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CitizenrynegotiationbymeansofradioinruralNepal:sometheoreticalreflexions
JacobThorsen
Abstract
Followingacivilwaragainstthevastinequalitiesandwidespreadmisuseofpower,
Nepalexperiencesamomentofmajorsocio‐politicalchanges.Democracyhas
recentlybeenreinstated,afragilepeaceestablishedandformulationoffuture
policiesbegun.Numerousnewradiostationshavemushroomedinrecentyearsand
areenvisagedtoplayamajorroleinfacilitatingcommunitydevelopmentand
democraticprocesses.Thispaperbringsupsomeofthetheoreticalreflexionson
radioandcitizenrynegotiationinruralNepalanddiscusses,fromatheoreticalpoint
ofview,whatoccurswiththearrivalofanadditionalmediuminalocation
unexposedtoelectronicmediaanddominatedbyilliteracyandinequality,andthe
foreseeablenewcommunicationalpracticesnotpreviouslypossiblethatcouldspark
citizenrynegotiationinthecommunity.
Introduction
Nepalcurrentlyundergoesfundamentalsocio‐politicalchanges.Nepalfirstgained
democracyin1990butanescalatingviolentconflictgraduallydestabilisedthis.The
parliamentwasdissolvedin2002andtheKingclaimedautocraticleadershipin
February2005.Theconflictwasinitiatedin1996byMaoistsprotestingagainstthe
vastinequalitiesandwidespreadmisuseofpowerinthecountry.InApril2006
massprotestsofthe»JanaaAndolan«(people’smovement)spreadthroughthe
countryandasaresultaconstituentassemblywaselectedinMaylastyear.Thenew
electedparliamenthasdeclaredNepalasasecularstateandthusendedtheeraof
theworld’sonlyHinduKingdom.
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Paralleltothepoliticalchanges,independentradiosareemerginginrapidpaceand
envisagedtoplayamajorroleindevelopingcommunitiesandfacilitating
negotiationofcitizenry.Thepathofdevelopmentanddemocratisation,however,is
longandchallenging.Asthisarticleiswritten(mid‐May2009),theNepalArmyhas
twochiefs,thepresidentisbehavinglikeachiefexecutiveandtheresignationofthe
primeministerhasmadeuncertaintyoncemoretheonlycertaintyofNepalipolitics.
AlthoughNepal’ssalienttransitionawayfromfaithdirectedandfeudaltraditions,
thecurrentsituationisoneofseveralmanifestationsthatNepal’sold‐established
hierarchicalpatterns,traditionalloyaltiesandnepotisticattitudesarestillintact.
TheApril2006movementdidprovecivilianmusclestochallengetheestablished
orderbutamajorityoftheNepalesepopulationisstillbyandlargeexcludedfrom
thepoliticalstructuresandoneofthereasonstothecurrentturmoil.
Althoughasocietyhasnumerousinfluences,thisarticlefocusesonthetheoretical
reflexionsonradioandcitizenrynegotiationinNepalfortwomainreasonsandone
practical.Firstly,Nepalexemplifiesaverytimelycaseasnewradiostationsthese
yearsemergerapidlyandareseentoplayamajorroleincommunitydevelopment
andfacilitationofcitizenrynegotiation.Secondly,Nepalexperiencesamomentof
majorsocio‐politicalchanges.Democracyhasrecentlybeenreinstated,afragile
peaceestablishedandformulationoffuturepoliciesbegun.Radioandmediain
generalhavebeeninthe»eyeofthestorm«duringtheconflict,especiallyradiosin
ruralareas,seenasmajorresourcesandsymbolicfactorstobegainedbybothsides
oftheconflict.Nepalthusprovidesanopportunitytofollowthereinterpretationof
thevaluesofcitizenrynegotiationfacilitatedbyradiointhemidstofmajorchanges.
Andthirdlyduetopracticalconstrains,empiricaldatarelatedtotheresearchofmy
PhDwillbecollectedinRolpadistrictduringfieldstudiesautumn2009and2010.
Thisarticlethereforeonlycontainssomeofthetheoreticalreflexionsrelatedtomy
research.
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Bringingcitizenryoutoftheempiricalvoid
Contrarytomainstreamdebatesoncitizenship,whichtendtobedominatedbythe
commonlyuseddejureunderstandingsappliedbyconventionalstate‐centred
approachesthatconcentrateonthelegalbestowmentofthestate(Jones&Gaventa
2002),severalscholarsarguetobringthediscussionofcitizenshipoutofthe
»empiricalvoid«(Kabeer2005;Gaventa2005).Theychallengetheliberal
understandingofcitizenshipandarguetofocusonthewayspeopledefine,perceive
andactonnotionsofcitizenship.Thisallowsforanapproachofsocialization
throughcommunity‐basedinitiativesandatransformativeunderstandingof
citizenship,highlightingpeople’spossibilitiestoclaimrightsandexerciseagency
(Hickey&Mohan2004)andhowrights,responsibilitiesandentitlementsare
perceived,shapedandstruggledforbypeople.Citizenshipislinkedtosocialpolicy
andtherolepeopleplayinaffectingandrequiringservices,perceivingpeopleas
active»makersandshapers«ofpolicies(asopposedtousers)wherebythenotionof
serviceproviders(givers)isrejected(Cornwall&Gaventa2001;Hickey&Mohan
2004).
Nepal’sdemocraticexperiencesince1990hasopenedthepublicspacetoalmost
everyone.ThisisseenintheupsurgeofNGO’sfromahandfultoroughly5.000
today(Shakya2008:273)andthemassivemobilisationoftraditionally
marginalisedgroups(poor,downtrodden,ethnic,so‐calledlowcaste,women,etc.)
takingadvantageoftheopenspacetoarticulatetheiraspirationsandmake
demands.MostnotablyseenintheApril2006massprotestswhereliterallypeople
fromallwalksoflifejoinedthemovement,whicheventuallyleadtothe
reinstatementofapopularparliamentlastyear.
Nepal’sdemocraticchallenges
AlthoughanawakenedcivilsocietyandNepalsince1990hasheldmanymultiparty
electionsandexperiencedfrequentalternationofpower,thepublicremainshighly
disaffectedfromthepoliticalsystemandthereislittlerealsenseofdemocratic
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accountability.Oneofthekeypoliticalproblemsistheblurringofthelinebetween
thestateandtherulingparty.Thestate’smainassets–thatistosaythestateasa
sourceofmoney,jobs,health,education,andtosomeextentpoliceandmilitary
powerareputinthedirectserviceoftheeliteandrulingparty.
Kumar(2008)describeshowNepalileadership–whetheratlocaloratnational
level–cannotbebuiltapartfromtheconstitutivesocialstructure,whichis
predominantlyundemocratic.Kumardescribes»leadership«inNepalassocial
categorycorrespondingtopower,authorityandhegemony/domination,ratherthan
afacilitatorofcollectiveinterests(ibid:25).AccordingtoKumar,leadershipin
Nepalsubsistswithintheconfinesoftheaphnomanche(one’sownpeople)against
arukomanche(otherpeople),thusfosteringgroupismtocompetefor(state)power
(ibid:27).Thereby,intrapartyrivalryandfactionalismhasreplacedelectionsasa
measuretoachievecommonlyacceptablepoliticalauthority,andpoliticshasbeen
subsumedintothenumbersgameinwhichthehegemonyofthemajorityprevailed
andthosewhofoundthemselvesintheminorityremainedunscrupulously
disaffectedwiththeoutcomesoftheprocess.
OneoftheleadinganthropologistsinNepal,DonBahadurBista(1991),describes
howfatalismisdominatingmostspheresofNepalesesocietytoanextentpeople
believetheyhavenosenseofresponsibilitytowardssocietyatlarge(ibid:80)or
personalcontroloverone’slifecircumstancesasthesearedeterminedthrougha
divineorpowerfulexternalagency.Fatalism,hesays,hasconsequencesonthe
senseoftimeandinparticularsuchthingsastheconceptofplanning,orientationto
thefuture,senseofcausality,humandignityandpunctuality,whichagainisrelated
tothevariousformsofdependency(ibid:4).Helinks»dependency«withthe
harmoniouscooperativesocialbehaviourwithintheindigenousgroupsandtheir
senseofcollectiveness(ibid:99).
InNepalcollectivismalsomanifestsinthesocialinstitutionofaphnomanche,which
hasthepotentialofbeingconstructivelyusedasanaturalformofsocial
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organisation,butitcanalsoreadilybesubvertedasseenintheHinducastesystem
andexperiencedintoday’spolitics.Inparticularitencouragesproblemsof
inclusion‐exclusion,asgroupmembersgainparticularprivileges.Adesiredcircleof
aphnomanchecanevenbepurchasedthroughtradedprivilegesorbychakari
(sycophancy)flatteringinfluentialpersons(Bista1991:89).Withaphnomanche
onefindsexclusionarytendencies,factionalism,failureincooperation,and
corruptionsinvariousformsleadingtomalfunctioninganddissatisfactionatevery
level.
Theconsequencesofthelittleagreementbetweencompetinggroupsandcollectives
toabidebytherulesofademocraticpoliticalsystemhaveconsequencesatalso
locallevel.Intheabsenceofanyrealdelegationofpower,localbodiesremains
overtlydependentoncentralauthority.Theoutcomeisnodevelopednational
consciousnessanda»democracywithoutcitizens«tousePfaff‐Czarnecka’s(2008:
73)terminology.Acountrythatenactsshallowpoliticalreformsbuthasnotfully
conceptualisedhowtoinvolvecitizensintheongoingtransformationofthecountry.
Hence,toalargemajorityofthepopulationthepublic,citizenry,thestate,thenation
areallbutabstractconcepts.
Electro‐magnetisationofpublicspace
Newandindependenttelevisionchannelsandradiostationsdidalsotakeadvantage
oftheopenpublicspaceafterthecomingofdemocracyin1990.Inparticularnew
radiostationsmushroomedinrapidpaceintheslipstreamoftheApril2006
movementandcountstodaymorethan200comparedto45(Onta2006:116)
beforethemovement.Asignificantproportionofthenewradiossurfaceinrural
areasnotpreviouslyexposedtoelectronicmedia.Theseareasareingeneralthe
poorerandlessdevelopedregionsofNepalwhereadultliteracyratearound30
percentisn’tunusual(UN:2005),andwheretheconsolidationofpoliticaland
economicpowertypicallyisinterlinkedwiththesocialinstitutionofaphnomanche
andtheHinducastesystemcharacterisedbydominance/subordinance.
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Thearrivalofanadditionalmediuminalocationunexposedtoelectronicmediaand
dominatedbyilliteracyandinequalityimpliesachangeofthecommunicational
platforminthecommunityandachangeallowinganumberofnew
communicationalpracticesnotpreviouslypossible.Inasocietywithdominanceof
primaryoralityallsoundisinherentlypowerful(Ong1982:32).Speechisaformof
soundthatsharesthiscommonpower.Likeothersounds,itcomesfromwithina
livingorganism.Atextcanbeignoredasitjustissomewritingonpaper.Butto
ignorespeechcanberiskyasourbasicinstinctscompelustopayattention.
Writing,incomparison,ispowerfulinadifferentway:itpermitspeopletogenerate
ideas,storethem,andretrievethemasneededacrosstimeinahighlyefficientand
accurateway.InNepalittraditionallywerethepriestlyBrahmansatthetopofthe
Hinduritualorderthatmanagedthemantras,ritualsandsacredliteratureandhas
beneaththemkings,warriors,merchants,peasantsandlabourers.Beneath
everyonearetheoccupationalgroupsconsideredthesocalled»impure«and
»untouchables«.Officiallyabolishedin1963,caste‐baseddiscrimination,while
diluted,remainseventodayinNepal.Thefactonlyveryfewhaveaccesstowriting
technologylimitsthedevelopmentofcomplexideasandtheinstitutionsthat
dependonthem.Instead,sustainedthoughtinoralsettingsdependson
interpersonalcommunication,andstoringcomplexideasoveralongperiodoftime
requirespackagingtheminhighlymemorableways,generallybyusingmnemonic
tools(Ong1982:284)suchastheHindumantrasforexample.
Thedevelopmentofnewwaysofcommunication–inthiscasebymeansofradio–
impliesatremendousincreaseinculturalinteraction,includingthoseexcluded
beforeduetocasteorilliteracyforexample,andhencehomogenisationbetween
previouslylessconnectedandhencemoredivergentcultures.Sincecommunication
canonlytakeplaceifacommonplatformemergesanddevelops,communication
implyakindofbridge‐building,resultinginthedevelopmentofsharedcodesand
meansofcommunication.SusanDouglas(1999)describes,forexample,howthe
emergenceofradiointheUSAinthe1930’splayedapivotalroleinhelpingpeople
toimaginethemselvesandtheirrelationshipsdifferentlyandconstructedimagined
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communitiesandcultivatedbothasenseofnationhoodandvalidationof
subcultures.Withtheradioitispossibleforthefirsttimetoenteraspacethatis
outsidethe»normal«limitforinteraction.AccordingtoMcLuhan(1967)theradio
mediumcreatesanintimaterelationbetweentheradiohostandthelistenerandhas
especiallyinthebeginningasuggestiveimpact(ibid:330).AnexampleiswhenThe
WaroftheWorldswasbroadcastedintheUSAin1938andpeoplewerefleeingtheir
homesaroundthecountrytoescapetheinvadingMartianssorealisticallyportrayed
(Douglas1999:165).Inotherwordsradioaswellasotherelectronicmedia
transformsthe»immediate«(takenforgranted/noobjectorspaceintervening)into
mediatedpossibilityofwhattoknowandtothinkbyshapingtheindividuals
attention,emotionsandthesemioticnatureofindividuals’relationshiptotheworld
aroundthem.
Spacerestructured
Electronicmediasuchasradiocircumventtheinvariantrelationshipbetween
informationandspaceastheyassimilateasubstantialpartoftheknowledge
previouslyreservedtoanexclusivegroupinadeterminedlocation,suchas
Brahmanpriestsintemplesforexample.Insocietiesdominatedbyprimaryorality,
communicationthroughwritingandbooksis»automatically«restrictedtothose
whoknowtherequiredaccesscode,andevenamongthosewhohaveknowledgeof
thebasiccode,messagescanbedirectedatdifferentgroupsbyvaryingthe
complexityofthecodedmessage.Societybecomesdividedintothedistinctsetsof
informationsystemsonthebasisofdifferentlevelsofreadingabilityandilliterates
arethereforeexcludedfromallprintcommunication(Meyrowitz1985:75).
Electronicmedia,however,hasnosuchconstrainsandinvolvesanaccesscode
appearingmore»realitylike«thansentencesandparagraphsdo,wherebyitisnot
requiredtopenetrateacomplexsuperimposedfilterofprintedsymbolsto»enter«
thecommunicationsituation(ibid:76).
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»Listeningforgedpowerfulconnectionsbetweenpeople’sinnerthinking
selvesandotherselves,otherselvesfromquitefarawayplaces.Thisinterior
“I”beganoscillatingwiththevoicesofthosenevermet,neverevenseen«
(Douglas1999:31).
Groupidentityisbasedonsharedalthoughspecialinformationonehasinregardto
othersinthegroup.Themoreseparateinformationthemoreseparategroups,
whichinitsextremeismanifestedintheHinducastesystem.Theabilityof
electronicmediatocoalescencemanyseparatesituationshomogenisesgroup
identities.Electronicmediablurthelinesbetweenphysicalencountersand
mediatedonesandgiveaccesstoinformationonlyattainablebeingphysically
presentinasituation.AccordingtoMeyrowitz(1985)theyprovideasortof»side
stageview«inrevealingbackstageinformationofperformers.1Insuchoverlapping
offrontandbackregionsnewregionalbehaviourdevelops,whichMeyrowitzcalls
middleregionbehaviourwhenthedividinglinebetweenonstageandbackstage
behaviourmoveineitherdirectionwherebythenatureofthedramachanges
accordingly.Themorerehearsalspacethatislost,themoretheonstagedrama
comestoresembleanextemporaneousbackstagerehearsal;whenthebackstage
areaisincreasedinsize,thentheonstagebehaviourcanbecomeevenmoreformal
(ibid:47).Theelectronicmedia’smergingofprivateandpublicspheres,alongwith
itsabilitytorevealbackstageinformation,leadsnotonlytonewregionsbutalso
moreimportantly,newbehavioursandnewroles.Asplaceandinformationaccess
becomedisconnected,place‐specificbehavioursandactivitiesbegintofade(ibid:
148).
1MeyrowitzisinfluencedbyErvingGoffman’s(1990)writingsandhisdramaturgicalperspectiveinwhichheportrayslifeastheatre,usingthismetaphorasatolltoanalyseanddescribesocial
interaction.
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Animportantfactorinthischangeisthemedia’sabilitytorevealteam’ssecrets,
hichwereformerlylinkedtoitsbackstage,inthesenseofplacement.Increased
accesstogroup’sinformation‐systemhasboththeeffectofdecreasingimportance
oftraditionalgroupstiesandincreasingimportanceofothertypesofassociation
(Meyrowitz1985:131).RadioinNepalhasinthisregardauniqueposition,taking
intoaccountthecountry’smountainousandinaccessibletopography,highlevelsof
illiteracy,multipleethnicities,castesandlanguagesandaradioreceiver’srelatively
lowprice.Radio,alongwithotherelectronicmedia,restructurestimeandspaceso
tospeak,astheperceptionofdistanceisredefinedbecauseauralperceptionsmedia
arerepresentedinparallelspacessimultaneouslynomattergeography,caste,
gender,age,etc.Thisgivesscopeforadecreaseinthelocalbodiesdependencyon
centralauthorityanddelutetheaphnomancheandcastebasedgroupconsolidation
ofpoliticalandeconomicpowerinfavourofnewandinclusivegroupformations.
Senselessnessandimagination
Theblurringofsocialrolesthroughmedia’sdemystifyingeffectallowtheexposure
ofbackstagebehavioursandgroupsecretsthatotherwiseshouldhavebeenlearned
throughsocialisation–orneverlearnedatall.Thisleadstoadecreaseinextreme
behaviourandinMeyrowitz’viewmorehomogenisedbehaviouralpatterns,which
mightoffersomeanswerstowhytheindividualdealswithgrowingfeelingof
displacementandmediocrityinthemodernsociety.Theelectronicmediahas,soto
speak,alteredthesociallandscapeandtheworldmightsuddenlytomanypeople
seemsenseless,asitforthefirsttimeinmodernhistoryisrelativelyplaceless
(Meyrowitz1985:308).
Onecouldarguethecivilwar,politicalvacuumandtheincreasingnumberof
electronicmediaarerudimentarytowhymanyNepalesepeopletheseyears»sense
senselessness«anda»questforidentity«.Aspeoplebyandlargestillareexcluded
fromthepoliticalstructuresandculturalidentitiesthusarefeltdeeperandstronger
thanpoliticalones(Lal2002:115),severalgroups–manyalongethniclines–claim
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autonomyandrighttoself‐determination,asespeciallyseeninthelowerbeltof
Nepal,Terai.Beforetheeraoftheelectronicmediathisquestwasalmostunheardof
inpublic,suppressedornegotiatedandstruggledforinphysicalspace.Withthe
emergenceofradio,however,numerousrepresentationsofsocialsituationsand
positionsarepossibleinanalteredspace.Theelectromagneticspectrumtoavast
majoritystillisanabstractconceptinlinewiththepublic,thestateandthenation.
Anetherealdimensionusuallyoccupiedbyoraclesandanimaginatoryrealitywith
hopes,dreams,aspirationsorfantasyobjectssuchasMartians.
Appadurai(1996)describeshowconceptionsofthefutureplayafarlargerrole
thanideasofthepastgrouppoliticstodayalthoughprimordialistprojectionsonto
thepastarenotirrelevanttothecontemporarypoliticsofimagination(ibid:145).
Agencyisnotonlystructuredbycollectivenorms,values,experiencesandprevious
practisebutisalsoguidedbyafutureelementandpeople’simagination.Asradio
hasbothlocalphysicalrepresentation(buildingwithstudiofacilities,antennaand
localstaffs)aswellas»etherealrepresentation«(»invisiblevoice«fromfaraway
places)radiobecomes,incollaborationwithothermediaandcivicandstateagents,
avitalagentfortransformationofimaginatoryandabstractconceptssuchasthe
public,thestateandthenationintoreal‐lifepractise.
Discrepancyexposure
Asradiograduallybecomesembeddedinpeople’sday‐to‐daylifeandmergethe
spheresofbackstageandfrontstagebehaviour,discrepancyandhypocrisyis
exposedwhichovertimewillleadtothebirthofnewbehaviouralpatterns.I
hypothesisetheexposureofdiscrepancyhighlights(Bourdieuian)fieldsrequiring
furthercapital(economic,culturaland/orsocial)toachieveconsistency.These
»fields«mightatfirstglanceappear»Meyrowitziansenseless«becausetheyalter
space,subjectivetimeandsensitiveboundsastheyarenotnecessarilyboundtoa
certainplace,caste,familyorface‐to‐facecollectivismsuchasmanifestedinthe
socialinstitutionofaphnomanche.However,maybe»senselessness«actually
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containelementsthatareindisguiseofexactlytheoppositeandwhatparadoxically
andhenceshouldbelabelled»purpose«asthesefieldscontainelementsofreason
andasketchoftheabstractand(needfor)moderncompositionofindependent
institutionsandseparationofpowers.
A»field«inaBourdieuiansenseischaracterisedbyacertainstructureandinner
autonomywithnormsandhierarchiesinwhicheachactorhasacertainpositionin
relationtooneanother.However,nofieldiscompletelyautonomousandis
influencedbyotherfieldsandBourdieudistinguishesbetweenafield’sautonomous
andheteronomouspole.Theautonomouspoleisdefinedasthefield’sownlogicin
whichactorsoperateaccordingtothefield’sownassessmentcriteriawhereasthe
heteronomouspoleisinfluencedbyotherfieldssuchasthemarket,politicsandthe
media.
Mediahasalsoanautonomousandheteronomouspoleinwhichtheautonomous
polehasnormsforprofessionaljournalismandpressethicswhereasthe
heteronomouspoleisinfluencedbyforexamplecommercialsfromthemarketand
legislationbythepoliticians.Highprofessionalstandards,autonomy,community
representationandminimaleditorialinfluencefromthestateandmarketare
obviouslyallinfluentialontheradio’sabilitytofacilitatecitizenrynegotiation.
Inadditiontomedia’ssidestageexposurediscloseinconsistency,Iarguethemedia
increasinglywilltakeaprominentpositioninanincreasingnumberoffield’s
Autonomouspole(jield’s
ownassessmentcriteria)
Heteronomouspole(injluencefromotherjields)
Figure1:Bourdieuianfield
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heteronomouspoleandtherebychallengethefield’sautonomouspolebyfacilitating
publicdialogue,publicaccessandexposuretothedifferentstateinstitutionsaswell
aschallengethemanydifferentsocialinstitutionsofaphnomanchethatinfiltrate
today’spoliticsinNepal.Radioaswellasothermediaensuresconsistency
(neutralisation/exposureofinconsistencyandhypocrisy)andspaceforcivicand
facilitativepublic‐servicepractitionerstoassureNepalwithitsmultiple
communitiescanpursuedifferentexperiencesofandaspirationsfordevelopment.
Finalremarks
Asradioentersintopeople’sday‐to‐daylifeandmergethespheresofbackstageand
frontstagebehaviourthelistenerexperiencestheprivatesituationismorphedwith
thepublicasanextendedspacewhereradioprovidesa»horizonofknowledge«that
assiststheindividualtoexerciseagencyinapublicdomain.Thereby,potentialsfor
diversityandmultipleperceptionsoftheworldarefurtheredandimminentand
immanentformsofdevelopmentgraduallytranscendintoakindofsocialcontract
betweencitizensandauthoritywhereeachstakeholderhashisorhershareinthe
transformationalprocess.
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Listofreference
Appadurai,Arjun(1996):ModernityAtLarge:CulturalDimensionsofGlobalization.UniversityofMinnesotaPress,MinneapolisAppadurai,Arjun(2004):TheCapacitytoAspire:CultureandtheTermsofRecognitioninCultureandPublicAction:ACrossDisciplinaryDialogueonDevelopmentPolicy.VijayendraRaoandMichaelWalton(editors).StanfordUniversityPressBista,DonBahadur(1991):FatalismandDevelopment:Nepal’sStruggleforModernisation.OrientLongman,PatnaCornwall,A.andGaventa,J(2001):Fromusersandchooserstomakersandshapers:repositioningparticipationinsocialpolicy.IDSWorkingPaper127.IDS,SussexDouglas,SusanJ.(1999):ListeningIn:RadioandtheAmericanImagination.RandomHouse,NewYorkGaventa,J.(2005):ForwordinInclusiveCitizenship–MeaningsandExpressions.N.Kabeer.IDS,SussexGoffman,Erving(1959):ThePresentationofSelfinEverydayLife.PenguinBooks,LondonHickey,Samuel&Mohan,Giles(2004):Participation:fromtyrannytotransformation?ZedBooks,LondonJonesE.&GaventaJ.(2002):ConceptsofCitizenship:areview.IDSDevelopmentBibliography19.IDS,SussexKabeer,N.(2005):Introduction:thesearchforinclusivecitizenship:MeaningsandexpressionsinaninterconnectedworldinInclusiveCitizenship–Meaningsandexpressions.IDS,SussexKumar,Dhruba(2008):ObstaclestoLocalLeadershipandDemocracyinNepalinLocalDemocracyinSouthAsia.DavidN.GellnerandKrishnaHachhethu.Sage,NewDelhiLal,C.K.(2002):CulturalflowsacrossablurredboundaryinStateofNepal.KanakManiDixitandShastriRamachandaran.HimalBooks,KathmanduMcLuhan,Marchall(1967):UnderstandingMedia:TheextensionofMan.GingkoPress,Berkeley
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Meyrowitz,Joshua(1985):NoSenseofPlace:TheImpactofElectronicMediaonSocialBehaviour.OxfordUniversityPressOng,WalterJ.(1982):Orality&Literacy.Routledge,OxfordOnta,Pratyoush(2006):MassMediainPost1990Nepal.MartinChautari,KathmanduPfaff‐Czarnecka,Joanna(2008):DistributionalCoalitionsinNepal:AnEssayonDemocratisation,Captureand(Lockof)ConfidenceinLocalDemocracyinSouthAsia.DavidN.GellnerandKrishnaHachhethu.Sage,NewDelhiShakya,KeshabMan(2008):ForeignAid,Democracy,andDevelopment:PersonalExperiencesinLocalDemocracyinSouthAsia.DavidN.GellnerandKrishnaHachhethu.Sage,NewDelhiUN(2005):RolpaDistrictMap.www.un.org.np/health/district‐profiles/data/midwestern/rolpa.htm
Theauthor
JacobThorsenisPhDstudentatDepartmentforInformationandMediaStudiesat
AarhusUniversityandhisresearchtopicisNegotiatingcitizenrybymeansofradio,
poorandmarginalisedpeople'saspirationsandstrategiesinruralNepal.Beforehis
PhDhehasworkedwithdevelopmentandcommunityradioinLatinAmericaand
recentlyfouryearsinNepal.
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