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PowerPoint PowerPoint Presentations forPresentations for
Philip G. Zimbardo Philip G. Zimbardo Robert L. Johnson Robert L. Johnson Vivian Vivian McCannMcCann
Prepared byPrepared byBeth M. SchwartzBeth M. Schwartz
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Seventh Edition
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Chapter 1Chapter 1
Mind, Behavior, and Psychological Science
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Claim:Claim: If kids eat large amounts of sugar, If kids eat large amounts of sugar, they become hyperactive.they become hyperactive.
Problem:Problem: How would you How would you test the claim that test the claim that sugar makes sugar makes children children hyperactive?hyperactive?
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What Is Psychology–What Is Psychology–and What Is It and What Is It NotNot??
Psychology is a broad field, with many specialties—but fundamentally, psychology is the science of behavior
and mental processes.
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What Is Psychology–What Is Psychology–and What Is It and What Is It NotNot??
Psychology is not:• All about mental disorders and therapy
• Focused solely on diagnosing and treating mental problems
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What Is Psychology–What Is Psychology–and What Is It and What Is It NotNot??
Psychology:• Comes from psyche (Greek for “mind”) and
-ology (meaning “a field of study”)• Literally means “the study of the mind”• Covers both internal mental processes and
external, observable behaviors• Based on objective, verifiable, scientific
evidence
Figure 1.1 Work Settings of PsychologistsSource: 2009 Doctorate Employment Survey, APA Center for Workforce Studies. March 2011
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Three Ways of Doing Three Ways of Doing PsychologyPsychology
Main Categories:• Experimental psychologists• Teachers of psychology• Applied psychologists
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I/OI/O SportsSports
Clinical/CounselingClinical/Counseling
EnvironmentalEnvironmental
SchoolSchool
ForensicForensic
Use knowledge developed by experimental psychologists to tackle human problems
Applied Psychological Applied Psychological SpecialtiesSpecialties
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Psychology Is Not PsychiatryPsychology Is Not Psychiatry
Psychiatry:
•Medical specialty
•Holds an MD (Doctor of Medicine)
•Training in treatment of mental and behavioral problems
•Licensed to prescribe medicines
Psychology:
•Broad field of study
•Holds a Ph.D (Doctor of Philosophy)
•Training emphasizes research methods
•Advanced study in specialization
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Pseudo-PsychologyPseudo-Psychology
Erroneous assertions or practices set forth as being scientific psychology• Horoscopes
• Handwriting analysis
• Fortune telling
• Subliminal messages
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Critical Thinking Skills: Critical Thinking Skills: Six Questions to AskSix Questions to Ask
1. What is the source?
2. Is the claim reasonable or extreme?
3. What is the evidence?
4. Could bias contaminate the conclusion?
5. Does the reasoning avoid common fallacies?
6. Does the issue require multiple perspectives?
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What Are Psychology’s Six Main What Are Psychology’s Six Main Perspectives?Perspectives?
Six main viewpoints dominatemodern psychology: biological, cognitive, behavioral, whole-person, developmental, and sociocultural perspectives.
Each perspective grew out of radical new concepts about mind and behavior.
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BiologicalBiological
Whole-PersonWhole-Person
DevelopmentalDevelopmental
CognitiveCognitive
BehavioralBehavioral
SocioculturalSociocultural
Six Modern Perspectives of PsychologySix Modern Perspectives of Psychology
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What Determines BehaviorWhat Determines Behavior??
The brain, the nervous system, the endocrine system, and
genes
Fields of Study:Fields of Study:
NeuroscienceEvolutionary Psychology
PerspectivePerspective
BiologicalBiological
Cognitive
Whole-Person
Behavioral
Developmental
Sociocultural
SourcesSources::
Rene Descartes
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View of Human NatureView of Human Nature::
We are information-processing systems.
What Determines BehaviorWhat Determines Behavior??
A person’s unique pattern of perceptions, interpretations,
expectations, beliefs, and memories
SourcesSources::
Wilhelm WundtWilliam James
PerspectivePerspective
BiologicalBiological
Cognitive
Whole-Person
Behavioral
Developmental
Sociocultural
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View of Human NatureView of Human Nature::We respond to surroundings
according to principles of behavioral learning.
What Determines BehaviorWhat Determines Behavior??The stimuli in our environment, and the previous consequences
of our behaviors
SourcesSources::John B. WatsonB. F. Skinner
PerspectivePerspective
BiologicalBiological
Cognitive
Whole-Person
Behavioral
Developmental
Sociocultural
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What Determines BehaviorWhat Determines Behavior??Psychodynamic: processes in
our unconscious mindsSource: Sigmund Freud
Humanistic: our innate needs to grow and to fulfill our best
possible potentialSources: Carl Rogers, Abraham
Maslow
Trait and temperament: unique personality characteristics that are consistent over time and
across situationsSource: Ancient Greeks
PerspectivePerspective
BiologicalBiological
Cognitive
Whole-Person
Behavioral
Developmental
Sociocultural
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What Determines BehaviorWhat Determines Behavior??
The Interaction of heredity and environment, which
unfolds in predictable patterns throughout the
lifespan
SourcesSources::
Mary AinsworthJean Piaget
PerspectivePerspective
BiologicalBiological
Cognitive
Whole-Person
Behavioral
Developmental
Sociocultural
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What Determines BehaviorWhat Determines Behavior??
The power of the situation: social and cultural
influences can overpower the influence of all other
determining factors.
SourcesSources::
Stanley MilgramPhilip Zimbardo
PerspectivePerspective
BiologicalBiological
Cognitive
Whole-Person
Behavioral
Developmental
Sociocultural
Field of StudyField of Study::
Cross-cultural psychology
Table 1.2 A Sampling of Women’s Contributions to Psychology
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How Do Psychologists How Do Psychologists Develop New Knowledge?Develop New Knowledge?
Psychologists, like all other scientists, use the scientific method to test their ideas
empirically.
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Empirical InvestigationAn approach to research that relies on sensory experience and observation as research data
How Do Psychologists How Do Psychologists Develop New Knowledge?Develop New Knowledge?
Scientific MethodA four-step process for empirical investigation of a hypothesis under conditions designed to control biases and subjective judgments
TheoryA testable explanation for a set of facts or observations
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The Four Steps of the Scientific MethodThe Four Steps of the Scientific Method
Developing a hypothesisDeveloping a hypothesis
Gathering objective dataGathering objective data
Analyzing the resultsAnalyzing the results
Publishing, criticizing, and Publishing, criticizing, and replicating the resultsreplicating the results
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Developing a Developing a hypothesishypothesis
Gathering objective data
Analyzing the results
Publishing, criticizing, and replicating the
results
Hypothesis
• A statement predicting the outcome of a scientific study; the relationship among variables
Operational Definitions• Exact procedures used in
establishing experimental conditions and measurement of results
The Four Steps of the Scientific MethodThe Four Steps of the Scientific Method
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Developing a hypothesis
Gathering Gathering objective dataobjective data
Analyzing the results
Publishing, criticizing, and replicating the
results
Data• Pieces of information
gathered by a researcher to be used to test a hypothesis
The Four Steps of the Scientific MethodThe Four Steps of the Scientific Method
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Developing a hypothesis
Gathering objective data
Analyzing the Analyzing the resultsresults
Publishing, criticizing, and replicating the
results
Based on statistical analyses of results, the hypothesis is accepted or rejected.
The Four Steps of the Scientific MethodThe Four Steps of the Scientific Method
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Developing a hypothesis
Gathering objective data
Analyzing the results
Publishing, Publishing, criticizing, and criticizing, and replicating the replicating the
resultsresults
The Four Steps of the Scientific MethodThe Four Steps of the Scientific Method
The completed study is presented to the scientific community.
Replicate• Redoing an experiment to
see if you get the same results
Figure 1.5 Four Steps in the Scientific Method
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Questions Science Cannot AnswerQuestions Science Cannot Answer
The scientific method is not appropriate for answering questions that cannot be put to an objective, empirical test.
• Ethics• Morality• Preferences• Aesthetics• Existential issues• Religion• Law
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Five Types of Psychological ResearchFive Types of Psychological Research
ExperimentsExperiments
SurveysSurveys
Naturalistic ObservationsNaturalistic Observations
Case StudiesCase Studies
Correlational StudiesCorrelational Studies
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Types of Psychological ResearchTypes of Psychological Research
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Experimental Group
Control Group
Random Assignment
ExperimentsExperimentsThe researcher controls all conditions and The researcher controls all conditions and
directly manipulates the conditions.directly manipulates the conditions.
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Types of Psychological ResearchTypes of Psychological Research
Positive Correlations
Negative Correlations
Zero Correlations
Correlational StudyCorrelational StudyThe relationship between variables is studied, The relationship between variables is studied, but without experimental manipulation of an but without experimental manipulation of an
independent variable; cause-and-effect independent variable; cause-and-effect relationships cannot be determined.relationships cannot be determined.
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Types of CorrelationsTypes of Correlations
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Types of Psychological ResearchTypes of Psychological Research
Political Pollsters
Marketing Consultants
SurveysSurveysA technique used in descriptive research; A technique used in descriptive research;
typically involves seeking people’s responses to typically involves seeking people’s responses to a prepared set of verbal or written itemsa prepared set of verbal or written items
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Types of Psychological ResearchTypes of Psychological Research
Childrearing Practices
Shopping Habits
Animal Behavior
Naturalistic ObservationsNaturalistic ObservationsA form of descriptive research involving behavior A form of descriptive research involving behavior assessment of people or animals in their natural assessment of people or animals in their natural
surroundingssurroundings
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Types of Psychological ResearchTypes of Psychological Research
Small Sample Size
Lack of Control
Limited Generalizability
Case StudiesCase StudiesResearch involving a single individual (or, at Research involving a single individual (or, at
most, a few individuals)most, a few individuals)
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Biases in Psychological ResearchBiases in Psychological Research
Expectancy Bias
• The researcher allows his or her expectations to affect the outcome of a study
• Blind controlControlling Bias:• Placebo: a sham “drug” or fake treatment• Double-blind control: both participants and
researchers are unaware of group assignment
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Ethical Issues in Psychological Ethical Issues in Psychological ResearchResearch
American Psychological Association (APA)• Ethical principles of psychologists and code
of conduct• Shields participants from potentially harmful
procedures• Ensures confidentiality
Institutional Review Board (IRB)• Examines all studies proposed
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Ethical Issues in Psychological Ethical Issues in Psychological ResearchResearch
Informed Consent
• Participants must be informed of all procedures, and any potential dangers, so they may opt out they so desire.
Deception
• Allowable if no substantial risks are likely
Animal Studies
• Specific guidelines need to be followed.
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