Critical Issues in Policing
Background to PolicingEthnocentric Bias to the invention of the police. Peel thought it reasonable.
American Model of Policing: not simply inherited from England.1.Violence2. Pluralism3. American Belief in the Law
Critical Issues in Policing
American Model of Policing: not simply inherited from England 4. Fascination with Technology
Several Themes1. Publicly defined role as violent2.Technologically sophisticated3. Crime related4.Professionally oriented5. Must be viewed by society that way
Critical Issues in Policing
Peter Manning and Egon Bittner:The police are not controlled by the law but use it to gain public support for their actions.
Manning’s Mandate
Police have set out their mandate1. Efficient2. Apolitical3. Professional enforcers of the law
Critical Issues in Policing
Manning: mandate is unmanageable and as a result of failure to meet expectations, manipulation of appearances1. Strategies2. Tactics
Police mandate in modern society determined by publicsExcitement of police work: reinforce mandate and used by org to define success
Critical Issues in Policing
Factors Relating to the Police Mandate:1. Ambiguity of the criminal law2. Police work as peace keeping3. Police in the political system4. The efficient, symptom-oriented organization
Major strategies of the police1. The guise of professionalism
Critical Issues in Policing
Major strategies of the police1. The guise of professionalism2. Technology, stats, and the crime rate3. Styles of patrol4. Secrecy and collaboration5. Symbiosis and justice
Bittner’s Function of Police in Society
The Public’s Perception of the Police
Critical Issues in Policing
The Police and the MediaWho are the Media? Entertainment vs. News
Consistent Themes about the policeA complicated relationship
What are the functions of the police?Crime ControlSocial ServicesOrder Maint.
Critical Issues in Policing
The Social Realities of PolicingWhat is the job of police officer like?Public’s perception: it’s dangerousIs it boring?Does it require more action or compassion skills?What kind of police do we want?
Transition from citizen to officer: do we need it?
Critical Issues in Policing
Transition from citizen to officer: do we need it? Are police officers different from other citizens?Military organization: is this good? Does it encourage new ideas? Does it reinforce machismo?
Inservice or FTO training: what does this do for status quo?
Critical Issues in Policing
Officer is on his/her own: what kinds of skills have we instilled in them? Are their skills technical or more subjective and cognitive?
Critical Issues in Policing
From individuals to policing in general: a few things to think about.1. Police largest and most powerful component of cjs2. Police are most complex and controversial of all components of cjs3. Police will, by nature of activities be unjust and offensive to someone.
Critical Issues in Policing
From individuals to policing in general: a few things to think about. 4. Role in society means police power will be focused on young, poor, minorities. Why? Bittner’s comments.
Corruption
Three Important Issues in LE: Terrorism, Ethics/Corruption, Recruitment
Defining Morality and Ethics: Whose definition?
Ethics of Process or Ethics of Results: Do the ends justify the means?
As a form of philosophy, ethics is a means of inquiry or to evaluate behavior.
Corruption
Utilitarianism=Consequentialism
Basically, actions should ensure the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. If consequences are good=action is moral, if not….
Important question though: What is good and Who’s good should we be concerned with?
Corruption
Deonotological EthicsExamines one’s duty to act. Duty
matters more than results. Hard to do the right thing all the time for people.
Immanuel KantExpanded duty to act by including good
will/intention.Problem is that some can be convinced
it is a good idea when it is not.
Corruption
Source of Ethics Defining ethical behavior often depends on the context in which the decision is made and the source from which the decision makers draw perceptions of right and wrong.
Justice: what does that mean? Law Agency Policy Professional Code of Ethics Social Norms and Personal Values
Corruption
Sherman’s identification of inappropriate values that veteran officers teach rookies:
Enforcement decisions Disrespect Use of Force Due Process Deception Responding to calls Rewards Loyalty
Corruption
Crime, Corruption, Abuse and Illegal Behavior: Police Crime, Occupational Deviance, Corruption, and Abuse of Authority
Women in PolicingWhy Would Women Want to Be Cops?
Three general experiences during careers1. Acceptance problems
2. Career adjustments—catch 22
3. Abuse and harassment
Women in PolicingHistory of Women in Policing
1820s moral entrepeneurs
Post Civil War: WCTU and General Federation of Women’s Clubs
NYC first to hire f/t police matrons
Women in PolicingWhy did we see female officers outside prisons/jails in the early 20th century?
Technological advances, intellectual changes, morality shifts.
Women in PolicingFactors shaping the development of female policing in the US.
1. Moral Basis
2. Volunteers
3. Proselytizing
4. Opposition from senior officers
5. Specialized police work
6. Protect own sex
Why did we see female officers outside prisons/jails in the early 20th century?
Technological advances, intellectual changes, morality shifts.
Women in PolicingWomen who serve today: A profile
Numbers
Personal CharacteristicsRaceEducation
Previous work experience
Family background
Women in PolicingThis is a Man’s Job
Reasons offered why women shouldn’t serve
1. Can’t cope with danger
2. Undermine male solidarity
3. Can’t interact with males
4. Physical size
Women in PolicingComparison of Male and Female Job Performance-
research findings- Females:patrol equally effectivemore restraint with firearmsmore restraint in domesticsgreater sensitivity to community
Women in PolicingComparison of Male and Female Job Performance-
research findings Females:less use of sick timeless disciplinary action
assaulted more oftenmore vehicle collisionsmore injuries
Women in PolicingMen:
better shooting abilitysuperior strength and agilityless assistance in making arrests
Women in PolicingA More Contemporary View: Women and Community
PolicingFamiliarity w/ communityDecentralization of powerPreventionSocial Work
Success in a Difficult Career
POLICEwoman vs. PoliceWOMAN
Women in PolicingStress-handle it better than men
Marriage-kids as a balance, but divorce rate really high
Suicides
Deviant Behavior/Corruption
Harassment in the police culture: survey of police chiefs: scenario
Minorities and the Police
Minorities in policing
African American Police OfficersGrowing Acceptance?Stephen Leinen’s studyPoliticalization of AAPO
African American Women Officers
Minorities and the Police
Policing Minority Communities-What do we know?
Violent Crime
Arrests
Use of Force
Deadly Force
Minority Officers: Abusers too?
Minorities and the Police
Other forms of AbuseDWBProfilingStop and FrisksVerbal abuse
Racial Profiling
Minorities and the Police
What to do? A “new breed” of Officer
How to ID candidates? Selecting In vs. Selecting Out
Minorities and the Police
Hate Crimes
Making Sense of Police-Minority Relations
Police/Minority Relations and Broken Windows
Minorities and the Police
Police/Minority Relations and Broken WindowsBroken Windows and NYCBroken Windows and the NYC Mayoral RaceBroken Windows and Minority CommunitiesThe Problems with Broken Windows
Police Use of Force
The Meaning of Excessive Force Tennessee v. Garner Patterns of Police Use of Force Use of Force Continuum
Physical presenceSoft-handedMace/CSHard HandsBatonThreat of Deadly Force/Use
Police Use of Force
Research on Use of Force Police Pursuits and Force
A Closer Look at the NumbersShould Officers Pursue?
Use of Force by Off-Duty Officers1. Generally occurs when out of uniform2. ODOs involved where on duty do not3. Shootings more likely to be in violation of policy
Police Use of Force
4. ODOs more likely to use Deadly Force when drinking
So should we allow ODO to carry weapons?
Early Warning Systems to ID Problem Officers—Sam Walker’s work
ComplaintsUse of ForceReprimandsDischarge of Firearms
Police Use of Force
Assaults Against Police Officers—what does the data tell us?
Suicide by Cop—what do we know?
Police Culture and Behavior
The Police Personality
The Psychological Perspective
The Sociological Perspective
Police Culture and Behavior
The Police SubcultureThe Law and Police CultureThe Police WorldviewPolice Ethos: bravery, autonomy, secrecyPolice Themes: Isolation and SolidarityPolice Postulates
Police Culture and Behavior
Police StressLife threatening stressorsSocial isolation stressorsOrganizational stressorsFunctional stressorsPersonal stressorsPhysiological stressorsPsychological stressors
Police Culture and Behavior
Physiological stressorsPsychological stressors
Effects of Police StressPTSDCumulative stress
Stress Burnout Survey
Police Culture and Behavior
Police Suicide
Alcoholism and Drug Abuse
Mortality and Health Problems
Reducing Police Stress
Critical Issues in Policing: Education and the Police
Two basic questions: 1. Are college educated officers better at their jobs than non-college ones?2. Does college make a person a better police officer?
Development of Police ProgramsAugust Vollmer’s influence
Critical Issues in Policing: Education and the Police
Development of Police ProgramsAugust Vollmer’s influence2 events in mid/late 1960s1. Perception that crime was out of control2. Ghetto riots and clashes with the police: beginning of “war on crime.”
1967 President’s Commission on LE and the Administration of Justice
Critical Issues in Policing: Education and the Police
1967 President’s Commission on LE and the Administration of JusticeTask Force on Police: quality of police service can’t be improved until higher education requirements were established.
Created LEAA poured billions of $ into the CJS, focusing on the police. LEEP to provide financial assistance to officers.
Critical Issues in Policing: Education and the Police
The Quality of Higher EducationCop Shops/ courses had training orientation bc of lack of qualified personnel to teach.
Criminal Justice Ph.D. programs developed bc of stagnant market in sociology
Police Foundation study aka National Advisory Commission on Higher Education for Police Officers: recommendations
Critical Issues in Policing: Education and the Police
Police Foundation study aka National Advisory Commission on Higher Education for Police Officers: recommendations
Advantages for colleges
Advantages for police depts.
So does education make for better officers?Police Performance
Incentive Programs for Higher Education
Critical Issues in Policing: Education and the Police
Incentive Programs for Higher EducationNational Police CorpsPolice Cadet Corps
Are college educated officers more intelligent than non-college educated ones?
Does an officer’s intelligence matter?
Are the officers of today more intelligent than they were 50 years ago?
Critical Issues in Policing: Education and the Police
The Drive Towards Professionalism
Investigations
Detective work: the elites of police workBenefits from assignment to detective division
RAND study of detective effectiveness
Research on physical evidence
Performance of Crime Labs
Managing Criminal Investigations MCI
Investigations
Managing Criminal Investigations MCIElements:1. Lack of interest by patrol unless arrest.2. Lag in time before invest. Arrives3. Duplication of effortMCI= specialists called only when unusual problem. Detectives and patrol briefed together.
Investigations
Did MCI work? Maybe.
Sting Operations: considerable investment in resources. Several problems of managing one.
No evidence to show sting operations decrease in rate of property crimes.
Investigations
Undercover OperationsSecond type of proactive investigative tool.
Expanded role in LE, change in type as well.
The “new” undercover work
Issues for undercover operatives
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