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Page 1: Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation

Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation

報告者 : 廖芝瑩 林毓晏 李岱芬

Page 2: Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation

Outline

• Introduction• The Self: A Delicate Category• Two Construals of the Self• Consequences of an Independent or an Interdependent View

of the Self Consequences for Cognition Consequences for Emotion Consequences for Motivation• Conclusions

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Summary• Construal - How individuals perceive, comprehend, and interpret the world around them. -Different cultures have different construals of self, others, and self*others. -Influence cognition, emotion, and motivation.• Difference that exist in the specific content,

structure, and functioning of the self-systems • Asian cultures VS. American cultures

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Introduction• The differences in life - American: “ I am beautiful”100 times -Japan: “She/He is beautiful.” - What make the difference between countries?• Divergent construals of the self

→tied to the implicit, normative tasks that various cultures hold for what people should be doing

American Japanese

Attend to the self Attend to others

Appreciation of one’s difference from others

Fit in others

Importance of asserting the self Importance of harmonious interdependence

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Introduction• Monoculture approach to the self• The purpose of the paper -Construals of the self, others, self*others influence is reflected in differences among cultures -Compare an independent view of the self with interdependent view -How these divergent views of the self can influence on cognition, emotion, and motivation.

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Introduction• The self viewed as interdependent: -Focal the “other” or the “self-in-relation-to-other” in individual experience. -Cognition: Knowledge representation involved in social and nonsocial thinking are influenced by attentiveness to the relevant others in the social context. -Behavior: situationally bound -Emotion and motive: shaped and governed by a consideration of the reactions of others

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Introduction• Limited: -The prototypical American view of the self: white, middle-class men, Western European ethnic -View of the self is assumed to be universal• Self-construals has two important consequence: -Questions about the universality assumed of cognition, emotion, and motivation. -Precise role of the self in regulating behavior

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The self: A Delicate Category• Universal aspects of the self -Physically distinct and separable from others -Ecological self -Awareness of internal activity: private self• Divergent aspects of the self -Specific to particular cultures -Individual VS. relationship

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Two Construals of the self: Independent and Interdependent

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Two Construals of the self: Independent and Interdependent

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Two Construals of the self: Independent and Interdependent

• Conceptual representations of the self

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Consequences of an Independent or an Interdependent View of the Self

• Self-system -assortment of self-regulatory schemata -instrumental in the regulation of interpersonal processes• Affect regulation• Motivating persons

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Culture and the self:Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation

Part Two

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Consequences for Cognition

• 兩大 self-systems 有三個重要認知結果:1. 注意 & 知覺(互依我 vs. 獨立我)2. 互依我對於 the self and the other 的表徵單位包含特定社會情境3. 社會情境和他人反應,也會形塑其他非社會的認知活動(分類、反事實思考)• 討論上述三點之前: we assume that how people think in a

social situation cannot be easily separated from what they think about.

• 文化→內在基模(自我表徵)→思考( self, others, or social relationships )

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Consequences for Cognition

More interpersonal knowledge• self-in-relation-to-others• 互依我:理解社會背景和他人互動的需求,對他人敏感以維持關係,確保和諧互動• 互依我:發展出對他人或關係自我的精緻基模• Kitayama, Markus, Tummala, Kurokawa, and Kato (1990) :

東方互依我:對他人的知覺、基模更精緻互依我更容易獲取對他人的知識

西方獨立我:對自我的知覺、基模更精緻

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Consequences for CognitionContext-specific knowledge of self and other

• 互依我 hierarchical structure vs. 獨立我 self in general• 互依我:在特定社會情境中與特定對象互動,建構自我

• Shweder & Bourne (1984) :研究 Indians & Americans 對熟人的描述

homeparentsschoolpeerspublic

strangers

互依特定社會情境為表徵單位

homeparents

schoolpeers

publicstrangers

獨立恆定特質特徵為表徵單位

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Consequences for CognitionContext-specific knowledge of self and other

• J. G. Miller (1984) :研究 Indians & Americans 如何詮釋利社會和反社會行為• 基本歸因謬誤: Indians 也會使用特性歸因,但是此特性屬於角色關係,又和社會情境有關,不清楚是否犯下基本歸因謬誤 (?)• Cousins (1989) :以 TST 研究對自我的描述(圖 3 )

version original modifiedsituations general specificsample Who Am I? me at home.Japanese answer I play tennis on the weekend. xAmerican answer I am optimistic. I am sometimes lazy at home.

啟示: original TST 忽略「我」的情境脈絡,互依我的自我描述不可脫離特定人際情境,但它適合獨立我(與特定情境分離)的抽象式、自由情境的自我描述

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Consequences for Cognition

Basic cognition in an interpersonal context• creativity & reasoning(counterfactual & thinking style & mode

of thought)• creativity :1. 中國普遍重視忠誠服從權威,自我控制下限制了語言 & 概念的流暢性 (fluency)2. 在各情境中考慮別人 vs. 個人獨斷、表達創新獨特: T. Y. Liu

& Hsu (1974)• counterfactual :爭論中國(互依我)是否能反事實思考?

1. Bloom (1981, 1984) -研究顯示中國不擅長反事實思考2. Au (1983) -挑戰 Bloom ,認為東西方反事實推論能力沒有差異3. Moser (1989) -認為 Bloom 發現的結果很難解釋

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Consequences for Cognition

Basic cognition in an interpersonal context

• 如果是測量推理能力,互依我在反事實思考上沒有不利(ex.SAT)

• 多數人有假設推論 & 反事實思考的能力,但是應用在情境中的能力依自我系統而異(互依我更容易受具體情境的暗示影響)

本研究對 Bloom 研究的看法:互依我會預期提問者的期望動機來回答獨立我採用抽象理論式的回答,需要忽略社會情境,思索其他可能結果(反事實思考),因為獨立我是有界限、自主、不易被干擾的自我系統

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Consequences for Cognition

Basic cognition in an interpersonal context• thinking style :

1. Chiu (1972)2. American children vs. Chinese children3. inferential-categorical style vs. relational-contextual style

• mode of thought :1. Bruner (1986)2. paradigmatic (abstraction and analyzing) vs. narrative

(establishing a connection)

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Consequences for Emotion

• 文化塑造情緒經驗,情緒表現也是基於自我系統• Rosaldo (1984) : feeling 是透過理解詮釋而產生的,不是客觀可觀察的物質• Lutz (1988) :情緒是普世經驗、人類本質,是由文化所命名、評斷,是人群的共識• 認知理論:情緒是人類所建構的現實社會情境的一部份• 社會情境   情緒經驗• 近期觀點:社會情境建構 & 自我、他人、關係建構有關,因此情緒經驗會依自我建構產生系統性變化• 近期研究認為,基於不同自我系統,情緒歷程的相異處:1. 根據個人的自我架構,誘發情緒的主要條件不同2. 會表達、經驗的情緒,以及情緒強度、頻率,變化非常顯著

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Consequences for EmotionEgo-focused versus other-focused emotions

• 獨立我:文化中允許表達情緒,其負面結果(人際衝突)不如互依我文化嚴重• 互依我:不鼓勵內在表達導致壓抑、猶豫,文化中維持與他人聯結是主要任務

情緒焦點 ego focused other focused

情緒來源 blockingthe satisfactionthe confirmation

sensitive to the othertaking the perspective of the otherattempting to promote interdependence

經驗 & 表達

self-defininginternal attributesassert them in publicconfirm them in private

one's interdependencethe reciprocal exchanges of well-intended actions further cooperative social behavior

自我觀 independent selves interdependent selves

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Consequences for EmotionEgo-focused emotions - foster and create independence

• Matsumoto, Kudoh, Scherer, and Wallbott (1988) :1. 美國 vs. 日本大學生2. 美國學生情緒經驗時間較日本長、強、生理反應大、情緒事件後行動多3. 因為本研究測驗的情緒是 ego-focused :獨立我注意這些情緒後行動,互依我重視人際脈絡優先於內在特性,所以這些情緒對後續行動的決定較不重要 對於 ego-focused 的情緒經驗原因有不同假設: 獨立我:直接的表達內在感受 互依我:表達被當作社會工具,不一定和內在感受直接相關

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Consequences for EmotionEgo-focused emotions - foster and create independence

• Matsumoto (1989)1. 互依我對表情圖片的情緒強度評分較低2. 互依我不太能辨識快樂情緒的表達,正向情緒被當作維持人際和諧的行動 互依我負向情緒強度不高,會威脅到自我、導致社會不適應,並非壓抑,而是建構社會現實,讓負向 ego-focused emotions 不會爆發• Miyake, Campos, Kagan, and Bradshaw (1986)1. 研究美國 vs. 日本嬰兒在聽到母親情緒反應後的行動2. 日本嬰兒對母親的憤怒更受傷,因為憤怒少見 互依文化爭論少見,限制內在感受和明顯表達 互依文化有策略避免負向情緒的表達: Bond (1986)

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Consequences for EmotionEgo-focused emotions - foster and create independence

• Matsumoto et al. (1988) 比較情緒引發條件1. 日本在親密關係中較少經驗並表達憤怒,歐美則對親密者經驗較多憤怒 自我焦點的情緒活化獨立我的存在• Stipek et al. (1989)1. 發現中國人較少強調個人成就2. 罪惡感之源:美國人是犯法或違反道德原則,中國人是造成他人心理傷害 文化將對自己自豪當作傲慢互依我需要避免表達自我驕傲

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Consequences for EmotionOther-focused emotions - create and foster interdependence

• 互依我在社會化的教養過程中強調互依,導致親子出現不同依附關係(安全型、矛盾型、逃避型)

• 日本嬰兒在陌生人情境中,分離後較有壓力,多為矛盾型• 日本社會化過程中促進母子親密,引起「撒嬌 (甘え )」的感覺(希望被旁人疼愛、縱容),本研究將它定義為雙方一致認同的社會互惠關係

• Russell (1983) 研究許多非西方國家的情緒辨識,發現情緒習慣上被人分為兩類: activation & pleasantness

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Consequences for EmotionOther-focused emotions - create and foster interdependence

• Kitayama & Markus (1990)1. 認為 Russell用西方的情緒類別不妥,並未包含文化特有的情緒2. 因此比較甘え和其他普遍情緒,探索情緒新向度3. 20item日文情緒字: 10item對應英文, 10item是日本特有的(與他人正向聯結「触れ合い」;與他人沒有聯結、衝突「負い目」)

4. 新向度:5. 甘え & 負い目的分類 對日本人來說, ego-focused & other-focused 可以在

interpersonal engagement的向度上做出區辨

low       interpersonal engagement       highego-focused emotions       other-focused emotions付け上がり         親しみ

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Consequences for EmotionOther-focused emotions - create and foster interdependence

• Kitayama & Markus (1990)1. ego-focused 與 ambivalent, other focused 有關(人際←→內在) 獨立我/互依我可以預測這些情緒頻率?

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Consequences for EmotionOther-focused emotions - create and foster interdependence

• Kitayama & Markus (1990) 以自我系統預測情緒經驗1. 用獨立我/互依我問卷2. 獨立我 & ego-focused emotions :正相關3. 獨立我 & other-focused emotions :負相關 or 無相關4. 互依我 & positive ego-focused emotions :負相關5. 互依我 & negative ego-focused emotions :無相關6. 互依我 & other-focused emotions :顯著相關

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Culture and the Self." Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and

Motivation

Part Three

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獨立我動機• 動機傳達中介為 自身內在需求• 增加自尊 ,成就 , 與別人建立關係 , 自我實現• 動機與自我層面有關– self-enhancement– self-consistency– self-verification– self-affirmation– self-actualization

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互依我動機• 與參考他人脫離不了關係• 動機傳達中介為 他人能接受 , 抑制自身內在需求• 動機與社會層面有關

– deference – salience– affiliation – nurturance – succorance – avoidance of blame – abasement

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認知一致的動機• 認知失調 : 心口不一• 互依我文化 : 較少經歷行為與態度之間不一致– 其內在歸因無明顯的自我面 , 而是依照環境需求來調整自身的感覺 ,

• 情境題 : 若女兒把男友帶回家 , 父親發現其交往對象為不同種族 , 而父親口頭允准他們結婚 , 其實內心是不贊同– 日本人認為這是回應合適 44% 不合適 7%– 美國人認為這是回應合適 2% 不合適 48%

• 美國 感覺與行為要一致 , 日本 抑制內在情感是美德

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在互依文化之共同動機

• 例子一 : 互依文化 , 小孩念好大學• 例子二 : 上司與員工– 獨立文化 (任務取向 )vs 互依文化 ( 社會取向 )

成就動機 控制獨立我 個人導向 初級

•與他人意見分歧•勇猛直前•改變環境

互依我 社會導向 次級 •有時經由行動限制個人主義 , 自主權•增強個體對外在的知覺

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個人相關動機獨立我• 追逐自利傾向 self-serving bias• 自我喜愛偏誤 self-favorability bias

• 例子 美國大學生自認為領導能力• 顯示美國人認為對於自身與未來是可控制與正面期許

互依我• 其成就不經由內在歸因 , 自利的價值追求 , 而是迎合他人• 藉由關注他人情緒引起動機 , 在自尊上 , 控制私慾去融入他人• 自我約束 self-restraint 自我控制 self-control 以適應社會的偶發事件• 然而對 自我增強 , 自我提升 抱持負面看法

Top 10% 25%

Top 10% 60%

Average 以上 70%

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• 日研究給國小二 , 三 , 五年級測驗 , 假設班上有優越運動員同儕 , 分別對性格與能力進行歸因

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自利與他利傾向• 在這大學裡 , 有多少人比你聰明 ? –美國 :30% 日本 :50%

• 研究日本大學生發現在社會比較中 , 無自我增強傾向自我謙避 self-effacing

與他人相比 , 發現自身不如人美 自我增強 削弱自信程度 , 努力充實日 他人增強 , 謙和 沒有充實的興趣

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• 給予日本大學生字謎測驗 , 不論測驗結果如何 , 有一半受試者被告知結果成功 , 其餘另一半的受試者被告知結果失敗 之後給受試者寫 10 對題目進行剛才表現成果歸因• 五種歸因 : 能力 , 努力 , 任務 , 運氣 , 身心狀況• 歸因結果 :

– 任務成功任務 , 身心情況– 任務失敗能力 , 努力

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Japan The U.S.

成功

Task, Shape Ability

失敗

Ability, Effort •Blaming to others•Situation

• 當小孩表現不佳 – 日本母親歸因於努力不足 ,– 美國母親歸因努力不足 , 孩子自身能力 , 學校訓練素質

• 從互依文化中 , 看出孩子智能成就歸因是不穩定的• 當表現成功時 , 最佳回應方式為謙卑 , 而不是自得意滿

– 為了相處和諧 , 別太突出 , 以適應他人 注意別人 謙和態度– 但在獨立文化 (美國 ) 認為謙虛是不對的

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• 自尊維持方式

• 動機總結– 不只是個體 striving, 還有文化情境有關

獨立 表現佳 歸因能力好 提升自尊當自尊受挫 , 會另尋其他領域來展示自我

互依 自我實證 self-verification希望從他人證實自己現有的自我概念

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結論• 兩種不同的自我觀• 自我角色• 從認知 , 情緒 , 動機探討自我觀 , 有大量研究指出認知方面相對不彈性 ,– 因為人們不是以固定程序步驟去感知 / 歸類 / 因果 外在世界

• 亦包含文化因素 , 在互依文化 , 與他人互動會考慮其社會位置 , 評估情境後 , 再做適當回應

自尊形式互依 自我約束獨立 自我定義

自我認同

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結論 - 社會心理現象

• 社會行為經由自我模型中介 , 在依附文化 , 順從不代表沒有能力去抵抗社會壓力 , 反而順從他人被價值化 個體與他人互動 , 調整自身慾望並維繫關係• 西方心理學關注態度與行為不一致 性格與行為• 在互依我不強調認知失調 , 認為獨立文化 ( 西方 ) 不知變通 , 對情境脈絡不敏銳• 人們在團體傾向順從 , 遵守 , 責任散布• 在西方獨立文中 , 自力更生與自制力 , 實際上人數不多 , 質疑其世界觀真實與否 , 並再次思考個體的天性

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結論 - 待解問題• 文化差異在深度上 , 廣度上 , 如何不同 ?• 觀察差異反映了不同的行為呈現 , 亦反映了不同的現象結合行為• 當日本人使用某英文單字 , 與美國人有相同情緒經歷浮現 ? 翻譯的不對等