

LP W 15410264 63 modal

class

()

average

H M L

activity

rate

employm

ent rate

unemploym

ent rat

self

employe

d

temporary

part‐time

pove

rty rate

60‐65 (188) 45 301 241 458 704 649 79 94 143 235 264 LP M 19029143 82 30‐35 (1275) 42 258 239 503 798 707 115 176 133 103 265 NLP W 31202177 128 60‐65 (234) 48 253 298 450 642 599 66 96 115 282 149

EP W 19142153 79 75‐80 (237) 77 75 673 252 274 EP M 6090456 26 65‐70 (244) 76 150 516 335 188 NEP W 17789942 73 65‐70 (357) 73 88 613 299 136



0

10

20

30

40

50

60

EU

-27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY PT MT


SK

Perc

en

t

2000 2005 2010


132

_________________________________________________________________________



0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35 EU

-27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY PT MT

BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t 2000 2005 2010



0

5

10

15

20

25

EU

-27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t

1995 2010


133

__________________________________________________________________



0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20 EU

-27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK

GR

ES IT CY


SK

Perc

en

t

1995 2010



0

1

1

2

2

3

EU

-27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Nu

mber

of

childre

n p

er

wom

an

2000 2005 2010


134

_________________________________________________________________________



0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50 EU

27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t




0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

EU27 BE DE FR LU NL


Per

cen

t

sep 2010 m sep 2005 m


135

__________________________________________________________________



0

2

4

6

8

10

12 EU

27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t EP 2010 W EP 2010 M EP 2005 W






136

_________________________________________________________________________



0

5

10

15

20

25

30 EU

-27 BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t

1995 2010




137

__________________________________________________________________



0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t 2010 w 2010 gap




138

_________________________________________________________________________

2010



-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90 EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t

2010 w 2010 gap




139

__________________________________________________________________

2010






140

_________________________________________________________________________

2005






141

__________________________________________________________________






142

_________________________________________________________________________





S


143

__________________________________________________________________






144

_________________________________________________________________________






145

__________________________________________________________________






146

_________________________________________________________________________






147

__________________________________________________________________






148

_________________________________________________________________________






149

__________________________________________________________________

2010






150

_________________________________________________________________________






151

__________________________________________________________________

2010






152

_________________________________________________________________________





S


153

__________________________________________________________________






154

_________________________________________________________________________

2007






155

__________________________________________________________________





S



156

_________________________________________________________________________

2007






157

__________________________________________________________________





S



158

_________________________________________________________________________






159

__________________________________________________________________





S

-30

-15

0

15

30

45

60

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK

ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK

Lone women

2010 2005

160

_________________________________________________________________________





161

__________________________________________________________________

2010




162

_________________________________________________________________________



0

20

40

60

80 EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Lone women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

EU AT

BE

DE

FR LU NL



Other women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

EU AT

BE

DE

FR LU NL



2010 2005


163

__________________________________________________________________

2010




164

_________________________________________________________________________




165

__________________________________________________________________

2010




166

_________________________________________________________________________



0

5

10

15

20

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Lone women

2010 2005

0

5

10

15

20

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Other women

2010 2005

0

5

10

15

20

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


2010 2005


167

__________________________________________________________________




168

_________________________________________________________________________



0

20

40

60

80

100 EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Lone women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Other women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


2010 2005


169

__________________________________________________________________




170

_________________________________________________________________________




171

__________________________________________________________________

2010




172

_________________________________________________________________________



0 10 20 30 40 50 60

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Lone women

2010 2005

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Other women

2010 2005

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Lone men

2010 2005


173

__________________________________________________________________

2010




174

_________________________________________________________________________




2 1518 3071 1358 1505 3062 1425 3 1734 1985 2088 2489 214 2156 4 2575 1227 2516 2698 129 2734 5 2319 913 3013 1981 976 2757 1 2358 3073 1602 2195 2622 1737 2 2356 2678 1482 2197 265 162 3 191 1753 2117 165 1935 219 4 1689 1472 2605 2081 1653 2481 5 1686 1024 2193 1876 114 1973 1 1199 2586 117 1798 2674 1335 2 2133 287 1575 1975 281 1626 3 2447 2244 1696 2317 2164 1946 4 2286 1455 2338 2232 1555 2548 5 1934 845 3221 1677 798 2545 1 1978 253 1814 1914 2145 1896 2 2075 2538 1747 2211 2553 179 3 2126 2017 2304 2016 2155 2066 4 1937 1614 1862 1922 1828 2247 5 1884 1301 2273 1936 1319 2001 1 1697 3689 956 1454 3364 1394 2 2079 2227 1403 2037 2231 2019 3 1224 1941 1915 2005 1839 168 4 286 1424 2374 2585 1473 1928 5 214 719 3353 1918 1093 298 1 2137 2026 1992 2502 1798 1513 2 2082 3594 1515 2038 3402 2045 3 2421 2466 2017 2654 2479 2333 4 2371 1296 2213 2005 1436 2417 5 988 617 2263 801 885 1694 1 2084 1395 2222 2305 1083 1937 2 3312 2702 1716 273 2523 232 3 1714 2686 1852 2102 2696 1967 4 1537 1998 215 1649 2226 1886 5 1353 1219 2059 1214 1472 1889 1 1838 1504 1549 1462 138 1717 2 2369 2434 2143 2131 2685 2035 3 2462 2784 1849 2598 2614 17 4 2061 2019 2404 2354 2001 2169 5 127 1259 2055 1454 1321 238 1 2113 1561 1468 2178 1546 1743 2 2354 28 2069 2695 2749 1553 3 2179 2683 1939 219 2617 2144 4 2124 1761 2339 1869 1777 2439 5 1229 1195 2185 1067 1311 2121 1 201 2268 1163 2 1664 2586 1723 3 2379 1966 158 4 1637 178 2814 5 2311 14 272 1 1333 2639 822 1693 2801 87 2 1924 2744 1172 2157 2468 981 3 2252 1934 2305 2137 1968 2341 4 2303 1482 2871 2205 1636 2968 5 2189 1201 283 1807 1126 2839 1 1856 26 951 2 1812 2959 1864 3 2837 1792 1465 4 1907 1276 2844 5 1589 1373 2877 1 1541 3147 1065 1145 2614 1349

BE

DE

FR

LU

NL

DK

FI

SE

IE

UK

CY

ES

175

__________________________________________________________________


2 1969 2536 2101 2242 2497 1719 3 1941 1659 1849 2183 1864 1872 4 1828 1356 1947 2081 1509 2696 5 2721 1301 3038 2349 1516 2363

GR 1 1822 2831 1087 2771 2532 1304 2 1887 2312 1767 249 2208 1152 3 2364 1825 2162 1411 2151 2527 4 215 1715 2742 2433 1756 2959 5 1777 1317 2243 896 1353 2059

IT 1 1848 2694 1444 1347 2375 128 2 2271 2574 1755 2317 2656 1412 3 1903 1945 1871 189 1882 2248 4 228 1715 2238 2068 1718 2386 5 1698 1072 2693 2378 137 2674

MT 1 1985 2561 1133 2 1082 2274 1543 3 897 1861 1581 4 2818 1962 253 5 3218 1341 3214

PT 1 3038 2677 93 1946 2525 1191 2 2293 2437 1609 1246 2478 798 3 1408 1682 2816 957 1856 253 4 1296 1558 1851 2874 1496 3182 5 1966 1645 2793 2977 1645 2298

BG 1 1593 2102 1574 2 1651 2605 2199 3 2528 1972 1786 4 1985 1791 2832 5 2243 153 1609

CZ 1 2715 2864 1341 2665 262 1285 2 184 2599 1574 2271 2835 1583 3 1457 18 1762 1608 1867 1601 4 2737 1707 2191 1782 1601 2281 5 1252 1031 3133 1675 1076 325

EE 1 1792 2271 1323 1365 2035 2251 2 2584 2676 1842 2197 2683 1612 3 2561 2126 1976 2302 2305 1715 4 1796 1726 172 202 175 2049 5 1267 1201 3138 2116 1227 2374

HU 1 158 2004 2221 1697 2009 2124 2 1591 2095 1961 2152 2219 1451 3 1523 23 118 1358 2135 1292 4 1926 1923 1703 1687 2057 2284 5 3381 1679 2935 3106 1579 2849

LT 1 1607 2177 2486 1803 1904 3269 2 2577 2207 1204 2333 2091 1235 3 2522 2055 2148 2282 207 1007 4 2135 192 1714 1364 1951 1838 5 1158 1641 2448 2218 1984 2651

LV 1 2083 2583 1696 1508 1863 2345 2 1848 2228 1221 1395 2199 1708 3 2773 2307 2791 2276 2204 1769 4 188 141 1814 2019 2049 2312 5 1417 1472 2478 2802 1685 1867

PL 1 216 2127 2135 1531 2343 1358 2 1121 2265 1676 1607 2335 1238 3 1861 2025 2032 1845 2025 15 4 2134 1902 2027 187 1748 2622 5 2725 1682 213 3147 1548 3282

RO 1 1605 2728 1307 2 1711 225 1991 3 1612 1848 2062 4 1954 1821 1991 5 3118 1353 2649

SI 1 1818 1665 1271 1251 1685 114

176

_________________________________________________________________________


SK

2 2212 2507 969 2172 2426 2863 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5


1282 2147 2828 168 2093 2683 129 1716 2632 1888 1829 1915 3399 1965 2299 301 1967 14 2201 2845 1752 2195 2119 1192 188 2326 171 215 2804 1291 1942 216 1615 1521 2083 1497 2241 154 1972 2166 1793 221 1736 1129 2951 1968 12 3809

177

__________________________________________________________________














178

_________________________________________________________________________

688


Country FRANCE

CONTEXT


332 (M) 300 (F)

326 (M) 294 (F)


530 (M) 513 (F)

531 (M) 516 (F)


138 (M) 188 (F)

143 (M) 190 (F)


61 (M) 101 (F) 68 (M) 108 (F)


200 203 (2010)


265 (2005) 289 (2010)


216 (2005) 215 (2010)


77(2005) 8 (2010)


86 (2005) 85 (2010)


101 86


103 84


16 09


631 (2005) 634 (2010)


699 (2005) 693 (2010)


97 (2005) 85 (2010)


706


624 611


126 (M) 139 (F) (2010)


179 (M) 180 (F) (2010)



140 (M) 177 (F) (2010)

106 (Total) 87 (M) 120 (F) (2010)


179

__________________________________________________________________


132 144


25 26



THE WELFARE SYSTEM

A- Income support










Contribution


No





Taxation



Yes




180

_________________________________________________________________________







No






Social security



Yes



No





181

__________________________________________________________________
















Yes




Yes



182

_________________________________________________________________________



D- Pension



















183

__________________________________________________________________

113




Country GERMANY

CONTEXT


271 (M) 248 (F)

256 (M) 235 (W)


567 (M) 531 (F)

564 (M) 533 (W)


163 (M) 221 (F)

180 (M) 232 (W)


57 (M) 106 (F)

70 (M) 114 (W)


133 139 (2010)


204 (2005) 23 (2010)


226 (2005) 229 (2010)


87(2005) 101 (2010)


95 (2005) 101 (2010)


128 107


96


-02 -06


683 (2005) 746 (2010)


768 (2005) 805 (2010)


111 (2005) 73 (2010)


646 700


702 73


149 (M) 164 (W) (2010)


181 (M) 162 (W) (2010)

184

_________________________________________________________________________



215 30 (2010)



141 (total) 121 (M) 159 (W) (2010)


119 121


81 97


29 32

THE WELFARE SYSTEM

A- Income support






Duration Unlimited






Contribution



No




185

__________________________________________________________________



Taxation


Yes








No






No






Duration

Amount



No



186

_________________________________________________________________________




Yes







year)





Yes

C- Pension






187

__________________________________________________________________














188

_________________________________________________________________________



Country ITALY

CONTEXT


258 (M) 231 (F)

255 (M) 227 (F)


573 (M) 545 (F) 569 (M) 545 (F)


169 (M) 224 (F)

176 (M) 228 (F)


70 (M) 114 (F)

79 (M) 122 (F)


135 141 (2010)


21 (2005) 212 (2010)


211 (2005) 218 (2010)


43(2005) 52 (2010)


94 (2005) 98 (2010)


238 216


242 21


33 20

44 55 (2010)


602 (2005) 637 (2010)


638 (2005) 679 (2010)


56 (2005) 63 (2010)


763 729


617 659


168 (M) 195 (F) (2010)




178 (M) 245 (F)

166 (total) 126 (M) 195 (F) (2010)


189

__________________________________________________________________


155 171


12 14



THE WELFARE SYSTEM

A- Income support




Regional

Regional

Taxation




Family





Regional


Contributions



No






190

_________________________________________________________________________





Employees










home-helps





191

__________________________________________________________________


Duration















Yes (family income)



192

_________________________________________________________________________








Yes










Yes

C- Pension



193

__________________________________________________________________







Early retirement

Flexibility in exit









194

_________________________________________________________________________

141

362 (2007) 425 (2007)


Country ROMANIA

CONTEXT


323 (M) 293(F)

300 (M) 271(F)


552 (M) 536 (F)

576 (M) 556 (F)


124 (M) 170 (F)

123 (M) 173 (F)


44 (M) 68 (F)

51 (M) 79 (F)


132 133 (2010)


126 (2005) 156 (2010)


23 (2005) 237 (2010)


28(2005) 3 (2010)


57 (2005) 58 (2010)



116 130


-21 -11



503 (2005) 477 (2010)


532 (2005) 502 (2010)


55 (2005) 51 (2010)


717 725


493 472


219 (M) 225 (F) (2011)


311 (M) 339 (F)



195

__________________________________________________________________



306 (total) 253 (M) 343 (F) (2007)

141 (total) 87 (M) 177 (F) (2011)


57 88


18 17


Taxation











No







196

_________________________________________________________________________











No





Taxation



No




197

__________________________________________________________________

ndash



Taxation


No







na





Yes







198

_________________________________________________________________________












199

__________________________________________________________________



Country SWEDEN

CONTEXT


307 (M) 287 (F)

308 (M) 290 (F)


542 (M) 518 (F)

526 (M) 507 (F)


151 (M) 194 (F)

166 (M) 203 (F)


69 (M) 107 (F)

68 (M) 101 (F)


185 198 (2010)


295 (2005) 394 (2010)


247 (2005) 122 (2010)


na na


na na


49 50


48 45


03 -01


na na


na na


na na


na 696


na 668


114 (M) 143 (F) (2010)


154 (M) 136 (F)

120 (M) 128 (F) (2010)

213 285 (2010)


330 331 (2010)

200

_________________________________________________________________________


113 (total) 62 (M) 153 (F)

155 (total) 78 (M) 216 (F) (2010)






30

315 133

80

32



Taxation



Yes









No







No




201

__________________________________________________________________




Contributions


No








No





Duration

Amount






202

_________________________________________________________________________





Taxation


















203

37

__________________________________________________________________



Contributions







No





Taxation


No







Yes



204

_________________________________________________________________________








Early retirement

Flexibility in exit









205

40

__________________________________________________________________












206

_________________________________________________________________________




324 (M) 297 (F)

319 (M) 294 (F)


536 (M) 525 (F)

532 (M) 523 (F)


140 (M) 179 (F)

149 (M) 183 (F)


60 (M) 93 (F)

65 (M) 93 (F)


184 198 (2010)


235 (2005) 255 (2010)


239 (2005) 233 (2010)


68(2005) 68 (2010)


76 (2005) 75 (2010)


131 120


117 100


-08 -14


682 (2005) 652 (2010)


713 (2005) 703 (2010)


44 (2005) 72 (2010)


539 557


679 668


245 200 (2010)


277 270 (2010)


CONTEXT


207

__________________________________________________________________

THE WELFARE SYSTEM





261 (total) 224 (M) 290 (W)

214 (total) 176 (M) 245 (W) (2010)







No







State


Taxation



Yes



282 122

87

18


208

_________________________________________________________________________


Amount

Notes







Duration 39 weeks













42



209

__________________________________________________________________




No











Taxation



No





Duration

Amountservices


State Taxation


Yes







210

44

_________________________________________________________________________




Yes











Yes




low income


211

__________________________________________________________________

















212

_________________________________________________________________________






213

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________




Sweden













214

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________


home


UK






215

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________












216

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________






Carers Allowance



France






217

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________




Long-term care






Cash benefits






Other benefits




218

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________



Germany









Medical care


Dental services




Travel expenses

Long-term care



Benefits in kind





219

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________












Italy



220

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________








Long-term care






euro 25667




221

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________






activity Romania









222

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________





223

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________











48

















224

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________


















-

=

=



225

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
























226

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________















rsquo





227

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________











No early pension




















228

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________







Early retirement

Flexibility in exit






United Kingdom








Annual adjustment







229

Annexes final JEpdf




_________________________________________________________________












LIVING ALONE96









ALONE 114







4

_________________________________________________________________________


LIST OF TABLES




TABLE 35

TABLE 41






LIST OF FIGURES




5

_________________________________________________________________



LIST OF BOXES


6

_________________________________________________________________________


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY










7

_________________________________________________________________














8

_________________________________________________________________________









9

_________________________________________________________________











10

_________________________________________________________________________





Assistance policies





11

_________________________________________________________________







Policy implications





12

_________________________________________________________________________














13

_________________________________________________________________








14

_________________________________________________________________________











15

_________________________________________________________________









16

_________________________________________________________________________









17

_________________________________________________________________
















18

_________________________________________________________________________











19

_________________________________________________________________



21 Introduction











20

_________________________________________________________________________












21

_________________________________________________________________



0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45 EU

27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY


SK

Perc

en

t







22

_________________________________________________________________________



4 2 0 2 4

0-4

10-14

20-24

30-34

40-44

50-54

60-64

70-74

80-85

of total population

Male Female 2010

4 2 0 2 4

0-4

10-14

20-24

30-34

40-44

50-54

60-64

70-74

80-85

of total population

Male Female

2060





0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

EU27 BE DE FR LU NL


Per

cen

t

sep 2010 w sep 2005 w





23

_________________________________________________________________





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Ehellip

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY


SK

Perc

en

t

EP 2010 w EP 2010 m









24

_________________________________________________________________________










-20

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

LP 2010 w NLP 2010 w LP 2010 m LP w 2010-2005


25

_________________________________________________________________







-20

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

LP 2010 w NLP 2010 w LP 2010 m LP w 2010-2005



26

_________________________________________________________________________





-10

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

LP 2010 w NLP 2010 w LP 2010 m LP w 2010-2005






27

_________________________________________________________________





-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK






28

_________________________________________________________________________





‐10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

EU27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES GR IT

MT

PT

BG CZ

EE HU LT LV PL

RO SI SK




29

_________________________________________________________________










30

_________________________________________________________________________










31

_________________________________________________________________



0

5

10

15

20

25

30 EU A

TBE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE


SK


2010 2005

0

10

20

30

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK


2010 2005

0

10

20

30

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK


2010 2005





32

_________________________________________________________________________




0

20

40

60

80

100

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK


2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU27 AT BE DE

FR LU NL



2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU27 AT BE DE

FR LU NL



2010 2005





33

_________________________________________________________________











34

_________________________________________________________________________






EU 2872 1652 2008 2737 1356 1878 AT 2894 1028 2929 1303 128a BE 275 1776 28a 2109 1974 2134 DE 2447 1126 1341 2523 1087 20 FR 2399 142 2163 1516 841 1141a

LU 909a 666a NL 79a 723a 879 712a DK 1968 1591 244a 2063 1429 2437a

FI 3968 769 2733a 4026 634 3592 SE 225 45a 152a 3804 633 2121a

UK 3708 2407 2652 341 2069 2256 ES 5236 256 3323 3624 1966 1816 GR 3592 2682 314a 3116 207 26 IT 3857 1886 2542 3232 1298 2159 PT 4245 2381 451 3924 1754 2644a

CZ 176 2438 23a 61a

EE 4407 1073 290a 2801 857 241a

HU 128 516 874 36 LT 3773 1229 1587 786 166a

LV 4587 1472 371a 3719 1188 2818 PL 831 1067 72a 2376 1353 1776 SI 4913 115 5038 925 SK 1418 579a 1812 5a






35

_________________________________________________________________





0

20

40

60

80

100

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK

ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK

Lone women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK

Other women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU AT

DE LU FI GR PT CZ

HU LV SI

Lone men

2010 2005





36

_________________________________________________________________________









37

_________________________________________________________________







38

_________________________________________________________________________










39

_________________________________________________________________










40

_________________________________________________________________________











41

_________________________________________________________________









42

_________________________________________________________________________








43

_________________________________________________________________













44

_________________________________________________________________________







45

_________________________________________________________________





46

_________________________________________________________________________





47

_________________________________________________________________







48

_________________________________________________________________________








49

_________________________________________________________________






EU27 89 91 BE 93 96 BG 87 88 CZ 93a 94a



SI 83a 83a

SK 94 95 FI 85a 85a

SE 82 84 UK 90 92








50

_________________________________________________________________________








51

_________________________________________________________________













52

_________________________________________________________________________










53

_________________________________________________________________












54

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________








(2010)iii


(2020)iii




55

_________________________________________________________________









56

_________________________________________________________________________












57

_________________________________________________________________











58

_________________________________________________________________________










59

_________________________________________________________________









60

_________________________________________________________________________









61

_________________________________________________________________









62

_________________________________________________________________________













63

_________________________________________________________________









64

_________________________________________________________________________









65

_________________________________________________________________










66

_________________________________________________________________________












67

_________________________________________________________________










68

_________________________________________________________________________









69

_________________________________________________________________











70

_________________________________________________________________________











71

_________________________________________________________________














-








72

_________________________________________________________________________







Actuarial principle















73

_________________________________________________________________













74

_________________________________________________________________________









75

_________________________________________________________________












76

_________________________________________________________________________













Skills updating



Fiscal deductions






77

_________________________________________________________________













Authority


UK

Sweden

Germany

France

Italy

Romania


Fiscal deduction




older workers







companies






workers




78

_________________________________________________________________________









79

_________________________________________________________________









80

_________________________________________________________________________









81

_________________________________________________________________















82

_________________________________________________________________________












83

_________________________________________________________________









84

_________________________________________________________________________








85

_________________________________________________________________









86

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________








ageing workforce





Mobility


- Germany





UK




















87

_________________________________________________________________














88

_________________________________________________________________________














89

_________________________________________________________________















90

_________________________________________________________________________











91

_________________________________________________________________










92

_________________________________________________________________________






Improving mobility





93

_________________________________________________________________









94

_________________________________________________________________________




95

_________________________________________________________________
















96

_________________________________________________________________________












97

_________________________________________________________________














98

_________________________________________________________________________





2) housing policies










99

_________________________________________________________________









100

_________________________________________________________________________







101

_________________________________________________________________




Sweden








102

_________________________________________________________________________


Germany







103

_________________________________________________________________












104

_________________________________________________________________________





Italy








105

_________________________________________________________________












106

_________________________________________________________________________







107

_________________________________________________________________








108

_________________________________________________________________________






Health promotion





Germany











109

_________________________________________________________________












110

_________________________________________________________________________
















111

_________________________________________________________________








112

_________________________________________________________________________





113

_________________________________________________________________











114

_________________________________________________________________________









621 Pension reforms


115

_________________________________________________________________









116

_________________________________________________________________________












117

_________________________________________________________________









118

_________________________________________________________________________













119

_________________________________________________________________











120

_________________________________________________________________________












121

_________________________________________________________________






122

_________________________________________________________________________


REFERENCES














123

_________________________________________________________________















124

_________________________________________________________________________
















125

_________________________________________________________________














126

_________________________________________________________________________





127

__________________________________________________________________















128

_________________________________________________________________________














129

__________________________________________________________________



















130

_________________________________________________________________________




131

__________________________________________________________________






population ()

LP W 15410264 63 modal

class

()

average

H M L

activity

rate

employm

ent rate

unemploym

ent rat

self

employe

d

temporary

part‐time

pove

rty rate

60‐65 (188) 45 301 241 458 704 649 79 94 143 235 264 LP M 19029143 82 30‐35 (1275) 42 258 239 503 798 707 115 176 133 103 265 NLP W 31202177 128 60‐65 (234) 48 253 298 450 642 599 66 96 115 282 149

EP W 19142153 79 75‐80 (237) 77 75 673 252 274 EP M 6090456 26 65‐70 (244) 76 150 516 335 188 NEP W 17789942 73 65‐70 (357) 73 88 613 299 136



0

10

20

30

40

50

60

EU

-27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY PT MT


SK

Perc

en

t

2000 2005 2010


132

_________________________________________________________________________



0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35 EU

-27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY PT MT

BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t 2000 2005 2010



0

5

10

15

20

25

EU

-27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t

1995 2010


133

__________________________________________________________________



0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20 EU

-27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK

GR

ES IT CY


SK

Perc

en

t

1995 2010



0

1

1

2

2

3

EU

-27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Nu

mber

of

childre

n p

er

wom

an

2000 2005 2010


134

_________________________________________________________________________



0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50 EU

27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t




0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

EU27 BE DE FR LU NL


Per

cen

t

sep 2010 m sep 2005 m


135

__________________________________________________________________



0

2

4

6

8

10

12 EU

27

BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t EP 2010 W EP 2010 M EP 2005 W






136

_________________________________________________________________________



0

5

10

15

20

25

30 EU

-27 BE

DE FR LU NL

AT

DK FI SE IE UK EL

ES IT CY

MT PT BG CZ EE

LV LT HU PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t

1995 2010




137

__________________________________________________________________



0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t 2010 w 2010 gap




138

_________________________________________________________________________

2010



-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90 EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE IE UK CY

ES


HU LT LV PL RO SI

SK

Perc

en

t

2010 w 2010 gap




139

__________________________________________________________________

2010






140

_________________________________________________________________________

2005






141

__________________________________________________________________






142

_________________________________________________________________________





S


143

__________________________________________________________________






144

_________________________________________________________________________






145

__________________________________________________________________






146

_________________________________________________________________________






147

__________________________________________________________________






148

_________________________________________________________________________






149

__________________________________________________________________

2010






150

_________________________________________________________________________






151

__________________________________________________________________

2010






152

_________________________________________________________________________





S


153

__________________________________________________________________






154

_________________________________________________________________________

2007






155

__________________________________________________________________





S



156

_________________________________________________________________________

2007






157

__________________________________________________________________





S



158

_________________________________________________________________________






159

__________________________________________________________________





S

-30

-15

0

15

30

45

60

EU

27

AT

BE

DE FR LU NL

DK FI SE

UK

ES

GR IT PT CZ EE

HU LT LV PL SI

SK

Lone women

2010 2005

160

_________________________________________________________________________





161

__________________________________________________________________

2010




162

_________________________________________________________________________



0

20

40

60

80 EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Lone women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

EU AT

BE

DE

FR LU NL



Other women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

EU AT

BE

DE

FR LU NL



2010 2005


163

__________________________________________________________________

2010




164

_________________________________________________________________________




165

__________________________________________________________________

2010




166

_________________________________________________________________________



0

5

10

15

20

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Lone women

2010 2005

0

5

10

15

20

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Other women

2010 2005

0

5

10

15

20

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


2010 2005


167

__________________________________________________________________




168

_________________________________________________________________________



0

20

40

60

80

100 EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Lone women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Other women

2010 2005

0

20

40

60

80

100

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


2010 2005


169

__________________________________________________________________




170

_________________________________________________________________________




171

__________________________________________________________________

2010




172

_________________________________________________________________________



0 10 20 30 40 50 60

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Lone women

2010 2005

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Other women

2010 2005

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

EU AT

BE

DE FR LU NL


CZ


Lone men

2010 2005


173

__________________________________________________________________

2010




174

_________________________________________________________________________




2 1518 3071 1358 1505 3062 1425 3 1734 1985 2088 2489 214 2156 4 2575 1227 2516 2698 129 2734 5 2319 913 3013 1981 976 2757 1 2358 3073 1602 2195 2622 1737 2 2356 2678 1482 2197 265 162 3 191 1753 2117 165 1935 219 4 1689 1472 2605 2081 1653 2481 5 1686 1024 2193 1876 114 1973 1 1199 2586 117 1798 2674 1335 2 2133 287 1575 1975 281 1626 3 2447 2244 1696 2317 2164 1946 4 2286 1455 2338 2232 1555 2548 5 1934 845 3221 1677 798 2545 1 1978 253 1814 1914 2145 1896 2 2075 2538 1747 2211 2553 179 3 2126 2017 2304 2016 2155 2066 4 1937 1614 1862 1922 1828 2247 5 1884 1301 2273 1936 1319 2001 1 1697 3689 956 1454 3364 1394 2 2079 2227 1403 2037 2231 2019 3 1224 1941 1915 2005 1839 168 4 286 1424 2374 2585 1473 1928 5 214 719 3353 1918 1093 298 1 2137 2026 1992 2502 1798 1513 2 2082 3594 1515 2038 3402 2045 3 2421 2466 2017 2654 2479 2333 4 2371 1296 2213 2005 1436 2417 5 988 617 2263 801 885 1694 1 2084 1395 2222 2305 1083 1937 2 3312 2702 1716 273 2523 232 3 1714 2686 1852 2102 2696 1967 4 1537 1998 215 1649 2226 1886 5 1353 1219 2059 1214 1472 1889 1 1838 1504 1549 1462 138 1717 2 2369 2434 2143 2131 2685 2035 3 2462 2784 1849 2598 2614 17 4 2061 2019 2404 2354 2001 2169 5 127 1259 2055 1454 1321 238 1 2113 1561 1468 2178 1546 1743 2 2354 28 2069 2695 2749 1553 3 2179 2683 1939 219 2617 2144 4 2124 1761 2339 1869 1777 2439 5 1229 1195 2185 1067 1311 2121 1 201 2268 1163 2 1664 2586 1723 3 2379 1966 158 4 1637 178 2814 5 2311 14 272 1 1333 2639 822 1693 2801 87 2 1924 2744 1172 2157 2468 981 3 2252 1934 2305 2137 1968 2341 4 2303 1482 2871 2205 1636 2968 5 2189 1201 283 1807 1126 2839 1 1856 26 951 2 1812 2959 1864 3 2837 1792 1465 4 1907 1276 2844 5 1589 1373 2877 1 1541 3147 1065 1145 2614 1349

BE

DE

FR

LU

NL

DK

FI

SE

IE

UK

CY

ES

175

__________________________________________________________________


2 1969 2536 2101 2242 2497 1719 3 1941 1659 1849 2183 1864 1872 4 1828 1356 1947 2081 1509 2696 5 2721 1301 3038 2349 1516 2363

GR 1 1822 2831 1087 2771 2532 1304 2 1887 2312 1767 249 2208 1152 3 2364 1825 2162 1411 2151 2527 4 215 1715 2742 2433 1756 2959 5 1777 1317 2243 896 1353 2059

IT 1 1848 2694 1444 1347 2375 128 2 2271 2574 1755 2317 2656 1412 3 1903 1945 1871 189 1882 2248 4 228 1715 2238 2068 1718 2386 5 1698 1072 2693 2378 137 2674

MT 1 1985 2561 1133 2 1082 2274 1543 3 897 1861 1581 4 2818 1962 253 5 3218 1341 3214

PT 1 3038 2677 93 1946 2525 1191 2 2293 2437 1609 1246 2478 798 3 1408 1682 2816 957 1856 253 4 1296 1558 1851 2874 1496 3182 5 1966 1645 2793 2977 1645 2298

BG 1 1593 2102 1574 2 1651 2605 2199 3 2528 1972 1786 4 1985 1791 2832 5 2243 153 1609

CZ 1 2715 2864 1341 2665 262 1285 2 184 2599 1574 2271 2835 1583 3 1457 18 1762 1608 1867 1601 4 2737 1707 2191 1782 1601 2281 5 1252 1031 3133 1675 1076 325

EE 1 1792 2271 1323 1365 2035 2251 2 2584 2676 1842 2197 2683 1612 3 2561 2126 1976 2302 2305 1715 4 1796 1726 172 202 175 2049 5 1267 1201 3138 2116 1227 2374

HU 1 158 2004 2221 1697 2009 2124 2 1591 2095 1961 2152 2219 1451 3 1523 23 118 1358 2135 1292 4 1926 1923 1703 1687 2057 2284 5 3381 1679 2935 3106 1579 2849

LT 1 1607 2177 2486 1803 1904 3269 2 2577 2207 1204 2333 2091 1235 3 2522 2055 2148 2282 207 1007 4 2135 192 1714 1364 1951 1838 5 1158 1641 2448 2218 1984 2651

LV 1 2083 2583 1696 1508 1863 2345 2 1848 2228 1221 1395 2199 1708 3 2773 2307 2791 2276 2204 1769 4 188 141 1814 2019 2049 2312 5 1417 1472 2478 2802 1685 1867

PL 1 216 2127 2135 1531 2343 1358 2 1121 2265 1676 1607 2335 1238 3 1861 2025 2032 1845 2025 15 4 2134 1902 2027 187 1748 2622 5 2725 1682 213 3147 1548 3282

RO 1 1605 2728 1307 2 1711 225 1991 3 1612 1848 2062 4 1954 1821 1991 5 3118 1353 2649

SI 1 1818 1665 1271 1251 1685 114

176

_________________________________________________________________________


SK

2 2212 2507 969 2172 2426 2863 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5


1282 2147 2828 168 2093 2683 129 1716 2632 1888 1829 1915 3399 1965 2299 301 1967 14 2201 2845 1752 2195 2119 1192 188 2326 171 215 2804 1291 1942 216 1615 1521 2083 1497 2241 154 1972 2166 1793 221 1736 1129 2951 1968 12 3809

177

__________________________________________________________________














178

_________________________________________________________________________

688


Country FRANCE

CONTEXT


332 (M) 300 (F)

326 (M) 294 (F)


530 (M) 513 (F)

531 (M) 516 (F)


138 (M) 188 (F)

143 (M) 190 (F)


61 (M) 101 (F) 68 (M) 108 (F)


200 203 (2010)


265 (2005) 289 (2010)


216 (2005) 215 (2010)


77(2005) 8 (2010)


86 (2005) 85 (2010)


101 86


103 84


16 09


631 (2005) 634 (2010)


699 (2005) 693 (2010)


97 (2005) 85 (2010)


706


624 611


126 (M) 139 (F) (2010)


179 (M) 180 (F) (2010)



140 (M) 177 (F) (2010)

106 (Total) 87 (M) 120 (F) (2010)


179

__________________________________________________________________


132 144


25 26



THE WELFARE SYSTEM

A- Income support










Contribution


No





Taxation



Yes




180

_________________________________________________________________________







No






Social security



Yes



No





181

__________________________________________________________________
















Yes




Yes



182

_________________________________________________________________________



D- Pension



















183

__________________________________________________________________

113




Country GERMANY

CONTEXT


271 (M) 248 (F)

256 (M) 235 (W)


567 (M) 531 (F)

564 (M) 533 (W)


163 (M) 221 (F)

180 (M) 232 (W)


57 (M) 106 (F)

70 (M) 114 (W)


133 139 (2010)


204 (2005) 23 (2010)


226 (2005) 229 (2010)


87(2005) 101 (2010)


95 (2005) 101 (2010)


128 107


96


-02 -06


683 (2005) 746 (2010)


768 (2005) 805 (2010)


111 (2005) 73 (2010)


646 700


702 73


149 (M) 164 (W) (2010)


181 (M) 162 (W) (2010)

184

_________________________________________________________________________



215 30 (2010)



141 (total) 121 (M) 159 (W) (2010)


119 121


81 97


29 32

THE WELFARE SYSTEM

A- Income support






Duration Unlimited






Contribution



No




185

__________________________________________________________________



Taxation


Yes








No






No






Duration

Amount



No



186

_________________________________________________________________________




Yes







year)





Yes

C- Pension






187

__________________________________________________________________














188

_________________________________________________________________________



Country ITALY

CONTEXT


258 (M) 231 (F)

255 (M) 227 (F)


573 (M) 545 (F) 569 (M) 545 (F)


169 (M) 224 (F)

176 (M) 228 (F)


70 (M) 114 (F)

79 (M) 122 (F)


135 141 (2010)


21 (2005) 212 (2010)


211 (2005) 218 (2010)


43(2005) 52 (2010)


94 (2005) 98 (2010)


238 216


242 21


33 20

44 55 (2010)


602 (2005) 637 (2010)


638 (2005) 679 (2010)


56 (2005) 63 (2010)


763 729


617 659


168 (M) 195 (F) (2010)




178 (M) 245 (F)

166 (total) 126 (M) 195 (F) (2010)


189

__________________________________________________________________


155 171


12 14



THE WELFARE SYSTEM

A- Income support




Regional

Regional

Taxation




Family





Regional


Contributions



No






190

_________________________________________________________________________





Employees










home-helps





191

__________________________________________________________________


Duration















Yes (family income)



192

_________________________________________________________________________








Yes










Yes

C- Pension



193

__________________________________________________________________







Early retirement

Flexibility in exit









194

_________________________________________________________________________

141

362 (2007) 425 (2007)


Country ROMANIA

CONTEXT


323 (M) 293(F)

300 (M) 271(F)


552 (M) 536 (F)

576 (M) 556 (F)


124 (M) 170 (F)

123 (M) 173 (F)


44 (M) 68 (F)

51 (M) 79 (F)


132 133 (2010)


126 (2005) 156 (2010)


23 (2005) 237 (2010)


28(2005) 3 (2010)


57 (2005) 58 (2010)



116 130


-21 -11



503 (2005) 477 (2010)


532 (2005) 502 (2010)


55 (2005) 51 (2010)


717 725


493 472


219 (M) 225 (F) (2011)


311 (M) 339 (F)



195

__________________________________________________________________



306 (total) 253 (M) 343 (F) (2007)

141 (total) 87 (M) 177 (F) (2011)


57 88


18 17


Taxation











No







196

_________________________________________________________________________











No





Taxation



No




197

__________________________________________________________________

ndash



Taxation


No







na





Yes







198

_________________________________________________________________________












199

__________________________________________________________________



Country SWEDEN

CONTEXT


307 (M) 287 (F)

308 (M) 290 (F)


542 (M) 518 (F)

526 (M) 507 (F)


151 (M) 194 (F)

166 (M) 203 (F)


69 (M) 107 (F)

68 (M) 101 (F)


185 198 (2010)


295 (2005) 394 (2010)


247 (2005) 122 (2010)


na na


na na


49 50


48 45


03 -01


na na


na na


na na


na 696


na 668


114 (M) 143 (F) (2010)


154 (M) 136 (F)

120 (M) 128 (F) (2010)

213 285 (2010)


330 331 (2010)

200

_________________________________________________________________________


113 (total) 62 (M) 153 (F)

155 (total) 78 (M) 216 (F) (2010)






30

315 133

80

32



Taxation



Yes









No







No




201

__________________________________________________________________




Contributions


No








No





Duration

Amount






202

_________________________________________________________________________





Taxation


















203

37

__________________________________________________________________



Contributions







No





Taxation


No







Yes



204

_________________________________________________________________________








Early retirement

Flexibility in exit









205

40

__________________________________________________________________












206

_________________________________________________________________________




324 (M) 297 (F)

319 (M) 294 (F)


536 (M) 525 (F)

532 (M) 523 (F)


140 (M) 179 (F)

149 (M) 183 (F)


60 (M) 93 (F)

65 (M) 93 (F)


184 198 (2010)


235 (2005) 255 (2010)


239 (2005) 233 (2010)


68(2005) 68 (2010)


76 (2005) 75 (2010)


131 120


117 100


-08 -14


682 (2005) 652 (2010)


713 (2005) 703 (2010)


44 (2005) 72 (2010)


539 557


679 668


245 200 (2010)


277 270 (2010)


CONTEXT


207

__________________________________________________________________

THE WELFARE SYSTEM





261 (total) 224 (M) 290 (W)

214 (total) 176 (M) 245 (W) (2010)







No







State


Taxation



Yes



282 122

87

18


208

_________________________________________________________________________


Amount

Notes







Duration 39 weeks













42



209

__________________________________________________________________




No











Taxation



No





Duration

Amountservices


State Taxation


Yes







210

44

_________________________________________________________________________




Yes











Yes




low income


211

__________________________________________________________________

















212

_________________________________________________________________________






213

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________




Sweden













214

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________


home


UK






215

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________












216

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________






Carers Allowance



France






217

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________




Long-term care






Cash benefits






Other benefits




218

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________



Germany









Medical care


Dental services




Travel expenses

Long-term care



Benefits in kind





219

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________












Italy



220

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________








Long-term care






euro 25667




221

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________






activity Romania









222

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________





223

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________











48

















224

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________


















-

=

=



225

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
























226

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________















rsquo





227

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________











No early pension




















228

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________







Early retirement

Flexibility in exit






United Kingdom








Annual adjustment







229

Annexes final JEpdf


